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The g is the respective gravitational pull on the object within a null-medium. R = v i 2 sin ⁡ 2 θ i g {\displaystyle R={v_{i}^{2}\sin 2\theta _{i} \over g}} The height, h, is the greatest parabolic height said object reaches within its trajectory h = v i 2 sin 2 ⁡ θ i 2 g {\displaystyle h={v_{i}^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta _{i...	{ "page_id": 200115, "title": "Trajectory" }
}} . The maximum range is then R max = v 2 / g {\displaystyle R_{\max }=v^{2}/g\,} . At this angle sin ⁡ ( π / 2 ) = 1 {\displaystyle \sin(\pi /2)=1} , so the maximum height obtained is v 2 4 g {\displaystyle {v^{2} \over 4g}} . To find the angle giving the maximum height for a given speed calculate the derivative of t...	{ "page_id": 200115, "title": "Trajectory" }
usually by being struck with a bat. Even when the ball is really descending, near the end of its flight, its angle of elevation seen by the player continues to increase. The player therefore sees it as if it were ascending vertically at constant speed. Finding the place from which the ball appears to rise steadily help...	{ "page_id": 200115, "title": "Trajectory" }
In chemistry, cryptands are a family of synthetic, bicyclic and polycyclic, multidentate ligands for a variety of cations. The Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1987 was given to Donald J. Cram, Jean-Marie Lehn, and Charles J. Pedersen for their efforts in discovering and determining uses of cryptands and crown ethers, thus...	{ "page_id": 1904052, "title": "Cryptand" }
(e.g. in homogenous-time-resolved-fluorescence, HTRF, technologies using Eu3+ as central ion). More importantly, they are reagents for the synthesis of inorganic and organometallic salts. Although more expensive and more difficult to prepare than crown ethers, cryptands bind alkali metals more strongly. They are especi...	{ "page_id": 1904052, "title": "Cryptand" }
Trans-prenyltransferase may refer to: All-trans-octaprenyl-diphosphate synthase, an enzyme All-trans-decaprenyl-diphosphate synthase, an enzyme	{ "page_id": 38866356, "title": "Trans-prenyltransferase" }
In biology, dactyly is the arrangement of digits (fingers and toes) on the hands, feet, or sometimes wings of a tetrapod animal. The term is derived from the Greek word δακτυλος (dáktylos) meaning "finger." Sometimes the suffix "-dactylia" is used. The derived adjectives end with "-dactyl" or "-dactylous." == As a norm...	{ "page_id": 265656, "title": "Dactyly" }
this name is used for an abnormality in which the middle digits are missing, leaving only the thumb and fifth finger, or big and little toes. Cloven-hoofed mammals (such as deer, sheep and cattle – Artiodactyla) have only two digits, as do ostriches. === Monodactyly === Monodactyly (from Greek μόνος monos- 'one') is th...	{ "page_id": 265656, "title": "Dactyly" }
It also occurs secondarily in some later tetrapods, such as ichthyosaurs. The use of a term normally reserved for congenital defects reflects that it was regarded as an anomaly at the time, as it was believed that all modern tetrapods have either five digits or ancestors that did. === Oligodactyly === Oligodactyly (fro...	{ "page_id": 265656, "title": "Dactyly" }
Columbiformes, Falconiformes, Accipitriformes, Galliformes and a majority of other birds. === Syndactyly === Syndactyly, as it occurs in birds, is like anisodactyly, except that the third and fourth toes (the outer and middle forward-pointing toes), or three toes, are fused together almost to their claws, as in the bel...	{ "page_id": 265656, "title": "Dactyly" }
front limbs in chameleons, for instance, are organized into a medial bundle of digits 1, 2 and 3, and a lateral bundle of digits 4 and 5, while the feet of the hind limbs are organized into a medial bundle of digits 1 and 2, and a lateral bundle of digits 3, 4 and 5. On the other hand, zygodactyly involves digits 1 and...	{ "page_id": 265656, "title": "Dactyly" }
The term total analysis system (TAS) describes a device that combines and automates all necessary steps for the chemical analysis of a sample (e.g., sampling, sample transport, filtration, dilution, chemical reactions, separation, and detection). Most current total analysis systems are "micro" total analysis systems wh...	{ "page_id": 921018, "title": "Total analysis system" }
Bimetal refers to an object that is composed of two separate metals joined together. Instead of being a mixture of two or more metals, like alloys, bimetallic objects consist of layers of different metals. Trimetal and tetrametal refer to objects composed of three and four separate metals respectively. A bimetal bar is...	{ "page_id": 593338, "title": "Bimetal" }
