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relationship between the growing grains, the deformed matrix and any second phases or other microstructural factors. The situation is further complicated in dynamic systems where deformation and recrystallization occur simultaneously. As a result, it has generally proven impossible to produce an accurate predictive mod...	{ "page_id": 3471089, "title": "Recrystallization (metallurgy)" }
Solute atoms, both deliberate additions and impurities, have a profound influence on the recrystallization kinetics. Even minor concentrations may have a substantial influence e.g. 0.004% Fe increases the recrystallization temperature by around 100 °C (Humphreys and Hatherly 2004). It is currently unknown whether this ...	{ "page_id": 3471089, "title": "Recrystallization (metallurgy)" }
suppressed. === Large particles === The deformation fields around large (over 1 μm) non-deformable particles are characterised by high dislocation densities and large orientation gradients and so are ideal sites for the development of recrystallization nuclei. This phenomenon, called particle stimulated nucleation (PSN...	{ "page_id": 3471089, "title": "Recrystallization (metallurgy)" }
resemble one from an alloy with only small particles. == Recrystallization Temperature == The recrystallization temperature is temperature at which recrystallization can occur for a given material and processing conditions. This is not a set temperature and is dependent upon factors including the following: Increasing ...	{ "page_id": 3471089, "title": "Recrystallization (metallurgy)" }
The molecular formula C9H12N2O3 (molar mass: 196.20 g/mol) may refer to: Ethallobarbital, or ethallymal 5-Nitro-2-propoxyaniline	{ "page_id": 24377074, "title": "C9H12N2O3" }
The Black Veil Respirator was an early British gas mask designed by John Scott Haldane and introduced in May 1915. == History == The German army used chlorine as a poison gas for the first time against Allied troops at the Second Battle of Ypres on 22 April 1915. As an immediate response, the British began issuing cott...	{ "page_id": 57210611, "title": "Black Veil Respirator" }
A two-state trajectory (also termed two-state time trajectory or a trajectory with two states) is a dynamical signal that fluctuates between two distinct values: ON and OFF, open and closed, + / − {\displaystyle +/-} , etc. Mathematically, the signal X ( t ) {\displaystyle X(t)} has, for every t , {\displaystyle t,} ei...	{ "page_id": 31913717, "title": "Two-state trajectory" }
pulse). So, each time the enzyme acts, we see a burst of photons during the time period that the product molecule is in the laser area. === Dynamics of biological molecules === Structural changes of molecules are viewed in various experiments' type. Förster resonance energy transfer is an example. In many cases one see...	{ "page_id": 31913717, "title": "Two-state trajectory" }
The Open Insulin Project is a community of researchers and advocates working to develop an open-source protocol for producing insulin that is affordable, has transparent pricing, and is community-owned. == History == The Open Insulin Project was started in 2015 by Anthony Di Franco, himself a type 1 diabetic. He starte...	{ "page_id": 62584569, "title": "Open Insulin Project" }
Insulin Project is motivated by the urgent need to protect the health of those with diabetes regardless of their economic or employment status by developing low-cost methods for insulin production available for anyone to use. == Progress and status == The project has genetically engineered microorganisms to produce lon...	{ "page_id": 62584569, "title": "Open Insulin Project" }
A trophic egg is an egg whose function is not reproduction but nutrition; in essence, the trophic egg serves as food for offspring hatched from viable eggs. In most species that produce them, a trophic egg is usually an unfertilised egg. The production of trophic eggs has been observed in a highly diverse range of spec...	{ "page_id": 2488057, "title": "Trophic egg" }
parents. In some beetles, trophic eggs are paler in colour and softer in texture than reproductive eggs, with a smoother surface on the chorion. It has also been found that trophic eggs in ants have a less pronounced reticulate pattern on the chorion. The morphological differences may arise due to the fact that mothers...	{ "page_id": 2488057, "title": "Trophic egg" }
are laid the day after spiderlings emerge from their egg sac. The mother's reproductive behaviour is modified by the behaviour of her offspring, and their presence inhibits the second generation of eggs from maturing; instead they are released as infertile trophic eggs. Converting the second generation into food for th...	{ "page_id": 2488057, "title": "Trophic egg" }
