text stringlengths 2 4.67k | source dict |
|---|---|
ice cube than far away from it. If energies of the molecules located near a given point are observed, they will be distributed according to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution for a certain temperature. If the energies of the molecules located near another point are observed, they will be distributed according to the Ma... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
consistently described by thermodynamic theory!" J.A. Beattie and I. Oppenheim write: "Insistence on a strict interpretation of the definition of equilibrium would rule out the application of thermodynamics to practically all states of real systems." Another author, cited by Callen as giving a "scholarly and rigorous t... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
amount affect the external fields of force. The system can be in thermodynamic equilibrium only if the external force fields are uniform, and are determining its uniform acceleration, or if it lies in a non-uniform force field but is held stationary there by local forces, such as mechanical pressures, on its surface. T... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
considers an arbitrary system with time invariant properties. He tests it for thermodynamic equilibrium by cutting it off from all external influences, except external force fields. If after insulation, nothing changes, he says that the system was in equilibrium. In a section headed "Thermodynamic equilibrium", H.B. Ca... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
a section headed "Thermodynamic Equilibrium". It distinguishes several drivers of flows, and then says: "These are examples of the apparently universal tendency of isolated systems toward a state of complete mechanical, thermal, chemical, and electrical—or, in a single word, thermodynamic—equilibrium." A monograph on c... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
They may be permeable only to mechanical work, or only to heat, or only to some particular chemical substance. Each contact equilibrium defines an intensive parameter; for example, a wall permeable only to heat defines an empirical temperature. A contact equilibrium can exist for each chemical constituent of the system... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
piece of glass that has not yet reached its "full thermodynamic equilibrium state". Considering equilibrium states, M. Bailyn writes: "Each intensive variable has its own type of equilibrium." He then defines thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, and material equilibrium. Accordingly, he writes: "If all the inte... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
a single phase in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium inhomogeneous with respect to some intensive variables. For example, a relatively dense component of a mixture can be concentrated by centrifugation. === Uniform temperature === Such equilibrium inhomogeneity, induced by external forces, does not occur for th... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
Henry's Law, which states that gases dissolve in direct proportion to their partial pressures. By influencing the partial pressure on the top of a closed system, this would help slow down the rate of fizzing out of carbonated beverages which is governed by thermodynamic equilibrium. The equilibria of carbon dioxide and... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
needed for specification === In his exposition of his scheme of closed system equilibrium thermodynamics, C. Carathéodory initially postulates that experiment reveals that a definite number of real variables define the states that are the points of the manifold of equilibria. In the words of Prigogine and Defay (1945):... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
in many cases of such evolution, internal mechanical equilibrium is established much more rapidly than the other aspects of the eventual thermodynamic equilibrium. Another example is that, in many cases of such evolution, thermal equilibrium is reached much more rapidly than chemical equilibrium. === Fluctuations withi... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
place within the strictly phenomenological theory for the idea of fluctuations about equilibrium (see, however, Section 76)." If the system is repeatedly subdivided, eventually a system is produced that is small enough to exhibit obvious fluctuations. This is a mesoscopic level of investigation. The fluctuations are th... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
