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burning. == Measuring heating values == The higher heating value is experimentally determined in a bomb calorimeter. The combustion of a stoichiometric mixture of fuel and oxidizer (e.g. two moles of hydrogen and one mole of oxygen) in a steel container at 25 °C (77 °F) is initiated by an ignition device and the reacti...	{ "page_id": 1112273, "title": "Heat of combustion" }
18.2% above its lower heating value (142 MJ/kg vs. 120 MJ/kg). For hydrocarbons, the difference depends on the hydrogen content of the fuel. For gasoline and diesel the higher heating value exceeds the lower heating value by about 10% and 7%, respectively, and for natural gas about 11%. A common method of relating HHV ...	{ "page_id": 1112273, "title": "Heat of combustion" }
the corresponding fuel-consumption figure based on the higher heating value will be somewhat higher. The difference between HHV and LHV definitions causes endless confusion when quoters do not bother to state the convention being used. since there is typically a 10% difference between the two methods for a power plant ...	{ "page_id": 1112273, "title": "Heat of combustion" }
heating value. This table is in Standard cubic metres (1 atm, 15 °C), to convert to values per Normal cubic metre (1 atm, 0 °C), multiply above table by 1.0549. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Guibet, J.-C. (1997). Carburants et moteurs. Publication de l'Institut Français du Pétrole. ISBN 978-2-71...	{ "page_id": 1112273, "title": "Heat of combustion" }
Lassa virus (LASV) is an arenavirus that causes Lassa hemorrhagic fever, a type of viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF), in humans and other primates. Lassa virus is an emerging virus and a select agent, requiring Biosafety Level 4-equivalent containment. It is endemic in West African countries, especially Sierra Leone, the R...	{ "page_id": 1505491, "title": "Lassa virus" }
for a total of four viral proteins. The large segment encodes a small zinc finger protein (Z) that regulates transcription and replication, and the RNA polymerase (L). The small segment encodes the nucleoprotein (NP) and the surface glycoprotein precursor (GP, also known as the viral spike), which is proteolytically cl...	{ "page_id": 1505491, "title": "Lassa virus" }
variants of the genes encoding these proteins appear to be under positive selection in West Africa where Lassa is endemic. Alpha-dystroglycan is also used as a receptor by viruses of the New World clade C arenaviruses (Oliveros and Latino viruses). In contrast, the New World arenaviruses of clades A and B, which includ...	{ "page_id": 1505491, "title": "Lassa virus" }
surface receptor for extracellular matrix proteins. Dystroglycan, which is later cleaved into alpha-dystroglycan and beta-dystroglycan is originally expressed in most cells to mature tissues, and it provides molecular link between the ECM and the actin-based cytoskeleton. After the virus enters the cell by alpha-dystro...	{ "page_id": 1505491, "title": "Lassa virus" }
into GP1 and GP2 at the later stage of the secretory pathway. It has been reported that the cellular protease SKI-1/S1P is responsible for this cleavage. The cleaved glycoproteins are incorporated into the virion envelope when the virus buds and release from the cell membrane. == Pathogenesis == Lassa fever is caused b...	{ "page_id": 1505491, "title": "Lassa virus" }
for its proviral activity. Z protein utilizes cellular myristoylation mechanism to target itself to the membrane, it also modulates vRNP, inhibition of myristoylation would completely inhibit the viral cycle. == See also == Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations == References ==	{ "page_id": 1505491, "title": "Lassa virus" }
The Sackler Prize is named for the Sackler family and can indicate any of the following three awards established by Raymond Sackler and his wife Beverly Sackler currently bestowed by the Tel Aviv University. The Sackler family is known for its role in the opioid epidemic in the United States, has been the subject of nu...	{ "page_id": 6617299, "title": "Sackler Prize" }
Model' and within the framework of (supersymmetrical) String or M-theory." 2001 prize for Chemistry (Physical Chemistry of Advanced Materials): Moungi G. Bawendi (MIT) and James R. Heath (UCLA) "for their seminal contributions to the discovery, development and fundamental and applied studies of nanoscale materials." 20...	{ "page_id": 6617299, "title": "Sackler Prize" }
