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the cell by electrostatic forces. Absence of suitable attachment areas can give a cell immunity from infection. attenuated strain A mutant viral strain which has low virulence or is avirulent in one or more of its natural host species, and in which it can thus be used as an attenuated vaccine. Attenuated strains are ob... | {
"page_id": 47511346,
"title": "Glossary of virology"
} |
DNA viruses); Group VII viruses also have a DNA genome, but are classified separately because they replicate through an RNA intermediate. dsDNA virus A double-stranded DNA virus; i.e. a virus whose genome is encoded in two complementary strands of DNA, which usually exist as one or more circular molecules. dsDNA viruse... | {
"page_id": 47511346,
"title": "Glossary of virology"
} |
or no harm. host tropism The specificity with which certain pathogens, including most viruses, infect particular hosts and host tissues. Host tropism results in most pathogens being capable of infecting only a limited range of host organisms. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) == I == icosahedral Having the symmetry of... | {
"page_id": 47511346,
"title": "Glossary of virology"
} |
O == oncovirus original antigenic sin Also called antigenic imprinting and the Hoskins effect. The tendency of the human body's immune system to preferentially utilize immunological memory of a previous infection when a second, slightly different version of the pathogen (e.g. a virus or bacterium) is encountered in sub... | {
"page_id": 47511346,
"title": "Glossary of virology"
} |
as an extrachromosomal plasmid inside the host bacterium, specifically while it remains in a latent form that is present inside the host cell but has not yet been activated by it. provirus pseudotyping == Q == Q-number == R == reassortment The mixing of genetic material from different species or strains into new combin... | {
"page_id": 47511346,
"title": "Glossary of virology"
} |
ssRNA-RT virus strain subviral agent superinfection The process by which a cell that has previously been infected by a virus becomes co-infected by a different strain or species of virus as a consequence of the treatment being used to manage the first virus. The second virus has often evolved a resistance to antiviral ... | {
"page_id": 47511346,
"title": "Glossary of virology"
} |
capable of infecting other cells of the same type. viroid viroinformatics virokine A viral gene product which has a functional homology with a host's cytokines and affects cellular function in a similar way. virology The study of viruses and virus-like agents, which seeks to understand and explain their structure, clas... | {
"page_id": 47511346,
"title": "Glossary of virology"
} |
reproduction. While not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell, viruses exist in the form of independent virions. Most virions are exceedingly simple in structure and physically minute, averaging just 1⁄100 the size of the typical bacterium. Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth an... | {
"page_id": 47511346,
"title": "Glossary of virology"
} |
The Journal of Food Engineering is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering engineering, science, and technology related to food production. The editor-in-chief is R. Paul Singh (University of California, Davis). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 5.5. == Refe... | {
"page_id": 48822068,
"title": "Journal of Food Engineering"
} |
The molecular formula C10H15N5 (molar mass: 205.26 g/mol, exact mass: 205.1327 u) may refer to: Phenformin Trapidil | {
"page_id": 24377140,
"title": "C10H15N5"
} |
Crocco's Multiplanetary Trajectory, sometimes named Crocco's Mission and Crocco's "Grand Tour", is a mathematical description of an hypothetical Earth-Mars-Venus-Earth-Research Mission, which was first proposed in 1956 by the Aeronautics and Space Pioneer G. A. Crocco during the VII. International Astronautical Congres... | {
"page_id": 70580022,
"title": "Crocco's Multiplanetary Trajectory"
} |
Mars Orbital period of one year With proper selection of a certain launch window, this would also have allowed the spacecraft to return one year after departure. By applying slight modifications to the trajectory it would have been possible to pass by Venus in the same mission as well. Crocco realized that the flight t... | {
"page_id": 70580022,
"title": "Crocco's Multiplanetary Trajectory"
} |
September 1956 ([2] Archived 15 March 2016) Richard L. Dowling, Kosmann, William J.; Minovitch, Michael A.; Ridenoure, Rex W: The origin of gravity-propelled interplanetary space travel 41st Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, Dresden, 6-12 Oktober 1990([3] Archived 17 April 2021) == References == | {