the band is softer (which would make for poorer teeth), but also less brittle, and thus more resistant to cracking and breaking (which is desirable in the body area). == See also == Bimetallic strip Bimetallism Bi-metallic coin Thermocouple (electric) Copper-clad steel == References == == Further reading == Thermal ima...	{ "page_id": 593338, "title": "Bimetal" }
This is a list of types of formally designated forests, as institutionalized around the world. It is organized in three sublists: by forest ownership, protection status, and designated use. == By ownership == Church forests of Ethiopia - protected sacred forests around rural churches Community forest Community forests ...	{ "page_id": 35655100, "title": "List of types of formally designated forests" }
in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh Forest division - a non-overlapping subdivision of a forest circle, used in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh Forest park (The Gambia), as in Dobo Forest Park, Faba Forest Park, Finto Manereg Forest Park, etc. Forest preserve, formal dedication for state-owned lands within the constitutio...	{ "page_id": 35655100, "title": "List of types of formally designated forests" }
which economic usage of the forest is permitted under certain restrictions Wild forest, formal designation within the New York Forest Preserve Wilderness forest Wildlife forest Wildlife management area Wildlife reserve Wildlife sanctuaries of India World Heritage Forest - formally recognized for special biophysical or ...	{ "page_id": 35655100, "title": "List of types of formally designated forests" }
Creosote is a category of carbonaceous chemicals formed by the distillation of various tars and pyrolysis of plant-derived material, such as wood, or fossil fuel. They are typically used as preservatives or antiseptics. Some creosote types were used historically as a treatment for components of seagoing and outdoor woo...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
a pesticide for use as a wood preservative meeting the American Wood Protection Association (AWPA) Standards P1/P13 and P2. The AWPA Standards require that creosote "shall be a pure coal tar product derived entirely from tar produced by the carbonization of bituminous coal." Currently, all creosote-treated wood product...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
are not the only active element of creosote. For their useful effects, coal-tar creosote relies on the presence of naphthalenes and anthracenes, while wood-tar creosote relies on the presence of methyl ethers of phenol. Otherwise, either type of tar would dissolve in water. Creosote was first discovered in its wood-tar...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
believe that it was the same substance as that described by Reichenbach. In the 1840s, Eugen Freiherr von Gorup-Besanez, after realizing that two samples of substances labelled as creosote were different, started a series of investigations to determine the chemical nature of carbolic acid, leading to a conclusion that ...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
(4-methylguaiacol), which typically constitutes 50% of the oil; second in prevalence are cresol and xylenol; the rest being a combination of monophenols and polyphenols. The simple phenols are not the only active element in wood-tar creosote. In solution, they coagulate albumin, which is a water-soluble protein found i...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
acid to a red liquid, which slowly changes to purple-violet. Shaken with hydrochloric acid in the absence of air, it becomes red, the color changing in the presence of air to dark brown or black. In preparation of food by smoking, guaiacol contributes mainly to the smoky taste, while the dimethyl ether of pyrogallol, s...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
the world. In antiquity, pitches and resins were used commonly as medicines. Pliny mentions a variety of tar-like substances being used as medicine, including cedria and pissinum. Cedria was the pitch and resin of the cedar tree, being equivalent to the oil of tar and pyroligneous acid which are used in the first stage...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
the Italian Fedele Binelli, claimed to have hemostatic properties in his research published in 1797. These claims have since been disproven. Given this history, and the antiseptic properties known to creosote, it became popular among physicians in the 19th century. A dilution of creosote in water was sold in pharmacies...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