Institute of Technology) and John F. Hartwig (University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign) 2008 prize for Physics (Physics Beyond the Standard Model in the LHC Era): Nima Arkani-Hamed (Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton) for 'his novel, deep and highly influential contributions to new paradigms for physics beyond the...	{ "page_id": 6617299, "title": "Sackler Prize" }
field of ultrafast spectroscopy'. 2012 prize for Physics (Study of Extra-solar Planets): David Charbonneau (Harvard University) for 'his breakthrough discoveries, including the first detections of transiting extra-solar planets and spectroscopic observations of their atmosphere' and Sara Seager (MIT) for 'her brilliant...	{ "page_id": 6617299, "title": "Sackler Prize" }
of California, Berkeley), Jason W. Chin (University of Cambridge) and Matthew Disney (Scripps Research in Florida). == Sackler Prize in Biophysics == The Raymond and Beverly Sackler International Prize in Biophysics is intended to encourage dedication to science, originality and excellence by rewarding outstanding scie...	{ "page_id": 6617299, "title": "Sackler Prize" }
A pseudoproxy is a synthetic dataset used in paleoclimatology to test methods of reconstruction of global or hemispherical climate change from temperature records, developed for reconstructing the temperature record of the past 1000 years using proxies for periods before the instrumental temperature record. In May 2002...	{ "page_id": 37419221, "title": "Pseudoproxy" }
The molecular formula C16H16O3 (molar mass: 256.296 g/mol, exact mass: 256.109944 u) may refer to: Calostomal 2,2-Dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone Orchinol, a phenanthrenoid found in orchids Pterostilbene, a stilbenoid	{ "page_id": 24377558, "title": "C16H16O3" }
Paedophagy (literally meaning the "consumption of children") in its general form is the feeding behaviour of fish or other animals whose diet is partially, or primarily the eggs or larvae of other animals. However, P. H. Greenwood, who was the first to describe paedophagia, defines it to be a feeding behaviour evolved ...	{ "page_id": 10615004, "title": "Paedophagy" }
in her mouth. == Behaviour == There are three main methods or behaviours that the predators use to obtain the eggs or young. The first method is voluntary jettisoning of a brood, second being snout-engulfing which forces a brooding female to dislodge her brood from her mouth and lastly, is head-ramming against a broodi...	{ "page_id": 10615004, "title": "Paedophagy" }
Morphology == To obtain the brood without causing serious harm to the mouth brooder, paedophages have features such as protrusible and distensible spacious mouths and deeply embedded teeth that are covered by a thickened oral mucosa. These large mouths allow the paedophages to engulf the snout of a mouth brooder and di...	{ "page_id": 10615004, "title": "Paedophagy" }
In superconductivity, the Lockin effect refers to the preference of vortex phases to be positioned at certain points within cells of a crystal lattice of an organic superconductor. == References == Studies of the Vortex Phases in an Organic Superconductor Giannetta, R.W.; Tea, N.H.; Chaves, F.A.B.; Rao, S.; Salamon, M....	{ "page_id": 5109980, "title": "Lockin effect" }
DECHEMA is an abbreviation for "Deutsche Gesellschaft für chemisches Apparatewesen" (German Society for Chemical Apparatus), though it has since been expanded to "Deutsche Gesellschaft für Chemische Technik und Biotechnologie" (German Society for Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology). Founded in 1926, this is a non-p...	{ "page_id": 16316638, "title": "DECHEMA" }
A characteristic property is a chemical or physical property that helps identify and classify substances. The characteristic properties of a substance are always the same whether the sample being observed is large or small. Thus, conversely, if the property of a substance changes as the sample size changes, that proper...	{ "page_id": 24508639, "title": "Characteristic property" }
Toxicokinetics (often abbreviated as 'TK') is the description of both what rate a chemical will enter the body and what occurs to excrete and metabolize the compound once it is in the body. == Relation to pharmacokinetics == It is an application of pharmacokinetics to determine the relationship between the systemic exp...	{ "page_id": 1112289, "title": "Toxicokinetics" }