"page_id": 70580022,
"title": "Crocco's Multiplanetary Trajectory"
} |
In condensed matter physics, a time crystal is a quantum system of particles whose lowest-energy state is one in which the particles are in repetitive motion. The system cannot lose energy to the environment and come to rest because it is already in its quantum ground state. Time crystals were first proposed theoretica... | {
"page_id": 36435766,
"title": "Time crystal"
} |
is a constantly rotating ring of charged ions in an otherwise lowest-energy state. == Concept == Ordinary (non-time) crystals form through spontaneous symmetry breaking related to spatial symmetry. Such processes can produce materials with interesting properties, such as diamonds, salt crystals, and ferromagnetic metal... | {
"page_id": 36435766,
"title": "Time crystal"
} |
discrete space-translation symmetry breaking. For example, the molecules of a liquid freezing on the surface of a crystal can align with the molecules of the crystal, but with a pattern less symmetric than the crystal: it breaks the initial symmetry. This broken symmetry exhibits three important characteristics: the sy... | {
"page_id": 36435766,
"title": "Time crystal"
} |
Floquet) time crystals are unique in that they follow a strict definition of discrete time-translation symmetry breaking: it is a broken symmetry – the system shows oscillations with a period longer than the driving force, the system is in crypto-equilibrium – these oscillations generate no entropy, and a time-dependen... | {
"page_id": 36435766,
"title": "Time crystal"
} |
the system, remains stationary over time, marginally satisfying the second law of thermodynamics by not decreasing. == History == The idea of a quantized time crystal was theorized in 2012 by Frank Wilczek, a Nobel laureate and professor at MIT. In 2013, Xiang Zhang, a nanoengineer at University of California, Berkeley... | {
"page_id": 36435766,
"title": "Time crystal"
} |
proposed in several platforms breaking a discrete and a continuous time-translation symmetry. A dissipative time crystal was experimentally realized for the first time in 2021 by the group of Andreas Hemmerich at the Institute of Laser Physics at the University of Hamburg. The researchers used a Bose–Einstein condensat... | {
"page_id": 36435766,
"title": "Time crystal"
} |
with the shape of the pulse controlled by an acousto-optic modulator, using the Tukey window to avoid too much energy at the wrong optical frequency. The hyperfine electron states in that setup, 2S1/2 |F = 0, mF = 0⟩ and |F = 1, mF = 0⟩, have very close energy levels, separated by 12.642831 GHz. Ten Doppler-cooled ions... | {
"page_id": 36435766,
"title": "Time crystal"
} |
from absolute zero (0.0001 K). On August 17, 2020 Nature Materials published a letter from the same group saying that for the first time they were able to observe interactions and the flow of constituent particles between two time crystals. In February 2021, a team at Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems descri... | {
"page_id": 36435766,
"title": "Time crystal"
} |
crystals on trapped-ions qubits using high frequency driving rather than many-body localization and then a collaboration between TU Delft and TNO in the Netherlands called Qutech created time crystals from nuclear spins in carbon-13 nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers on a diamond, attaining longer times but fewer qubits. In... | {
"page_id": 36435766,
"title": "Time crystal"
} |
condensate in an optical cavity, which was pumped with an optical standing wave oriented perpendicularly with regard to the cavity axis and was in a superradiant phase localizing at two bistable ground states between which it oscillated. In February 2024, a team from Dortmund University in Germany built a time crystal ... | {
"page_id": 36435766,
"title": "Time crystal"
} |
The neocognitron is a hierarchical, multilayered artificial neural network proposed by Kunihiko Fukushima in 1979. It has been used for Japanese handwritten character recognition and other pattern recognition tasks, and served as the inspiration for convolutional neural networks. Previously in 1969, he published a simi... | {
"page_id": 6092601,
"title": "Neocognitron"
} |
36 (4): 193–202. doi:10.1007/bf00344251. PMID 7370364. S2CID 206775608. Fukushima, Kunihiko; Miyake, S.; Ito, T. (1983). "Neocognitron: a neural network model for a mechanism of visual pattern recognition". IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. SMC-13 (3): 826–834. doi:10.1109/TSMC.1983.6313076. S2CID 823... | {
"page_id": 6092601,
"title": "Neocognitron"
} |