began a series of trials with Gimbert to convince the scientific community, and claimed a promising cure rate. A number of publications in Germany confirmed his results in the following years. Later, a period of experimentation with different techniques and chemicals using creosote in treating tuberculosis lasted until...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
chlorine, either sodium hypochlorite, or calcium hypochlorite solutions. The phenol ring is essentially opened, and the molecule is then subject to normal digestion and normal respiration. ===== Medical ===== The guaifenesin developed by Eldon Boyd is still commonly used today as an expectorant, sold over the counter, ...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
in the creosote. If there is a high amount, it will have a naphtha-like smell, otherwise it will smell more of tar. In the process of coal-tar distillation, the distillate is collected into four fractions; the "light oil", which remains lighter than water, the "middle oil" which passes over when the light oil is remove...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
All of these have antiseptic properties. The tar acids are the strongest antiseptics but have the highest degree of solubility in water and are the most volatile; so, like with wood-tar creosote, phenols are not the most valued component, as by themselves they would lend to being poor preservatives. In addition, creoso...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
and applying a vacuum to remove air and moisture from wood "cells". The wood is then pressure-treated to imbue it with creosote or other preservative chemicals, after which vacuum is reapplied to separate the excess treatment chemicals from the timber. Alongside the zinc chloride-based "Burnett process", use of creosot...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
the animals' stomachs to kill internal parasites. Creosoted wood blocks were a common road-paving material in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but ultimately fell out of favor because they did not generally hold up well enough over time. Two later methods for creosoting wood were introduced after the turn of the...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
structural timbers of buildings, it is not generally used that way because it is difficult to apply. There are also concerns about the environmental impact of the leaching of creosote into aquatic ecosystems. Due to its carcinogenic character, the European Union has regulated the quality of creosote for the EU market a...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
into wood. Like standard oil-tar creosote, it has a low amount of tar acids and tar bases, and has less antiseptic qualities. Petri dish tests have shown that water-gas-tar creosote is one-sixth as anti-septically effective as that of coal-tar. === Lignite-tar creosote === Lignite-tar creosote is produced from lignite ...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
skin damage. Longer exposure to creosote vapours can cause irritation of the respiratory tract. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has determined that coal-tar creosote is probably carcinogenic to humans, based on adequate animal evidence and limited human evidence. The animal testing relied upon by...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
preservatives. Some workers began work in the 1940s to 1950s. The observation period of the study covered 1979–2001. The average length of employment was 12.5 years. One third of the study subjects were employed for over 15 years. The largest health effect of creosote is deaths caused by residential chimney fires due t...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
sparks emitting from the chimney and landing on combustible roof surfaces. In order to properly maintain chimneys and heaters that burn wood or carbon-based fuels, the creosote buildup must be removed. Chimney sweeps perform this service for a fee. == Release into environment == Even though creosote is pressurized into...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
the soluble compounds from the creosote preservative leach into the water, the compounds begin reacting with the external environment or are consumed by organisms. The reactions vary depending on the concentration of each compound that is released from the creosote, but major reactions are outlined below: === Alkylatio...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