involve several different strategies and depends on the scientific question to be answered. Controlled acute and repeated toxicokinetic animal studies are useful to identify a chemical's biological persistence, tissue and whole body half-life, and its potential to bioaccumulate. Toxicokinetic profiles can change with i...	{ "page_id": 1112289, "title": "Toxicokinetics" }
The rectoanal inhibitory reflex (RAIR), also known as the anal sampling mechanism, anal sampling reflex, rectosphincteric reflex, or anorectal sampling reflex, is a reflex characterized by a transient involuntary relaxation of the internal anal sphincter in response to distention of the rectum. The RAIR provides the up...	{ "page_id": 10156258, "title": "Rectoanal inhibitory reflex" }
Tellurium bromide may refer to: Ditellurium bromide, Te2Br Tellurium tetrabromide, TeBr4	{ "page_id": 27588835, "title": "Tellurium bromide" }
In molecular biology mir-339 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. miR-339-5p expression was associated with overall survival in breast cancer. == See also == MicroRNA == References == == Further reading == == External links == Page ...	{ "page_id": 36370664, "title": "Mir-339 microRNA precursor family" }
A nocebo effect is said to occur when a patient's expectations for a treatment cause the treatment to have a worse effect than it otherwise would have. For example, when a patient anticipates a side effect of a medication, they can experience that effect even if the "medication" is actually an inert substance. The comp...	{ "page_id": 981225, "title": "Nocebo" }
turn causes the release of cholecystokinin, which facilitates pain transmission. == Response == In the narrowest sense, a nocebo response occurs when a drug-trial subject's symptoms are worsened by the administration of an inert, sham, or dummy (simulator) treatment, called a placebo. Placebos contain no chemicals (or ...	{ "page_id": 981225, "title": "Nocebo" }
among placebo-treated patients in a meta-analysis of 41 clinical trials of Parkinson's disease treatments was 8.8%. A 2013 review found that nearly 1 out of 20 patients receiving a placebo in clinical trials for depression dropped out due to adverse events, which were believed to have been caused by the nocebo effect. ...	{ "page_id": 981225, "title": "Nocebo" }
that the same effect, such as immunosuppression, may be desirable for a subject with an autoimmune disorder, but undesirable for most other subjects. Thus, in the first case, the effect would be a placebo, and in the second a nocebo. A third problem is that the prescriber does not know whether the relevant subjects con...	{ "page_id": 981225, "title": "Nocebo" }
as "pointing the bone", performed to kill, injure or bring harm (nocebo rituals). As the meaning of the two interrelated and opposing terms has extended, we now find anthropologists speaking, in various contexts, of nocebo or placebo (harmful or helpful) rituals: that might entail nocebo or placebo (unpleasant or pleas...	{ "page_id": 981225, "title": "Nocebo" }
in primitive peoples by witchcraft ('pointing the bone')". == Ethics == Some researchers have pointed out that the harm caused by communicating with patients about potential treatment adverse events raises an ethical issue. To respect their autonomy, one must inform a patient about harms a treatment may cause. Yet the ...	{ "page_id": 981225, "title": "Nocebo" }
Diiodide may refer to: Titanium diiodide, TiI2 Vanadium diiodide, VI2 Chromium diiodide, CrI2 Iron diiodide, FeI2 Cobalt diiodide, CoI2 Nickel diiodide, NiI2 Germanium diiodide, GeI2 Molybdenum diiodide, MoI2 Palladium diiodide, PdI2 Tin diiodide, SnI2 Lanthanum diiodide, LaI2 Cerium diiodide, CeI2 Praseodymium diiodid...	{ "page_id": 75823340, "title": "Diiodide" }
In stereochemistry, a stereocenter of a molecule is an atom (center), axis or plane that is the focus of stereoisomerism; that is, when having at least three different groups bound to the stereocenter, interchanging any two different groups creates a new stereoisomer. Stereocenters are also referred to as stereogenic c...	{ "page_id": 522476, "title": "Stereocenter" }
stereocenters. However, this is an upper bound because molecules with symmetry frequently have fewer stereoisomers. The stereoisomers produced by the presence of multiple stereocenters can be defined as enantiomers (non-superposable mirror images) and diastereomers (non-superposable, non-identical, non-mirror image mol...	{ "page_id": 522476, "title": "Stereocenter" }
non-superposable on its mirror image. Chirality centers must be sp3 hybridized, meaning that a chirality center can only have single bonds. In organic chemistry, a chirality center usually refers to a carbon, phosphorus, or sulfur atom, though it is also possible for other atoms to be chirality centers, especially in a...	{ "page_id": 522476, "title": "Stereocenter" }