explicit distinction between 'thermal equilibrium' and 'thermodynamic equilibrium' is made by B. C. Eu. He considers two systems in thermal contact, one a thermometer, the other a system in which there are several occurring irreversible processes, entailing non-zero fluxes; the two systems are separated by a wall perme... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
parameters are unchanging in time but the system is not isolated, so that there are, into and out of the system, non-zero macroscopic fluxes which are constant in time. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Most systems found in n... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics Press, New York, ISBN 0-88318-797-3. Beattie, J.A., Oppenheim, I. (1979). Principles of Thermodynamics, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, Amsterdam, ISBN 0-444-41806-7. Boltzmann, L. (1896/1964). Lectures on Gas Theory, translated by S.G. Brush, University of California Press... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
for Chemists and Physicists, fifth revised edition, North-Holland, Amsterdam. Haase, R. (1971). Survey of Fundamental Laws, chapter 1 of Thermodynamics, pages 1–97 of volume 1, ed. W. Jost, of Physical Chemistry. An Advanced Treatise, ed. H. Eyring, D. Henderson, W. Jost, Academic Press, New York, lcn 73–117081. Kirkwo... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
289–298. Also published in Thomson, W. (December 1852). "On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, with numerical results deduced from Mr Joule's equivalent of a Thermal Unit, and M. Regnault's Observations on Steam". Phil. Mag. 4. IV (22): 8–21. Retrieved 25 June 2012. Tisza, L. (1966). Generalized Thermodynamics, M.I.T Press,... | {
"page_id": 265823,
"title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium"
} |
A generative adversarial network (GAN) is a class of machine learning frameworks and a prominent framework for approaching generative artificial intelligence. The concept was initially developed by Ian Goodfellow and his colleagues in June 2014. In a GAN, two neural networks compete with each other in the form of a zer... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
] {\displaystyle \mu _{D}:\Omega \to {\mathcal {P}}[0,1]} , where P [ 0 , 1 ] {\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}[0,1]} is the set of probability measures on [ 0 , 1 ] {\displaystyle [0,1]} . The GAN game is a zero-sum game, with objective function L ( μ G , μ D ) := E x ∼ μ ref , y ∼ μ D ( x ) [ ln y ] + E x ∼ μ G , y ∼... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
initial training data for the discriminator. Training involves presenting it with samples from the training dataset until it achieves acceptable accuracy. The generator is trained based on whether it succeeds in fooling the discriminator. Typically, the generator is seeded with randomized input that is sampled from a p... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
,{\mathcal {B}},\mu _{\text{ref}})} defines a GAN game. The generator's strategy set is P ( Ω , B ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}(\Omega ,{\mathcal {B}})} , the set of all probability measures μ G {\displaystyle \mu _{G}} on the measure-space ( Ω , B ) {\displaystyle (\Omega ,{\mathcal {B}})} . The discriminator's stra... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
start with a random variable z ∼ μ Z {\displaystyle z\sim \mu _{Z}} , where μ Z {\displaystyle \mu _{Z}} is a probability distribution that is easy to compute (such as the uniform distribution, or the Gaussian distribution), then define a function G : Ω Z → Ω {\displaystyle G:\Omega _{Z}\to \Omega } . Then the distribu... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
backpropagation method. Among its first applications was the variational autoencoder. === Move order and strategic equilibria === In the original paper, as well as most subsequent papers, it is usually assumed that the generator moves first, and the discriminator moves second, thus giving the following minimax game: mi... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
_{\mu _{D}}L({\hat {\mu }}_{G},\mu _{D}),\quad } Equilibrium when discriminator moves first, and generator moves second: μ ^ D ∈ arg max μ D min μ G L ( μ G , μ D ) , μ ^ G ∈ arg min μ G L ( μ G , μ ^ D ) , {\displaystyle {\hat {\mu }}_{D}\in \arg \max _{\mu _{D}}\min _{\mu _{G}}L(\mu _{G},\mu _{D}),\quad {\hat {\m... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
d x ) ) {\displaystyle {\frac {D(x)}{1-D(x)}}={\frac {d\mu _{\text{ref}}}{d\mu _{G}}}(x)={\frac {\mu _{\text{ref}}(dx)}{\mu _{G}(dx)}};\quad D(x)=\sigma (\ln \mu _{\text{ref}}(dx)-\ln \mu _{G}(dx))} where σ {\displaystyle \sigma } is the logistic function. In particular, if the prior probability for an image x {\displa... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
