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https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Radical_Reactions_of_Carbohydrates_(Binkley)/Radical_Reactions_of_Carbohydrates_II%3A_Radical_Reactions_of_Carbohydrates/Appendix_I%3A_Hydrogen-Atom_Donors/V._Compounds_with_Boron%E2%80%93Hydrogen_Bonds |
Phosphine-boranes ( ) ( ) are a group of compounds that have the ability to react selectively with xanthates in the presence of compounds containing bromine or chlorine (but not iodine). For example, cyclohexyl bromide is recovered without change when it is added to the reaction shown in eq 14; in contrast, ... | 641 | 261 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Atomic_and_Molecular_Properties/Electronegativity/Allred-Rochow_Electronegativity |
Allred-Rochow Electronegativity is a measure that determines the values of the electrostatic force exerted by the effective nuclear charge on the valence electrons. The value of the effective nuclear charges is estimated from . The higher charge, the more likely it will attract electrons. Although, Sla... | 3,927 | 262 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Reactions/Reactivity/Part_V%3A__Reactivity_in_Organic%2C_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_3/RO._Reduction_and_Oxidation/RO9._Electron_Transfer%3A_Inner_Sphere |
In some cases, electron transfers occur much more quickly in the presence of certain ligands. For example, compare the rate constants for the following two electron transfer reactions, involving almost exactly the same complexes: \[ Co (NH_3)_6^{3+} + Cr^{2+} \rightarrow Co^{2+} + Cr^{3+} + 6 NH_3 K = 10^{-4} M^... | 3,015 | 263 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/01%3A_Introduction_-_The_Ambit_of_Chemistry/1.06%3A_Measurements_Quantities_and_Unity_Factors/1.6.01%3A_Measurements_Quantities_and_Unity_Factors_Lecture_Demonstrations |
Convert 12 lb weight of bowling ball to g, showing unity factors 12.00 lb x 453.59237 g/lb = 5443 g V=4/3 π r V = 4/3 * 3.1416 * (1/2 * 8.59 in) = 4/3 * 3.1416 * 79.23 in =331.9 in Unity Factor: 2.54 cm = 1 in 331.9 in x (2.54 cm / 1 in) Note!!! 331.9 in x 16.39cm /in = 5439 cm Will the bowling ball float in... | 1,010 | 264 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/16%3A_Solubility_and_Precipitation_Equilibria/16.6%3A_A_Deeper_Look%3A_Selective_Precipitation_of_Ions |
The composition of relatively complex mixtures of metal ions can be determined using , a procedure for discovering the identity of metal ions present in the mixture (rather than quantitative information about their amounts). The procedure used to separate and identify more than 20 common metal cations ... | 5,673 | 265 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/02%3A_Reaction_Rates/2.01%3A_Experimental_Determination_of_Kinetics/2.1.02%3A_Measuring_Reaction_Rates |
The method for determining a reaction rate is relatively straightforward. Since a reaction rate is based on change over time, it must be determined from tabulated values or found experimentally. With the obtained data, it is possible to calculate the reaction rate either algebraically or graphically. Wh... | 3,067 | 267 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Chemical_Bonding/Fundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding/Chemical_Bonds/Valence_Bond_Theory_and_Hybrid_Atomic_Orbitals |
By applying the VSEPR theory, one deduces the following results: Hint: A chemical bond is due to the overlap of atomic orbitals.
Molecular orbital theory considers the energy states of the molecule. Hint: Using three atomic orbitals generates three hybrid orbitals.