Having three bidentate ligands of only one type gives a propeller-type structure, with two different enantiomers denoted Λ and Δ. == Chirality and stereocenters == As mentioned earlier, the requirement for an atom to be a chirality center is that the atom must be sp3 hybridized with four different attachments. Because ...	{ "page_id": 522476, "title": "Stereocenter" }
Ribosomal frameshifting, also known as translational frameshifting or translational recoding, is a biological phenomenon that occurs during translation that results in the production of multiple, unique proteins from a single mRNA. The process can be programmed by the nucleotide sequence of the mRNA and is sometimes af...	{ "page_id": 14547183, "title": "Ribosomal frameshift" }
123 123 12... then the sentence reads differently, making no sense. === DNA example === In this example, the following sequence is a region of the human mitochondrial genome with the two overlapping genes MT-ATP8 and MT-ATP6. When read from the beginning, these codons make sense to a ribosome and can be translated into...	{ "page_id": 14547183, "title": "Ribosomal frameshift" }
frameshifting to create a proper ratio of 0-frame (normal translation) and "trans-frame" (encoded by frameshifted sequence) proteins. Its use in viruses is primarily for compacting more genetic information into a shorter amount of genetic material. In eukaryotes it appears to play a role in regulating gene expression l...	{ "page_id": 14547183, "title": "Ribosomal frameshift" }
perfectly in both the 0 and −1 frames. Therefore, nucleotides 2 and 1 must be identical, and nucleotides 3 and 2 must also be identical, leading to a required sequence of 3 identical nucleotides for each tRNA that slips. === +1 ribosomal frameshifting === The slippery sequence for a +1 frameshift signal does not have t...	{ "page_id": 14547183, "title": "Ribosomal frameshift" }
typically represents UUU or AAA, and H is A, C or U. In the case of +1 frameshifting, the slippery sequence contains codons for which the corresponding tRNA is more rare, and the frameshift is favored because the codon in the new frame has a more common associated tRNA. One example of a slippery sequence is the polyA o...	{ "page_id": 14547183, "title": "Ribosomal frameshift" }
according to a set of guidelines. While A, T, C, and G represent a particular nucleotide at a position, there are also letters that represent ambiguity which are used when more than one kind of nucleotide could occur at that position. The rules of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) are as fol...	{ "page_id": 14547183, "title": "Ribosomal frameshift" }
The Binder parameter or Binder cumulant in statistical physics, also known as the fourth-order cumulant U L = 1 − ⟨ s 4 ⟩ L 3 ⟨ s 2 ⟩ L 2 {\displaystyle U_{L}=1-{\frac {{\langle s^{4}\rangle }_{L}}{3{\langle s^{2}\rangle }_{L}^{2}}}} is defined as the kurtosis (more precisely, minus one third times the excess kurtosis)...	{ "page_id": 14481648, "title": "Binder parameter" }
A plasma cannon (also called an electrothermal accelerator) is an experimental projectile weapon, which accelerates a projectile by means of a plasma discharge between electrodes at the rear of the barrel, generating a rapid increase in pressure. It functions similarly to other types of firearms, except that it uses a ...	{ "page_id": 8517874, "title": "Plasma-powered cannon" }
plasma cannon with the firepower of an actual cannon. == See also == Electrothermal-chemical technology Plasma railgun == Further reading == Günter Wahl: Blitz und Donner selbst erzeugt (in German)	{ "page_id": 8517874, "title": "Plasma-powered cannon" }
In chemistry, a Haworth projection is a common way of writing a structural formula to represent the cyclic structure of monosaccharides with a simple three-dimensional perspective. A Haworth projection approximates the shapes of the actual molecules better for furanoses—which are in reality nearly planar—than for pyran...	{ "page_id": 522483, "title": "Haworth projection" }
The Swann Chemical Company was an American chemical company started by Theodore Swann, described by one historian as "a flamboyant Birmingham mogul and New South industrialist." Swann Chemical first operated a chemical manufacturing plant in Anniston, Alabama where PCBs were first made on an industrial scale after deve...	{ "page_id": 48691444, "title": "Swann Chemical Company" }