If it is difficult for the mother to achieve this synchrony, trophic eggs are a sensible alternative in ensuring that the offspring that hatches will be fed sufficiently. == Examples == Trophic egg-laying is found relatively commonly in sub-social insects, one of the most commonly studied being the bug Adomerus trigutt...	{ "page_id": 2488057, "title": "Trophic egg" }
plants; where the trophic eggs provide nutrition for the emerging tadpoles. Another frog species, Leptodactylus fallax, shows extraordinarily high levels of parental care, with both parents remaining near the burrow, and females feeding each brood a total of 10,000–25,000 trophic eggs, their only source of nutrition. I...	{ "page_id": 2488057, "title": "Trophic egg" }
In Hausfater, G; Hardy, S (eds.). Infanticide: Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 9780202366838. Perry, J C (2004). The behavioural ecology of trophic egg-laying. Simon Fraser University. Capinera, J L (2008). "Cannibalism". Encyclopaedia of Entomology. Springer.	{ "page_id": 2488057, "title": "Trophic egg" }
A list of tundra ecoregions from the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) includes: == See also == Tundra == External links == Arctic tundra biome information from the WWF Alpine tundra information from the WWF The Arctic biome at Classroom of the Future == References ==	{ "page_id": 1832701, "title": "List of tundra ecoregions" }
Wastebasket taxon (also called a wastebin taxon, dustbin taxon or catch-all taxon) is a term used by some taxonomists to refer to a taxon that has the purpose of classifying organisms that do not fit anywhere else. They are typically defined by either their designated members' often superficial similarity to each other...	{ "page_id": 2094855, "title": "Wastebasket taxon" }
into which ungulate mammals not clearly within Perissodactyla or Cetartiodactyla were traditionally shoved. Many of these groups, like Meridiungulata or Protungulatum, may not represent laurasitherian mammals, while others like phenacodontids have been clearly established as early odd-toed ungulates. The order Insectiv...	{ "page_id": 2094855, "title": "Wastebasket taxon" }
Such techniques "saved" Carnosauria and Megalosaurus. Other times, the taxonomic name contains too much unrelated "baggage" to be successfully salvaged. As such, it is usually dumped in favour of a new, more restrictive name (for example, Rhynchocephalia), or abandoned altogether (for example, Simia). == Related concep...	{ "page_id": 2094855, "title": "Wastebasket taxon" }
Evolution of cells refers to the evolutionary origin and subsequent evolutionary development of cells. Cells first emerged at least 3.8 billion years ago approximately 750 million years after Earth was formed. == The first cells == The initial development of the cell marked the passage from prebiotic chemistry to parti...	{ "page_id": 25229064, "title": "Evolution of cells" }
ancient coastal waters may have been a suitable environment for the initial development of cells. Waves breaking on the shore create a delicate foam composed of bubbles. Shallow coastal waters also tend to be warmer, further concentrating the molecules through evaporation. While bubbles made mostly of water tend to bur...	{ "page_id": 25229064, "title": "Evolution of cells" }
Rather it is suggested they were composed of fatty acids, as they can freely exchange ions, allowing geochemically sustained proton gradients at alkaline hydrothermal vents that might lead to prebiotic chemical reactions via CO2 fixation. == Community metabolism == The common ancestor of the now existing cellular linea...	{ "page_id": 25229064, "title": "Evolution of cells" }
RNA world hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, the ancient RNA world transitioned into the modern cellular world via the evolution of protein synthesis, followed by replacement of many cellular ribozyme catalysts by protein-based enzymes. Proteins are much more flexible in catalysis than RNA due to the existence o...	{ "page_id": 25229064, "title": "Evolution of cells" }
fuse periodically with another protocell to restore reproductive ability. This early, simple form of genetic recovery is similar to that occurring in extant segmented single-stranded RNA viruses (see influenza A virus). As duplex DNA became the predominant form of the genetic material, the mechanism of genetic recovery...	{ "page_id": 25229064, "title": "Evolution of cells" }