DNA Valley (or DNA Alley) is a region in Maryland that serves as a biotechnology hub with a focus on genetic medicine. Roughly traced by Rockville, Frederick, and Baltimore, DNA Valley includes the innovation companies in the Maryland I-270 technology corridor, the various campuses of federal entities such as the FDA a... | {
"page_id": 74315578,
"title": "DNA Valley"
} |
cab ride where her driver referred to the D.C. area as "DNA Valley" because of the concentration of biotech companies in the area. DNA valley is not an actual geographical valley and is instead named as such because of the similarities between the biotechnology and life science boom in Maryland and the tech boom that o... | {
"page_id": 74315578,
"title": "DNA Valley"
} |
the biotech industry in Maryland as the research done at the federally funded facilities has resulted in new fields of research, new tools, and highly trained researchers that often remain in the area and create their own life science companies. For example, the work done by Roscoe Brady, MD, PhD on viral vectors caugh... | {
"page_id": 74315578,
"title": "DNA Valley"
} |
published a paper in Science named "Gene Therapy for Human Genetic Diseases?", which detailed the possibility of inserting unmutated or healthy DNA to cure patients with genetic diseases. However, this paper also urged that the technology be furthered with caution as a result of the lack of understanding of the technol... | {
"page_id": 74315578,
"title": "DNA Valley"
} |
making the techniques significantly safer. Researchers also added enhancers and promoters, which allowed for better control of the gene as they could decide when and where it would be turned on and to what extent. These discoveries, along with others made during this period, allowed gene therapy to regain its momentum ... | {
"page_id": 74315578,
"title": "DNA Valley"
} |
income families and a total housing shortage of 120,000 units. This is possibly due to the boom in life science jobs in the area, while the creation of housing units has remained constant, leading to the imbalance. DNA Valley also includes some of the highest cost of living areas in the country, with D.C. having the se... | {
"page_id": 74315578,
"title": "DNA Valley"
} |
possible explanation for this, as proposed by Harvard Senior Research Associate Vivek Wadhwa, is that parents tend to not encourage their daughters to pursue a career in science and engineering as much as they would with their sons. Wadhwa also cites the lack of potential role models for women in the science and engine... | {
"page_id": 74315578,
"title": "DNA Valley"
} |
and Hindu faiths == Education == The funding for public schools in DNA Valley varies drastically depending on the area as a result of increased grants from private foundations in wealthier areas such as Montgomery County and particularly Bethesda. Less wealthy areas such as Garret County rely on state funding == See al... | {
"page_id": 74315578,
"title": "DNA Valley"
} |
Intermuscular coordination describes the coordination within different muscles and groups of muscles. These are used for sceletoral movement, stabilisation of joints, as well as stabilisation of body positioning. central nervous system is controlling positioning of joints via anticipatory and correcting adaptions of po... | {
"page_id": 63174460,
"title": "Intermuscular coordination"
} |
An evaporator is a type of heat exchanger device that facilitates evaporation by utilizing conductive and convective heat transfer, which provides the necessary thermal energy for phase transition from liquid to vapour. Within evaporators, a circulating liquid is exposed to an atmospheric or reduced pressure environmen... | {
"page_id": 8255292,
"title": "Evaporator"
} |
evaporating liquids from a solution to produce a "reduced" food product, such as wine reduction. Evaporation is the main process behind distillation, which is used to concentrate alcohol, isolate liquid chemical products, or recover solvents in chemical reactions. The fragrance and essential oil industry uses distillat... | {
"page_id": 8255292,
"title": "Evaporator"
} |
the evaporator. Evaporators are usually of the shell-and-tube type (known as an Atlas Plant) or of the plate type (such as the type designed by Alfa Laval). Temperature, production and vacuum are controlled by regulating the system valves. Seawater temperature can interfere with production, as can fluctuations in engin... | {
"page_id": 8255292,
"title": "Evaporator"
} |
from heating (convection). A chamber containing a solution is heated, and the vaporized liquid is collected in a receiving flask. === Falling film evaporator === This type of evaporator is generally made of 4–8 m (13–26 ft) tubes enclosed by steam jackets. The uniform distribution of the solution is important when usin... | {
