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"less satisfactory" than of the adaptationist, Darwinian traditions. He called Ruse's writing style "bluff, unselfconscious, and opinionated" and finds Ruse sarcastic, "scarcely a neutral observer". Michael Ghiselin criticised Ruse as a "politically correct" "academic bigot", disagreed with Ruse's narrative about phylo...	{ "page_id": 1439425, "title": "Michael Ruse" }
nonsense I believe in. And non-stop blogger P. Z. Myers has referred to me as a 'clueless gobshite.'" Ruse said new atheists do the side of science a "grave disservice", a "disservice to scholarship", and that "Dawkins in The God Delusion would fail any introductory philosophy or religion course", and that The God Delu...	{ "page_id": 1439425, "title": "Michael Ruse" }
ISBN 0-521-63716-3 The evolution wars: a guide to the debates (2003) ISBN 1-57607-185-5 Darwin and Design: Does evolution have a purpose? (2003) ISBN 0-674-01631-9 Darwinian Heresies (edited with Abigail Lustig and Robert J. Richards) (2004) ISBN 0521815169 The Evolution-Creation Struggle (2005) ISBN 0-674-01687-4 Darw...	{ "page_id": 1439425, "title": "Michael Ruse" }
Is It Like to Be a Philosopher?	{ "page_id": 1439425, "title": "Michael Ruse" }
5-Diphosphomevalonic acid (or mevalonate-5-pyrophosphate, or 5-pyrophosphomevalonate) is an intermediate in the mevalonate pathway. == See also == Mevalonic acid Phosphomevalonate kinase Pyrophosphomevalonate decarboxylase == External links == 5-diphosphomevalonic+acid at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical S...	{ "page_id": 10942146, "title": "5-Diphosphomevalonic acid" }
Quaestiones quaedam philosophicae (Certain philosophical questions) is the name given to a set of notes that Isaac Newton kept for himself during his earlier years in Cambridge. They concern questions in the natural philosophy of the day that interested him. Apart from the light it throws on the formation of his own ag...	{ "page_id": 30865088, "title": "Quaestiones quaedam philosophicae" }
a comet. Other datings of the first entries are based on his handwriting—which changed drastically between the early notes of 1661 and later notes which can be dated independently to 1665. The transitional handwriting which characterizes the early parts of Quaestiones can only be independently dated to roughly 1664. Th...	{ "page_id": 30865088, "title": "Quaestiones quaedam philosophicae" }
may be stopped by reflecting or refracting ym, if so a perpetual motion may be made one of these ways. Elsewhere, in his notes on Kepler's laws of planetary motion that he read about in the book Astronomiae carolina by Thomas Streete, he reached the conclusion that gravity must not merely act on the surfaces of bodies ...	{ "page_id": 30865088, "title": "Quaestiones quaedam philosophicae" }
light was elementary and that colors arose from mixtures of light and dark. Newton criticised this theory by noting that in that case a printed page, with its juxtaposition of light and dark, would look colored. In folio 122 he recorded for the first time his notion that white light is heterogeneous and color arise, no...	{ "page_id": 30865088, "title": "Quaestiones quaedam philosophicae" }
Physical crystallography before X-rays describes how physical crystallography developed as a science up to the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen in 1895. In the period before X-rays, crystallography can be divided into three broad areas: geometric crystallography culminating in the discovery of the 230 spac...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
principle "the symmetries of the causes are to be found in the effects" is a generalization of Neumann's principle. At the end of the 19th century Voigt introduced tensor calculus to model the physical properties of anisotropic crystals. == Double refraction == Double refraction occurs when a ray of light incident upon...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
a negative coefficient of thermal expansion) in a direction perpendicular to the trigonal axis while expanding (positive coefficient) along that axis. This implies that there is a cone of directions along which there is no thermal expansion. In 1864 Hippolyte Fizeau used an optical interference method to make measureme...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
crystallographic axes. In 1848 Duhamel provided an analysis of Sénermont’s findings. George Gabriel Stokes and William Thomson provided mathematical theories to explain Sénarmont’s observations. Stokes acknowledged the connection between the phenomena and the symmetry of the crystal, and showed that the number of const...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