the o-alkylation is methoxybenzene, better-known as anisole, and water, which is not shown in the diagram. Anisole is listed as an acute hazard to aquatic life with long-term effects. === Bioaccumulation === Bioaccumulation is the process by which an organism takes in chemicals through ingestion, exposure, and inhalati...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
ionized form. The un-ionized form is favored because the bioaccumulation is easier for the organism to intake through partitioning equilibrium. The table below shows a list of pKas from compounds found in creosote preservatives and compares them to the average pH of seawater (reported to be 8.1). Each of the compounds ...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
presence of four different anaerobic-enriched sediments. Though the compound, BTEX, is not found in creosote preservatives, the products of creosote preservatives' oxidation-reduction reactions include some of these compounds. For oxidation-reduction reactions, see the following section. In this study, it was seen that...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
altered to form new chemicals, leading to decomposition. An example of the oxidation of p-cresol and phenol can be seen in the figures below: ==== p-Cresol ==== This reaction shows the oxidation of p-cresol in a sulfate-enriched environment. P-cresol was seen to be the easiest to degrade through the sulfate-enriched en...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
sediments. Alkylation reactions allows for the compounds to transition into more toxic compounds with the addition of R-groups to the major compounds found in creosote preservatives. Compounds formed through alkylation include: 3,4-dimethylphenol, 2,3-dimethylphenol, and 2,5-dimethylphenol, which are all listed as acut...	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
External links ==	{ "page_id": 69053, "title": "Creosote" }
A plant geneticist is a scientist involved with the study of genetics in botany. Typical work is done with genes in order to isolate and then develop certain plant traits. Once a certain trait, such as plant height, fruit sweetness, or tolerance to cold, is found, a plant geneticist works to improve breeding methods to...	{ "page_id": 9571778, "title": "Plant geneticist" }
Kai Manne Börje Siegbahn (20 April 1918 – 20 July 2007) was a Swedish physicist who shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics. == Biography == Siegbahn was born in Lund, Sweden, son of Manne Siegbahn the 1924 physics Nobel Prize winner. Siegbahn earned his doctorate at the Stockholm University in 1944. He was professor at...	{ "page_id": 396741, "title": "Kai Siegbahn" }
Medal, Columbia University, New York 1977 Torbern Bergman Medal 1982 Pittsburgh Award of Spectroscopy == References == == External links == Media related to Kai Siegbahn at Wikimedia Commons Kai Siegbahn on Nobelprize.org	{ "page_id": 396741, "title": "Kai Siegbahn" }
The Emerson effect is the increase in the rate of photosynthesis after chloroplasts are exposed to light of wavelength less than 680 nm (deep red spectrum) and more than 680 nm (far red spectrum). When simultaneously exposed to light of both wavelengths, the rate of photosynthesis is higher than the sum of the red ligh...	{ "page_id": 24251847, "title": "Emerson effect" }
light energy to forms that can be absorbed by the plant. The light excites the chlorophyll molecules at the reaction centre and causes an increase in energy. As the molecule becomes less excited, its energy is transported through a chain of electron carriers to the next photosystem which does much the same thing and pr...	{ "page_id": 24251847, "title": "Emerson effect" }
Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) are beneficial bacteria capable of solubilizing inorganic phosphorus from insoluble compounds. P-solubilization ability of rhizosphere microorganisms is considered to be one of the most important traits associated with plant phosphate nutrition. It is generally accepted that the me...	{ "page_id": 27200967, "title": "Phosphate solubilizing bacteria" }
strain alone. Mahamuni and Patil (2012) isolated four strains of phosphate solubilizing bacteria from sugarcane (VIMP01 and VIMP02) and sugar beet rhizosphere (VIMP03 and VIMP 04). Isolates were strains of Burkholderia named as VIMP01, VIMP02, VIMP03 and VIMP04. VIMP (Vasantdada Sugar Institute Isolate by Mahamuni and ...	{ "page_id": 27200967, "title": "Phosphate solubilizing bacteria" }
The molecular formula C27H24F3NO (molar mass: 435.49 g/mol) may refer to: JWH-363 JWH-372 JWH-348	{ "page_id": 77401547, "title": "C27H24F3NO" }