game "collapses" into one of several failure modes. To improve the convergence stability, some training strategies start with an easier task, such as generating low-resolution images or simple images (one object with uniform background), and gradually increase the difficulty of the task during training. This essentiall... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
stable by making the learning rate of the generator lower than that of the discriminator. The authors argued that the generator should move slower than the discriminator, so that it does not "drive the discriminator steadily into new regions without capturing its gathered information". They proved that a general class ... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
papers that propose new GAN architectures for image generation report how their architectures break the state of the art on FID or IS. Another evaluation method is the Learned Perceptual Image Patch Similarity (LPIPS), which starts with a learned image featurizer f θ : Image → R n {\displaystyle f_{\theta }:{\text{Imag... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
model to conditionally generate samples based on additional information. For example, if we want to generate a cat face given a dog picture, we could use a conditional GAN. The generator in a GAN game generates μ G {\displaystyle \mu _{G}} , a probability distribution on the probability space Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } ... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
generator when given class label c {\displaystyle c} . In 2017, a conditional GAN learned to generate 1000 image classes of ImageNet. === GANs with alternative architectures === The GAN game is a general framework and can be run with any reasonable parametrization of the generator G {\displaystyle G} and discriminator ... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
This objective for generator was recommended in the original paper for faster convergence. L G = E x ∼ μ G [ ln D ( x ) ] {\displaystyle L_{G}=\operatorname {E} _{x\sim \mu _{G}}[\ln D(x)]} The effect of using this objective is analyzed in Section 2.2.2 of Arjovsky et al. Original GAN, maximum likelihood: L G = E x... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
1 , b = 1 , c = 0 {\displaystyle a=-1,b=1,c=0} . === Wasserstein GAN (WGAN) === The Wasserstein GAN modifies the GAN game at two points: The discriminator's strategy set is the set of measurable functions of type D : Ω → R {\displaystyle D:\Omega \to \mathbb {R} } with bounded Lipschitz norm: ‖ D ‖ L ≤ K {\displaystyle... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
an incompressible noise part z {\displaystyle z} , and an informative label part c {\displaystyle c} , and encourage the generator to comply with the decree, by encouraging it to maximize I ( c , G ( z , c ) ) {\displaystyle I(c,G(z,c))} , the mutual information between c {\displaystyle c} and G ( z , c ) {\displaystyl... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
and the discriminator on the other team. The objective function is L ( G , Q , D ) = L G A N ( G , D ) − λ I ^ ( G , Q ) {\displaystyle L(G,Q,D)=L_{GAN}(G,D)-\lambda {\hat {I}}(G,Q)} where L G A N ( G , D ) = E x ∼ μ ref , [ ln D ( x ) ] + E z ∼ μ Z [ ln ( 1 − D ( G ( z , c ) ) ) ] {\displaystyle L_{GAN}(G,D)=\... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
in the original paper, the authors noted that "Learned approximate inference can be performed by training an auxiliary network to predict z {\displaystyle z} given x {\displaystyle x} ". The bidirectional GAN architecture performs exactly this. The BiGAN is defined as follows: Two probability spaces define a BiGAN game... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
z ) ] + E ( x , z ) ∼ μ G , Z [ ln ( 1 − D ( x , z ) ) ] {\displaystyle L(G,E,D)=\mathbb {E} _{(x,z)\sim \mu _{E,X}}[\ln D(x,z)]+\mathbb {E} _{(x,z)\sim \mu _{G,Z}}[\ln(1-D(x,z))]} where μ E , X ( d x , d z ) = μ X ( d x ) ⋅ δ E ( x ) ( d z ) {\displaystyle \mu _{E,X}(dx,dz)=\mu _{X}(dx)\cdot \delta _{E(x)}(dz)} is t... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
Ω X {\displaystyle G_{X}:\Omega _{X}\to \Omega _{Y},G_{Y}:\Omega _{Y}\to \Omega _{X}} , and discriminators D X : Ω X → [ 0 , 1 ] , D Y : Ω Y → [ 0 , 1 ] {\displaystyle D_{X}:\Omega _{X}\to [0,1],D_{Y}:\Omega _{Y}\to [0,1]} . The objective function is L ( G X , G Y , D X , D Y ) = L G A N ( G X , D X ) + L G A N ( G Y ,... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