i = σ i j E j , {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{i}={\boldsymbol {\sigma }}_{ij}\mathbf {E} _{j},} where J i {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{i}} is the current density, σ i j {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\sigma }}_{ij}} is the electrical conductivity tensor, and E j {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} _{j}} is the electric field inten...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
state. He further postulated that there were domains within which all the atomic dipoles were similarly orientated and that the N-S axis could be differently orientated in neighbouring domains. == Dielectric properties == A dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be polarised by an applied electric field. In 185...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
faces of other crystals. He explained the connection between this arrangement and the respective rotation of light to the right and to the left. In 1822 Augustin-Jean Fresnel explained the rotation by postulating oppositely circularly polarized beams travelling with different velocities along the optic axis. In 1831 Ge...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
biaxial crystal along certain directions, is refracted into a hollow cone of light. There are two possible conical refractions, one internal and one external. In 1821-1822 Augustin-Jean Fresnel developed a theory of double refraction in both uniaxial and biaxial crystals. Fresnel derived the equation for the wavevector...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
changes in the optical properties of a material under mechanical deformation. The photoelastic phenomenon in transparent, non-crystalline materials (gels and glasses) was first discovered by David Brewster in 1815. Brewster then detected the effect in crystals and showed that uniaxial crystals could be made biaxial. In...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
photometric observations on absorption. In 1880 de:Hugo Laspeyres pointed out the existence of absorption axes (directions of least, intermediate, and greatest absorption). He investigated certain biaxial crystals and found that the absorption axes, although subject to the symmetry of the crystal, did not necessarily c...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
The material was discovered in 1866 by Théodore Sidot who succeeded in growing tiny ZnS crystals by a sublimation method. Crystalloluminescence is the emission of light during crystal growth from solution. The first observation was that of potassium sulfate which was reported by a number of researchers in the eighteent...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
was introduced by Jöns Jacob Berzelius in 1813. A theory of the light reflected from metals was put forward by Augustin-Louis Cauchy in 1848. In 1858 Henry Clifton Sorby established the technique of cutting minerals and crystals into thin sections for examination under the polarizing microscope. In 1864 Sorby studied t...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
student, theorized that only molecules which are not symmetrical can be polarized electrically. Both William Thomson in 1878 and Woldemar Voigt in 1897 helped develop a theory for the processes behind pyroelectricity. A detailed history of pyroelectricity has been written by Sidney Lang; shorter histories have also bee...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
carried out similar experiments with fluorites. In the period 1874-1888 Voigt was the leading researcher on the elasticity of crystals. Voigt showed that the number of elasticity constants reduces as more symmetry is introduced into the crystal. For a triclinc crystal, which is the most general case, 21 elasticity cons...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
(editor), Fresnel (engineer), Hooke (municipal official), Malus (military officer) Independently wealthy: Herschel, Huygens In the nineteenth century there were informal schools of physical crystallography researchers in France (Arago, E. Becquerel, Biot, Fresnel, Haüy, Sénarmont), Germany (Drude, Groth, Liebisch, Mits...	{ "page_id": 79754945, "title": "Physical crystallography before X-rays" }
The molecular formula C2H7NO2 may refer to: Ammonium acetate Methylammonium formate	{ "page_id": 40695496, "title": "C2H7NO2" }