life. These three versions of the protein synthesis apparatus are called the canonical patterns, and the existence of these canonical patterns provides the basis for a definition of the three domains - Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya (or Eukaryota) - of currently existing cells. == Using genomics to infer early lines of...	{ "page_id": 25229064, "title": "Evolution of cells" }
and emphasize the community metabolism theme, the idea that early living communities would comprise many different entities to extant cells, and would have shared their genetic material more extensively than current microbes. == Quotes == "The First Cell arose in the previously prebiotic world with the coming together ...	{ "page_id": 25229064, "title": "Evolution of cells" }
universal nature of biochemistry Endosymbiosis and The Origin of Eukaryotes Archived 22 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine Origins of the Eukarya.	{ "page_id": 25229064, "title": "Evolution of cells" }
Liquid Nitrogen Wash is a process mainly used for the production of ammonia synthesis gas within fertilizer production plants. It is usually the last purification step in the ammonia production process sequence upstream of the actual ammonia production. == Competing Technologies == The purpose of the final purification...	{ "page_id": 52754183, "title": "Liquid nitrogen wash" }
== Since the synthesis gas exiting the partial oxidation process consists mainly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, usually a sulfur tolerant CO shift (i.e. water-gas shift reaction) is installed in order to convert as much carbon monoxide into hydrogen as possible. Shifting carbon monoxide and water into hydrogen also p...	{ "page_id": 52754183, "title": "Liquid nitrogen wash" }
high pressure nitrogen in order to achieve the hydrogen to nitrogen ratio of 3 to 1, and can then be routed to the ammonia synthesis. At operating pressures higher than about 50 bar(a), the refrigeration demand of the liquid nitrogen wash is covered by the Joule–Thomson effect, and no additional external refrigeration,...	{ "page_id": 52754183, "title": "Liquid nitrogen wash" }
C2H4O2 may refer to: Compounds sharing the molecular formula: Acetic acid Dihydroxyethene isomers: 1,1-Dihydroxyethene (E)-1,2-Dihydroxyethene (Z)-1,2-Dihydroxyethene Dioxetane isomers: 1,2-Dioxetane 1,3-Dioxetane Glycolaldehyde Methyldioxirane Methyl formate Oxiranol	{ "page_id": 2881288, "title": "C2H4O2" }
Benjamin Arthur Bensley (1875–1934) was a Canadian mammologist. He was born in Hamilton, Ontario to Robert Daniel and Caroline Vandeleur Bensley. He was best known for his work on marsupials and a standard text Practical Anatomy of the Rabbit. Bensley headed the department of biology at the University of Toronto after ...	{ "page_id": 60356363, "title": "Benjamin Arthur Bensley" }
Quillaia is the milled inner bark or small stems and branches of the soapbark (Quillaja saponaria). Other names include Murillo bark extract, Panama bark extract, Quillaia extract, Quillay bark extract, Soapbark extract, and Quillajae cortex. Quillaia contains high concentrations of saponins that can be increased furth...	{ "page_id": 1046284, "title": "Quillaia" }
Momordicoside is any of several related cucurbitane triterpenoid glycosides that can be extracted from the bitter melon vine (Momordica charantia). They include: Momordicoside A Momordicoside B momordicoside F1 momordicoside F2 Momordicoside K Momordicoside L Momordicoside M Momordicoside N Momordicoside S Momordicosid...	{ "page_id": 30209803, "title": "Momordicoside" }
Chemical symbols are the abbreviations used in chemistry, mainly for chemical elements; but also for functional groups, chemical compounds, and other entities. Element symbols for chemical elements, also known as atomic symbols, normally consist of one or two letters from the Latin alphabet and are written with the fir...	{ "page_id": 63243, "title": "Chemical symbol" }
"f" may also be used here to indicate a nuclear isomer (e.g., 99mTc). Alternately, the number here can represent a specific spin state (e.g., 1O2). These details can be omitted if not relevant in a certain context. The proton number (atomic number) may be indicated in the left subscript position (e.g., 64Gd). The atomi...	{ "page_id": 63243, "title": "Chemical symbol" }
by discredited claimants for discovery. === Systematic chemical symbols === These symbols are based on systematic element names, which are now replaced by trivial (non-systematic) element names and symbols. Data is given in order of: atomic number, systematic symbol, systematic name; trivial symbol, trivial name. 101: ...	{ "page_id": 63243, "title": "Chemical symbol" }
