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The following is a partial list of the "G" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM). This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (G13). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (H01). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH c...	{ "page_id": 5115387, "title": "List of MeSH codes (G14)" }
G14.080.708.330.800.800.050 – alu elements MeSH G14.080.708.800 – tandem repeat sequences MeSH G14.080.708.800.074 – dna repeat expansion MeSH G14.080.708.800.074.865 – trinucleotide repeat expansion MeSH G14.080.708.800.150 – dna, satellite MeSH G14.080.708.800.500 – microsatellite repeats MeSH G14.080.708.800.500.150...	{ "page_id": 5115387, "title": "List of MeSH codes (G14)" }
MeSH G14.162.520.300.325.330 – chromosomes, human, pair 6 MeSH G14.162.520.300.325.335 – chromosomes, human, pair 7 MeSH G14.162.520.300.325.340 – chromosomes, human, pair 8 MeSH G14.162.520.300.325.345 – chromosomes, human, pair 9 MeSH G14.162.520.300.325.345.700 – philadelphia chromosome MeSH G14.162.520.300.325.350 ...	{ "page_id": 5115387, "title": "List of MeSH codes (G14)" }
chromosomes, artificial ==== MeSH G14.337.249.170 – chromosomes, artificial, bacterial MeSH G14.337.249.190 – chromosomes, artificial, mammalian MeSH G14.337.249.190.117 – chromosomes, artificial, human MeSH G14.337.249.195 – chromosomes, artificial, p1 bacteriophage MeSH G14.337.249.200 – chromosomes, artificial, yeas...	{ "page_id": 5115387, "title": "List of MeSH codes (G14)" }
G14.340.024.340.137.780 – rna splice sites MeSH G14.340.024.340.137.785 – rna 5' terminal oligopyrimidine sequence MeSH G14.340.024.340.137.910 – untranslated regions MeSH G14.340.024.340.137.910.880 – 3' untranslated regions MeSH G14.340.024.340.137.910.885 – 5' untranslated regions MeSH G14.340.024.340.198 – genes, a...	{ "page_id": 5115387, "title": "List of MeSH codes (G14)" }
G14.340.024.340.383.500.791.570 – genes, src MeSH G14.340.024.340.391 – genes, overlapping MeSH G14.340.024.340.391.600 – nested genes MeSH G14.340.024.340.393 – genes, plant MeSH G14.340.024.340.395 – genes, protozoan MeSH G14.340.024.340.400 – genes, rag-1 MeSH G14.340.024.340.415 – genes, recessive MeSH G14.340.024....	{ "page_id": 5115387, "title": "List of MeSH codes (G14)" }
loci MeSH G14.340.024.340.645 – multigene family MeSH G14.340.024.340.645.500 – genes, mdr MeSH G14.340.024.340.645.750 – genes, rrna MeSH G14.340.024.340.700 – pseudogenes MeSH G14.340.024.340.720 – quantitative trait loci MeSH G14.340.024.340.825 – transgenes MeSH G14.340.024.340.825.500 – genes, transgenic, suicide ...	{ "page_id": 5115387, "title": "List of MeSH codes (G14)" }
genes, plant ==== MeSH G14.340.375 – genome, protozoan ==== MeSH G14.340.375.500 – genes, protozoan ==== MeSH G14.340.400 – genome, viral ==== MeSH G14.340.400.500 – genes, viral MeSH G14.340.400.500.172 – genes, env MeSH G14.340.400.500.258 – genes, gag MeSH G14.340.400.500.345 – genes, immediate-early MeSH G14.340.40...	{ "page_id": 5115387, "title": "List of MeSH codes (G14)" }
Water testing is a broad description for various procedures used to analyze water quality. Millions of water quality tests are carried out daily to fulfill regulatory requirements and to maintain safety. Testing may be performed to evaluate: ambient or environmental water quality – the ability of a surface water body t...	{ "page_id": 13766136, "title": "Water testing" }
treatment plants out of more than 4,000 plants surveyed at the county level and above failed to comply with government requirements. The survey results were never formally released to the public, but in 2012, China's Century Weekly published the leaked survey data. In response, Wang Xuening, a health ministry official,...	{ "page_id": 13766136, "title": "Water testing" }
of water supply agencies and surveyed 10,000 water supply schemes out of a grand total of 12,000 schemes. === United Kingdom === ==== Drinking Water Inspectorate ==== The Drinking Water Inspectorate is a section of Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs set up to regulate the public water supply companies i...	{ "page_id": 13766136, "title": "Water testing" }
by laboratories that are certified by EPA or a state agency. The 2013 revised total coliform rule and the 1989 total coliform rule are the only microbial drinking water regulations that apply to all public water systems. The revised rule highlights the frequency and timing of microbial testing by water systems based on...	{ "page_id": 13766136, "title": "Water testing" }