Number of orbitals does not ... | 1,948 | 268 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Supercritical_Fluids/Case_Study%3A_Removing_caffeine_from_Coffee |
molecules are naturally found in coffee beans, tea leaves, cocoa and a variety of exotic berries. When ingested, caffeine can act as a stimulant in humans or a toxin in small animals and insects. A certain portion of the human population can’t tolerate increased levels of caffeine in their body. They c... | 4,884 | 269 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Housecroft)/06%3A_Structures_and_Energetics_of_Metallic_and_Ionic_solids/6.03%3A_The_Packing_of_Spheres_Model_Applied_to_the_Structures_of_Elements/6.3B%3A_H_and_F_Solids |
Hydrogen and Fluorine, as well as Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine, exist as diatomic molecules. Both diatomic Hydrogen and diatomic Florine exist as gasses at room temperature and exhibit extremely low melting and boiling points. If the temperature of the system is lowered below the respective melting poin... | 2,032 | 271 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/17%3A_Carbonyl_Compounds_II-_Enols_and_Enolate_Anions._Unsaturated_and_Polycarbonyl_Compounds/17.03%3A_Halogenation_of_Aldehydes_and_Ketones |
Halogenation of saturated aldehydes and ketones usually occurs exclusively by replacement of hydrogens to the carbonyl group: The reagents that commonly are used to halogenate carbonyl compounds are those that are used to halogenate alkanes (e.g. \(\ce{Cl_2}\), \(\ce{Br_2}\), \(\ce{SO_2Cl_2}\), and -bromoamid... | 4,938 | 272 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/Ideal_Solutions/Changes_In_Vapor_Pressure%2C_Raoult's_Law |
Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a solvent above a solution is to the vapor pressure of the pure solvent at the same temperature by the mole fraction of the solvent present: In the 1880s, French chemist François-Marie Raoult discovered that when a substance is dissolved in a solution, th... | 13,697 | 274 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Reactions/Reactivity/Part_V%3A__Reactivity_in_Organic%2C_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_3/RO._Reduction_and_Oxidation/RO13._Solutions_for_Selected_Problems |
a) Ag b) Ni c) Mn d) Cr e) Cu f) Fe g)Os h) Re a) Pb & S b) Sn & 2 O c) Hg & S d) Fe & 2 S e) 2 Fe & 3 O f) 2 Fe & 1 Fe & 4 O Probably Fe , to replace Zn ions. a) C b) C c) d) C e) C a) Mg b) Cu c) Mn d) Ca e) Mn f) Mn a) Cu(II), Fe(II) b) Zn(II), Fe(III) c) Be(II), Al(III) d) Cu(I... | 4,628 | 276 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/3_d-Block_Elements/1b_Properties_of_Transition_Metals/Oxidation_States_of_Transition_Metals |
The oxidation state of an element is related to the number of electrons that an atom loses, gains, or appears to use when joining with another atom in compounds. It also determines the ability of an atom to oxidize (to lose electrons) or to reduce (to gain electrons) other atoms or species. Almost all o... | 9,691 | 277 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Thermodynamics_and_Chemical_Equilibrium_(Ellgen)/03%3A_Distributions_Probability_and_Expected_Values/3.09%3A_Random_Variables_Expected_Values_and_Population_Sets |
When we sample a particular distribution, the value that we obtain depends on chance and on the nature of the distribution described by the function \(f\left(u\right)\). The probability that any given trial will produce \(u\) in the interval \(a<u<b\) is equal to \(f\left(b\right)-f\left(a\right)\). We often fin... | 15,956 | 278 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_14%3A_The_Carbon_Family/Z082_Chemistry_of_Lead_(Z82)/Lead_Plumbate |
Lead plumbate, also called red lead, minium or Mennige (in German), is a mineral showing colors from light red to brown/yellow tints. As a pure chemical it shows a vivid red. Minium is rare and occurs in lead mineral deposits that have been subjected to severe oxidizing conditions. It also occurs as a r... | 1,716 | 279 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/13%3A_Spontaneous_Processes_and_Thermodynamic_Equilibrium/13.1%3A_The_Nature_of_Spontaneous_Processes |
In this section, consider the differences between two types of changes in a system: Those that occur spontaneously and those that occur only with the continuous input of energy. In doing so, we’ll gain an understanding as to why some systems are naturally inclined to change in one direction under certai... | 7,036 | 280 |
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In the early 19th century, steam engines came to play an increasingly important role in industry and transportation. However, a systematic set of theories of the conversion of thermal energy to motive power by steam engines had not yet been developed. Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1796-1832), a French mi... | 2,725 | 281 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Thermodynamics_and_Chemical_Equilibrium_(Ellgen)/03%3A_Distributions_Probability_and_Expected_Values/3.07%3A_A_Heuristic_View_of_the_Probability_Density_Function |
