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Phrygionis argentata is a species of moth in the family Geometridae. It was first described by Dru Drury in 1773 from Jamaica. == Description == Upper Side. Antennae filiform. Body grey. Wings pale yellowish grey. A narrow yellow bar rises near the middle of the anterior wings, which, crossing them and the posterior, e...	{ "page_id": 44562988, "title": "Phrygionis argentata" }
Chromosomal crossover, or crossing over, is the exchange of genetic material during sexual reproduction between two homologous chromosomes' non-sister chromatids that results in recombinant chromosomes. It is one of the final phases of genetic recombination, which occurs in the pachytene stage of prophase I of meiosis ...	{ "page_id": 64045, "title": "Chromosomal crossover" }
explain the origins of crossing-over, coming from the different theories on the origin of meiosis. The first theory rests upon the idea that meiosis evolved as another method of DNA repair, and thus crossing-over is a novel way to replace possibly damaged sections of DNA. The second theory comes from the idea that meio...	{ "page_id": 64045, "title": "Chromosomal crossover" }
as well as cross over. Several other genes in D. melanogaster have been linked as well to both processes, by showing that mutants at these specific loci cannot undergo DNA repair or crossing over. Such genes include mei-41, mei-9, hdm, spnA, and brca2. This large group of conserved genes between processes supports the ...	{ "page_id": 64045, "title": "Chromosomal crossover" }
The meiosis-specific recombinase Dmc1 and the general recombinase Rad51 coat the single-stranded DNA to form nucleoprotein filaments. The recombinases catalyze invasion of the opposite chromatid by the single-stranded DNA from one end of the break. Next, the 3' end of the invading DNA primes DNA synthesis, causing disp...	{ "page_id": 64045, "title": "Chromosomal crossover" }
with genome size, as larger genomes generally undergo more crossover events per meiosis. Each homologous pair forms a bivalent (or tetrad), consisting of four chromatids. The number and position of chiasmata influence the shape of bivalents, rod-shaped with one chiasma and ring-shaped with two or more. The grasshopper ...	{ "page_id": 64045, "title": "Chromosomal crossover" }
called SLX4 may participate in this regulation. Specifically, SLX4 knockout mice largely phenocopies the MUS81 knockout—once again, an elevated class I crossovers while normal chiasmata count. In FANCM knockout mice, the class II pathway is hyperactivated, resulting in increased numbers of crossovers that are independe...	{ "page_id": 64045, "title": "Chromosomal crossover" }
a chromosome, the likelihood that a recombination event will separate these two genes is less than if they were farther apart. Genetic linkage describes the tendency of genes to be inherited together as a result of their location on the same chromosome. Linkage disequilibrium describes a situation in which some combina...	{ "page_id": 64045, "title": "Chromosomal crossover" }
loci at the same time. They are considered the main driver behind the generation of gene duplications and are a general source of mutation within the genome. The specific causes of non-homologous crossover events are unknown, but several influential factors are known to increase the likelihood of an unequal crossover. ...	{ "page_id": 64045, "title": "Chromosomal crossover" }
the new chromosome, depending on where the recombination occurred. While the motivating factors behind unequal recombination remain obscure, elements of the physical mechanism have been elucidated. Mismatch repair (MMR) proteins, for instance, are a well-known regulatory family of proteins, responsible for regulating m...	{ "page_id": 64045, "title": "Chromosomal crossover" }
In physics, the line of action (also called line of application) of a force (F→) is a geometric representation of how the force is applied. It is the straight line through the point at which the force is applied, and is in the same direction as the vector F→. The lever arm is the perpendicular distance from the axis of...	{ "page_id": 3275310, "title": "Line of action" }
and F → {\displaystyle {\vec {F}}} . == References ==	{ "page_id": 3275310, "title": "Line of action" }
Dielectrophoresis (DEP) is a phenomenon in which a force is exerted on a dielectric particle when it is subjected to a non-uniform electric field. This force does not require the particle to be charged. All particles exhibit dielectrophoretic activity in the presence of electric fields. However, the strength of the for...	{ "page_id": 1440307, "title": "Dielectrophoresis" }
occur in AC as well as DC electric fields; polarization (and hence the direction of the force) will depend on the relative polarizabilities of particle and medium. If the particle moves in the direction of increasing electric field, the behavior is referred to as positive DEP (sometime pDEP), if acting to move the part...	{ "page_id": 1440307, "title": "Dielectrophoresis" }