organizations for ambient water, wastewater and drinking water. Approved published methods must be used when testing to demonstrate compliance with regulatory requirements. ==== Regulatory challenges and debates ==== ===== Hydraulic fracturing ===== The Energy Policy Act of 2005 created a loophole that exempts companie...	{ "page_id": 13766136, "title": "Water testing" }
Companies will be required to conduct water testing at least 90 days prior to and up to 120 days after hydraulically fracturing a well, which includes analysis of pH, alkalinity, total dissolved solids, and total petroleum hydrocarbons. The proposed rules necessitate disclosure of the identity and volume of chemicals u...	{ "page_id": 13766136, "title": "Water testing" }
new list of contaminants, known as the unregulated contaminant monitoring regulation 3 (UCMR3), that will be part of municipal water systems testing starting this year and continuing through 2015. The UCMR3 testing will help municipal water system operators measure the occurrence and exposure of contamination levels th...	{ "page_id": 13766136, "title": "Water testing" }
to the convention are given the option to take additional measures which are subject to criteria set out in the Convention and to International Maritime Organization guidelines. Ballast water management is subjected to the ballast water exchange standard and the ballast water performance standard. Ships performing ball...	{ "page_id": 13766136, "title": "Water testing" }
for water quality and safety analysis. Reagents are chemical testing compounds that identify presence of chlorine, pH, alkalinity, turbidity and other metrics. The equipment market comprises low-end, onsite field testing equipment, in-line monitors, and high-end testing laboratory instruments. High-end lab equipment ar...	{ "page_id": 13766136, "title": "Water testing" }
two main types of laboratories: commercial and in-house. === In-house laboratories === In-house laboratories are usually present in municipal water and waste water facilities, breweries and pharmaceutical manufacturing plants. They account for roughly half of all tests run annually. === Commercial laboratories === Most...	{ "page_id": 13766136, "title": "Water testing" }
the Ontario government dropped testing for E.coli from its Drinking Water Surveillance Program and subsequently closed the program in 2000. In June 2000, there was a wave of E. coli outbreaks in several communities in rural Ontario, where at least seven people died from consuming the water in Walkerton. The private tes...	{ "page_id": 13766136, "title": "Water testing" }
children. === Legal cases === In March 2013, a defense lawyer asked a federal judge to dismiss charges against the owner of Mississippi Environmental Analytical Laboratories Inc. accused of falsifying records on industrial waste water samples. According to the indictment, Borg Warner Emissions Systems Inc. hired Tennie...	{ "page_id": 13766136, "title": "Water testing" }
The river barrier hypothesis is a hypothesis seeking to partially explain the high species diversity in the Amazon Basin, first presented by Alfred Russel Wallace in his 1852 paper On Monkeys of the Amazon. It argues that the formation and movement of the Amazon and some of its tributaries presented a significant enoug...	{ "page_id": 44371456, "title": "River barrier hypothesis" }
width; wider rivers present a longer crossing distance and thus a greater obstacle to movement. Barrier strength varies within a given river; narrow headwaters are easier to cross than wide downstream channels. Rivers that present a barrier for some species in a region may not necessarily do so for all, leading to spec...	{ "page_id": 44371456, "title": "River barrier hypothesis" }
oversimplification. For example, there is evidence that genetic variation in the Blue-crowned Manakin may have been influenced by river barriers, Andean uplift, and range expansions. == Critique == Not all studies have found support for the hypothesis. One study tested the riverine hypothesis by observing populations o...	{ "page_id": 44371456, "title": "River barrier hypothesis" }
be a barrier for only a few taxa, with the majority either homogeneous throughout the research area or divided into monophyletic upriver and downriver clades. Patton argues that the geographic location of these clades suggest that landform evolution is an under-appreciated factor in diversification in Amazonia. This pr...	{ "page_id": 44371456, "title": "River barrier hypothesis" }