Suppose that we have a probability density function like that sketched in Figure 8 and that the area under the curve in the interval \(a<u<b\) is 0.25. If we draw a large number of samples from the distribution, our definitions of probability and the probability density function mean that about 25% of the values... | 4,022 | 282 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms_and_Molecules/Electronic_Configurations/The_Order_of_Filling_3d_and_4s_Orbitals |
This page looks at some of the problems with the usual way of explaining the electronic structures of the d-block elements based on the order of filling of the d and s orbitals. The way that the order of filling of orbitals is normally taught gives you an easy way of working out the electronic structures of elem... | 8,862 | 285 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_14%3A_The_Carbon_Family/Z014_Chemistry_of_Silicon_(Z14)/Silicates |
Silicates are some of the most abundant minerals on Earth. They are some of the most common raw material that takes over 75% of the Earth's crust. A majority of the igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks are made of silicate minerals. The most common type of silicate is (SiO ) . There are many different ty... | 4,755 | 286 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Quantum_States_of_Atoms_and_Molecules_(Zielinksi_et_al)/04%3A_Electronic_Spectroscopy_of_Cyanine_Dyes/4.07%3A_Using_Symmetry_to_Identify_Integrals_that_are_Zero |
It generally requires much work and time to evaluate integrals analytically or even numerically on a computer. Our time, computer time, and work can be saved if we can identify by inspection when integrals are zero. The determination of when integrals are zero leads to spectroscopic selection rules and provides ... | 8,163 | 288 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/03%3A_Rate_Laws/3.01%3A_Gas_Phase_Kinetics/3.1.01%3A_Bimolecular_Reactions/3.1.1.01%3A_SN2_reactions |
The following are animations of gas-phase trajectories for reactants with different amounts and types of energies. The reactant energy includes a relative translational energy, E , between Cl + CH Br, and a temperature, T , for the CH Br vibrational and rotational energies. Nucleophilic substitution by... | 969 | 289 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/03%3A_Using_Chemical_Equations_in_Calculations/3.02%3A_Equations_and_Mass_Relationships/3.2.07%3A_Sports_Physiology_and_Health-_Hydrogen_Powered_Bicycles_Run_on_Water |
Electric vehicles of all kinds are attracting increased interest everywhere, but electric bicycles are very popular in China (where there are over 120 million of them), the Netherlands, and India. They typically have a rechargeable battery pack and electric hub motor. A new electricity source combines a hydrogen... | 10,702 | 290 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/14%3A_Organohalogen_and_Organometallic_Compounds/14.08%3A_Polyhalogenated_Alkanes_and_Alkenes |
Polychlorination of methane yields the di-, tri-, and tetrachloromethanes cheaply and efficiently: These substances have excellent solvent properties for nonpolar and slightly polar substances. Chloroform once was used widely as an inhalation anesthetic. However, it has a deleterious effect on the heart and is o... | 10,289 | 291 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/3_d-Block_Elements/1b_Properties_of_Transition_Metals/Introduction_to_Transition_Metals_II |
This page explains what a transition metal is in terms of its electronic structure, and then goes on to look at the general features of transition metal chemistry. These include variable oxidation state (oxidation number), complex ion formation, colored ions, and catalytic activity. The terms transition metal (o... | 8,832 | 292 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Housecroft)/06%3A_Structures_and_Energetics_of_Metallic_and_Ionic_solids/6.13%3A_Lattice_Energy_-_Estimates_from_an_Electrostatic_Model/6.13D%3A_The_Born-Lande_Equation |
The Born-Landé equation is a concept originally formulated in 1918 by the scientists Born and Landé and is used to calculate the (measure of the strength of bonds) of a compound. This expression takes into account both the Born interactions as well as the Coulomb attractions. Due to its high simplicit... | 1,994 | 293 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/21%3A_Resonance_and_Molecular_Orbital_Methods/21.06%3A_Application_of_MO_Theory_to_Other_Systems |
Many important molecules have alternating single and double bonds (are conjugated), but have atoms that are more (or less) electron-attracting than carbon. An example is propenal (acrolein), \(18\): With such molecules we need to take into account the fact that the \(\pi\) electrons will be attracted to oxygen f... | 5,400 | 294 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/14%3A_Chemical_Equilibrium/14.5%3A_Equilibrium_Calculations_for_Gas-Phase_and_Heterogenous_Reactions |
There are two fundamental kinds of equilibrium problems: The equilibrium constant for the decomposition of \(CaCO_{3(s)}\) to \(CaO_{(s)}\) and \(CO_{2(g)}\) is \(K = [CO_2]\). At 800°C, the concentration of \(CO_2\) in equilibrium with solid \(CaCO_3\) and \(CaO\) is \(2.5 \times 10^{-3}\; M\). Thus \(... | 22,821 | 296 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Atomic_and_Molecular_Properties/Intermolecular_Forces/Hydrophobic_Interactions |