iron and silver continued to be called "jovial", "martial" and "lunar"; or "of Jupiter", "of Mars" and "of the moon", through the 17th century. The tradition remains today with the name of the element mercury, where chemists decided the planetary name was preferable to common names like "quicksilver", and in a few arch...	{ "page_id": 63243, "title": "Chemical symbol" }
of elements other than hydrogen and radon are no longer used in the scientific community. Many of these symbols were designated during the early years of radiochemistry, and several isotopes (namely those in the decay chains of actinium, radium, and thorium) bear placeholder names using the early naming system devised ...	{ "page_id": 63243, "title": "Chemical symbol" }
In molecular biology mir-52 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. == See also == MicroRNA == References == == Further reading == == External links == Page for mir-52 microRNA precursor family at Rfam	{ "page_id": 36370191, "title": "Mir-52 microRNA precursor family" }
In mechanics, suspension is a system of components allowing a machine (normally a vehicle) to move smoothly with reduced shock. Types may include: car suspension, four-wheeled motor vehicle suspension motorcycle suspension, two-wheeled motor vehicle suspension Motorcycle fork, a component of motorcycle suspension syste...	{ "page_id": 3536654, "title": "Suspension (mechanics)" }
Annual grasslands are a type of grassland ecosystem characterized by the dominance of annual grasses and forbs. They are most commonly found in regions with Mediterranean climates, such as California, and provide important habitats for a variety of wildlife species. Annual grasslands have a history of disturbance facto...	{ "page_id": 73660177, "title": "Annual grasslands" }
annual grassland ecosystems remains limited. The only exception occurs in locations where successful tree planting can be carried out. === Native grass restoration === The restoration of native perennial grasses, like needlegrass, has proven difficult due to the intense competition from prevailing annual grasses and fo...	{ "page_id": 73660177, "title": "Annual grasslands" }
use === Forage sources in annual grasslands are seasonal in their availability, productivity, and quality. The grasslands provide green feed in late fall, winter, and spring, and low-quality dry feed during the rest of the year. Many ranches supplement livestock diets with additional feed when green forage is scarce. =...	{ "page_id": 73660177, "title": "Annual grasslands" }
In physics and chemistry, a degree of freedom is an independent physical parameter in the chosen parameterization of a physical system. More formally, given a parameterization of a physical system, the number of degrees of freedom is the smallest number n {\textstyle n} of parameters whose values need to be known in or...	{ "page_id": 26998547, "title": "Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)" }
in chemistry, two angles are necessary to describe the orientation of each monomer. It is often useful to specify quadratic degrees of freedom. These are degrees of freedom that contribute in a quadratic function to the energy of the system. Depending on what one is counting, there are several different ways that degre...	{ "page_id": 26998547, "title": "Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)" }
two or more atoms also has vibrational energy, where the individual atoms move with respect to one another. A diatomic molecule has one molecular vibration mode: the two atoms oscillate back and forth with the chemical bond between them acting as a spring. A molecule with N atoms has more complicated modes of molecular...	{ "page_id": 26998547, "title": "Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)" }
freedom contribute, in equal amounts, to the heat capacity ratio. This is why γ≈⁠5/3⁠ for monatomic gases and γ≈⁠7/5⁠ for diatomic gases at room temperature. Since the air is dominated by diatomic gases (with nitrogen and oxygen contributing about 99%), its molar internal energy is close to cv T = (5/2)RT, determined b...	{ "page_id": 26998547, "title": "Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)" }
1 ) 2 {\displaystyle d={\sqrt {(x_{2}-x_{1})^{2}+(y_{2}-y_{1})^{2}+(z_{2}-z_{1})^{2}}}} results in one equation with one unknown, in which we can solve for z2. One of x1, x2, y1, y2, z1, or z2 can be unknown. Contrary to the classical equipartition theorem, at room temperature, the vibrational motion of molecules typic...	{ "page_id": 26998547, "title": "Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)" }