"page_id": 8255292,
"title": "Evaporator"
} |
alternately climbs and falls parallel to the concentrated liquid. The steam follows a co-current, counter-current path with the liquid. The concentrate and the vapor are fed into the separation stage, where the vapor is sent to a condenser. This type of plate evaporator is frequently applied in the dairy and fermentati... | {
"page_id": 8255292,
"title": "Evaporator"
} |
such as enzymes and proteins. In this system, an increase in the heating surface area of subsequent effects is required. Backwards feeding: In this process, the dilute products are fed into the last effect with the lowest temperature and transferred from effect to effect, with the temperature increasing. The final conc... | {
"page_id": 8255292,
"title": "Evaporator"
} |
create such deposits that reduce the efficiency of heat transfer. Foaming can also create a problem since dealing with excess foam can be costly in time and efficiency. Antifoam agents are used, but only a few can be used when food is being processed. Corrosion can also occur when acidic solutions such as citrus juices... | {
"page_id": 8255292,
"title": "Evaporator"
} |
In organic chemistry, the Malaprade reaction or Malaprade oxidation is a reaction that converts vicinal diols by periodic acid or a periodate salt to give a pair of carbonyl derivatives. The reaction was first reported by Léon Malaprade in 1928. Amino alcohols are also cleaved. In terms of mechanism, the reaction is as... | {
"page_id": 25884479,
"title": "Malaprade reaction"
} |
The menace response is one of three forms of blink reflex. It includes the reflexive blinking that occurs specifically in response to the rapid approach of an object. The menace response comprises blinking of the eyelids, in order to protect the eyes from potential damage, but may also include turning of the head, neck... | {
"page_id": 27653952,
"title": "Menace response"
} |
Such reactions to non-visual stimuli are a widespread cause of false positives and false negatives when pet owners test their own animals for the presence of the menace response. The neural pathway of the menace response comprises the optic (II) and facial (VII) nerves. It is mediated by tectobulbar fibres in the rostr... | {
"page_id": 27653952,
"title": "Menace response"
} |
Goyaglycoside is any of several related triterpenoid glycosides found in the fruits bitter melon vine (Momordica charantia), called goya in Okinawan language. They include: goyaglycoside c. goyaglycoside d. Goyaglycosides c and d can be extracted from the fresh fruit with methanol and ethyl acetate. == See also == Char... | {
"page_id": 30209858,
"title": "Goyaglycoside"
} |
In industrial paper-making processes, organosolv is a pulping technique that uses an organic solvent to solubilise lignin and hemicellulose. It has been considered in the context of both pulp and paper manufacture and biorefining for subsequent conversion of cellulose to fuel ethanol. The process was invented by Theodo... | {
"page_id": 30537541,
"title": "Organosolv"
} |
with 40% mixtures of acetone or ethanol with water requires 60 minutes at 180 °C to give good pulp properties. Organic solvents are almost always used as a mixture with water for process considerations such as reducing the vapour pressure and lowering the pH in order to also solubilise hemicellulose. Only some small or... | {
"page_id": 30537541,
"title": "Organosolv"
} |
=== Organocell === Organocell uses two-stage organosolv with roughly 50% methanol solutions. Sodium hydroxide is added in the second stage at a loading of 30% w/w of the dry wood. The lignin from the second stage is isolated by adding phosphoric acid until a pH of 4.0 is reached. === Alcell === The Alcohol Pulping and ... | {
"page_id": 30537541,
"title": "Organosolv"
} |
liquor and then lignin is precipitated by adding water and high pressure filtration. === Chempolis process === Chempolis Ltd in Oulu, Finland has developed, since 1995, a process concept where any lignocellulosic fibrous biomass sources are delignified with formic acid (biosolvent) in a compact process. The so-called "... | {
"page_id": 30537541,
"title": "Organosolv"
} |
dissolved in organic solvent and hemicelluloses are used to produce more organic solvent. Organic solvents are collected by separating water from the cooking liquor and then the lignin is precipitated by adding water, heat, and filtration. === Aldehyde assisted fractionation (AAF) process === The Bloom process was deve... | {
"page_id": 30537541,
"title": "Organosolv"
} |
The molecular formula C24H40O5 (molar mass: 408.57 g/mol) may refer to: Cholic acid Hyocholic acid, or 3α,6α,7α-trihydroxy-5β-cholan-24-oic acid Muricholic acids | {