photos, and an unrelated set of winter scenery photos. === GANs with particularly large or small scales === ==== BigGAN ==== The BigGAN is essentially a self-attention GAN trained on a large scale (up to 80 million parameters) to generate large images of ImageNet (up to 512 x 512 resolution), with numerous engineering ... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
] min G L G ( D , μ G ) = − E x ∼ μ G [ ln ( 1 − D ( x ) ) ] {\displaystyle {\begin{cases}\min _{D}L_{D}(D,\mu _{G})=-\operatorname {E} _{x\sim \mu _{\text{ref}},T\sim \mu _{\text{trans}}}[\ln D(T(x))]-\operatorname {E} _{x\sim \mu _{G}}[\ln(1-D(x))]\\\min _{G}L_{G}(D,\mu _{G})=-\operatorname {E} _{x\sim \mu _{G}}[... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
{E} _{x\sim \mu _{\text{ref}},T\sim \mu _{\text{trans}}}[\ln D(T(x))]-\operatorname {E} _{x\sim \mu _{G},T\sim \mu _{\text{trans}}}[\ln(1-D(T(x)))]\\\min _{G}L_{G}(D,\mu _{G})=-\operatorname {E} _{x\sim \mu _{G},T\sim \mu _{\text{trans}}}[\ln(1-D(T(x)))]\end{cases}}} The authors demonstrated high-quality generation usi... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
}}_{G}} where ∗ {\displaystyle *} is the Markov kernel convolution. A data-augmentation method is defined to be invertible if its Markov kernel K trans {\displaystyle K_{\text{trans}}} satisfies K trans ∗ μ = K trans ∗ μ ′ ⟹ μ = μ ′ ∀ μ , μ ′ ∈ P ( Ω ) {\displaystyle K_{\text{trans}}*\mu =K_{\text{trans}}*\mu '\implies... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
≠ 1 / 4 {\displaystyle p\neq 1/4} . Continuous case: The gaussian kernel, when Ω = R n {\displaystyle \Omega =\mathbb {R} ^{n}} for some n ≥ 1 {\displaystyle n\geq 1} . For example, if Ω = R 256 2 {\displaystyle \Omega =\mathbb {R} ^{256^{2}}} is the space of 256x256 images, and the data-augmentation method is "generat... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
the image G N ( z N ) {\displaystyle G_{N}(z_{N})} at the lowest resolution, then the generated image is scaled up to r ( G N ( z N ) ) {\displaystyle r(G_{N}(z_{N}))} , and fed to the next level to generate an image G N − 1 ( z N − 1 + r ( G N ( z N ) ) ) {\displaystyle G_{N-1}(z_{N-1}+r(G_{N}(z_{N})))} at a higher re... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
pair ( ( 1 − α ) + α ⋅ G N − 1 ) ∘ u ∘ G N , D N ∘ d ∘ ( ( 1 − α ) + α ⋅ D N − 1 ) {\displaystyle ((1-\alpha )+\alpha \cdot G_{N-1})\circ u\circ G_{N},D_{N}\circ d\circ ((1-\alpha )+\alpha \cdot D_{N-1})} generating and discriminating 8x8 images. Here, the functions u , d {\displaystyle u,d} are image up- and down-samp... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
) ≈ x , G ( z ′ ) ≈ x ′ {\displaystyle G(z)\approx x,G(z')\approx x'} . This is called "projecting an image back to style latent space". Then, z {\displaystyle z} can be fed to the lower style blocks, and z ′ {\displaystyle z'} to the higher style blocks, to generate a composite image that has the large-scale style of ... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
things. GANs have been used for transfer learning to enforce the alignment of the latent feature space, such as in deep reinforcement learning. This works by feeding the embeddings of the source and target task to the discriminator which tries to guess the context. The resulting loss is then (inversely) backpropagated ... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
considered and passed on October 3, 2019, the bill AB-602, which bans the use of human image synthesis technologies to make fake pornography without the consent of the people depicted, and bill AB-730, which prohibits distribution of manipulated videos of a political candidate within 60 days of an election. Both bills ... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
simply by watching it being played. In August 2019, a large dataset consisting of 12,197 MIDI songs each with paired lyrics and melody alignment was created for neural melody generation from lyrics using conditional GAN-LSTM (refer to sources at GitHub AI Melody Generation from Lyrics). === Miscellaneous === GANs have ... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
was noise-contrastive estimation, which uses the same loss function as GANs and which Goodfellow studied during his PhD in 2010–2014. Adversarial machine learning has other uses besides generative modeling and can be applied to models other than neural networks. In control theory, adversarial learning based on neural n... | {
"page_id": 50073184,
"title": "Generative adversarial network"
} |