This is a list of types of inflammation in the body when organised by location. == Nervous system == === CNS === Encephalitis/Cerebritis Myelitis Meningitis Cerebellitis Ventriculitis === PNS === Neuritis === Eye === Dacryoadenitis Dacryocystitis Conjunctivitis Scleritis Episcleritis Uveitis Blepharitis Keratitis Retin...	{ "page_id": 61803980, "title": "List of types of inflammation by location" }
Riboflavin:NAD(P)+ oxidoreductase may refer to: Riboflavin reductase (NAD(P)H), an enzyme FMN reductase, an enzyme	{ "page_id": 38276558, "title": "Riboflavin:NAD(P)+ oxidoreductase" }
Genome in a Bottle is a consortium hosted by NIST and dedicated to characterization of benchmark human genomes. The NCBI is serving as the repository for the detailed information on samples, genotypes, raw sequencing reads and mapped reads, via a dedicated FTP site. == References ==	{ "page_id": 68292047, "title": "Genome in a Bottle" }
Roman Smoluchowski (born 31 August 1910 in Zakopane; died 12 January 1996 in Austin, Texas) was a notable physicist who worked in Poland, and after World War II settled in Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. He was the son of the statistical physics pioneer Marian Smoluchowski. In 1974, Roman Smoluch...	{ "page_id": 59641300, "title": "Roman Smoluchowski" }
at the University of Texas in Austin in both departments of astronomy and physics. == Escape from War == Roman escaped to Sweden from Poland in 1939, when Warsaw was caught between the Russian and German fronts. From Sweden he went to Norway, where he caught a freighter headed for the US only days before Germany invade...	{ "page_id": 59641300, "title": "Roman Smoluchowski" }
Directed differentiation is a bioengineering methodology at the interface of stem cell biology, developmental biology and tissue engineering. It is essentially harnessing the potential of stem cells by constraining their differentiation in vitro toward a specific cell type or tissue of interest. Stem cells are by defin...	{ "page_id": 44305878, "title": "Directed differentiation" }
material. For this purpose, pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) are cultured in controlled conditions involving specific substrate or extracellular matrices promoting cell adhesion and differentiation, and define culture media compositions. A limited number of signaling factors such as growth factors or small molecules, cont...	{ "page_id": 44305878, "title": "Directed differentiation" }
interest, usually with antibiotic resistance. For this purpose, the source material cells are modified to contain antibiotic resistance cassette under a target cell type specific promoter. Only cells committed to the lineage of interest is surviving the selection. == Applications == Directed differentiation provides a ...	{ "page_id": 44305878, "title": "Directed differentiation" }
muscular atrophy (SMA) and cardiomyocytes are used to study arrhythmia. This can allow for a better understanding of the pathogenesis and the development of new treatments through drug discovery. Immature PSC-derived cell types can be matured in vitro by various strategies, such as in vitro ageing, to model age-related...	{ "page_id": 44305878, "title": "Directed differentiation" }
Symmetry aspects of M. C. Escher's periodic drawings is a book by crystallographer Caroline H. MacGillavry published for the International Union of Crystallography (IUCr) by Oosthoek in 1965. The book analyzes the symmetry of M. C. Escher's colored periodic drawings using the international crystallographic notation. In...	{ "page_id": 76352984, "title": "Symmetry aspects of M. C. Escher's periodic drawings" }
designs will be interested to see how they illustrate the laws of symmetry". == Reception and influence == The reception of the book was positive. Robert M. Mengel in Scientific American wrote "[the author] has organized this unique and beautiful book from the corpus of marvelous spacefilling periodic drawings made ove...	{ "page_id": 76352984, "title": "Symmetry aspects of M. C. Escher's periodic drawings" }
1965 Second edition published for International Union of Crystallography by Bohn, Scheltema & Holkema in 1976 Reprint edition with the title Fantasy & symmetry: the periodic drawings of M. C. Escher published by Harry N. Abrams in 1976 Third edition published by International Union of Crystallography in 2017 == Referen...	{ "page_id": 76352984, "title": "Symmetry aspects of M. C. Escher's periodic drawings" }