A chromatid (Greek khrōmat- 'color' + -id) is one half of a duplicated chromosome. Before replication, one chromosome is composed of one DNA molecule. In replication, the DNA molecule is copied, and the two molecules are known as chromatids. During the later stages of cell division these chromatids separate longitudina...	{ "page_id": 200192, "title": "Chromatid" }
The molecular formula C23H21N7O may refer to: Entospletinib, an experimental drug, an inhibitor of spleen tyrosine kinase Tasosartan, an angiotensin II receptor antagonist	{ "page_id": 40963587, "title": "C23H21N7O" }
Microcell Mediated Chromosome Transfer (or MMCT) is a technique used in cell biology and genetics to transfer a chromosome from a defined donor cell line into a recipient cell line. MMCT has been in use since the 1970s and has contributed to a multitude of discoveries including tumor, metastasis and telomerase suppress...	{ "page_id": 30739972, "title": "Microcell-mediated chromosome transfer" }
from human chromosomes as well as new methods for human and mouse artificial chromosomes. == References ==	{ "page_id": 30739972, "title": "Microcell-mediated chromosome transfer" }
1-Hydroxy-7-azabenzotriazole (HOAt) is a triazole used as a peptide coupling reagent. It suppresses racemization that can otherwise occur during the reaction. HOAt has a melting point of 213-216 °C. == References ==	{ "page_id": 22089221, "title": "1-Hydroxy-7-azabenzotriazole" }
In human genetics, Haplogroup S is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup found only among Indigenous Australians. It is a descendant of macrohaplogroup N. == Origin == Haplogroup S mtDNA evolved within Australia between 64,000 and 40,000 years ago (51 kya). == Distribution == It is found in the Indigenous Austra...	{ "page_id": 10685957, "title": "Haplogroup S (mtDNA)" }
genealogy Human mitochondrial genetics Population genetics == References == == External links == Ian Logan's Mitochondrial DNA Site: Haplogroup S Mannis van Oven's Phylotree	{ "page_id": 10685957, "title": "Haplogroup S (mtDNA)" }
TrueAllele is a software program by Cybergenetics that analyzes DNA using statistical methods, a process called probabilistic genotyping. It is used in forensic identification. The program can be used in situations unsuited to traditional methods, such as when a mixture of multiple people's DNA is in a sample. Some stu...	{ "page_id": 60165639, "title": "TrueAllele" }
The molecular formula C8H11NO3 (molar mass: 169.17 g/mol, exact mass: 169.073893 u) may refer to: Ammonium mandelate Norepinephrine, or noradrenaline Oxidopamine, a dopamine derivative Pyridoxine	{ "page_id": 23662088, "title": "C8H11NO3" }
Shlomo Havlin (Hebrew: שלמה הבלין) (born July 21, 1942) is a professor in the Department of Physics at Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel. He served as President of the Israel Physical Society (1996–1999), Dean of Faculty of Exact Sciences (1999–2001), chairman, Department of Physics (1984–1988). In 2018 he won the...	{ "page_id": 19074563, "title": "Shlomo Havlin" }
(2003). He was the President of the Israel Physical Society (1996–1999) and the Dean of the Faculty of Exact Sciences at Bar-Ilan University (1999–2001). Havlin had more than 200 graduate students and postdocs, and collaborated with more than 400 scientists around the globe. He published more than 700 articles and 11 b...	{ "page_id": 19074563, "title": "Shlomo Havlin" }
on the development of the whole field and are summarized in the monograph “Diffusion and Reactions in Fractals and Disordered Systems” that he wrote together with his former graduate student Daniel ben-Avraham (Cambridge University Press, 2000). The book describes the anomalous physical laws discovered during 1980–2000...	{ "page_id": 19074563, "title": "Shlomo Havlin" }
This page provides supplementary chemical data on beryllium oxide. == Material Safety Data Sheet == Beryllium Oxide MSDS from American Beryllia == Structure and properties == == Thermodynamic properties == == Spectral data == == References ==	{ "page_id": 3018251, "title": "Beryllium oxide (data page)" }
Cytolysin refers to the substance secreted by microorganisms, plants or animals that is specifically toxic to individual cells, in many cases causing their dissolution through lysis. Cytolysins that have a specific action for certain cells are named accordingly. For instance, the cytolysins responsible for the destruct...	{ "page_id": 7671308, "title": "Cytolysin" }
of about 70 Cytolysin proteins has been studied and published. The detailed process of membrane damage has also been surveyed. Rossjohn et al. present the crystal structure of perfringolysin O, a thiol-activated cytolysin, which creates membrane holes on eukaryotic cells. A detailed model of membrane channel formation ...	{ "page_id": 7671308, "title": "Cytolysin" }