Hydrophobic interactions describe the relations between water and (low water-soluble molecules). Hydrophobes are nonpolar molecules and usually have a long chain of carbons that do not interact with water molecules. The mixing of fat and water is a good example of this particular interaction. The comm... | 3,580 | 298 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/3_d-Block_Elements/1b_Properties_of_Transition_Metals/Metallurgy/The_Extraction_of_Copper |
The method used to extract copper from its ores depends on the nature of the ore. Sulfide ores such as chalcopyrite (\(CuFeS_2\)) are converted to copper by a different method from silicate, carbonate or sulfate ores. Chalcopyrite (also known as copper pyrites) and similar sulfide ores are the commonest ores of ... | 4,728 | 299 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/13%3A_Polyfunctional_Compounds_Alkadienes_and_Approaches_to_Organic_Synthesis/13.06%3A_Approaches_to_Planning_Practical_Organic_Syntheses |
Chemistry is unique among the physical and life sciences in one very important respect. It can be manipulated extensively to man’s design. That is, molecular structures can be designed and then constructed by choosing appropriate chemical reactions. This is , which has been developed to such a degree that the e... | 8,359 | 300 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Properties_of_Solids/Crystal_Lattice/Closest_Pack_Structures |
The term "closest packed structures" refers to the most tightly packed or space-efficient composition of crystal structures (lattices). Imagine an atom in a crystal lattice as a sphere. While cubes may easily be stacked to fill up all empty space, unfilled space will always exist in the packing of spher... | 3,700 | 301 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/04%3A_Alkanes/4.05%3A_Halogenation_of_Alkanes._Energies_and_Rates_of_Reactions |
The economies of the highly industrialized nations of the world are based in large part on energy and chemicals produced from petroleum. Although the most important and versatile intermediates for conversion of petroleum to chemicals are compounds with double or triple bonds, it also is possible to prepare many ... | 32,267 | 302 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Electronic_Spectroscopy/Electronic_Spectroscopy_Basics/Using_UV-visible_Absorption_Spectroscopy |
This page takes a brief look at how UV-visible absorption spectra can be used to help identify compounds and to measure the concentrations of colored solutions. It assumes that you know how these spectra arise, and know what is meant by terms such as absorbance, molar absorptivity and lambda-max. You also need t... | 5,169 | 303 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Organic_Chemistry/1.02%3A_A_Bit_of_History |
You may not be much interested in the way that organic chemistry developed, but if you skip to the next section without reading further, you will miss some of the flavor of a truly great achievement - of how a few highly creative chemists were able, with the aid of a few simple tools, to determine the structures... | 23,442 | 304 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/13%3A_Spontaneous_Processes_and_Thermodynamic_Equilibrium/13.E%3A_Spontaneous_Processes_(Exercises) |
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Write detailed calculation down for each question involved in gambling, Microstates are specific configurations in which each particle is distinguishable. The number of ways that they can be arranged to describe the macrostate is the weight of that macrostate and used in the definition of entr... | 24,562 | 305 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/16%3A_Solubility_and_Precipitation_Equilibria/16.2%3A_Ionic_Equilibria_between_Solids_and_Solutions |
We begin our discussion of solubility and complexation equilibria—those associated with the formation of complex ions—by developing quantitative methods for describing dissolution and precipitation reactions of ionic compounds in aqueous solution. Just as with acid–base equilibria, we can describe the c... | 11,441 | 306 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Reactions/Reactivity/Part_V%3A__Reactivity_in_Organic%2C_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_3/Pericyclic_Reactions/PR1._Introduction_to_Pericyclic_Reactions |
Pericyclic reactions differ from the ones we have looked at so far because they are not easily understood in Lewis acid- Lewis base terms. There is not always a clear nucleophile and electrophile in these reactions. In fact, they may appear to involve completely non-polar reactants. The classic example of a peri... | 986 | 307 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/Nonideal_Solutions/Introduction_to_Non-ideal_Solutions |
A non-ideal solution is a solution that does not abide to the rules of an ideal solution where the interactions between the molecules are identical (or very close) to the interactions between molecules of different components. That is, there is no forces acting between the components: no Van-der-Waals n... | 3,300 | 308 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Modes/Combination_Bands%2C_Overtones_and_Fermi_Resonances |