"page_id": 5764935,
"title": "C24H40O5"
} |
The mammalian CPEB3 ribozyme is a self cleaving non-coding RNA located in the second intron of the CPEB3 gene which belongs to a family of genes regulating messenger RNA polyadenylation. This ribozyme is highly conserved and found only in mammals. The CPEB3 ribozyme is structurally and biochemically related to the huma... | {
"page_id": 13629255,
"title": "Mammalian CPEB3 ribozyme"
} |
A geroprotector aims to affect the root cause of aging and age-related diseases, and thus prolong the life span of animals. Some possible geroprotectors include melatonin, carnosine, metformin, rapamycin, nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN), delta sleep-inducing peptide and glycine. Geroprotectors could belong to multipl... | {
"page_id": 33486668,
"title": "Geroprotector"
} |
A superhelix is a molecular structure in which a helix is itself coiled into a helix. This is significant to both proteins and genetic material, such as overwound circular DNA. The earliest significant reference in molecular biology is from 1971, by F. B. Fuller: A geometric invariant of a space curve, the writhing num... | {
"page_id": 1832781,
"title": "Superhelix"
} |
Biofabrication is a branch of biotechnology specialising in the research and development of biologically engineered processes for the automated production of biologically functional products through bioprinting or bioassembly and subsequent tissue maturation processes; as well as techniques such as directed assembly, w... | {
"page_id": 72152911,
"title": "Biofabrication"
} |
are still big drawbacks in producing complex and functional 3D tissues and organs especial the organs that are urgently needed in transplants applications. -pmc:a perspective Organ Printing: Advancements in bio printing have led to the fabrication of organ-like structures, such as liver and kidney tissues. This promote... | {
"page_id": 72152911,
"title": "Biofabrication"
} |
Neurogenesis is the process by which nervous system cells, the neurons, are produced by neural stem cells (NSCs). This occurs in all species of animals except the porifera (sponges) and placozoans. Types of NSCs include neuroepithelial cells (NECs), radial glial cells (RGCs), basal progenitors (BPs), intermediate neuro... | {
"page_id": 48691023,
"title": "Neurogenesis"
} |
finally generating neural circuitry. For example, neurons born in the ventricular zone migrate radially to the cortical plate, which is where neurons accumulate to form the cerebral cortex. Thus, the generation of neurons occurs in a specific tissue compartment or 'neurogenic niche' occupied by their parent stem cells.... | {
"page_id": 48691023,
"title": "Neurogenesis"
} |
by TET enzymes that carry out oxidative reactions (e.g. 5-methylcytosine to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine) and enzymes of the DNA base excision repair (BER) pathway. === Adult neurogenesis === Neurogenesis can be a complex process in some mammals. In rodents for example, neurons in the central nervous system arise from three... | {
"page_id": 48691023,
"title": "Neurogenesis"
} |
neurons. ==== Hippocampus ==== Significant neurogenesis also occurs during adulthood in the hippocampus of many mammals, from rodents to some primates, although its existence in adult humans is debated. The hippocampus plays a crucial role in the formation of new declarative memories, and it has been theorized that the... | {
"page_id": 48691023,
"title": "Neurogenesis"
} |
of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus. A study showed that a low dose (0.1 mg/kg) of psilocybin given to mice increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus 2 weeks after administration, while a high dose (1 mg/kg) significantly decreased neurogenesis. No orally-available drugs are known to elicit neurogenesis outside of ... | {
"page_id": 48691023,
"title": "Neurogenesis"
} |
The Computational Infrastructure for Geodynamics (CIG) is a community-driven organization that advances Earth science by developing and disseminating software for geophysics and related fields. It is a National Science Foundation-sponsored collaborative effort to improve geodynamic modelling and develop, support, and d... | {
"page_id": 26605392,
"title": "Computational Infrastructure for Geodynamics"
} |
Karaviloside is any of several related cucurbitane triterpenoid glycosides found in bitter melon vine (Momordica charantia). They include: Karaviloside I Karaviloside II Karaviloside III Karaviloside V Karaviloside XI Karavilosides I, II, and III can be extracted from the M. charantia fruit with methanol. Karavilosides... | {
"page_id": 30209874,
"title": "Karaviloside"