{\displaystyle \langle \rangle } denote the mean of the quantity they enclose. The internal energy of the system is the sum of the average energies associated with each of the degrees of freedom: ⟨ E ⟩ = ∑ i = 1 N ⟨ E i ⟩ . {\displaystyle \langle E\rangle =\sum _{i=1}^{N}\langle E_{i}\rangle .} == Quadratic degrees of ...	{ "page_id": 26998547, "title": "Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)" }
∑ i = 1 N α i X i 2 {\displaystyle E=\sum _{i=1}^{N}\alpha _{i}X_{i}^{2}} === Equipartition theorem === In the classical limit of statistical mechanics, at thermodynamic equilibrium, the internal energy of a system of N quadratic and independent degrees of freedom is: U = ⟨ E ⟩ = N k B T 2 {\displaystyle U=\langle E\ra...	{ "page_id": 26998547, "title": "Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)" }
of magnitude of the Planck constant, and individual degrees of freedom can be distinguished. == References ==	{ "page_id": 26998547, "title": "Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)" }
The molecular formula C18H26O3 (molar mass: 290.40 g/mol) may refer to: Inocoterone acetate, nonsteroidal antiandrogen Isanolic acid, rare fatty acid Octyl methoxycinnamate, a sunscreen ingredient Oxabolone, an anabolic steroid	{ "page_id": 24377109, "title": "C18H26O3" }
Experimental evolution studies are a means of testing evolutionary theory under carefully designed, reproducible experiments. Given enough time, space, and money, any organism could be used for experimental evolution studies. However, those with rapid generation times, high mutation rates, large population sizes, and s...	{ "page_id": 25229078, "title": "Bacteriophage experimental evolution" }
which are not studied under the context of experimental evolution nor necessarily described as examples of epistasis. === Experimental adaptation === Experimental adaptation involves selection of organisms either for specific traits or under specific conditions. For example, strains could be evolved under conditions of...	{ "page_id": 25229078, "title": "Bacteriophage experimental evolution" }
the phage can exchange genes, which is equivalent to "sex." Note that a number of the immediately following studies employ sex to overcome Muller's ratchet while papers that demonstrate Muller's ratchet (i.e., without employing sex to overcome the result) are instead presented under that heading. === Muller’s ratchet =...	{ "page_id": 25229078, "title": "Bacteriophage experimental evolution" }
succeed where ancestor reconstruction fails in a known bacteriophage phylogeny. Evolution 54:397-405. Cunningham, C.W., K. Jeng, J. Husti, M. Badgett, I.J. Molineux, D.M. Hillis and J.J. Bull, 1997. Parallel molecular evolution of deletions and nonsense mutations in bacteriophage T7. Mol. Biol. Evol. 14:113-116. Bull, ...	{ "page_id": 25229078, "title": "Bacteriophage experimental evolution" }
functional viral genome. J. Mol. Evol. 57:241-248. Bull, J. J., M.R. Badgett, H.A. Wichman, J.P. Hulsenbeck, D.M. Hillis, A. Gulati, C. Ho and I.J. Molineux. 1997. Exceptional convergent evolution in a virus. Genetics. 147:1497-1507. The reader should be aware that numerous phage experimental adaptations were performed...	{ "page_id": 25229078, "title": "Bacteriophage experimental evolution" }
Int. J. Food Microbiol. 34:197-207. Jassim, S. A. A., S. P. Denyer, and G. S. A. B. Stewart. 1995. Virus breeding. International Patent Application. WO 9523848. (under tab labeled "documents") Schuppli, D., G. Miranda, H. C. T. Tsui, M. E. Winkler, J. M. Sogo, and H. Weber. 1997. Altered 3'-terminal RNA structure in ph...	{ "page_id": 25229078, "title": "Bacteriophage experimental evolution" }
K., and J. J. Bull. 2001. Profiles of adaptation in two similar viruses. Genetics 159:1393-1404. Bull, J. J., M. R. Badgett, and H. A. Wichman. 2000. Big-benefit mutations in a bacteriophage inhibited with heat. Mol. Biol. Evol. 17:942-950. ==== Adaptation as compensation for deleterious mutations. ==== Poon, A., and L...	{ "page_id": 25229078, "title": "Bacteriophage experimental evolution" }
deleterious mutations. ==== Adaptation as toward change in phage virulence ==== Betts A., Vasse M., Kaltz O. & Hochberg M.E. (2013). Back to the future: evolving bacteriophages to increase their effectiveness against the pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. Evol Appl PDF Kerr, B., C. Neuhauser, B. J. M. Bohannan, and ...	{ "page_id": 25229078, "title": "Bacteriophage experimental evolution" }