Mercury silvering or fire gilding is a silvering technique for applying a thin layer of precious metal such as silver or gold (mercury gilding) to a base metal object. The process was invented during the Middle Ages and is documented in Vannoccio Biringuccio's 1540 book De la pirotechnia. An amalgam of mercury and the ...	{ "page_id": 653000, "title": "Mercury silvering" }
Grand Maket Rossiya (Russian: Гранд Макет Россия) is a private museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It is a model layout designed on a scale of 1:87 (HO scale) and covers an area of 800 m2 (8,600 sq ft). In this area, collective images of regions of the Russian Federation are represented. It is the largest model layout ...	{ "page_id": 46921420, "title": "Grand Maket Rossiya" }
is changed as day turns gradually into night. The night lighting lasts for 2 minutes. More than 800 000 LED lights in different colours were used to illuminate the model without creating shadows === Movement of road vehicles === The movement of the cars in the model is realistic. The cars and buses stop at traffic ligh...	{ "page_id": 46921420, "title": "Grand Maket Rossiya" }
photographed places in Saint Petersburg. == References == == External links == Official website	{ "page_id": 46921420, "title": "Grand Maket Rossiya" }
A Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) is any member of a class of organic compounds that is composed of multiple fused aromatic rings. Most are produced by the incomplete combustion of organic matter— by engine exhaust fumes, tobacco, incinerators, in roasted meats and cereals, or when biomass burns at lower temperat...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
molecule is a symmetry plane. In rare cases, PAHs are not planar. In some cases, the non-planarity may be forced by the topology of the molecule and the stiffness (in length and angle) of the carbon-carbon bonds. For example, unlike coronene, corannulene adopts a bowl shape in order to reduce the bond stress. The two p...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
heptacene. As of 2012, over 300 benzenoid hydrocarbons had been isolated and characterized. == Bonding and aromaticity == The aromaticity varies for PAHs. According to Clar's rule, the resonance structure of a PAH that has the largest number of disjoint aromatic pi sextets—i.e. benzene-like moieties—is the most importa...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
larger members are also poorly soluble in organic solvents and in lipids. The larger members, e.g. perylene, are strongly colored. === Redox === Polycyclic aromatic compounds characteristically yield radicals and anions upon treatment with alkali metals. The large PAH form dianions as well. The redox potential correlat...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
in natural sources such as bitumen. PAHs can also be produced geologically when organic sediments are chemically transformed into fossil fuels such as oil and coal. The rare minerals idrialite, curtisite, and carpathite consist almost entirely of PAHs that originated from such sediments, that were extracted, processed,...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
as molecular mass increases. Two-ringed PAHs, and to a lesser extent three-ringed PAHs, dissolve in water, making them more available for biological uptake and degradation. Further, two- to four-ringed PAHs volatilize sufficiently to appear in the atmosphere predominantly in gaseous form, although the physical state of...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
occupationally exposed during work that involves fossil fuels or their derivatives, wood-burning, carbon electrodes, or exposure to diesel exhaust. Industrial activity that can produce and distribute PAHs includes aluminum, iron, and steel manufacturing; coal gasification, tar distillation, shale oil extraction; produc...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
in rivers, lakes, and the ocean can be a substantial sink for PAHs. Algae and some invertebrates such as protozoans, mollusks, and many polychaetes have limited ability to metabolize PAHs and bioaccumulate disproportionate concentrations of PAHs in their tissues; however, PAH metabolism can vary substantially across in...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
suggested that the PAHs in London soils had undergone weathering and been modified by a variety of pre-and post-depositional processes such as volatilization and microbial biodegradation. === Peatlands === Managed burning of moorland vegetation in the UK has been shown to generate PAHs which become incorporated into th...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