Ibn Sahl (full name: Abū Saʿd al-ʿAlāʾ ibn Sahl Persian: ابوسعدالعلاءِبن سعل (ابن سهل); c. 940–1000) was a Persian mathematician and physicist of the Islamic Golden Age, associated with the Buyid court of Baghdad. Nothing in his name allows us to glimpse his country of origin. He is known to have written an optical tre...	{ "page_id": 2231772, "title": "Ibn Sahl (mathematician)" }
lenses", Isis 81, pp. 464–491, 1990. Rashed, R., Géométrie et dioptrique au Xe siècle: Ibn Sahl, al-Quhi et Ibn al-Haytham. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1993 Zghal, Mourad; et al. (2007). Nantel, Marc (ed.). "The first steps for learning optics: Ibn Sahl's, Al- Haytham's and Young's works on refraction as typical example...	{ "page_id": 2231772, "title": "Ibn Sahl (mathematician)" }
Professor Lisa O. Roberts is vice chancellor and President of the University of Exeter. She took over from professor Steve Smith on his retirement on 1 September 2020. == Early life == In 1990, Roberts graduated with a Bachelor of Science in medical microbiology and general microbiology from the University of Birmingha...	{ "page_id": 65211875, "title": "Lisa Roberts (academic)" }
Hazard analysis and risk-based preventive controls or HARPC is a successor to the Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) food safety system, mandated in the United States by the FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) of 2010. Preventive control systems emphasize prevention of risks before they occur rath...	{ "page_id": 47779300, "title": "Hazard analysis and risk-based preventive controls" }
firms being given an extra year to implement Current Good Manufacturing Practices before a Preventive Controls system the following year: Primary Production Farms, defined as "an operation under one management in one general, but not necessarily contiguous, location devoted to the growing of crops, the harvesting of cr...	{ "page_id": 47779300, "title": "Hazard analysis and risk-based preventive controls" }
more than HACCP plans, since these programs tend to be preventive. FSMA-compliant Hazard Analyses address radiological hazards in addition to the chemical, biological and physical hazards covered by HACCP systems. FSMA explicitly requires a Food Defense component, with both terrorism and Economically Motivated Adultera...	{ "page_id": 47779300, "title": "Hazard analysis and risk-based preventive controls" }
Stem Cell Reports is a monthly peer-reviewed open access journal covering research into stem cells. It was established in 2013 and is published exclusively online by Cell Press. It is the official journal of the International Society for Stem Cell Research. The editor-in-chief is Martin Pera (Jackson Laboratory). Accor...	{ "page_id": 55578085, "title": "Stem Cell Reports" }
The molecular formula C33H38N4O6 (molar mass: 586.67 g/mol) may refer to: Irinotecan, a drug used for the treatment of cancer Phycocyanobilin, a blue phycobilin Phycoerythrobilin, a red phycobilin	{ "page_id": 24120806, "title": "C33H38N4O6" }
Stem cell tourism, a form of medical tourism, is the internet based-industry in which stem cell procedures are advertised to the public as a proven cure. In the majority of cases, it leads to patients and families traveling abroad to obtain procedures that are not proven, nor part of a clinical trial approved by an aut...	{ "page_id": 64228839, "title": "Stem cell tourism" }
is an aspirational goal, is still under development and although there is a great deal of research around the world. Rigorous stem cell trials are still ongoing and patients should be educated to be aware of the unethical clinics in the US or abroad, that offer stem cells procedures as a cure when it is still under inv...	{ "page_id": 64228839, "title": "Stem cell tourism" }
Given a topological space M, a topological group G and a principal G-bundle over M, a global section of that principal bundle is a gauge fixing and the process of replacing one section by another is a gauge transformation. If a gauge transformation isn't homotopic to the identity, it is called a large gauge transformat...	{ "page_id": 2690531, "title": "Large gauge transformation" }
Aare Laht (born 6 June 1948) is an Estonian chemist. He has worked at National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics In 1980, he was among the signatories of the Letter of 40 intellectuals. In 2006, he was awarded with Order of the National Coat of Arms, IV class. == References ==	{ "page_id": 67177964, "title": "Aare Laht" }
The molecular formula C33H42N4O6 (molar mass: 590.71 g/mol, exact mass: 590.310435 u) may refer to: Phycourobilin, a tetrapyrrole Urobilin, a tetrapyrrole	{ "page_id": 24120812, "title": "C33H42N4O6" }