such as cholesterols and phagocyte membranes. == Pore forming cytolysins == Pore forming cytolysins (PFCs) comprise near 65% of all membrane-damaging cytolysins. The first pore forming cytolysin is discovered by Manfred Mayer in 1972 of the C5-C9 insertion of erythrocytes. PFCs can be produced by a wide variety of sour...	{ "page_id": 7671308, "title": "Cytolysin" }
molecules as well, such as lipids or sugars. With the help of receptors, cytolysin monomers combine with each other and form clusters of oligomers. During this stage, cytolysins complete transition from water-soluble monomers state into oligomers state. Finally, the formed cytolysin clusters penetrate target cells' mem...	{ "page_id": 7671308, "title": "Cytolysin" }
an additional step than the steps analyzed above. The water-soluble monomers oligomerize to form an intermediate product named "pre-pore" complex and then a β-barrel is penetrated into the membrane. == See also == Hemolysis (microbiology) Thiol-activated cytolysin Sea anemone cytotoxic protein == References ==	{ "page_id": 7671308, "title": "Cytolysin" }
Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt (Latin), Pierre Pelerin de Maricourt (French), or Peter Peregrinus of Maricourt (fl. 1269), was a French mathematician, physicist, and writer who conducted experiments on magnetism and wrote the first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets. His work is particularly noted for...	{ "page_id": 2756109, "title": "Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt" }
been sanctioned as a crusade by the Pope. So Petrus Peregrinus may have served in that army. "You must realize, dearest friend," Peregrinus writes, "that while the investigator in this subject must understand nature and not be ignorant of the celestial motions, he must also be very diligent in the use of his own hands,...	{ "page_id": 2756109, "title": "Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt" }
of iron by lodestones, the magnetization of iron by lodestones, and the ability to reverse the polarity in such an induced magnet. Peregrinus attributed the Earth's magnetism to the action of celestial poles, rather than to the terrestrial poles of the planet itself. Part Two (three chapters): This section describes th...	{ "page_id": 2756109, "title": "Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt" }
Bacon's Opus tertium and only in one of the five manuscripts used in the critical edition, which leads us to conclude that it was a later comment added by someone else. That Bacon's praise was for Peregrinus is open to serious debate. == Legacy == The influence of Peregrinus's astrolabe was virtually nil. His reputatio...	{ "page_id": 2756109, "title": "Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt" }
Sygerus of Foucaucourt, Soldier, concerning the Magnet", [London: Chiswick Press, 1902]); by Brother Arnold [=Joseph Charles Mertens] ("The Letter of Petrus Peregrinus on the Magnet, A.D. 1269", with introductory note by Brother Potamian [= M. F. O'Reilly], [New York, 1904]); and H. D. Harradon, ("Some Early Contributi...	{ "page_id": 2756109, "title": "Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt" }
SimThyr is a free continuous dynamic simulation program for the pituitary-thyroid feedback control system. The open-source program is based on a nonlinear model of thyroid homeostasis. In addition to simulations in the time domain the software supports various methods of sensitivity analysis. Its simulation engine is m...	{ "page_id": 59248142, "title": "SimThyr" }
facilitates scientific discussion and reviewing of the underlying model. Additionally, the fact that it is freely available may result in economical benefits. The software provides an editor that enables users to modify most structure parameters of the information processing structure. This functionality fosters simula...	{ "page_id": 59248142, "title": "SimThyr" }
The molecular formula C11H15BrN2O3 (molar mass: 303.15 g/mol, exact mass: 302.0266 u) may refer to: Butallylonal Narcobarbital	{ "page_id": 61214222, "title": "C11H15BrN2O3" }
Haplogroup pre-JT is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup (mtDNA). It is also called R2'JT. == Origin == Haplogroup pre-JT is a descendant of the haplogroup R. It is characterised by the mutation T4216C. The pre-JT clade has two direct descendant lineages, haplogroup JT and haplogroup R2. == Distribution == According t...	{ "page_id": 10685970, "title": "Haplogroup pre-JT" }