Egg jelly (extracellular layer, jelly coat) is a gelatinous layer that surrounds the oocytes of many organisms and releases species-specific chemoattractants that activate and guide sperm to the oocyte. The release of chemoattractants is species dependent. For example, sperm in Lytechinus variegatus, the green sea urch...	{ "page_id": 43776254, "title": "Egg jelly" }
will affect the fertilization of eggs. In H. tuberculate, low pH can damage the eggs chemical influence on sperm mobility and velocity. == See also == Sperm guidance Acrosome reaction Oocyte == References ==	{ "page_id": 43776254, "title": "Egg jelly" }
The Jahn–Teller effect (JT effect or JTE) is an important mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breaking in molecular and solid-state systems which has far-reaching consequences in different fields, and is responsible for a variety of phenomena in spectroscopy, stereochemistry, crystal chemistry, molecular and solid-state ...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
any electrons in orbitals with a z component, thus lowering the energy of the complex. The inversion centre is preserved after the distortion. In octahedral complexes, the Jahn–Teller effect is most pronounced when an odd number of electrons occupy the eg orbitals. This situation arises in complexes with the configurat...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
the presence of molecular orbitals that are both degenerate and open shell (i.e., incompletely occupied). This situation is not unique to coordination complexes and can be encountered in other areas of chemistry. In organic chemistry the phenomenon of antiaromaticity has the same cause and also often sees molecules dis...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
traditional sense because of the intricate coupling to the electronic motion that occurs, and are better termed vibronic energy levels. The new field of ‘vibronic coupling’ or ‘vibronic coupling theory’ was born. A further breakthrough occurred upon the advent of modern ("ab initio") electronic structure calculations w...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
Teller formulated what is now known as the Jahn–Teller theorem. 1939: John Hasbrouck Van Vleck extended the Jahn–Teller theorem to ions in crystals. As attempts to observe the Jahn–Teller effect experimentally had been unconvincing, he noted that 'it is of great merit of the Jahn–Teller effect that it disappears when n...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
to important discoveries === In 1985, Harry Kroto and co-workers discovered a class of closed-cage carbon molecules known as fullerenes. Buckminsterfullerene (C60), which has icosahedral symmetry, becomes JT-active upon addition or removal of one electron. The ordering of energy levels may not be the same as that predi...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
The symmetric part of E ⊗ E is A1 + E. Therefore, the state E will couple to vibrational modes Q i {\displaystyle Q_{i}} transforming as a1 and e. However, the a1 modes will result in the same energy shift to all states and therefore do not contribute to any JT splitting. They can therefore be neglected. The result is ...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
of molecular symmetry (point group theory). A less rigorous but more intuitive explanation is given in section § Coordination chemistry. To arrive at a quantitative description of the JT effect, the forces appearing between the component wave functions are described by expanding the Hamiltonian in a power series in the...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
the situation is illustrated by the APES V = μ ω 2 2 ( Q θ 2 + Q ϵ 2 ) ± k Q θ 2 + Q ϵ 2 {\displaystyle V={\frac {\mu \omega ^{2}}{2}}(Q_{\theta }^{2}+Q_{\epsilon }^{2})\pm k{\sqrt {Q_{\theta }^{2}+Q_{\epsilon }^{2}}}} displayed in the figure, with part cut away to reveal its shape, which is known as a Mexican Hat pote...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
the figure. They can be tilted and elliptical in shape etc., and also peaked and sloped intersections have been distinguished in the literature. Furthermore, for more than two degrees of freedom, they are not point-like structures but instead they are seams and complicated, curved hypersurfaces, also known as intersect...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