sediments with a higher natural total organic carbon content (TOC) tend to accumulate PAHs due to high sorption capacity of organic matter. A similar correspondence between PAHs and TOC has also been observed in the sediments of tropical mangroves located on the coast of southern China. == Human health == Cancer is a p...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
of coal tar, the first time that a specific compound from an environmental mixture (coal tar) was demonstrated to be carcinogenic. In the 1930s and later, epidemiologists from Japan, the UK, and the US, including Richard Doll and various others, reported greater rates of death from lung cancer following occupational ex...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
PAH molecules bind to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and activate it as a transcription factor that increases production of the cytochrome enzymes. The activity of these enzymes may at times conversely protect against PAH toxicity, which is not yet well understood. Low molecular weight PAHs, with two to four aroma...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
cytochrome enzyme CYP1B1 in vascular smooth muscle cells. This enzyme then metabolically processes the PAHs to quinone metabolites that bind to DNA in reactive adducts that remove purine bases. The resulting mutations may contribute to unregulated growth of vascular smooth muscle cells or to their migration to the insi...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). == Detection and optical properties == A spectral database exists for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the universe. Detection of PAHs in materials is often done using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry or liquid chromatography with ultraviole...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
more atoms. Adolf Witt and his team inferred that PAHs—which may have been vital in the formation of early life on Earth—can only originate in nebulae. PAHs, subjected to interstellar medium (ISM) conditions, are transformed, through hydrogenation, oxygenation, and hydroxylation, to more complex organic compounds—"a st...	{ "page_id": 653006, "title": "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon" }
The molecular formula C15H24N2O17P2 may refer to: Uridine diphosphate glucose Uridine diphosphate galactose	{ "page_id": 27588303, "title": "C15H24N2O17P2" }
The homing endonucleases are a special type of restriction enzymes encoded by introns or inteins. They act on the cellular DNA of the cell that synthesizes them; to be precise, in the opposite allele of the gene that encode them. == Homing endonucleases == The list includes some of the most studied examples. The follow...	{ "page_id": 26080977, "title": "List of homing endonuclease cutting sites" }
endonuclease. Isoschizomer. Detailed articles about certain restriction enzymes: EcoRI, HindIII, BglII. == Information sources == Databases and lists of restriction enzymes: Very comprehensive database of restriction enzymes supported by New England Biolabs. It includes all kind of biological, structural, kinetical and...	{ "page_id": 26080977, "title": "List of homing endonuclease cutting sites" }
Morton Allport FLS (4 December 1830 – 10 September 1878) was an English-born Australian colonial naturalist. == Early life == Allport was born to Joseph and Mary Morton Allport, at West Bromwich, Staffordshire. His family moved in 1831 to Van Diemen's Land. He trained for law, his father's profession, and was admitted ...	{ "page_id": 9828052, "title": "Morton Allport" }
bodily remains of Tasmanian Aboriginal people and Tasmanian tigers, also known as thylacines, and sending them to collectors in Europe – specifically asking for scientific accolades in return. This took place in the context of a genocide against the Tasmanian Aboriginal peoples, and persecution of the thylacine that ev...	{ "page_id": 9828052, "title": "Morton Allport" }
In mathematics, continuous symmetry is an intuitive idea corresponding to the concept of viewing some symmetries as motions, as opposed to discrete symmetry, e.g. reflection symmetry, which is invariant under a kind of flip from one state to another. However, a discrete symmetry can always be reinterpreted as a subset ...	{ "page_id": 3667668, "title": "Continuous symmetry" }
(geometry) Circular symmetry == References == Barker, William H.; Howe, Roger (2007). Continuous Symmetry: from Euclid to Klein. American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-3900-3.	{ "page_id": 3667668, "title": "Continuous symmetry" }