An electrochemical gradient is a gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion that can move across a membrane. The gradient consists of two parts: The chemical gradient, or difference in solute concentration across a membrane. The electrical gradient, or difference in charge across a membrane. If there are...	{ "page_id": 2821615, "title": "Electrochemical gradient" }
effect can be quantified as a gradient in the thermodynamic electrochemical potential: ∇ μ ¯ i = ∇ μ i ( r → ) + z i F ∇ φ ( r → ) , {\displaystyle \nabla {\overline {\mu }}_{i}=\nabla \mu _{i}({\vec {r}})+z_{i}\mathrm {F} \nabla \varphi ({\vec {r}}){\text{,}}} with μi the chemical potential of the ion species i zi the...	{ "page_id": 2821615, "title": "Electrochemical gradient" }
cell has an internal electrical potential of (−70)–(−50) mV.: 464 An electrochemical gradient is essential to mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. The final step of cellular respiration is the electron transport chain, composed of four complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Complexes I, III, and IV...	{ "page_id": 2821615, "title": "Electrochemical gradient" }
and an inorganic phosphate; for every molecule of ATP hydrolized, three Na+ are transported outside and two K+ are transported inside the cell. This makes the inside of the cell more negative than the outside and more specifically generates a membrane potential Vmembrane of about −60 mV. An example of passive transport...	{ "page_id": 2821615, "title": "Electrochemical gradient" }
This section will focus on three processes that help establish proton gradients in their respective cells: bacteriorhodopsin and noncyclic photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation. === Bacteriorhodopsin === The way bacteriorhodopsin generates a proton gradient in Archaea is through a proton pump. The proton p...	{ "page_id": 2821615, "title": "Electrochemical gradient" }
to unbound plastoquinone (PQB). This reduces plastoquinone (PQ) to plastoquinol (PQH2) which is released from PSII after gaining two protons from the stroma. The electrons in P680 are replenished by oxidizing water through the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC). This results in release of O2 and H+ into the lumen, for a tot...	{ "page_id": 2821615, "title": "Electrochemical gradient" }
oxidized cytochrome c at the Qo site. In the second step, two more electrons reduce UQ to UQH2 at the Qi site. The total reaction is: 2 cytochrome c ⏟ oxidized + UQH 2 + 2 H + ⏟ matrix ⟶ 2 cytochrome c ⏟ reduced + UQ + 4 H + ⏟ IMS {\displaystyle 2\underbrace {\text{cytochrome c}} _{\text{oxidized}}+{\ce {UQH_2}}+2\unde...	{ "page_id": 2821615, "title": "Electrochemical gradient" }
Cortical thymic epithelial cells (cTECs) form unique parenchyma cell population of the thymus which critically contribute to the development of T cells. Thymus tissue is compartmentalized into cortex and medulla and each of these two compartments comprises its specific thymic epithelial cell subset. cTECs reside in the...	{ "page_id": 58068464, "title": "Cortical thymic epithelial cells" }
cortex, they start their transformation from double negative stages (T cell without surface expression of CD4 and CD8 co-receptors) to a double positive stage (T cell with surface expression of both co-receptors) that expresses fully recombined TCR. This stage undergoes above mentioned selection process. === Double pos...	{ "page_id": 58068464, "title": "Cortical thymic epithelial cells" }
slight reduction in positive selection of CD8 T cells, but TCR repertoire of these cells was shown to be limited and they revealed impaired immunological properties e.g. bad antigen responsiveness and failure to maintain naive population in the periphery. β5t subunit was shown to reduce chymotrypsin-like activity of th...	{ "page_id": 58068464, "title": "Cortical thymic epithelial cells" }
utilize this endogenous pathway for MHC II presentation during selection processes, instead of common loading of exogenous peptides. Mouse with deficient macroautophagy, specifically in the thymus, revealed reduced numbers and repertoire of CD4 T cells. == Development == cTECs and mTECs originate from endoderm, more sp...	{ "page_id": 58068464, "title": "Cortical thymic epithelial cells" }
Prior to 2013 the Forestry Commission managed about one million hectares of land across Great Britain, including 660,000 hectares of forest in Scotland, 250,000 hectares in England and 126,000 hectares in Wales. In 2013 the Commission's forests in Wales were transferred to Natural Resources Wales, whilst Forestry and L...	{ "page_id": 36244978, "title": "List of forests managed by the Forestry Commission" }