In psychology, decision-making (also spelled decision making and decisionmaking) is regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action among several possible alternative options. It could be either rational or irrational. The decision-making process is a reasoning process bas...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
(for instance, if alternatives represent projects competing for funds) when all the criteria are considered simultaneously. Solving such problems is the focus of multiple-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). This area of decision-making, although long established, has attracted the interest of many researchers and practi...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
decision-making. Problem solving is the process of investigating the given information and finding all possible solutions through invention or discovery. Traditionally, it is argued that problem solving is a step towards decision making, so that the information gathered in that process may be used towards decision-maki...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
could be experiencing analysis paralysis. Analysis paralysis is the state that a person enters where they are unable to make a decision, in effect paralyzing the outcome. Some of the main causes for analysis paralysis is the overwhelming flood of incoming data or the tendency to overanalyze the situation at hand. There...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
group (and their being part of it) higher than anything else"; thus, creating a habit of making decisions quickly and unanimously. In other words, a group stuck in groupthink is participating in the phenomenon of extinction by instinct. === Information overload === Information overload is "a gap between the volume of i...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
== Decision-making is a region of intense study in the fields of systems neuroscience, and cognitive neuroscience. Several brain structures, including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), orbitofrontal cortex, and the overlapping ventromedial prefrontal cortex are believed to be involved in decision-making processes. A...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
of uncertain outcomes. This theory holds that such decisions are aided by emotions, in the form of bodily states, that are elicited during the deliberation of future consequences and that mark different options for behavior as being advantageous or disadvantageous. This process involves an interplay between neural syst...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
their preference and intensity of preference for each decision (as opposed to a simple for or against decision). As in score voting, it addresses issues of voting paradox and majority rule. Delphi method is a structured communication technique for groups, originally developed for collaborative forecasting but has also ...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
setting up criteria for automated decisions. Decision support systems: using decision-making software when faced with highly complex decisions or when considering many stakeholders, categories, or other factors that affect decisions. Decision coaching refers to support given by a health-care professionals to assist a p...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
at the University of Arkansas, used eight stages of moral decision-making based on the work of James Rest:: 6 Establishing community: Create and nurture the relationships, norms, and procedures that will influence how problems are understood and communicated. This stage takes place prior to and during a moral dilemma. ...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
thought that if humans are rational and free to make their own decisions, then they would behave according to rational choice theory.: 368–370 Rational choice theory says that a person consistently makes choices that lead to the best situation for themselves, taking into account all available considerations including c...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
to choose from increases. Adaptive decision-making behavior is somewhat present for children, ages 11–12 and older, but decreases in the presence the younger they are. The reason children are not as fluid in their decision making is that they lack the ability to weigh the cost and effort needed to gather information in...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