} |
A mixotroph is an organism that uses a mix of different sources of energy and carbon, instead of having a single trophic mode, on the continuum from complete autotrophy to complete heterotrophy. It is estimated that mixotrophs comprise more than half of all microscopic plankton. There are two types of eukaryotic mixotr... | {
"page_id": 30865236,
"title": "Mixotroph"
} |
could be extended to a higher number of clades as research demonstrates that organic forms of nitrogen and phosphorus—such as DNA, proteins, amino-acids or carbohydrates—are also part of the nutrient supplies of a number of plant species. Mycoheterotrophic plants form symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi, whi... | {
"page_id": 30865236,
"title": "Mixotroph"
} |
Some plants incorporate algae or cyanobacteria, which provide photosynthetically derived carbon, while the plant also absorbs external nutrients. For example, Azolla filiculoides, is a floating fern that hosts the nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria Anabaena in its leaves, supplementing nutrient intake while photosynthesizin... | {
"page_id": 30865236,
"title": "Mixotroph"
} |
produce ATP. The carbon source for these organisms can be carbon dioxide (autotrophy) or organic carbon (heterotrophy).Organoheterotrophy can occur under aerobic or under anaerobic conditions; lithoautotrophy takes place aerobically. === Protists === Several very similar categorization schemes have been suggested to ch... | {
"page_id": 30865236,
"title": "Mixotroph"
} |
or by retaining whole prey cells in endosymbiosis) General non-constitutive mixotrophs (GNCM), which can gain the ability to photosynthesize from a variety of prey items == Marine food webs == Mixotrophs are especially common in marine environments, where the levels of energy from the sun and nutrients in the water can... | {
"page_id": 30865236,
"title": "Mixotroph"
} |
Carbonyl dyes are dyes which comprise at least two conjugated carbonyl groups. Both anthraquinone dyes and indigo dyes belong to the group of carbonyl dyes. The most important natural dyes - indigo, Tyrian purple, alizarin and carmine - have this partial structure. The most important synthetic carbonyl dyes are based o... | {
"page_id": 61339476,
"title": "Carbonyl dyes"
} |
Joseph Oakland Hirschfelder (May 27, 1911 – March 30, 1990) was an American physicist who participated in the Manhattan Project and in the creation of the nuclear bomb. == Biography == Hirschfelder was born in Baltimore, Maryland, the son of a Jewish couple, Arthur Douglas and May Rosalie (Straus). He completed his und... | {
"page_id": 34273109,
"title": "Joseph O. Hirschfelder"
} |
chemical reactions, and the structure and properties of gases and liquids”. The National Academies Press called him "one of the leading figures in theoretical chemistry during the period 1935–90". In 1991 an award was established in his name by the University of Wisconsin's Theoretical Chemistry Institute – the annual ... | {
"page_id": 34273109,
"title": "Joseph O. Hirschfelder"
} |
Plateau potentials, caused by persistent inward currents (PICs), are a type of electrical behavior seen in neurons. == Spinal cord == Plateau potentials are of particular importance to spinal cord motor systems. PICs are set up by the influence of descending monoaminergic reticulospinal pathways. Metabotropic neurotran... | {
"page_id": 11204439,
"title": "Plateau potentials"
} |
Chen Yung-Jui received his BS in Physics from National Tsing Hua University in 1969 and Ph.D. in Physics at the University of Pennsylvania (1976). After a brief postdoctoral period at Penn, he joined the Advanced Microelectronic Laboratory at McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co. in 1977. From 1980 to 1987, Dr. Chen condu... | {
"page_id": 3536725,
"title": "Chen Yung-Jui"
} |
The Research Institute for Fragrance Materials (RIFM) is a global non-profit scientific organization dedicated to the systematic assessment of fragrance ingredients to ensure their safe use in consumer products. Founded in 1966, RIFM conducts and evaluates research in toxicology, dermatology, environmental science, and... | {
"page_id": 31323993,
"title": "Research Institute of Fragrance Materials"
} |
modeling, chemical grouping, and high-throughput screening. === Safety Endpoints === Seven endpoints are evaluated: Genotoxicity Repeated dose toxicity Reproductive toxicity Skin sensitization Photoirritation/photoallergenicity Respiratory toxicity Environmental toxicity == Expert Panel == Established in 1967, the Expe... | {
"page_id": 31323993,
"title": "Research Institute of Fragrance Materials"
} |