– the most common example of which is the approximation of a spherical cell composed of an inner part (the cytoplasm) surrounded by an outer layer (the cell membrane) – then this can be represented by nested expressions for the shells and the way in which they interact, allowing the properties to be elucidated where th...	{ "page_id": 1440307, "title": "Dielectrophoresis" }
electrode array), as the equations only take into account the dipole formed and not higher order polarization. When the electric field gradients are large, or when there is a field null running through the center of the particle, higher order terms become relevant, and result in higher forces. To be precise, the time-d...	{ "page_id": 1440307, "title": "Dielectrophoresis" }
inside of the shell, and r2 is the radius from the centre of the sphere to the outside of the shell. == Applications == Dielectrophoresis can be used to manipulate, transport, separate and sort different types of particles. DEP is being applied in fields such as medical diagnostics, drug discovery, cell therapeutics, a...	{ "page_id": 1440307, "title": "Dielectrophoresis" }
To do this, many techniques are available to quantify the dielectrophoretic response, as it is not possible to directly measure the DEP force. These techniques rely on indirect measures, obtaining a proportional response of the strength and direction of the force that needs to be scaled to the model spectrum. So most m...	{ "page_id": 1440307, "title": "Dielectrophoresis" }
The most used electrode geometries are isometric, polynomial, interdigitated, and crossbar. Isometric geometry is effective for particle manipulation with DEP but repelled particles do not collect in well defined areas and so separation into two homogeneous groups is difficult. Polynomial is a new geometry producing we...	{ "page_id": 1440307, "title": "Dielectrophoresis" }
of wells in parallel; those experiencing positive DEP are trapped in the device whilst the rest are flushed. Switching off the field allows release of the trapped cells into a separate container. The highly parallel nature of the approach means that the chip can sort cells at much higher speeds, comparable to those use...	{ "page_id": 1440307, "title": "Dielectrophoresis" }
combination thereof, particles (<1 μm in diameter) with different dielectric or diffusive properties attain different positions away from the chamber wall, which, in turn, exhibit different characteristic concentration profile. Particles that move further away from the wall reach higher positions in the parabolic veloc...	{ "page_id": 1440307, "title": "Dielectrophoresis" }
Milkweed yellows phytoplasma is a strain of phytoplasma in the class Mollicutes, a class of bacteria distinguished by the absence of a cell wall. The phytoplasma strain is denoted by the acronym MW1. Like all phytoplasmas, milkweed yellows phytoplasma is an obligate intracellular parasite, that is, it can not live outs...	{ "page_id": 69270069, "title": "Milkweed yellows phytoplasma" }
Pathol. 16 (4): 255–260. Bibcode:1994CaJPP..16..255G. doi:10.1080/07060669409500728. == References == == External links == "Milkweed yellows phytoplasma". The Plant Project. 5 September 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2021. Valiunas, D.; Alminaite, A.; Jomantiene, R.; Davis, R.E.; Maas, J.L. (2004). "Possible cause of Euro...	{ "page_id": 69270069, "title": "Milkweed yellows phytoplasma" }
The Griesbaum coozonolysis is a name reaction in organic chemistry that allows for the preparation of tetrasubstituted ozonides (1,2,4-trioxolanes) by the reaction of O-methyl oximes with a carbonyl compound in the presence of ozone. Contrary to their usual roles as intermediates in ozonolysis and other oxidative alken...	{ "page_id": 66583095, "title": "Griesbaum coozonolysis" }
The Open Ecology Journal is an open-access peer-reviewed scientific journal covering ecology. It publishes original research articles and reviews. == Abstracting and indexing == The journal is indexed in: Chemical Abstracts EMBASE Scopus == References == == External links == Official website	{ "page_id": 32635451, "title": "The Open Ecology Journal" }
In physics, chemistry and related fields, a kinetic scheme is a network of states and connections between them representing a dynamical process. Usually a kinetic scheme represents a Markovian process, while for non-Markovian processes generalized kinetic schemes are used. Figure 1 illustrates a kinetic scheme. == A Ma...	{ "page_id": 31717950, "title": "Kinetic scheme" }
injected (birth) or taken from (death) the system, where then, the process is not in equilibrium. These terms are different than a birth–death process, where there is simply a linear kinetic scheme. === Specific Markovian kinetic schemes === A birth–death process is a linear one-dimensional Markovian kinetic scheme. Mi...	{ "page_id": 31717950, "title": "Kinetic scheme" }
transition system == References == van Kampen, N. G. (1981). Stochastic processes in physics and chemistry. North Holland. ISBN 978-0-444-52965-7. Erhan Cinlar (1975). Introduction to Stochastic Processes. Prentice Hall Inc, New Jesry. ISBN 978-0-486-49797-6. Risken, H. (1984). The Fokker-Planck Equation. Springer. ISB...	{ "page_id": 31717950, "title": "Kinetic scheme" }