Combination bands, overtones, and Fermi resonances are used to help explain and assign peaks in vibrational spectra that do not correspond with known fundamental vibrations. Combination bands and overtones generally have lower intensities than the fundamentals, and Fermi resonance causes a spilt and shi... | 13,395 | 309 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_17%3A_The_Halogens/1Group_17%3A_General_Reactions/Interhalogens |
The react with each other to form interhalogen compounds. The general formula of most interhalogen compounds is XY , where n = 1, 3, 5 or 7, and X is the less electronegative of the two halogens. The compounds which are formed by the union of two different halogens are called inter halogen compounds. T... | 5,587 | 310 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_An_Introduction_to_the_Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms_and_Molecules_(Bader)/03%3A_The_Hydrogen_Atom/3.04%3A_Angular_Momentum_of_an_Electron_in_a_Hydrogen_Atom |
The simplest classical model of the hydrogen atom is one in which the electron moves in a circular planar orbit about the nucleus as previously discussed and as illustrated in . The angular momentum vector in this figure is shown at an angle with respect to some arbitrary axis in space. Assuming for ... | 20,178 | 312 |
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Temperature and pressure are macroscopic properties of gases. These properties are related to molecular motion, which is a microscopic phenomenon. . Kinetics means the study of motion, and in this case motions of gas molecules. At the same temperature and volume, the same numbers of moles of all gases ... | 7,143 | 315 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Housecroft)/06%3A_Structures_and_Energetics_of_Metallic_and_Ionic_solids/6.08%3A_Bonding_in_Metals_and_Semicondoctors/6.8A%3A_Electrical_Conductivity_and_Resistivity |
Electrical resistivity and conductivity is an important property for materials. Different materials have different conductivity and resistivity. Electrical conductivity is based on electrical transport properties. These can be measured with multiple techniques by using a variety of instruments. If elect... | 2,320 | 316 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/10%3A_Alkenes_and_Alkynes_I_-_Ionic_and_Radical_Addition_Reactions/10.02%3A_Physical_and_Spectroscopic_Properties_of_Alkenes_and_Alkynes |
In general, the physical properties of alkenes are similar to those of alkanes. The data of Table 10-1 allow comparison of the boiling points, melting points, and densities of several alkenes with the corresponding alkanes that have the same carbon skeleton. Like the continuous-chain alkanes, the 1-alkenes form ... | 6,483 | 317 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Thermodynamics/Energies_and_Potentials/Entropy/The_Molecular_Basis_for_Understanding_Simple_Entropy_Change |
Early in their discussion of , most general chemistry texts have a Figure of the greatly increased distribution of molecular speeds at higher temperatures in gases than at moderate temperatures. When the temperature of a gas is raised (by transfer of energy from the surroundings of the system), there i... | 11,637 | 318 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Equilibria/Chemical_Equilibria/Determining_the_Equilibrium_Constant/Determining_the_Equilibrium_Constant_2 |
The Equilibrium Constant is . It simply signifies the ratio between the forward and reversal rates of a chemical reaction at equilibrium. There are a few different Equilibrium Constants such as: For the sake of brevity, let us stick to the former, \(K_c\) to follow this Module. Generally, we follow th... | 1,920 | 319 |
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We will consider here the reverse process of photosynthesis, namely how carbohydrates, especially glucose, are converted to energy by being broken down into carbon dioxide and water. A general summary of the several stages involved is shown in Figure 20-8. Initially, the storage fuels or foodstuffs (fats, carboh... | 10,736 | 321 |
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In the quest to identify a property that may reliably predict the spontaneity of a process, we have identified a very promising candidate: entropy. Processes that involve an increase in entropy (\(ΔS_{sys} > 0\)) are very often spontaneous; however, examples to the contrary are plentiful. By expanding consider... | 3,421 | 322 |
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The atoms, molecules, or ions that compose a chemical system can undergo several types of molecular motion, including translation, rotation, and vibration (Figure \(\Page {1}\)). The greater the molecular motion of a system, the greater the number of possible microstates and the higher the entropy. A pe... | 12,907 | 323 |
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To what extent will quantum mechanics permit us to pinpoint the position of an electron when it is bound to an atom? We can obtain an order of magnitude answer to this question by applying the uncertainty principle \[\Delta x \Delta p \ge \dfrac{\hbar}{2}\] \[ \approx h\] to estimate \(\Delta x\), whic... | 17,249 | 324 |