Gilbert Stork (December 31, 1921 – October 21, 2017) was a Belgian-American organic chemist. For a quarter of a century he was the Eugene Higgins Professor of Chemistry Emeritus at Columbia University. He is known for making significant contributions to the total synthesis of natural products, including a lifelong fasc... | {
"page_id": 4454234,
"title": "Gilbert Stork"
} |
1940 to 1942. He then moved to the University of Wisconsin–Madison for this PhD, which he obtained in 1945 under the supervision of Samuel M. McElvain. While at Wisconsin he met Carl Djerassi, with whom he would go on to form a lasting friendship. == Career == 1946 Harvard University: Instructor; 1948 Assistant Profess... | {
"page_id": 4454234,
"title": "Gilbert Stork"
} |
2014 at his alma mater, the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Gilbert Stork named lecture series are also held at other institutions, including Columbia University and the University of Pennsylvania, as a result of his endowments. He was fêted for his sense of humor and colorful personality by historian of chemistry Jef... | {
"page_id": 4454234,
"title": "Gilbert Stork"
} |
In science, a field is a physical quantity, represented by a scalar, vector, or tensor, that has a value for each point in space and time. An example of a scalar field is a weather map, with the surface temperature described by assigning a number to each point on the map. A surface wind map, assigning an arrow to each ... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
can be classified as a scalar field, a vector field, a spinor field or a tensor field according to whether the represented physical quantity is a scalar, a vector, a spinor, or a tensor, respectively. A field has a consistent tensorial character wherever it is defined: i.e. a field cannot be a scalar field somewhere an... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
interactions across the entire surface is arguably the beginning of the field theory of electric force. The development of the independent concept of a field truly began in the nineteenth century with the development of the theory of electromagnetism. In the early stages, André-Marie Ampère and Charles-Augustin de Coul... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
velocity of electromagnetic waves in Maxwell's theory would be the same for all observers. By doing away with the need for a background medium, this development opened the way for physicists to start thinking about fields as truly independent entities. In the late 1920s, the new rules of quantum mechanics were first ap... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
other bodies with mass. The gravitational field of M at a point r in space corresponds to the ratio between force F that M exerts on a small or negligible test mass m located at r and the test mass itself: g ( r ) = F ( r ) m . {\displaystyle \mathbf {g} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {\mathbf {F} (\mathbf {r} )}{m}}.} Stipulat... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
quantity, during his investigations into magnetism. He realized that electric and magnetic fields are not only fields of force which dictate the motion of particles, but also have an independent physical reality because they carry energy. These ideas eventually led to the creation, by James Clerk Maxwell, of the first ... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
)={\frac {\mu _{0}}{4\pi }}\int {\frac {Id{\boldsymbol {\ell }}\times {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}}{r^{2}}}.} The magnetic field is not conservative in general, and hence cannot usually be written in terms of a scalar potential. However, it can be written in terms of a vector potential, A(r): B ( r ) = ∇ × A ( r ) {\displayst... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
to their finite propagation speed and causal nature when a simplified physical model of an isolated closed system is set . They are also subject to the inverse-square law. For electromagnetic waves, there are optical fields, and terms such as near- and far-field limits for diffraction. In practice though, the field the... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
3x3 infinitesimal strain and L i j k l {\displaystyle L_{ijkl}} is the elasticity tensor, a fourth-rank tensor with 81 components (usually 21 independent components). === Thermodynamics and transport equations === Assuming that the temperature T is an intensive quantity, i.e., a single-valued, differentiable function o... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
special cases of the so-called standard model of particle physics. General relativity, the Einsteinian field theory of gravity, has yet to be successfully quantized. However an extension, thermal field theory, deals with quantum field theory at finite temperatures, something seldom considered in quantum field theory. I... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