for example, the zero-point energy associated to the minima, so that vibronic wavefunctions (and all observables) display the symmetry of the reference (undistorted) system. In the linear E ⊗ e problem, the motion associated to this regime would be around the circular path in the figure. When the barrier is sufficientl...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
ultrafast (femtosecond) internal conversion processes, accompanied by broad spectral bands also under isolated-molecule conditions and highly complex spectral features. Examples for these phenomena will be covered in section § Spectroscopy and reactivity. As already stated above, the distinction of low and high energy ...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
which varies from 1 in zero coupling to 0 in very strong coupling. Furthermore, when second-order perturbation corrections are included, additional terms are introduced involving additional numerical factors, known as second-order (Ham) reduction factors. These factors are zero when there is no JT coupling but can domi...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
of the model, possibly also deriving ideas how to extend it. Naturally, the more accurate approach (2) may be limited to smaller systems, while the simpler approach (1) lends itself to studies of larger systems. == Applications == === Effects on structure === ==== Small molecules and ions ==== The JT distortion of smal...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
radical cations. For the parent benzene cation one has to rely on photoelectron spectra with comparatively lower resolution because this species does not fluoresce (see also section § Spectroscopy and reactivity). Rather detailed ab initio calculations have been carried out which document the JT stabilization energies ...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
2Eg state, which is Jahn–Teller active. The third electron can occupy either of the orbitals comprising the eg shell: the mainly 3 z 2 − r 2 {\displaystyle 3z^{2}-r^{2}} orbital or the mainly x 2 − y 2 {\displaystyle x^{2}-y^{2}} orbital. If the electron occupies the mainly 3 z 2 − r 2 {\displaystyle 3z^{2}-r^{2}} leve...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
relatively strong electronegativity yielding more covalent bonds than other metals which allows to increase the JT linear coupling constant. In other configurations involving π or δ bonding, like for example when the degenerate state is associated to the t2g orbitals of an octahedral configuration, the distortion and s...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
presence (or absence) of the geometric phase which is accumulated during the pseudorotational motion around the JT (or other type of) conical intersection. Prominent examples of either type are the ground (X) or an excited (B) state of Na3. The Fourier transform of P ( E ) {\displaystyle P(E)} , the so-called autocorre...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
which are associated with very complex spectral features (dense line structures and diffuse spectral envelopes under low resolution). The population transfer between the states is also ultrafast, so fast that fluorescence (proceeding on a nanosecond time scale) cannot compete. This helps to understand why the benzene c...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
various observed properties in these systems. For example, they could mean that the Migdal–Eliashberg treatment of superconductivity breaks down. Also, the fullerides can form a so-called new state of matter known as a Jahn–Teller metal, where localised electrons coexist with metallicity and JT distortions on the C60 m...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
Many cooperative JT systems would be expected to be metals from band theory, as to produce them, a degenerate orbital has to be partially filled and the associated band would be metallic. However, under the perturbation of the symmetry-breaking distortion associated to the cooperative JTE, the degeneracies in the elect...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
spin patterns. Using this model it can be shown, for example, that the origin of the unusual ground insulating ferromagnetic state of a solid like K2CuF4 can be traced to its orbital ordering. Even when starting from a relatively high-symmetry structure the combined effect of exchange interactions, spin–orbit coupling,...	{ "page_id": 1964288, "title": "Jahn–Teller effect" }
Aminosalicylic acid can refer to any amino derivative of salicylic acid, such as: 3-Aminosalicylic acid 4-Aminosalicylic acid (para-aminosalicylic acid, PAS) 5-Aminosalicylic acid (mesalazine) 6-Aminosalicylic acid	{ "page_id": 19724545, "title": "Aminosalicylic acid" }