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The 1,2-dienes, which have cumulated double bonds, commonly are called allenes. The simplest example is 1,2-propadiene, Allenes of the type \(\ce{RR'C=C=CRR'}\) are molecules and can exist in two stereoisomeric forms, one being the mirror image of the other and neither being superimposable on the other (i.e., e... | 4,780 | 325 |
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The Rayleigh-Jeans Radiation Law was a useful, but not completely successful attempt at establishing the functional form of the spectra of thermal radiation. The energy density \(u_ν\) per unit frequency interval at a frequency \(ν\) is, according to the The Rayleigh-Jeans Radiation, \[u_ν = \dfrac{8πν^... | 4,777 | 326 |
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A method for estimating electronegativity was developed by Robert Mulliken (1896–1986; Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1966) who noticed that elements with large first ionization energies tend to have very negative electron affinities and gain electrons in chemical reactions. Conversely, elements with small fi... | 3,793 | 327 |
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Chemists frequently need to know the equilibrium constant for a reaction that has not been previously studied. In such cases, the desired reaction can often be written as the sum of other reactions for which the equilibrium constants are known. The equilibrium constant for the unknown reaction can then ... | 4,211 | 328 |
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For two molecules to react, they must first come into contact with each other. This contact can be considered a "collision." The more mobile the molecules are, the more likely they are to collide. In addition, the closer the molecules are together, the more likely they are to collide. In the following drawings, ... | 1,007 | 329 |
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It should be stressed that there . All that is properly defined are differences in enthalpy ΔH and these are only defined for For example for the process of: We could write ΔH = ∫ C . dT from T=253K to T=273K = H(273) -H(253). But before moving beyond the melting point first a different process needs... | 3,641 | 330 |
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The idea of oxidation states is not normally applied to organic compounds, but it can be useful to do so. When we do, we can gain some insight into certain reactions of organic molecules. For example,carbon dioxide, CO , can be thought of as having carbon in an oxidized state. If we apply the usual oxidation sta... | 4,997 | 331 |
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Hydrogen addition to multiple bonds is catalyzed by certain complex metal salts . This may be described as catalysis and, compared to heterogeneous catalysis, is a relatively new development in the area of hydrogenation reactions. Rhodium and ruthenium salts appear to be generally useful catalysts: At present... | 1,579 | 333 |
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Linus Pauling described electronegativity as “the power of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself.” Basically, the electronegativity of an atom is a relative value of that atom's ability to attract election density toward itself when it bonds to another atom. The higher the electronegativ... | 3,283 | 334 |
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We now introduce two concepts useful in describing heat flow and temperature change. The (\(C\)) of a body of matter is the quantity of heat (\(q\)) it absorbs or releases when it experiences a temperature change (\(ΔT\)) of 1 degree Celsius (or equivalently, 1 kelvin) \[C=\dfrac{q}{ΔT} \label{12.3.1}... | 30,345 | 336 |
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An organic compound commonly is said to be "reduced" if reaction leads to an increase in its hydrogen content or a decrease in its oxygen content. The compound would be "oxidized" if the reverse change took place: This is a very unsatisfactory definition because many oxidation-reduction or reactions do not inv... | 3,321 | 337 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Spectroscopy/Infrared_Spectroscopy/Identifying_the_Presence_of_Particular_Groups |
This page explains how to use an infra-red spectrum to identify the presence of a few simple bonds in organic compounds. Ethanoic acid has the structure: You will see that it contains the following bonds: The carbon-carbon bond has absorptions which occur over a wide range of wavenumbers in the fingerprint regio... | 3,349 | 338 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms_and_Molecules/Electronic_Configurations/Basic_Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms |
This page explores how you write electronic structures for atoms using s, p, and d notation. It assumes that you know about simple atomic orbitals - at least as far as the way they are named, and their relative energies. Hydrogen has its only electron in the 1s orbital - 1s , and at helium the first level is com... | 7,055 | 339 |