from multivariable calculus, potential theory and partial differential equations (PDEs). For example, scalar PDEs might consider quantities such as amplitude, density and pressure fields for the wave equation and fluid dynamics; temperature/concentration fields for the heat/diffusion equations. Outside of physics prope... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
under transformations of space. vector fields (such as the magnitude and direction of the force at each point in a magnetic field) which are specified by attaching a vector to each point of space. The components of this vector transform between themselves contravariantly under rotations in space. Similarly, a dual (or ... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
field theory === Statistical field theory attempts to extend the field-theoretic paradigm toward many-body systems and statistical mechanics. As above, it can be approached by the usual infinite number of degrees of freedom argument. Much like statistical mechanics has some overlap between quantum and classical mechani... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
also == == Notes == == References == == Further reading == "Fields". Principles of Physical Science. Vol. 25 (15th ed.). 1994. p. 815 – via Encyclopædia Britannica (Macropaedia). Landau, Lev D. and Lifshitz, Evgeny M. (1971). Classical Theory of Fields (3rd ed.). London: Pergamon. ISBN 0-08-016019-0. Vol. 2 of the Cour... | {
"page_id": 26998617,
"title": "Field (physics)"
} |
Physical changes are changes affecting the form of a chemical substance, but not its chemical composition. Physical changes are used to separate mixtures into their component compounds, but can not usually be used to separate compounds into chemical elements or simpler compounds. Physical changes occur when objects or ... | {
"page_id": 1701722,
"title": "Physical change"
} |
gas in a process called sublimation. === Magnetism === Ferro-magnetic materials can become magnetic. The process is reversible and does not affect the chemical composition. === Crystalisation === Many elements and compounds form crystals. Some such as carbon can form several different forms including diamond, graphite,... | {
"page_id": 1701722,
"title": "Physical change"
} |
Ethnoecology is the scientific study of how different groups of people living in different locations understand the ecosystems around them, and their relationships with surrounding environments. It seeks valid, reliable understanding of how we as humans have interacted with the environment and how these intricate relat... | {
"page_id": 3929952,
"title": "Ethnoecology"
} |
While, the second level was more abstract and consisted of hundreds of color classifications such as: texture, shininess, and moisture of objects also were used to classify objects. Other anthropologists had a hard time understanding this color classification system because they often applied their own idea of color cr... | {
"page_id": 3929952,
"title": "Ethnoecology"
} |
adaptations to social and physical environments, and focused on how evolutionary paths in similar societies result in different trajectories instead of the classic global trends in evolution. This new perspective on cultural evolution was later named multilineal evolution. Both Boas and Steward believed that a research... | {
"page_id": 3929952,
"title": "Ethnoecology"
} |
and condition animal behavior in either wild or domesticated species. Traditional Ecological Knowledge has traditionally focused on what Western science can learn from these communities and how closely their cultural knowledge mirrors scientific structures. It has been argued that this previous understanding of ecologi... | {
"page_id": 3929952,
"title": "Ethnoecology"
} |
as not just the plants and animals, but also the humans and technologies a group of people have access to. Similarly, social scientists have begun to use ethnoecological surveys in ethnographic studies in attempts to understand and address topics relevant in Western society as well as prevalent around the world. This i... | {
"page_id": 3929952,
"title": "Ethnoecology"
} |
present in the recognition of indigenous knowledge in the intersection of Western science is the way in which it is incorporated, if at all. Dove and Carpenter contend that some anthropologists have sought to reconcile the two through a "translation", bringing the ethnological understandings and framing them in a moder... | {
"page_id": 3929952,
"title": "Ethnoecology"
} |
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