in RNA bacteriophage Turner, P. E., and L. Chao. 1998. Sex and the evolution of intrahost competition in RNA virus _6. Genetics 150:523-532. L. Chao, T. T. Tran, and T. T. Tran. 1997. The advantage of sex in the RNA virus _6. Genetics 147:953-959. Malmberg, R. L. 1977. The evolution of epistasis and the advantage of re...	{ "page_id": 25229078, "title": "Bacteriophage experimental evolution" }
R.E. and B.R. Levin. 1985. Constraints on the coevolution of bacteria and virulent phage – a model, some experiments and predictions for natural communities. Am. Nat. 125:585-602. Chao, L., B.R. Levin, and F.M. Stewart. 1977. A complex community in a simple habitat: an experimental study with bacteria and phage. Ecolog...	{ "page_id": 25229078, "title": "Bacteriophage experimental evolution" }
A sequence in biology is the one-dimensional ordering of monomers, covalently linked within a biopolymer; it is also referred to as the primary structure of a biological macromolecule. While it can refer to many different molecules, the term sequence is most often used to refer to a DNA sequence or a protein sequence. ...	{ "page_id": 7075607, "title": "Sequence (biology)" }
DNA separation by silica adsorption is a method of DNA separation that is based on DNA molecules binding to silica surfaces in the presence of certain salts and under certain pH conditions. == Operations == In order to separate DNA through silica adsorption, a sample is first lysed, releasing proteins, DNA, phospholipi...	{ "page_id": 8255258, "title": "DNA separation by silica adsorption" }
also == Spin column-based nucleic acid purification == References ==	{ "page_id": 8255258, "title": "DNA separation by silica adsorption" }
The color of wine is one of the most easily recognizable characteristics of wines. Color is also an element in wine tasting since heavy wines generally have a deeper color. The accessory traditionally used to judge the wine color was the tastevin, a shallow cup allowing one to see the color of the liquid in the dim lig...	{ "page_id": 22476571, "title": "Wine color" }
made by the practice of short maceration (exposing wine to red grape skins for only a short period of time in order to give it a lighter feel closer to that of white wine) or by blending a white wine with a red wine. == Color evolution == The presence of a complex mixture of anthocyanins and procyanidins can increase t...	{ "page_id": 22476571, "title": "Wine color" }
between two A ring hydroxyl groups of the colorless dimers. == Colors == The main colors of wine are: Gray, as in vin gris (gray wine). Orange, as in skin-contact wine, a white wine that has spent some time in contact with its skin, giving it a slightly darker hue. Red wine (although this is a general term for dark win...	{ "page_id": 22476571, "title": "Wine color" }
Bimoment (aka warping moment) is a term used in the analysis of beams (continuum mechanics) that relates to torsion and warping. Its symbol is Mω. Bimoment show the distributions at a cross-section of (longitudinal) warping stress in cases of torsional warping and distortional warping, respectively. Generally, a bimome...	{ "page_id": 33945372, "title": "Bimoment" }
Sand dune ecology describes the biological and physico-chemical interactions that are a characteristic of sand dunes. Sand dune systems are excellent places for biodiversity, partly because they are not very productive for agriculture, and partly because disturbed, stressful, and stable habitats are present in proximit...	{ "page_id": 6747934, "title": "Sand dune ecology" }
conditions are less severe, and links type grasslands develop with a range of grassland herbs which benefit from the reasonable nutrient status and moderately high pH of the more stable soils, especially when enough humus has accumulated in stabilised soils for water retention to be improved. Species like red fescue an...	{ "page_id": 6747934, "title": "Sand dune ecology" }
Caveasphaera is a multicellular organism found in 609-million-year-old rocks laid down during the Ediacaran period in the Guizhou Province of South China. The organism is not easily defined as an animal or non-animal. The organism is notable due to the study of related embryonic fossils (measuring about a half-millimet...	{ "page_id": 62453535, "title": "Caveasphaera" }
Beevers–Lipson strips were a computational aid for early crystallographers in calculating Fourier transforms to determine the structure of crystals from crystallographic data, enabling the creation of models for complex molecules. They were used from the 1930s until computers with enough power became generally availabl...	{ "page_id": 42333982, "title": "Beevers–Lipson strip" }