The Leuckart reaction is the chemical reaction that converts aldehydes or ketones to amines. The reaction is an example of reductive amination. The reaction, named after Rudolf Leuckart, uses either ammonium formate or formamide as the nitrogen donor and reducing agent. It requires high temperatures, usually between 12... | {
"page_id": 5901920,
"title": "Leuckart reaction"
} |
The oxygen is protonated by abstracting hydrogen from the nitrogen atom, subsequently forming a water molecule that leaves, forming N-formyl derivative, which is resonance stabilized. Water hydrolyzes formamide to give ammonium formate, which acts as a reducing agent and adds on to the N-formyl derivative. Hydride shif... | {
"page_id": 5901920,
"title": "Leuckart reaction"
} |
The Atomic City is a 1952 American film noir thriller film directed by Jerry Hopper and starring Gene Barry and Lydia Clarke. The story takes place at Los Alamos, New Mexico, where a nuclear physicist (Barry) lives and works. Terrorists kidnap his son and demand that the physicist turn over the H-bomb formula. The film... | {
"page_id": 21433950,
"title": "The Atomic City"
} |
as they presume he has passed the file to someone at the game. Watching the film footage the FBI spots a hot-dog vendor who is actually Donald Clark, a man with Communist ties. The FBI bring him in but are limited in what they can extract. However, Dr. Addison is left in an adjoining room alone. He beats up Clark to as... | {
"page_id": 21433950,
"title": "The Atomic City"
} |
This was the first feature film allowed to be filmed on location inside the city of Los Alamos, during the period that the entire community was still closed to the public at large. It includes views of the residential neighborhoods, main entrance gate, and of the laboratory buildings (from a distance). Filming was also... | {
"page_id": 21433950,
"title": "The Atomic City"
} |
The molecular formula C21H27ClO3 (molar mass: 362.89028 g/mol, exact mass: 362.1649 u) may refer to: Chlormadinone Cismadinone, also known as 6α-chloro-17α-hydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione | {
"page_id": 35982947,
"title": "C21H27ClO3"
} |
In mathematics, the coset construction (or GKO construction) is a method of constructing unitary highest weight representations of the Virasoro algebra, introduced by Peter Goddard, Adrian Kent and David Olive (1986). The construction produces the complete discrete series of highest weight representations of the Viraso... | {
"page_id": 9309794,
"title": "Coset construction"
} |
The urbilaterian (from German ur- 'original') is the hypothetical last common ancestor of the bilaterian clade, i.e., all animals having a bilateral symmetry. == Appearance == Its appearance is a matter of debate, for no representative has been (or may or may not ever be) identified in the fossil record. Two reconstruc... | {
"page_id": 19467882,
"title": "Urbilaterian"
} |
have laid their eggs in sediment, where they would be likely to fossilise. Molecular techniques can generate expected dates of the divergence between the bilaterian clades, and thus an assessment of when the urbilaterian lived. These dates have huge margins of error, though they are becoming more accurate with time. Mo... | {
"page_id": 19467882,
"title": "Urbilaterian"
} |
animal. However, as biologists' understanding of the major bilaterian lineages increases, it is beginning to appear that some of these features may have evolved independently in each lineage. Further, the bilaterian clade has recently been expanded to include the acoelomorphs — a group of relatively simple flatworms. T... | {
"page_id": 19467882,
"title": "Urbilaterian"
} |
segments from the growing tip at the rear of the embryo. Further, both groups make use of "the obtuse process of 'resegmentation', whereby the phase of their metameres shifts by half a unit of wavelength, i.e. somites splitting to make vertebrae or parasegments splitting to form segments." Held comments that all this m... | {
"page_id": 19467882,
"title": "Urbilaterian"
} |
would mean that this too could have been small (hence explaining the lack of fossil record). == Possible models of the Urbilaterian == It is possible that the common ancestor of all bilaterals looked similar to: === Colonial-Pennatulacean hypothesis: (Colonialy fusion of cnidarian-like) === The proposal that bilaterals... | {
"page_id": 19467882,
"title": "Urbilaterian"
} |
as well as with the shells of semi-mobile hyoliths and mobile mollusks, this taking into account the ontogeny of the cloudinids. This implies that the Cloudinomorpha is not a polyphyletic group as would have been proposed but rather is a paraphyletic grade from which several taxa derive that may or may not conserve the... | {
"page_id": 19467882,
"title": "Urbilaterian"
} |