Prymnesin may refer to: Prymnesin-1 Prymnesin-2 Prymnesin-B1 Prymnesin-B2	{ "page_id": 60619327, "title": "Prymnesin" }
The molecular formula C27H22O18 (molar mass: 634,43 g/mol, exact mass: 634.08062 u) may refer to: Corilagin, an ellagitannin Punicacortein A, an ellagitannin Punicacortein B, an ellagitannin Strictinin, an ellagitannin	{ "page_id": 35322432, "title": "C27H22O18" }
An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where petroleum (crude oil) is transformed and refined into products such as gasoline (petrol), diesel fuel, asphalt base, fuel oils, heating oil, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas and petroleum naphtha. Petrochemical feedstock like ethylene and propy...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (c. 865–925). The streets of Baghdad were paved with tar, derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region. In the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan. These fields were described by the Arab geographer Abu al-Hasan ...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
industry began in 1859 when Edwin Drake found oil near Titusville, Pennsylvania. The industry grew slowly in the 1800s, primarily producing kerosene for oil lamps. In the early twentieth century, the introduction of the internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles created a market for gasoline that was the imp...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
by Nazi Germany, were bombed in the 1943 Operation Tidal Wave by the Allies, during the Oil Campaign of World War II. Another close contender for the title of hosting the world's oldest oil refinery is Salzbergen in Lower Saxony, Germany. Salzbergen's refinery was opened in 1860. At one point, the refinery in Ras Tanur...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
in the number and size of refineries worldwide was the growing demand for automotive gasoline and aircraft fuel. In the United States, for various complex economic and political reasons, the construction of new refineries came to a virtual stop in about the 1980s. However, many of the existing refineries in the United ...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
of the lost physical capacity of the industry. In 1982 (the earliest data provided), the United States operated 301 refineries with a combined capacity of 17.9 million barrels (2,850,000 m3) of crude oil each calendar day. In 2010, there were 149 operable U.S. refineries with a combined capacity of 17.6 million barrels...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons and lighter gaseous elements into these higher-value products. Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses, forms and lengths such as paraffins, aromatics, naphthenes (or cycloalkanes), alkenes, dienes, and alkynes. Wh...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
of the olefin specie that is cracked from the source feedstock. Oil refineries are large-scale plants, processing about a hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil a day. Because of the high capacity, many of the units operate continuously, as opposed to processing in batches, at steady state or...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
share of oil products is used as "energy carriers", i.e. various grades of fuel oil and gasoline. These fuels include or can be blended to give gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, heating oil, and heavier fuel oils. Heavier (less volatile) fractions can also be used to produce asphalt, tar, paraffin wax, lubricating and o...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
sulfur-containing compounds. Sulfur and sulfuric acid are useful industrial materials. Sulfuric acid is usually prepared and shipped as the acid precursor oleum. Bulk tar shipping for offsite unit packaging for use in tar-and-gravel roofing. Asphalt used as a binder for gravel to form asphalt concrete, which is used fo...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
cyclic hydrocarbons which is a component of the end-product gasoline or petrol. An important byproduct of a reformer is hydrogen released during the catalyst reaction. The hydrogen is used either in the hydrotreaters or the hydrocracker. Distillate hydrotreater desulfurizes distillates (such as diesel) after atmospheri...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
such as normal pentane to higher-octane branched molecules for blending into gasoline or feed to alkylation units. Also used to convert linear normal butane into isobutane for use in the alkylation unit. Steam reforming converts natural gas into hydrogen for the hydrotreaters and/or the hydrocracker. Liquified gas stor...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
inlet crude oil feedstock and the final end products. The diagram depicts only one of the literally hundreds of different oil refinery configurations. The diagram also does not include any of the usual refinery facilities providing utilities such as steam, cooling water, and electric power as well as storage tanks for ...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