Martin Karplus (German: [ˈmaʁtiːn ˈkaʁplʊs]; March 15, 1930 – December 28, 2024) was an Austrian and American theoretical chemist. He was the Theodore William Richards Professor of Chemistry at Harvard University. He was also the director of the Biophysical Chemistry Laboratory, a joint laboratory between the French Na...	{ "page_id": 4454103, "title": "Martin Karplus" }
Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Oxford (1953–55) where he worked with Charles Coulson. == Teaching career == Karplus taught at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign (1955–60) and then Columbia University (1960–65) before moving to join the Chemistry Department faculty at Harvard in 1966. He was a prof...	{ "page_id": 4454103, "title": "Martin Karplus" }
concerned primarily with the properties of molecules of biological interest. His group originated and coordinated the development of the CHARMM program for molecular dynamics simulations. === Books === Karplus, Martin (2020). Spinach on the Ceiling: The Multifaceted Life of a Theoretical Chemist. WORLD SCIENTIFIC (EURO...	{ "page_id": 4454103, "title": "Martin Karplus" }
Anfinsen Award, given in 2001. He was awarded the Linus Pauling Award in 2004 and the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2013. == See also == List of Jewish Nobel laureates == References == == External links == Martin Karplus on Nobelprize.org – including the Nobel Lecture on December 8, 2013 "Development of Multiscale Models...	{ "page_id": 4454103, "title": "Martin Karplus" }
Thallium nitrate may refer to: Thallium(I) nitrate Thallium(III) nitrate	{ "page_id": 71890650, "title": "Thallium nitrate" }
In chemistry, a diamino acid, also called a diamino carboxylic acid, is a molecule including a carboxylic acid and two amine functional groups. Diamino acids belong to the class of amino acids. == Biochemical function == Lysine is a proteinaceous diamino acid (i.e. a component of proteins), and is accordingly coded by ...	{ "page_id": 19592923, "title": "Diamino acid" }
In crystallography, a crystal system is a set of point groups (a group of geometric symmetries with at least one fixed point). A lattice system is a set of Bravais lattices (an infinite array of discrete points). Space groups (symmetry groups of a configuration in space) are classified into crystal systems according to...	{ "page_id": 456410, "title": "Crystal system" }
A crystal family is determined by lattices and point groups. It is formed by combining crystal systems that have space groups assigned to a common lattice system. In three dimensions, the hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems are combined into one hexagonal crystal family. === Comparison === Five of the crystal system...	{ "page_id": 456410, "title": "Crystal system" }
possesses a unique polar axis (more precisely, all polar axes are parallel). Some geometrical or physical property is different at the two ends of this axis: for example, there might develop a dielectric polarization as in pyroelectric crystals. A polar axis can occur only in non-centrosymmetric structures. There canno...	{ "page_id": 456410, "title": "Crystal system" }
a Bravais lattice is depicted by a unit cell which is a factor 1, 2, 3, or 4 larger than the primitive cell. Depending on the symmetry of a crystal or other pattern, the fundamental domain is again smaller, up to a factor 48. The Bravais lattices were studied by Moritz Ludwig Frankenheim in 1842, who found that there w...	{ "page_id": 456410, "title": "Crystal system" }
== Crystal cluster – Group of crystals formed in an open space with form determined by their internal crystal structure Crystal structure – Ordered arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a crystalline material List of space groups Polar point group – symmetry in geometry and crystallographyPages displaying wikidat...	{ "page_id": 456410, "title": "Crystal system" }
Biology by Team (in German Biologie im Team) is the first Austrian biology contest for upper secondary schools. Students at upper secondary schools who are especially interested in biology can deepen their knowledge and broaden their competence in experimental biology within the framework of this contest. Each year, a ...	{ "page_id": 16316127, "title": "Biology by Team" }
St. Paul im Lavanttal St. Paul im Lavanttal BIT was submitted for the German Innovations-prize for Sustainable Education and placed among the 13 best of all nominated projects. With these prerequisites the base concept of "Biology By Team" can be replicated for other science and instructional fields and could provide a...	{ "page_id": 16316127, "title": "Biology by Team" }