more similar to modern pterobranchs, although they would not be completely identical to them. The location of Ctenophora (Myriazoa hypothesis) should not change the hypothesis since it has been left aside taking only into account the molecular and morphological development of Choanoflagellatea, Porifera and Cnidaria. =... | {
"page_id": 19467882,
"title": "Urbilaterian"
} |
The eyespot apparatus (or stigma) is a photoreceptive organelle found in the flagellate or (motile) cells of green algae and other unicellular photosynthetic organisms such as euglenids. It allows the cells to sense light direction and intensity and respond to it, prompting the organism to either swim towards the light... | {
"page_id": 10096234,
"title": "Eyespot apparatus"
} |
fashion in relation to the cytoskeleton. This asymmetric positioning of the eyespot in the cell is essential for proper phototaxis. == Eyespot proteins == The most critical eyespot proteins are the photoreceptor proteins that sense light. The photoreceptors found in unicellular organisms fall into two main groups: flav... | {
"page_id": 10096234,
"title": "Eyespot apparatus"
} |
Animal science is described as "studying the biology of animals that are under the control of humankind". It can also be described as the production and management of farm animals. Historically, the degree was called animal husbandry and the animals studied were livestock species, like cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry, and... | {
"page_id": 2035308,
"title": "Animal science"
} |
knowledge of the biological and physical sciences including nutrition, reproduction, physiology, and genetics. This can prepare students for graduate studies in animal science, veterinary school, and pharmaceutical or animal science industries. === Graduate studies === In a Master of Science degree option, students tak... | {
"page_id": 2035308,
"title": "Animal science"
} |
effect both wild and domesticated animals. There are three main medical positions within veterinary medicine, veterinarians, veterinary technicians, and veterinary assistants. == See also == American Registry of Professional Animal Scientists List of animal science degree-granting institutions Zoology, the interest of ... | {
"page_id": 2035308,
"title": "Animal science"
} |
Cytochrome P450, family 23, also known as CYP23, is a nematoda cytochrome P450 monooxygenase family. The first gene identified in this family is the CYP23A1 from the Caenorhabditis elegans, is a homolog of the human gene CYP7B1. == References == | {
"page_id": 69275247,
"title": "CYP23 family"
} |
The molecular formula C23H30O4 (molar mass: 370.48 g/mol, exact mass: 370.2144 u) may refer to: Nomegestrol acetate (NOMAC) Segesterone acetate (SGA) | {
"page_id": 35982961,
"title": "C23H30O4"
} |
The Albright–Goldman oxidation is a name reaction of organic chemistry, first described by the American chemists J. Donald Albright and Leon Goldman in 1965. The reaction is particularly suitable for the synthesis of aldehydes from primary alcohols. Analogously, secondary alcohols can be oxidized to form ketones. Dimet... | {
"page_id": 55250546,
"title": "Albright–Goldman oxidation"
} |
The intermembral index is a ratio used to compare limb proportions, expressed as a percentage. It is equal to the length of forelimbs (humerus plus radius) divided by the length of the hind limbs (femur plus tibia) multiplied by 100, otherwise written mathematically as: ( h u m e r u s + r a d i u s ) ( f e m u r + t i... | {
"page_id": 26283638,
"title": "Intermembral index"
} |
Jannie Hofmeyr published the first catalog of control patterns in metabolic control analysis (MCA). His doctoral research. concerned the use of graphical patterns to elucidate chains of interaction in metabolic regulation, later published in the European Journal of Biochemistry. In his thesis, he cataloged 25 patterns ... | {
"page_id": 74387063,
"title": "Catalog of MCA Control Patterns"
} |
{\partial v}{\partial s}}{\frac {s}{v}}} To make the notation manageable, a specific numbering scheme is used in the following patterns. If a substrate has an index of i {\displaystyle i} , then the reaction index will be v i + 1 {\displaystyle v_{i+1}} . The product elasticity will also have an index of i + 1 {\displa... | {
"page_id": 74387063,
"title": "Catalog of MCA Control Patterns"
} |
− ε 1 1 {\displaystyle C_{v_{1}}^{J}={\frac {\varepsilon _{1}^{2}}{\varepsilon _{1}^{2}-\varepsilon _{1}^{1}}}\qquad C_{v_{2}}^{J}={\frac {-\varepsilon _{1}^{1}}{\varepsilon _{1}^{2}-\varepsilon _{1}^{1}}}} C v 1 s 1 = 1 ε 1 2 − ε 1 1 C v 2 s 1 = − 1 ε 1 2 − ε 1 1 {\displaystyle C_{v_{1}}^{s_{1}}={\frac {1}{\varepsilon... | {