column by a pumparound system as shown in the diagram below. As shown in the flow diagram, the overhead distillate fraction from the distillation column is naphtha. The fractions removed from the side of the distillation column at various points between the column top and bottom are called sidecuts. Each of the sidecut...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
refinery products, or to mix chemical additives with a product at source rather than at blending terminals. == Safety and environment == The refining process releases a number of different chemicals into the atmosphere (see AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors) and a notable odor normally accompanies the...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
adjacent to the City of Edmonton, which has a population of over 1,000,000 residents. NIOSH criteria for occupational exposure to refined petroleum solvents have been available since 1977. == Worker health == === Background === Modern petroleum refining involves a complicated system of interrelated chemical reactions t...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
refineries, nearly all processes are contained within engineering controls and represent a substantially decreased risk of exposure to workers compared to earlier times. However, certain situations or work tasks may subvert these safety mechanisms, and expose workers to a number of chemical (see table above) or physica...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
Health (NIOSH), and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) have all established occupational exposure limits (OELs) for many of the chemicals above that workers may be exposed to in petroleum refineries. Benzene, in particular, has multiple biomarkers that can be measured to determine exposur...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
have previously been shown to be associated with hearing loss among workers. The interior environment of an oil refinery can reach levels in excess of 90 dB. In the United States, an average of 90 dB is the permissible exposure limit (PEL) for an 8-hour work-day. Noise exposures that average greater than 85 dB over an ...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
suppressed and may be especially dangerous to workers. Detailed coordination is necessary to ensure that maintenance of one part of the facility will not cause dangerous exposures to those performing the maintenance, or to workers in other areas of the plant. Due to the highly flammable nature of many of the involved c...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
refinery safety citations issued by OSHA: Flammable and Combustible Liquids (29 CFR 1910.106) The Hazard Communication (HazCom) standard (29 CFR 1910.1200) Permit-Required Confined Spaces (29 CFR 1910.146) Hazardous (Classified) Locations (29 CFR 1910.307) The Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) standard (29 CFR 1910.1...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
are revolutionizing the way corrosion is approached. There are several types of online corrosion monitoring technologies such as linear polarization resistance, electrochemical noise and electrical resistance. Online monitoring has generally had slow reporting rates in the past (minutes or hours) and been limited by pr...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
Deng, Yinke; Wang, Pinxing (2011). Ancient Chinese Inventions. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-18692-6. OCLC 671710733. == External links == Interactive map of UK refineries Searchable United States Refinery Map Complete, detailed refinery description Ecomuseum Bergslagen – history of Oljeön, Sweden Fueling ...	{ "page_id": 195137, "title": "Oil refinery" }
The molecular formula C16H24N2O4 (molar mass: 308.37 g/mol) may refer to: Diacetolol Hydroxycarteolol Nitracaine Ubenimex, or bestatin	{ "page_id": 25360962, "title": "C16H24N2O4" }
HSAB is an acronym for "hard and soft (Lewis) acids and bases". HSAB is widely used in chemistry for explaining the stability of compounds, reaction mechanisms and pathways. It assigns the terms 'hard' or 'soft', and 'acid' or 'base' to chemical species. 'Hard' applies to species which are small, have high charge state...	{ "page_id": 1047111, "title": "HSAB theory" }
nitrogen N2 and the azide, chloride, bromide, nitrate and sulfate anions. Generally speaking, acids and bases interact and the most stable interactions are hard–hard (ionogenic character) and soft–soft (covalent character). An attempt to quantify the 'softness' of a base consists in determining the equilibrium constant...	{ "page_id": 1047111, "title": "HSAB theory" }
N − 1 ) − E ( N ) ) − ( E ( N ) − E ( N + 1 ) ) 2 = 1 2 ( I − A ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\eta &\approx {\frac {E(N+1)-2E(N)+E(N-1)}{2}}\\&={\frac {(E(N-1)-E(N))-(E(N)-E(N+1))}{2}}\\&={\frac {1}{2}}(I-A)\end{aligned}}} where I is the ionization potential and A the electron affinity. This expression implies that ...	{ "page_id": 1047111, "title": "HSAB theory" }