A seed nucleus is an isotope that is the starting point for any of a variety of fusion chain reactions. The mix of nuclei produced at the conclusion of the chain reaction generally depends strongly on the relative availability of the seed nucleus or nuclei and the component being fused—whether neutrons as in the r-proc...	{ "page_id": 13301535, "title": "Seed nucleus" }
Andrius Baltuška (born 26 November 1971 in Leningrad) is a Lithuanian physicist. Baltuška studied physics at the University of Vilnius later at the University of Amsterdam and received his PhD from the University of Groningen in 2000. After postdoctoral positions at the University of Tokyo, Technical University of Vien...	{ "page_id": 16709409, "title": "Andrius Baltuška" }
Hugging Face, Inc. is a French-American company based in New York City that develops computation tools for building applications using machine learning. It is most notable for its transformers library built for natural language processing applications and its platform that allows users to share machine learning models ...	{ "page_id": 71431971, "title": "Hugging Face" }
In August 2023, the company announced that it raised $235 million in a Series D funding, at a $4.5 billion valuation. The funding was led by Salesforce, and notable participation came from Google, Amazon, Nvidia, AMD, Intel, IBM, and Qualcomm. In June 2024, the company announced, along with Meta and Scaleway, their lau...	{ "page_id": 71431971, "title": "Hugging Face" }
Hub === The Hugging Face Hub is a platform (centralized web service) for hosting: Git-based code repositories, including discussions and pull requests for projects. models, also with Git-based version control; datasets, mainly in text, images, and audio; web applications ("spaces" and "widgets"), intended for small-sca...	{ "page_id": 71431971, "title": "Hugging Face" }
AlphaGo Zero is a version of DeepMind's Go software AlphaGo. AlphaGo's team published an article in Nature in October 2017 introducing AlphaGo Zero, a version created without using data from human games, and stronger than any previous version. By playing games against itself, AlphaGo Zero: surpassed the strength of Alp...	{ "page_id": 55572262, "title": "AlphaGo Zero" }
from the last eight time steps. (1 if there is a stone, 0 otherwise. If the time step go before the beginning of the game, then 0 in all positions.) 8 channels are the positions of the other player's stones from the last eight time steps. 1 channel is all 1 if black is to move, and 0 otherwise. The body is a ResNet wit...	{ "page_id": 55572262, "title": "AlphaGo Zero" }
also trained a version of AlphaGo Zero using human games, AlphaGo Master, and found that it learned more quickly, but actually performed more poorly in the long run. DeepMind submitted its initial findings in a paper to Nature in April 2017, which was then published in October 2017. == Hardware cost == The hardware cos...	{ "page_id": 55572262, "title": "AlphaGo Zero" }
how to construct machines to play problems like Go" and will need to be tested in other domains before being sure that its base architecture is effective at much more than playing Go. In contrast, DeepMind is "confident that this approach is generalisable to a large number of domains". In response to the reports, South...	{ "page_id": 55572262, "title": "AlphaGo Zero" }
5 December 2017, DeepMind team released a preprint on arXiv, introducing AlphaZero, a program using generalized AlphaGo Zero's approach, which achieved within 24 hours a superhuman level of play in chess, shogi, and Go, defeating world-champion programs, Stockfish, Elmo, and 3-day version of AlphaGo Zero in each case. ...	{ "page_id": 55572262, "title": "AlphaGo Zero" }
Leukocyte-promoting factor, more commonly known as leukopoietin, is a category of substances produced by neutrophils when they encounter a foreign antigen. Leukopoietin stimulates the bone marrow to increase the rate of leukopoiesis in order to replace the neutrophils that will inevitably be lost when they begin to pha...	{ "page_id": 4060966, "title": "Leukocyte-promoting factor" }
Operation Cauldron was a series of secret biological warfare trials undertaken by the British government in 1952. Scientists from Porton Down and the Royal Navy were involved in releasing biological agents, including pneumonic and bubonic plague, brucellosis and tularaemia and testing the effects of the agents on caged...	{ "page_id": 2750251, "title": "Operation Cauldron" }