interactions between the socioemotional brain network and its cognitive-control network. The socioemotional part of the brain processes social and emotional stimuli and has been shown to be important in reward processing. The cognitive-control network assists in planning and self-regulation. Both of these sections of t...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
are more likely to be around peers who peer pressure them into doing things, while adults are not as exposed to this sort of social setting. == Cognitive and personal biases == Biases usually affects decision-making processes. They appear more when decision task has time pressure, is done under high stress and/or are h...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
and by the greatest number of different sources. Anchoring and adjustment: Decisions are unduly influenced by initial information that shapes our view of subsequent information. Groupthink is peer pressure to conform to the opinions held by the group. Source credibility bias is a tendency to reject a person's statement...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
that when faced with a decision-making event, an individual is more likely to take on a risk when evaluating potential losses, and is more likely to avoid risks when evaluating potential gains. This can influence one's decision-making depending if the situation entails a threat or opportunity.: 373 Optimism bias is a t...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
decisions (perhaps because they are more able than satisficers to recognize that a decision turned out to be sub-optimal). === Intuitive vs. rational === The psychologist Daniel Kahneman, adopting terms originally proposed by the psychologists Keith Stanovich and Richard West, has theorized that a person's decision-mak...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
in some cases, unique sequence of moves aimed at reaching the set goal. As a rule, this sequence leaves no options for the opponent. Finding a combinational objective allows the player to focus all his energies on efficient execution, that is, the player's analysis may be limited to the pieces directly partaking in the...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
well with how they score on these four dimensions. For example, someone who scored near the thinking, extroversion, sensing, and judgment ends of the dimensions would tend to have a logical, analytical, objective, critical, and empirical decision-making style. However, some psychologists say that the MBTI lacks reliabi...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
input and instructions on what decision should be made. In this style, the individual could ask friends, family, coworkers, etc., but the individual might not ask all of these people. The avoidant style is averting the responsibility of making a decision. In this style, the individual would not make a decision. Therefo...	{ "page_id": 265752, "title": "Decision-making" }
The molecular formula C33H36N4O6 (molar mass: 584.662 g/mol, exact mass: 584.2635 u) may refer to: Bilirubin Lumirubin	{ "page_id": 24120856, "title": "C33H36N4O6" }
The Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh was a learned society based in Edinburgh, Scotland "for the cultivation of the physical sciences". The society was founded in 1771 as the Physico-Chirurgical Society but soon after changed its name to the Physical Society. After being granted a Royal Charter in 1778 it became the...	{ "page_id": 48500250, "title": "Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh" }
The Wiley Prize in Biomedical Sciences is intended to recognize breakthrough research in pure or applied life science research that is distinguished by its excellence, originality and impact on our understanding of biological systems and processes. The award may recognize a specific contribution or series of contributi...	{ "page_id": 21368349, "title": "Wiley Prize" }
Sainsbury Laboratory at the John Innes Centre in Norwich, England – For contributions to discoveries of novel mechanisms for regulating gene expression by small interfering RNAs (siRNA). 2004 C. David Allis, Ph.D., Joy and Jack Fishman, Professor, Laboratory of Chromatin Biology and Epigenetics at the Rockefeller Unive...	{ "page_id": 21368349, "title": "Wiley Prize" }
pressure in humans. 2009 Bonnie Bassler of the Department of Molecular Biology at Princeton University and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. – For pioneering investigations of quorum sensing, a mechanism that allows bacteria to "talk" to each other to coordinate their behavior, even between species. 2010 Peter Hegem...	{ "page_id": 21368349, "title": "Wiley Prize" }