Fuzzy clustering (also referred to as soft clustering or soft k-means) is a form of clustering in which each data point can belong to more than one cluster. Clustering or cluster analysis involves assigning data points to clusters such that items in the same cluster are as similar as possible, while items belonging to ...	{ "page_id": 2422496, "title": "Fuzzy clustering" }
clustering (FCM) algorithm. === History === Fuzzy c-means (FCM) clustering was developed by J.C. Dunn in 1973, and improved by J.C. Bezdek in 1981. === General description === The fuzzy c-means algorithm is very similar to the k-means algorithm: Choose a number of clusters. Assign coefficients randomly to each data poi...	{ "page_id": 2422496, "title": "Fuzzy clustering" }
[ 0 , 1 ] , i = 1 , . . . , n , j = 1 , . . . , c {\displaystyle W=w_{i,j}\in [0,1],\;i=1,...,n,\;j=1,...,c} , where each element, w i j {\displaystyle w_{ij}} , tells the degree to which element, x i {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} _{i}} , belongs to cluster c j {\displaystyle \mathbf {c} _{j}} . The FCM aims to minimize a...	{ "page_id": 2422496, "title": "Fuzzy clustering" }
is a local minimum, and the results depend on the initial choice of weights. === Implementation === There are several implementations of this algorithm that are publicly available. == Related algorithms == Fuzzy C-means (FCM) with automatically determined for the number of clusters could enhance the detection accuracy....	{ "page_id": 2422496, "title": "Fuzzy clustering" }
Bioinformatics === In the field of bioinformatics, clustering is used for a number of applications. One use is as a pattern recognition technique to analyze gene expression data from RNA-sequencing data or other technologies. In this case, genes with similar expression patterns are grouped into the same cluster, and di...	{ "page_id": 2422496, "title": "Fuzzy clustering" }
reliably perform image processing tasks as stated above. Fuzzy clustering has been proposed as a more applicable algorithm in the performance to these tasks. Given is gray scale image that has undergone fuzzy clustering in Matlab. The original image is seen next to a clustered image. Colors are used to give a visual re...	{ "page_id": 2422496, "title": "Fuzzy clustering" }
An ecoprovince is a biogeographic unit smaller than an ecozone that contains one or more ecoregions. According to Demarchi (1996), an ecoprovince encompasses areas of uniform climate, geological history and physiography (i.e. mountain ranges, large valleys, plateaus). Their size and broad internal uniformity make them ...	{ "page_id": 5568223, "title": "Ecoprovince" }
The Journal of Enzyme Inhibition and Medicinal Chemistry is a peer-reviewed open access medical journal published by Taylor & Francis that covers research on enzyme inhibitors and inhibitory processes as well as agonist/antagonist receptor interactions in the development of medicinal and anti-cancer agents. The editor-...	{ "page_id": 22017760, "title": "Journal of Enzyme Inhibition and Medicinal Chemistry" }
2 Base Encoding, also called SOLiD (sequencing by oligonucleotide ligation and detection), is a next-generation sequencing technology developed by Applied Biosystems and has been commercially available since 2008. These technologies generate hundreds of thousands of small sequence reads at one time. Well-known examples...	{ "page_id": 15791844, "title": "2 base encoding" }
these repeated ligation assays on. In 2005, Shendure et al. performed a sequencing procedure which combined Whiteley and Dressman techniques performing ligation of fluorescent labeled "8 base degenerate" 9-mer probes which distinguished a different base according to the probes label and non degenerate base. This proces...	{ "page_id": 15791844, "title": "2 base encoding" }
only 30% of beads have target DNA. To increase the number of beads that have target DNA, large polystyrene beads coated with A2 are added to the solution. Thus, any bead containing the extended products will bind polystyrene bead through its P2 end. The resulting complex will be separated from untargeted beads, and mel...	{ "page_id": 15791844, "title": "2 base encoding" }
and n+7 being correctly paired, etc. The composition of bases n+3, n+4 and n+5 remains undetermined until further rounds of the sequencing reaction. The sequencing step is basically composed of five rounds and each round consists of about 5-7 cycles (Figure 2). Each round begins with the addition of a P1-complementary ...	{ "page_id": 15791844, "title": "2 base encoding" }