"page_id": 74387063,
"title": "Catalog of MCA Control Patterns"
} |
e 1 s 2 = ε 1 2 C e 2 s 1 = − ε 2 3 C e 2 s 2 = − ε 1 1 C e 3 s 1 = ε 2 2 C e 3 s 2 = ε 1 1 − ε 1 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{ll}C_{e_{1}}^{s_{1}}=\varepsilon _{2}^{3}-\varepsilon _{2}^{2}&C_{e_{1}}^{s_{2}}=\varepsilon _{1}^{2}\\[6pt]C_{e_{2}}^{s_{1}}=-\varepsilon _{2}^{3}&C_{e_{2}}^{s_{2}}=-\varepsilon _{1}^{1}\\[... | {
"page_id": 74387063,
"title": "Catalog of MCA Control Patterns"
} |
3 − ε 1 2 ε 3 4 C e 2 s 2 = − ε 1 1 ε 3 3 + ε 1 1 ε 3 4 C e 3 s 2 = − ε 1 1 ε 3 4 + ε 1 2 ε 3 4 C e 4 s 2 = ε 1 1 ε 3 3 − ε 1 2 ε 3 3 C e 1 s 3 = − ε 1 2 ε 2 3 C e 2 s 3 = ε 1 1 ε 2 3 C e 3 s 2 = − ε 1 1 ε 2 2 C e 4 s 2 = ε 1 1 ε 2 2 − ε 1 1 ε 2 3 + ε 1 2 ε 2 3 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lll}C_{e_{1}}^{J}=-\varepsil... | {
"page_id": 74387063,
"title": "Catalog of MCA Control Patterns"
} |
− ε 2 2 C e 2 s 1 = − ε 2 3 − ε 2 1 C e 3 s 1 = ε 2 2 − ε 2 1 C e 1 s 2 = ε 1 2 C e 2 s 2 = − ε 1 1 C e 3 s 2 = ε 1 1 − ε 1 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lll}C_{e_{1}}^{J}=\varepsilon _{1}^{2}\varepsilon _{2}^{3}&C_{e_{2}}^{J}=-\varepsilon _{1}^{1}\varepsilon _{2}^{3}&C_{e_{3}}^{J}=\varepsilon _{1}^{1}\varepsilon _{2... | {
"page_id": 74387063,
"title": "Catalog of MCA Control Patterns"
} |
ε 3 4 C v 4 S 1 = ε 3 1 ε 2 2 − ε 3 1 ε 2 3 − ε 2 2 ε 3 3 C v 1 S 2 = − ε 1 2 ε 3 3 + ε 1 2 ε 3 4 C v 2 S 2 = ε 1 1 ε 3 3 − ε 1 1 ε 3 4 C v 3 S 2 = ε B 1 ε 3 4 + ε 3 1 ε 1 2 − ε 1 2 ε 3 4 C v 4 S 2 = − ε 1 1 ε 3 3 − ε 3 1 ε 1 2 + ε 1 2 ε 3 3 C v 1 S 3 = ε 1 2 ε 2 3 C v 2 S 3 = − ε 1 1 ε 2 3 C v 3 S 3 = ε 1 1 ε 2 2 C v ... | {
"page_id": 74387063,
"title": "Catalog of MCA Control Patterns"
} |
= ε s 2 α + ε s 3 ( 1 − α ) − ε s 1 {\displaystyle d=\varepsilon _{s}^{2}\alpha +\varepsilon _{s}^{3}(1-\alpha )-\varepsilon _{s}^{1}} Assume that each of the following expressions is divided by d {\displaystyle d} . C e 1 J 1 = ε s 3 ( 1 − α ) + ε s 2 α C e 1 J 1 = − ε s 1 α C e 1 J 1 = − ε s 1 ( 1 − α ) + ε s 2 α {\d... | {
"page_id": 74387063,
"title": "Catalog of MCA Control Patterns"
} |
The acentric factor ω is a conceptual number introduced by Kenneth Pitzer in 1955, proven to be useful in the description of fluids. It has become a standard for the phase characterization of single and pure components, along with other state description parameters such as molecular weight, critical temperature, critic... | {
"page_id": 2231930,
"title": "Acentric factor"
} |
xenon. ω {\displaystyle \omega } is also very close to zero for molecules which are nearly spherical. Values of ω ≤ −1 correspond to vapor pressures above the critical pressure and are non-physical. The acentric factor can be predicted analytically from some equations of state. For example, it can be easily shown from ... | {
"page_id": 2231930,
"title": "Acentric factor"
} |
The mass number (symbol A, from the German word: Atomgewicht, "atomic weight"), also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus. It is approximately equal to the atomic (also known as isotopic) mass of the atom expressed in ... | {
"page_id": 659068,
"title": "Mass number"
} |
hand, carbon-14 decays by beta decay, whereby one neutron is transmuted into a proton with the emission of an electron and an antineutrino. Thus the atomic number increases by 1 (Z: 6 → 7) and the mass number remains the same (A = 14), while the number of neutrons decreases by 1 (N: 8 → 7). The resulting atom is nitrog... | {
"page_id": 659068,
"title": "Mass number"
} |
and electrons). There are two reasons for mass excess: The neutron is slightly heavier than the proton. This increases the mass of nuclei with more neutrons than protons relative to the atomic mass unit scale based on 12C with equal numbers of protons and neutrons. Nuclear binding energy varies between nuclei. A nucleu... | {
"page_id": 659068,
"title": "Mass number"
} |
References == == Further reading == Bishop, Mark. "The Structure of Matter and Chemical Elements (ch. 3)". An Introduction to Chemistry. Chiral Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-9778105-4-3. Retrieved 2008-07-08. | {
"page_id": 659068,
"title": "Mass number"
} |
The molecular formula C40H44N4O16 (molar mass: 836.79 g/mol, exact mass: 836.275231 u) may refer to: Uroporphyrinogen I Uroporphyrinogen III | {
"page_id": 24120961,
"title": "C40H44N4O16"
} |
An EOSFET or electrolyte–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor is a FET, like a MOSFET, but with an electrolyte solution replacing the metal for the detection of neuronal activity. Many EOSFETs are integrated in a neurochip. == References == | {
"page_id": 2035333,
"title": "EOSFET"