in the original 1983 article are the apparent higher hardness of Tl3+ compared to Tl+. == Modifications == If the interaction between acid and base in solution results in an equilibrium mixture the strength of the interaction can be quantified in terms of an equilibrium constant. An alternative quantitative measure is ...	{ "page_id": 1047111, "title": "HSAB theory" }
been shown that to define the order of Lewis base strength (or Lewis acid strength) at least two properties must be considered. For Pearson's qualitative HSAB theory the two properties are hardness and strength while for Drago's quantitative ECW model the two properties are electrostatic and covalent . == Kornblum's ru...	{ "page_id": 1047111, "title": "HSAB theory" }
Oxophilicity == References ==	{ "page_id": 1047111, "title": "HSAB theory" }
Zeolite facies describes the mineral assemblage resulting from the pressure and temperature conditions of low-grade metamorphism. The zeolite facies is generally considered to be transitional between diagenetic processes which turn sediments into sedimentary rocks, and prehnite-pumpellyite facies, which is a hallmark o...	{ "page_id": 3537479, "title": "Zeolite facies" }
Robert Tracy, 1995, Petrology: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic, Freeman, ISBN 0-7167-2438-3	{ "page_id": 3537479, "title": "Zeolite facies" }
Pseudomonas clemancea is a species of Pseudomonas bacteria which was first discovered in the North of England. The specific epithet clemancea was given by microbiologist Pattanathu Rahman at Teesside University to bestow the CLEMANCE (Clean Environment Management Centre). This bacterium has DNA coding distinct from exi...	{ "page_id": 57801289, "title": "Pseudomonas clemancea" }
Radiation hybrid mapping (also known as RH mapping) is a technique for mapping mammalian chromosomes. Radiation hybrid mapping consists of several steps. A radiation hybrid is "a cell or organism that contains fragments of chromosomes from a second organism".: 82 Radiation hybrids are generated by using X-rays to rando...	{ "page_id": 30734922, "title": "Radiation hybrid mapping" }
Compressed hydrogen (CH2, CGH2 or CGH2) is the gaseous state of the element hydrogen kept under pressure. Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for mobile hydrogen storage in hydrogen vehicles. It is used as a fuel gas. == Infrastructure == Compressed hydrogen is ...	{ "page_id": 19135050, "title": "Compressed hydrogen" }
Eleostearic acid is a fatty acid, one of two isomers of octadecatrienoic acid: α-Eleostearic acid or (9Z,11E,13E)-9,11,13-octadecatrienoic acid, which occurs in tung oil and bitter gourd seed oil; β-Eleostearic acid or (9E,11E,13E)-9,11,13-octadecatrienoic acid. The carboxylate (or conjugate base) of eleostearic acid i...	{ "page_id": 30210636, "title": "Eleostearic acid" }
In molecular biology mir-365 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. == See also == MicroRNA == References == == Further reading == == External links == Page for mir-365 microRNA precursor family at Rfam	{ "page_id": 36371023, "title": "Mir-365 microRNA precursor family" }
Cyanobacteria () are a group of autotrophic gram-negative bacteria of the phylum Cyanobacteriota that can obtain biological energy via oxygenic photosynthesis. The name "cyanobacteria" (from Ancient Greek κύανος (kúanos) 'blue') refers to their bluish green (cyan) color, which forms the basis of cyanobacteria's informa...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
their ancestry in cyanobacteria, acquired long ago via endosymbiosis. These endosymbiont cyanobacteria in eukaryotes then evolved and differentiated into specialized organelles such as chloroplasts, chromoplasts, etioplasts, and leucoplasts, collectively known as plastids. Sericytochromatia, the proposed name of the pa...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
component of marine food webs and are major contributors to global carbon and nitrogen fluxes. Some cyanobacteria form harmful algal blooms causing the disruption of aquatic ecosystem services and intoxication of wildlife and humans by the production of powerful toxins (cyanotoxins) such as microcystins, saxitoxin, and...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
are estimated to be several octillion (1027, a billion billion billion) individuals. Prochlorococcus is ubiquitous between latitudes 40°N and 40°S, and dominates in the oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) regions of the oceans. The bacterium accounts for about 20% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. == Morphology == Cyan...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
by a protein sheath. == Nitrogen fixation == Some cyanobacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen in anaerobic conditions by means of specialized cells called heterocysts. Heterocysts may also form under the appropriate environmental conditions (anoxic) when fixed nitrogen is scarce. Heterocyst-forming species are specializ...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