is critical for the maintenance and repair of cells and tissues. 2017 Joachim Frank, Richard Henderson, and Marin van Heel for pioneering developments in electron microscopy. 2018 Lynne E. Maquat for elucidating the mechanism of nonsense-mediated messenger RNA decay. 2019 Svante Pääbo and David Reich for sequencing the...	{ "page_id": 21368349, "title": "Wiley Prize" }
The basilic vein is a large superficial vein of the upper limb that helps drain parts of the hand and forearm. It originates on the medial (ulnar) side of the dorsal venous network of the hand and travels up the base of the forearm, where its course is generally visible through the skin as it travels in the subcutaneou...	{ "page_id": 2297376, "title": "Basilic vein" }
therefore infrequently used. === Venous grafts === Vascular surgeons sometimes utilize the basilic vein to create an AV (arteriovenous) fistula or AV graft for hemodialysis access in patients with kidney failure. == Additional images == == See also == Cephalic vein Median cubital vein == External links == Anatomy photo...	{ "page_id": 2297376, "title": "Basilic vein" }
Vomocytosis (sometimes called non-lytic expulsion) is the cellular process by phagocytes expel live organisms that they have engulfed without destroying the organism. Vomocytosis is one of many methods used by cells to expel internal materials into their external environment, yet it is distinct in that both the engulfe...	{ "page_id": 47386145, "title": "Vomocytosis" }
occur when pathogens are dead or when engulfed materials are non-living, indicating the survival of phagosomal cargo may be crucial for triggering or enhancing vomocytosis. Additionally, the phagosomal pH may play important roles in vomocytosis efficacy as research has demonstrated vomocytosis rates drop as phagocytes ...	{ "page_id": 47386145, "title": "Vomocytosis" }
of vomocytosis as it is hypothesized to be linked to many significant biological processes. Vomocytosis plays a role in lateral transfer, a process by which cells transfer engulfed cargo to a neighboring recipient cell, as initial cells expel their cargo undamaged so they can be uptaken by recipient cells. Additionally...	{ "page_id": 47386145, "title": "Vomocytosis" }
In vitro spermatogenesis is the process of creating male gametes (spermatozoa) outside of the body in a culture system. The process could be useful for fertility preservation, infertility treatment and may further develop the understanding of spermatogenesis at the cellular and molecular level. Spermatogenesis is a hig...	{ "page_id": 58527266, "title": "In vitro spermatogenesis" }
cells e.g. media, growth factors, hormones and temperature. For example, when culturing immortalized mouse germ cells at temperatures of 35, 37 and 29°C, these cells proliferate most rapidly at the highest temperature and least rapidly at the lowest but there were varying levels of differentiation. At the highest tempe...	{ "page_id": 58527266, "title": "In vitro spermatogenesis" }
isolated from in vitro culture of immature mouse testis tissue. === 3D cultures === 3D cultures use sponge, models or scaffolds that resemble the elements of the extracellular matrix to achieve a more natural spatial structure of the seminiferous tubules and to better represent the tissues and the interaction between d...	{ "page_id": 58527266, "title": "In vitro spermatogenesis" }
thus cell connections which could be important to the function of the tissue. === Clinical === While rodent spermatogenesis is not identical to its human counterpart, especially due to the high evolution rate of the male reproductive tract, these techniques are a solid starting point for future human applications. Vari...	{ "page_id": 58527266, "title": "In vitro spermatogenesis" }
previously their underdeveloped germ cells have been injected into oocytes, however this has a success rate of only 3% in humans. Finally, in vitro spermatogenesis using animal or human cells can be used to assess the effects and toxicity of drugs before in vivo testing. == References ==	{ "page_id": 58527266, "title": "In vitro spermatogenesis" }
The term predation rate refers to the frequency with which an organism captures and consumes its prey in an ecosystem. Coupled with the kill rate, the predation rate drives the population dynamics of predation. This statistic is related to Predator–prey dynamics and may be influenced by several factors. In order for pr...	{ "page_id": 79236644, "title": "Predation rates" }