} |
Beyond Einstein: The Cosmic Quest for the Theory of the Universe is a book by Michio Kaku, a theoretical physicist from the City College of New York, and Jennifer Trainer Thompson. It focuses on the development of superstring theory, which might become the unified field theory of the strong force, the weak force, elect... | {
"page_id": 13045388,
"title": "Beyond Einstein (book)"
} |
A pyridinecarboxylic acid is any member of a group of organic compounds which are monocarboxylic derivatives of pyridine. Pyridinecarboxylic acid comes in three isomers: Picolinic acid (2-pyridinecarboxylic acid) Nicotinic acid (3-pyridinecarboxylic acid), also known as Niacin Isonicotinic acid (4-pyridinecarboxylic ac... | {
"page_id": 5639821,
"title": "Pyridinecarboxylic acid"
} |
Molecular diagnostics is a collection of techniques used to analyze biological markers in the genome and proteome, and how their cells express their genes as proteins, applying molecular biology to medical testing. In medicine the technique is used to diagnose and monitor disease, detect risk, and decide which therapie... | {
"page_id": 40439442,
"title": "Molecular diagnostics"
} |
the HapMap Project aggregated information on the one-letter genetic differences that recur in the human population—the single nucleotide polymorphisms—and their relationship with disease.: ch 37 In 2012, molecular diagnostic techniques for Thalassemia use genetic hybridization tests to identify the specific single nucl... | {
"page_id": 40439442,
"title": "Molecular diagnostics"
} |
possibility of error or contamination during manual handling and results reporting. Single devices to do the assay from beginning to end are now available. === Assays === Molecular diagnostics uses in vitro biological assays such as PCR-ELISA or Fluorescence in situ hybridization. The assay detects a molecule, often in... | {
"page_id": 40439442,
"title": "Molecular diagnostics"
} |
more efficiently than wildtype sequence. PCR is currently the most widely used method for detection of DNA sequences. The detection of the marker might use real time PCR, direct sequencing,: ch 17 microarray chips—prefabricated chips that test many markers at once,: ch 24 or MALDI-TOF The same principle applies to the ... | {
"page_id": 40439442,
"title": "Molecular diagnostics"
} |
multiple subtypes with entirely different causes and treatments. Molecular diagnostics can help diagnose the subtype—for example of infections and cancers—or the genetic analysis of a disease with an inherited component, such as Silver-Russell syndrome. === Infectious disease === Molecular diagnostics are used to ident... | {
"page_id": 40439442,
"title": "Molecular diagnostics"
} |
molecular signature of cancerous cells—the DNA and its levels of expression via messenger RNA—enables physicians to characterise the cancer and to choose the best therapy for their patients. As of 2010, assays that incorporate an array of antibodies against specific protein marker molecules are an emerging technology; ... | {
"page_id": 40439442,
"title": "Molecular diagnostics"
} |
ARMS PCR primers. For instance, Qiagen therascreen, Roche cobas and Biomerieux THxID have developed FDA approved PCR tests for detecting lung, colon cancer and metastatic melanoma mutations in the KRAS, EGFR and BRAF genes. Their IVD kits were basically validated on genomic DNA extracted from FFPE tissue. There are als... | {
"page_id": 40439442,
"title": "Molecular diagnostics"
} |
cancers are not always employed with clear symptoms. It is useful to analyze people when they do not show obvious symptoms and thus can detect cancer at early stages. For example, the ColoGuard test may be used to screen people over 55 years old for colorectal cancer. Cancer is a longtime-scale disease with various pro... | {
"page_id": 40439442,
"title": "Molecular diagnostics"
} |
The uterine microbiome refers to the community of commensal, nonpathogenic microorganisms—including bacteria, viruses, and yeasts/fungi—present in a healthy uterus, as well as in the amniotic fluid and endometrium. These microorganisms coexist in a specific environment within the uterus, playing a vital role in maintai... | {
"page_id": 50925207,
"title": "Uterine microbiome"
} |
and those that are pathogenic. Hormonal changes have an effect on the microbiota of the uterus. == Taxa == === Commensals === The organisms listed below have been identified as commensals in the healthy uterus. Some also have the potential for growing to the point of causing disease: === Pathogens === Other taxa can be... | {
"page_id": 50925207,
"title": "Uterine microbiome"
} |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.