dinucleotide, knowing just one base in the sequence will lead us to interpret the whole sequence(Figure 2). == 2 Base Encoding considerations == In practice direct translation of color reads into base reads is not advised as the moment one encounters an error in the color calls it will result in a frameshift of the bas...	{ "page_id": 15791844, "title": "2 base encoding" }
adjacent errors can be valid errors according to the known labeling of the probes thus delivering only 16 out of 1225 errors which can be candidates for SNPs. This is particularly useful for low coverage SNP detection as it reduces false positives at low coverage, Smith et al. == Advantages == Each base in this sequenc...	{ "page_id": 15791844, "title": "2 base encoding" }
Gene order is the permutation of genome arrangement. A fair amount of research has been done trying to determine whether gene orders evolve according to a molecular clock (molecular clock hypothesis) or in jumps (punctuated equilibrium). By comparing gene orders in dissimilar organisms, scientists are able to develop a...	{ "page_id": 6682341, "title": "Gene orders" }
On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves is an 1860 dissertation written by Albert Niemann. Its title in German is Über eine neue organische Base in den Cocablättern. The piece describes, in detail, how Niemann isolated cocaine, a crystalline alkaloid. It also earned Niemann his Ph.D., and is now in the British Library...	{ "page_id": 1505000, "title": "On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves" }
The glass sea creatures (alternately called the Blaschka sea creatures, glass marine invertebrates, Blaschka invertebrate models, and Blaschka glass invertebrates) are works of glass artists Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka. The artistic predecessors of the Glass Flowers, the sea creatures were the output of the Blaschkas' ...	{ "page_id": 52164329, "title": "Glass sea creatures" }
the United States. En route the ship was becalmed and lay still upon the sea for two weeks. During this period of forced idleness, Leopold studied and sketched the local marine invertebrate population, intrigued by the transparency of their bodies similar to the glass his family had long worked. Leopold felt a sense of...	{ "page_id": 52164329, "title": "Glass sea creatures" }
their stunning quality, this amusing hobby – itself born out of seeking consolation in nature upon his wife's death – attracted attention. Aristocratic attention, as it turned out, specifically the eyes of Prince Camille de Rohan who, being something of a naturalist himself, commissioned the Blaschkas to craft 100 glas...	{ "page_id": 52164329, "title": "Glass sea creatures" }
created by a Bohemian lampworker named Leopold Blaschka." Enchanted by the botanical models, and positive that Leopold held the key to ending his own showcasing issue, in 1863 Reichenbach convinced and commissioned Leopold to produce twelve model sea anemones. These marine models, hailed as "an artistic marvel in the f...	{ "page_id": 52164329, "title": "Glass sea creatures" }
the advent of deep-sea diving revealed a new frontier, filled with wondrous and unusual creatures." In short, for the first time since Darwin, there was great universal interest in the natural world, and it became a sign of culture, of worldliness and sophistication, to exhibit examples of life in one's drawing rooms a...	{ "page_id": 52164329, "title": "Glass sea creatures" }
establishments in all the quarters of the globe... in New Zealand... in Tokio [sic], Japan... for the Indian Museum in Calcutta... in the United States of America by Professor Ward's Natural Science Establishment in Rochester, New York; for the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge, Massachusetts; for the Boston S...	{ "page_id": 52164329, "title": "Glass sea creatures" }
to prove so crucial was because the University would soon, and did, open its new Botanical Museum in 1888. Given in effect a series of empty rooms and invited to make a museum for teaching botany, the first director, George Lincoln Goodale, faced a familiar problem. At that time, Harvard was the global center of botani...	{ "page_id": 52164329, "title": "Glass sea creatures" }
contract was signed and dictated that the Blaschkas need only work half-time on the models, thus allowing them to continue their production of the Glass sea creatures. However, in 1890, they and Goodale – acting on behalf of the Wares – signed an updated version that allowed Leopold and Rudolf to work on them (the Glas...	{ "page_id": 52164329, "title": "Glass sea creatures" }