of Tundra and melting Sea ice)—can create conditions that are no longer conducive to the populations they once supported == References ==	{ "page_id": 79236644, "title": "Predation rates" }
Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are models created using machine learning to perform a number of tasks. Their creation was inspired by biological neural circuitry. While some of the computational implementations ANNs relate to earlier discoveries in mathematics, the first implementation of ANNs was by psychologist Fr...	{ "page_id": 61541925, "title": "History of artificial neural networks" }
Turing machines. This model paved the way for research to split into two approaches. One approach focused on biological processes while the other focused on the application of neural networks to artificial intelligence. This work led to work on nerve networks and their link to finite automata. In the early 1940s, D. O....	{ "page_id": 61541925, "title": "History of artificial neural networks" }
arbitrarily deep neural networks was published by Alexey Ivakhnenko and Lapa in 1967, which they regarded as a form of polynomial regression, or a generalization of Rosenblatt's perceptron. A 1971 paper described a deep network with eight layers trained by this method. The first deep learning multilayer perceptron trai...	{ "page_id": 61541925, "title": "History of artificial neural networks" }
of learning. This was popularized as the Hopfield network (1982). Another origin of RNN was neuroscience. The word "recurrent" is used to describe loop-like structures in anatomy. In 1901, Cajal observed "recurrent semicircles" in the cerebellar cortex. In 1933, Lorente de Nó discovered "recurrent, reciprocal connectio...	{ "page_id": 61541925, "title": "History of artificial neural networks" }
outperforming traditional models in certain speech applications. LSTM also improved large-vocabulary speech recognition and text-to-speech synthesis and was used in Google voice search, and dictation on Android devices. LSTM broke records for improved machine translation, language modeling and Multilingual Language Pro...	{ "page_id": 61541925, "title": "History of artificial neural networks" }
backpropagation to a CNN (a simplified Neocognitron with convolutional interconnections between the image feature layers and the last fully connected layer) for alphabet recognition. They also proposed an implementation of the CNN with an optical computing system. Kunihiko Fukushima published the neocognitron in 1980. ...	{ "page_id": 61541925, "title": "History of artificial neural networks" }
around CNN- and GPU-based computer vision. Although CNNs trained by backpropagation had been around for decades and GPU implementations of NNs for years, including CNNs, faster implementations of CNNs on GPUs were needed to progress on computer vision. Later, as deep learning becomes widespread, specialized hardware an...	{ "page_id": 61541925, "title": "History of artificial neural networks" }
as the "degradation" problem. In 2015, two techniques were developed concurrently to train very deep networks: highway network and residual neural network (ResNet). The ResNet research team attempted to train deeper ones by empirically testing various tricks for training deeper networks until they discovered the deep r...	{ "page_id": 61541925, "title": "History of artificial neural networks" }
provoked discussions concerning deepfakes. Diffusion models (2015) eclipsed GANs in generative modeling since then, with systems such as DALL·E 2 (2022) and Stable Diffusion (2022). == Attention mechanism and Transformer == The human selective attention had been studied in neuroscience and cognitive psychology. Selecti...	{ "page_id": 61541925, "title": "History of artificial neural networks" }
an input image into a fixed-length vector. (Xu et al. 2015), citing (Bahdanau et al. 2014), applied the attention mechanism as used in the seq2seq model to image captioning. === Transformer === One problem with seq2seq models was their use of recurrent neural networks, which are not parallelizable as both the encoder a...	{ "page_id": 61541925, "title": "History of artificial neural networks" }
important factor to its widespread use in large neural networks. == Unsupervised and self-supervised learning == === Self-organizing maps === Self-organizing maps (SOMs) were described by Teuvo Kohonen in 1982. SOMs are neurophysiologically inspired artificial neural networks that learn low-dimensional representations ...	{ "page_id": 61541925, "title": "History of artificial neural networks" }

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