the shell, as well as the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, using metabolic channeling to enhance the local CO2 concentrations and thus increase the efficiency of the RuBisCO enzyme. === Electron transport === In contrast to purple bacteria and other bacteria performing anoxygenic photosynthesis, thylakoid membranes of cyanob...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
(Z-scheme). In contrast to green sulfur bacteria which only use one photosystem, the use of water as an electron donor is energetically demanding, requiring two photosystems. Attached to the thylakoid membrane, phycobilisomes act as light-harvesting antennae for the photosystems. The phycobilisome components (phycobili...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
include the incomplete Krebs cycle, the pentose phosphate pathway, and glycolysis. There are some groups capable of heterotrophic growth, while others are parasitic, causing diseases in invertebrates or algae (e.g., the black band disease). == Ecology == Cyanobacteria can be found in almost every terrestrial and aquati...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
Cyanobacteria can interfere with water treatment in various ways, primarily by plugging filters (often large beds of sand and similar media) and by producing cyanotoxins, which have the potential to cause serious illness if consumed. Consequences may also lie within fisheries and waste management practices. Anthropogen...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
have a symbiotic relationship with other organisms, both unicellular and multicellular. As illustrated on the right, there are many examples of cyanobacteria interacting symbiotically with land plants. Cyanobacteria can enter the plant through the stomata and colonize the intercellular space, forming loops and intracel...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
ago, communities of marine Paleoproterozoic cyanobacteria could have helped create the biosphere as we know it by burying carbon compounds and allowing the initial build-up of oxygen in the atmosphere. On the other hand, toxic cyanobacterial blooms are an increasing issue for society, as their toxins can be harmful to ...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
coupling between photosynthesis and respiration in clumps. Oxygen produced by cyanobacteria diffuses into the overlying medium or is used for aerobic respiration. Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) diffuses into the clump from the overlying medium and is also produced within the clump by respiration. In oxic solutions, h...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
may require both type IV pili and Synechan – for example, the pili may help to export the polysaccharide outside the cell. Indeed, the activity of these protein fibres may be connected to the production of extracellular polysaccharides in filamentous cyanobacteria. A more obvious answer would be that pili help to build...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
and heterocyst differentiation, as well as strategy for population survival. === Cyanophages === Cyanophages are viruses that infect cyanobacteria. Cyanophages can be found in both freshwater and marine environments. Marine and freshwater cyanophages have icosahedral heads, which contain double-stranded DNA, attached t...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
involve flagellar motion. Many species of cyanobacteria are capable of gliding. Gliding is a form of cell movement that differs from crawling or swimming in that it does not rely on any obvious external organ or change in cell shape and it occurs only in the presence of a substrate. Gliding in filamentous cyanobacteria...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
can also play a role. Photomovement – the modulation of cell movement as a function of the incident light – is employed by the cyanobacteria as a means to find optimal light conditions in their environment. There are three types of photomovement: photokinesis, phototaxis and photophobic responses. Photokinetic microorg...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
Since then, they are found mostly in hypersaline conditions where grazing invertebrates cannot live (e.g. Shark Bay, Western Australia). Stromatolites provide ancient records of life on Earth by fossil remains which date from 3.5 Ga ago. The oldest undisputed evidence of cyanobacteria is dated to be 2.1 Ga ago, but the...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
their endosymbiont hosts. In other words, all the oxygen that makes the atmosphere breathable for aerobic organisms originally comes from cyanobacteria or their plastid descendants. Cyanobacteria remained the principal primary producers throughout the latter half of the Archean eon and most of the Proterozoic eon, in p...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
plastids is now supported by various pieces of phylogenetic, genomic, biochemical and structural evidence. The description of another independent and more recent primary endosymbiosis event between a cyanobacterium and a separate eukaryote lineage (the rhizarian Paulinella chromatophora) also gives credibility to the e...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