through January 8, 2017. The Corning Museum of Glass produced a film entitled Fragile Legacy exploring the related topics of the Glass sea creatures and the living ones they represent. === Harvard === Even those specimens purchased by Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ) suffered a degree of neglect; they were...	{ "page_id": 52164329, "title": "Glass sea creatures" }
Dixon White, first president of Cornell University, authorized purchase of 570 glass marine invertebrates, "some of which are on exhibit at Corson Mudd Hall and the Herbert F. Johnson Museum, making Cornell one of the few universities in the world where students and the public can view these wondrous creations." Howeve...	{ "page_id": 52164329, "title": "Glass sea creatures" }
along a first-floor corridor Curator Paula Holahan made the discovery, stating "It's not uncommon to find things packed away in any museum that is over 100 years old." The specimens, currently too brittle to be publicly displayed, remain in storage until conservation measures are funded and completed. These funds are n...	{ "page_id": 52164329, "title": "Glass sea creatures" }
used in teaching until the 1930s and was rediscovered only in the 1980s." In 2016 the collection was loaned to and put on display at the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien. === Natural History Museum of the University of Pisa === The Natural History Museum of the University of Pisa hosts one of the few glass marine inverteb...	{ "page_id": 52164329, "title": "Glass sea creatures" }
The mobilome is the entire set of mobile genetic elements in a genome. Mobilomes are found in eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and viruses. The compositions of mobilomes differ among lineages of life, with transposable elements being the major mobile elements in eukaryotes, and plasmids and prophages being the major types in p...	{ "page_id": 9500396, "title": "Mobilome" }
genetic elements in the prokaryotic genome are plasmids and prophages. Plasmids and prophages can move between genomes through bacterial conjugation, allowing horizontal gene transfer. Plasmids often carry genes that are responsible for bacterial antibiotic resistance; as these plasmids replicate and pass from one geno...	{ "page_id": 9500396, "title": "Mobilome" }
The Cetruminantia are a clade made up of the Cetancodontamorpha (or Whippomorpha) and their closest living relatives, the Ruminantia. Cetruminantia's placement within Artiodactyla can be represented in the following cladogram: == Classification == Order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates) Tylopoda (camelids) Artiofabula...	{ "page_id": 10155758, "title": "Cetruminantia" }
In materials science, recrystallization is a process by which deformed grains are replaced by a new set of defect-free grains that nucleate and grow until the original grains have been entirely consumed. Recrystallization is usually accompanied by a reduction in the strength and hardness of a material and a simultaneou...	{ "page_id": 3471089, "title": "Recrystallization (metallurgy)" }
a discontinuous manner, where distinct new grains form and grow, or a continuous manner, where the microstructure gradually evolves into a recrystallized microstructure. The different mechanisms by which recrystallization and recovery occur are complex and in many cases remain controversial. The following description i...	{ "page_id": 3471089, "title": "Recrystallization (metallurgy)" }
Grain boundaries are good sites for nuclei to form. Since an increase in grain size results in fewer boundaries this results in a decrease in the nucleation rate and hence an increase in the recrystallization temperature Deformation affects the final grain size. Increasing the deformation, or reducing the deformation t...	{ "page_id": 3471089, "title": "Recrystallization (metallurgy)" }
this theory it is assumed that as a result of the natural movement of atoms (which increases with temperature) small nuclei would spontaneously arise in the matrix. The formation of these nuclei would be associated with an energy requirement due to the formation of a new interface and an energy liberation due to the fo...	{ "page_id": 3471089, "title": "Recrystallization (metallurgy)" }
an initial 'nucleation period' t0 where the nuclei form, and then begin to grow at a constant rate consuming the deformed matrix. Although the process does not strictly follow classical nucleation theory it is often found that such mathematical descriptions provide at least a close approximation. For an array of spheri...	{ "page_id": 3471089, "title": "Recrystallization (metallurgy)" }

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