This is a list of smoked foods. Smoking is the process of flavoring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Foods have been smoked by humans throughout history. Meats and fish are the most common smoked foods, though cheeses, vegetables, and ingredients...	{ "page_id": 42208759, "title": "List of smoked foods" }
in the Tatra Mountains region of Poland Oštiepok Palmero cheese Parenica – traditional Slovakian cheese; a semi-firm, non-ripening, semi-fat, steamed and usually smoked cheese, although the non-smoked version is also produced Provolone – some versions are smoked Pule cheese – reportedly the "world's most expensive chee...	{ "page_id": 42208759, "title": "List of smoked foods" }
dehydration and the antibacterial properties of absorbed smoke. In modern days, the enhanced flavor of smoked foods makes them a delicacy in many cultures. Aliya - smoked dish originally from the Luo tribe of Kenya. Bacon – a meat product prepared from a pig and usually cured; some versions are also smoked for preserva...	{ "page_id": 42208759, "title": "List of smoked foods" }
preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved by curing, drying, or smoking. Many types and varieties of sausages are smoked to help preserve them and to add flavor. Ahle Wurst – a hard pork sausage made in northern Hesse, Germany. Its name is a dialectal form of alte Wurst – "old sausage". Alheira Amsterdam ossenw...	{ "page_id": 42208759, "title": "List of smoked foods" }
Effector cell peptidase receptor 1, also known as EPR1, is a withdrawn database record. This locus represents an antisense transcript of the survivin locus. This record was withdrawn in collaboration with HGNC. It was defined by L26245.1, which appears to be a cloning artifact (Zaman GJ, Conway EM (July 2000). "The elu...	{ "page_id": 15076856, "title": "EPR1" }
A Universe of Consciousness: How Matter Becomes Imagination is the title of a 2000 book by biologists Gerald Maurice Edelman and Giulio Tononi; published in UK as Consciousness: How Matter Becomes Imagination. This book, written with Giulio Tononi, is the culmination of a series of works by Gerald Edelman on the workin...	{ "page_id": 1379832, "title": "A Universe of Consciousness" }
large-scale simulations. It is shown that this can only happen if some elements interact more strongly among themselves than with the rest of the system including a large amount of reentrancy. These functional clusters are only slowly coming into the range of PET or fMRI scanning technology which commonly require much ...	{ "page_id": 1379832, "title": "A Universe of Consciousness" }
contrast to computers which are Turing machines, brains are based on neuronal group selection. == Reviews == John Cornwell (Sunday Times) One of the most thoughtful books on the topic... While revealing much that is surprising about consciousness, they confirm some deeply held convictions about the power and mystery of...	{ "page_id": 1379832, "title": "A Universe of Consciousness" }
The ethmoidal infundibulum is a funnel-shaped/slit-like: 690 /curved opening/passage/space: 690 /cleft upon the anterosuperior portion of the middle nasal meatus (and thus of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity) at the hiatus semilunaris (which represents the medial extremity of the infundibulum). The anterior ethmoid...	{ "page_id": 8654330, "title": "Ethmoidal infundibulum" }
Predatory dinoflagellates are predatory heterotrophic or mixotrophic alveolates that derive some or most of their nutrients from digesting other organisms. About one half of dinoflagellates lack photosynthetic pigments and specialize in consuming other eukaryotic cells, and even photosynthetic forms are often predatory...	{ "page_id": 15076859, "title": "Predatory dinoflagellate" }
and Pamlico river estuaries in North Carolina and causing skin lesions in humans in the 1990s. It has been described as "skinning fish alive to feed on their flesh" or chemically sensing fish and producing lethal toxins to kill their prey and feed off the decaying remains. Its deadly nature has led to Pfiesteria being ...	{ "page_id": 15076859, "title": "Predatory dinoflagellate" }
predator capable of producing a paralytic toxin. Like cellular slime molds, it can release chemical stress signals that cause the cells to aggregate into a swarm which allows the newly formed superorganism to feed on much larger animals and produce a fruiting body that releases spores for reproduction. == See also == C...	{ "page_id": 15076859, "title": "Predatory dinoflagellate" }

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