steer clear and unwittingly sailed through a cloud of plague bacteria (Yersinia pestis) on its way to a fishing trip to the waters around Iceland, causing concern about a possible plague outbreak around its home port in north-west England. The Carella was not stopped for disinfection or medical examination but was kept...	{ "page_id": 2750251, "title": "Operation Cauldron" }
this incorrect statement commented that there was no reason to think that he had any idea of the truth. In 1994, the local Member of Parliament, Calum Macdonald called upon the then-Secretary of State for Defence, Malcolm Rifkind, to commission an independent report on Operations Cauldron and Hesperus in 1952 and 1953,...	{ "page_id": 2750251, "title": "Operation Cauldron" }
Commissioner's Office ruled against the MOD to release a video they made on Operation Cauldron. The video contains images of identifiable individuals, and the MOD argued that it would need to obscure or mask the faces of the individuals, as this information would be exempt under sections 38, 40(2) and 44 of the Act. Th...	{ "page_id": 2750251, "title": "Operation Cauldron" }
First introduced by M. Pollak, the Coulomb gap is a soft gap in the single-particle density of states (DOS) of a system of interacting localized electrons. Due to the long-range Coulomb interactions, the single-particle DOS vanishes at the chemical potential, at low enough temperatures, such that thermal excitations do...	{ "page_id": 15464235, "title": "Coulomb gap" }
E f ) {\displaystyle g(E_{f})} . For every possible transfer of an electron from an occupied site i {\displaystyle i} to an unoccupied site j {\displaystyle j} , the energy invested should be positive, since we are assuming we are in the ground state of the system, i.e., Δ E >= 0 {\displaystyle \Delta E>=0} . Assuming ...	{ "page_id": 15464235, "title": "Coulomb gap" }
to ( E − E f ) α {\displaystyle (E-E_{f})^{\alpha }} shows that α >= d − 1 {\displaystyle \alpha >=d-1} . This is an upper bound for the Coulomb gap. Efros considered single electron excitations, and obtained an integro-differential equation for the DOS, showing the Coulomb gap in fact follows the above equation (i.e.,...	{ "page_id": 15464235, "title": "Coulomb gap" }
for various systems. Nevertheless, no rigorous derivation of the Efros–Shklovskii conductivity formula has been put forth, and in some experiments e − 1 / T α {\displaystyle e^{-1/T^{\alpha }}} behavior is observed, with a value of α {\displaystyle \alpha } that fits neither the Mott nor the Efros–Shklovskii theories. ...	{ "page_id": 15464235, "title": "Coulomb gap" }
The molecular formula C30H26O14 may refer to: Delphinidin-3-O-(6-p-coumaroyl)glucoside Prodelphinidin B9 Theasinensin C Theasinensin E	{ "page_id": 75757357, "title": "C30H26O14" }
Studies in History of Biology was an annual publication edited by William Coleman and Camille Limoges and published by Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore MD, in seven volumes from 1977 to 1984. == Volumes == Vol. 1 (1977) 232 pp. ISBN 0-8018-1862-1 Ravin, Arnold R.: The gene as catalyst, the gene as organism. 1-...	{ "page_id": 15333166, "title": "Studies in History of Biology" }
89–117. PMID 11610990 Gould, Stephen Jay: Agassiz's marginalia in Lyell's Principles, or the perils of uniformity and the ambiguity of heroes. 119–138. Churchill, Frederick B.: Sex and the single organism: biological theories of sexuality in mid-nineteenth century. 139–177. PMID 11610984 Allen, Garland E.: Naturalists ...	{ "page_id": 15333166, "title": "Studies in History of Biology" }
Neil Bruce McKeown FRSE is a chemist who is currently Crawford Professor of Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh. == Education == He was educated at the University of East Anglia (BSc, 1984; PhD, 1987). == Honours == McKeown was awarded the Beilby Medal and Prize in 2008, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Socie...	{ "page_id": 51640110, "title": "Neil McKeown" }
Boron Aluminum Titanium Hydride (BATH) was developed as a radiation shielding material in the NERVA project for space nuclear thermal propulsion applications. It is a metal matrix composite, consisting of particles of boron carbide (29.5–30.8 wt%) and titanium hydride (4.7–5.1 wt%) embedded in an aluminium matrix (64.1...	{ "page_id": 36763436, "title": "Boron aluminum titanium hydride" }
This glossary of virology is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in virology, the study of viruses, particularly in the description of viruses and their actions. Related fields include microbiology, molecular biology, and genetics. == A == animal virus Any virus capable of infecting one or more animal spec...	{ "page_id": 47511346, "title": "Glossary of virology" }

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