A second but much steeper increase in oxygen levels, known as the Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event (NOE), occurred at around 800 to 500 Mya. Recent chromium isotope data point to low levels of atmospheric oxygen in the Earth's surface during the mid-Proterozoic, which is consistent with the late evolution of marine pla...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
that core DNA repair processes such as recombinational repair, nucleotide excision repair and methyl-directed DNA mismatch repair are common among cyanobacteria. == Classification == === Phylogeny === === Taxonomy === Historically, bacteria were first classified as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes, which alo...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
taxonomy as of 2025 is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Class Cyanophyceae Order Acaryochloridales Miyashita et al. 2003 ex Strunecký & Mareš 2022 Family Thermosynechococcaceae Order Aegeococcales Strunecký & Mareš 2022...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
yield can be even higher. Cyanobacteria may possess the ability to produce substances that could one day serve as anti-inflammatory agents and combat bacterial infections in humans. Cyanobacteria's photosynthetic output of sugar and oxygen has been demonstrated to have therapeutic value in rats with heart attacks. Whil...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
has 30 years of examining the phenomenon and methods of improving water safety. Recent studies suggest that significant exposure to high levels of cyanobacteria producing toxins such as BMAA can cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). People living within half a mile of cyanobacterially contaminated lakes have had a...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
frequency, intensity and duration of cyanobacterial blooms in many eutrophic lakes, reservoirs and estuaries. Bloom-forming cyanobacteria produce a variety of neurotoxins, hepatotoxins and dermatoxins, which can be fatal to birds and mammals (including waterfowl, cattle and dogs) and threaten the use of waters for recr...	{ "page_id": 129618, "title": "Cyanobacteria" }
In genetics, the partial dominance hypothesis states that inbreeding depression is the result of the frequency increase of homozygous deleterious recessive or partially recessive alleles. The hypothesis can be explained by looking at a population that is divided into a large number of separately inbred lines. Deleterio...	{ "page_id": 44431955, "title": "Partial dominance hypothesis" }
Cross Cave (Slovene: Križna jama, German: Kreuzberghöhle), also named Cold Cave under Cross Mountain (Mrzla jama pod Križno goro), is a cave in Slovenia's Lož Valley, in the area between the Lož Karst Field, Cerknica Karst Field, and Bloke Plateau. The cave is named after nearby Holy Cross Church in Podlož. The cave is...	{ "page_id": 2161236, "title": "Cross Cave" }
Cross Cave (Nova Križna jama). In the direction from the entrance to the cave, the Variegated Passage is the left gallery of Cross Cave at the confluence with the Muds at Cavalry. The access requires the use of boats. Part of the way along the Variegated Passage is a side gallery named the Matjaž Passage (Matjažev rov)...	{ "page_id": 2161236, "title": "Cross Cave" }
They were evacuated on the afternoon of 8 January. == See also == List of longest Dinaric caves == References == == External links == Media related to Cross Cave at Wikimedia Commons Cross Cave on Geopedia Cross Cave. Official webpage. Cross Cave. A map and a virtual panorama.	{ "page_id": 2161236, "title": "Cross Cave" }
β-Lysine (3,6-diaminohexanoic acid) is an amino acid produced by platelets during coagulation and is directly antibacterial by causing lysis of many Gram positive bacteria by acting as a cationic detergent. == References ==	{ "page_id": 26999379, "title": "Β-Lysine" }
The following is a list of fentanyl analogues (sometimes referred to as Fentalogs), and includes both compounds developed by pharmaceutical companies for legitimate medical use, and those which have been sold as designer drugs. The latter have been reported to national drug control agencies such as the DEA, and some to...	{ "page_id": 46987861, "title": "List of fentanyl analogues" }
the aniline nitrogen atom: (b) 1 or more alkyl radicals, with up to 10 carbon atoms in total, attached to the ethyl moiety: (c) any combination of up to 5 alkyl radicals and/or alkoxy radicals (each with up to 6 carbon atoms, including cyclic radicals) and/or halogen radicals, attached to each of the benzene rings." A ...	{ "page_id": 46987861, "title": "List of fentanyl analogues" }
base to react with an organic acid which condenses into an amide. Depending on the organic acid used in the amide condensation, different analogues of fentanyl will be produced. To help align this phenomenon in the eyes of chemists, we have numerated the precursor 4-ANPP with a [0.], and then the reactions synthesizing...	{ "page_id": 46987861, "title": "List of fentanyl analogues" }

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