The molecular formula C17H21NO5 (molar mass: 319.35 g/mol, exact mass: 319.1420 u) may refer to: Anisodine, also known as daturamine and α-hydroxyscopolamin Salicylmethylecgonine (2′-Hydroxycocaine)	{ "page_id": 26605827, "title": "C17H21NO5" }
Pratap Raychaudhuri (born 13 December 1971) is an Indian physicist who works at Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay. His specialization is in the fields of superconductivity and magnetism, transport based spectroscopy, and thin films. He was awarded the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize in 2014. == References ==...	{ "page_id": 43972869, "title": "Pratap Raychaudhuri" }
Wolff's law, developed by the German anatomist and surgeon Julius Wolff (1836–1902) in the 19th century, states that bone in a healthy animal will adapt to the loads under which it is placed. If loading on a particular bone increases, the bone will remodel itself over time to become stronger to resist that sort of load...	{ "page_id": 30865670, "title": "Wolff's law" }
are also mechanosensors and will differentiate depending on the loading condition. Computational models suggest that mechanical feedback loops can stably regulate bone remodeling by reorienting trabeculae in the direction of the mechanical loads. == Associated laws == In relation to soft tissue, Davis' law explains how...	{ "page_id": 30865670, "title": "Wolff's law" }
TB9Cs2H2 is a member of the H/ACA-like class of non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecules that guide the sites of modification of uridines to pseudouridines of substrate RNAs. It is known as a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) because of its cellular localization in the nucleolus of the eukaryotic cell. It is predicted to guide the ...	{ "page_id": 21821702, "title": "TB9Cs2H2 snoRNA" }
In organic chemistry, the Schmidt reaction is an organic reaction in which an azide reacts with a carbonyl derivative, usually an aldehyde, ketone, or carboxylic acid, under acidic conditions to give an amine or amide, with expulsion of nitrogen. It is named after Karl Friedrich Schmidt (1887–1971), who first reported ...	{ "page_id": 10221830, "title": "Schmidt reaction" }
the alkyl or aryl groups migrates from carbon to nitrogen with loss of nitrogen to give a nitrilium intermediate 6, as in the Beckmann rearrangement. Attack by water converts 6 to protonated imidic acid 7, which undergoes loss of proton to arrive at the imidic acid tautomer of the final amide. In an alternative mechani...	{ "page_id": 10221830, "title": "Schmidt reaction" }
The molecular formula C18H24N2O4 (molar mass: 332.39 g/mol, exact mass: 332.1736 u) may refer to: Ancarolol Isoxaben (N-[3-(1-ethyl-1-methylpropyl)-1,2-oxazol-5-yl]-2,6-dimethoxybenzamide)	{ "page_id": 26605831, "title": "C18H24N2O4" }
Sadiqali Abbas Rangwala (born 10 July 1971) is an Indian physicist. He is working in the field of Experimental atomic, molecular and optical physics. He was awarded the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize in 2014. He has made outstanding contribution on collisionally cooled ions with trapped atoms leading to new ultracold io...	{ "page_id": 43972870, "title": "Sadiqali Abbas Rangwala" }
The molecular formula C20H23NO (molar mass: 293.40 g/mol, exact mass: 293.1780 u) may refer to: Amitriptylinoxide, or amitriptyline N-oxide Oxaprotiline, or hydroxymaprotiline Quifenadine	{ "page_id": 26605835, "title": "C20H23NO" }
Bacterial therapy is the therapeutic use of bacteria to treat diseases. Bacterial therapeutics are living medicines, and may be wild type bacteria (often in the form of probiotics) or bacteria that have been genetically engineered to possess therapeutic properties that is injected into a patient. Other examples of livi...	{ "page_id": 63568142, "title": "Bacterial therapy" }
vehicle for anti-cancer therapeutics and may have the potential as contrast agents for cancer imaging. Microbial-based cancer therapy may offer an opportunity to address the issue of global cancer therapy disparity and introduce more suitable cancer immunotherapy approach to low- and middle-income countries. ==== Mecha...	{ "page_id": 63568142, "title": "Bacterial therapy" }
kills tumor cells by inducing apoptosis. ⑧ The macrophage inflammasome is activated through contact with bacterial components (LPS and flagellin) and Salmonella-damaged cancer cells, leading to elevated secretion of IL-1β and TNF-α into the tumor microenvironment. NK cell: natural killer cell. Treg cell: regulatory T c...	{ "page_id": 63568142, "title": "Bacterial therapy" }
In chemistry and machine learning, the applicability domain (AD) of a quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model defines the boundaries within which the model's predictions are considered reliable. It represents the chemical, structural, or biological space covered by the training data used to build the ...	{ "page_id": 13629713, "title": "Applicability domain" }
In molecular biology mir-340 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. == See also == MicroRNA == References == == Further reading == == External links == Page for mir-340 microRNA precursor family at Rfam	{ "page_id": 36370706, "title": "Mir-340 microRNA precursor family" }
OpenAI o1 is a reflective generative pre-trained transformer (GPT). A preview of o1 was released by OpenAI on September 12, 2024. o1 spends time "thinking" before it answers, making it better at complex reasoning tasks, science and programming than GPT-4o. The full version was released to ChatGPT users on December 5, 2...	{ "page_id": 77854996, "title": "OpenAI o1" }
$600 per 1 million output tokens. == Capabilities == According to OpenAI, o1 has been trained using a new optimization algorithm and a dataset specifically tailored to it; while also meshing in reinforcement learning into its training. OpenAI described o1 as a complement to GPT-4o rather than a successor. o1 spends add...	{ "page_id": 77854996, "title": "OpenAI o1" }
testing. According to OpenAI's assessments, o1-preview and o1-mini crossed into "medium risk" in CBRN (biological, chemical, radiological, and nuclear) weapons. Dan Hendrycks wrote that "The model already outperforms PhD scientists most of the time on answering questions related to bioweapons." He suggested that these ...	{ "page_id": 77854996, "title": "OpenAI o1" }
Chemical genetics is the investigation of the function of proteins and signal transduction pathways in cells by the screening of chemical libraries of small molecules. Chemical genetics is analogous to classical genetic screen where random mutations are introduced in organisms, the phenotype of these mutants is observe...	{ "page_id": 36436244, "title": "Chemical genetics" }
of mechanism of action of drugs, their toxicity and developmental processes involving their targets. Chemical screens have been mostly performed on either wild type or transgenic Xenopus and zebrafish organisms as they produce a large amount of synchronized, fast-to-develop and transparent eggs easy to visually score. ...	{ "page_id": 36436244, "title": "Chemical genetics" }
The molecular formula C25H38O4 (molar mass: 402.57 g/mol) may refer to: Androstenediol dipropionate, or 5-androstenediol 3β,17β-dipropionate Testosterone dipropionate, or 4-androstenediol 3β,17β-dipropionate Testosterone acetate butyrate, or 4-androstenediol 3β-acetate 17β-butanoate Oxprenoate, also called oxprenoic ac...	{ "page_id": 52754710, "title": "C25H38O4" }
In stereochemistry, diastereomers (sometimes called diastereoisomers) are a type of stereoisomer. Diastereomers are defined as non-mirror image, non-identical stereoisomers. Hence, they occur when two or more stereoisomers of a compound have different configurations at one or more (but not all) of the equivalent (relat...	{ "page_id": 522519, "title": "Diastereomer" }
the descriptors which work even if the groups are not attached to adjacent carbon atoms. It also works regardless of CIP priorities. Syn describes groups on the same face while anti describes groups on opposite faces. The concept applies only to the Zigzag projection. The descriptors only describe relative stereochemis...	{ "page_id": 522519, "title": "Diastereomer" }
nature. In alkene addition reactions, syn addition to a trans alkene, or anti addition to a cis alkene, gives a threo product, whereas syn addition to a cis alkene, or anti addition to a trans alkene, gives an erythro product. == Multiple stereocenters == If a molecule contains two asymmetric centers, there are up to f...	{ "page_id": 522519, "title": "Diastereomer" }
Many conformational isomers are diastereomers as well. In the case of diastereomerism occurring at a double bond, E-Z, or entgegen and zusammen (German), is used in notating nomenclature of alkenes. == Applications == As stated previously, two diastereomers will not have identical chemical properties. This knowledge is...	{ "page_id": 522519, "title": "Diastereomer" }

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