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Glucose is by far the most abundant monosaccharide; it occurs free in fruits, plants, honey, in the blood of animals, and combined in many glycosides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. The structure and properties of glucose will be considered in greater detail than those of the other monosaccharides, not only... | 12,223 | 340 |
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Van der Waals forces' is a general term used to define the attraction of intermolecular forces between molecules. There are two kinds of Van der Waals forces: weak and stronger . The chance that an electron of an atom is in a certain area in the electron cloud at a specific time is called the "electr... | 3,583 | 341 |
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A monatomic gas has three degrees of freedom per molecule, all of them translational: A polyatomic gas, including diatomic molecules, has other levels that you can 'stuff' energy into. Polyatomic molecules can rotate and vibrate, and if enough energy is available you could also excite the electrons invo... | 1,496 | 342 |
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To review the general characteristics of phase equilibria, let us consider a familiar system. Suppose that we have a transparent but very strong cylinder, sealed with a frictionless piston, within which we have trapped a quantity of pure liquid water at some high pressure. We can fix the pressure of the liquid w... | 10,097 | 343 |
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Spectrophotometry is a method to measure how much a chemical substance absorbs light by measuring the intensity of light as a beam of light passes through sample solution. The basic principle is that each compound absorbs or transmits light over a certain range of wavelength. This measurement can also b... | 7,295 | 344 |
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Cadmium sulfide (CdS) exists in two natural forms: greenockite and hawleyite, which differ in their crystal structure. Greenockite forms hexagonal crystals with the wurtzite structure, hawleyite has the sphalerite (zinc blende) structure. Cadmium sulfide is a direct band gap semiconductor with E = 2.42... | 902 | 345 |
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Now it is time to turn our attention to the ways in which the three-dimensional structure of organic molecules affects their stability, reactivity, and the ways in which they interact with one another and with solvent molecules. To begin with, we will consider compounds that are composed of \(\mathrm{sp}^{3}\) h... | 2,069 | 346 |
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To deal with the complexity of the vibrational motion in polyatomic molecules, we need to utilize the three important concepts listed as the title of this section. By a spatial degree of freedom, we mean an independent direction of motion. A single atom has three spatial degrees of freedom because it can move in... | 13,986 | 347 |
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The second law of thermodynamics can be formulated in many ways, but in one way or another they are all related to the fact that the state function entropy, \(S\), tends to increase over time in isolated systems. For a long time, people have looked at the entire universe as an example of an isolated sys... | 5,576 | 348 |
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Some of the most important reactions of amines are brought about by nitrous acid \(\left( \ce{HONO} \right)\). The character of the products depends very much on whether the amine is primary, secondary, or tertiary. In fact, nitrous acid is a useful reagent to determine whether a particular amine is primary, sec... | 10,266 | 350 |
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The carbonyl group, \(\ce{-C=O}\), is a structural feature of many different types of compounds. It is present in carbon dioxide and in methanal, which represent respectively the high and low extremes in the level of oxidation of a carbonyl carbon: In between, there are carbonyl compounds ranging from aldehydes ... | 2,291 | 353 |
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The noble gases (Group 18) are located in the far right of the and were previously referred to as the "inert gases" due to the fact that their filled valence shells (octets) make them extremely nonreactive. Noble gases are odorless, colorless, nonflammable, and monotonic gases that have low chemical r... | 1,231 | 354 |
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Many important molecules have alternating single and double bonds (are conjugated), but have atoms that are more (or less) electron-attracting than carbon. An example is propenal (acrolein), \(18\): With such molecules we need to take into account the fact that the \(\pi\) electrons will be attracted to oxygen f... | 5,400 | 356 |
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Unlike hydrogenic atoms, the wavefunctions satisfying Schrödinger's equation for multi-electron atoms cannot be solved analytically. Instead, various techniques are used for giving approximate solutions to the wave functions. The wavefunctions of multi-electron atoms can be considered, as a first approx... | 2,606 | 357 |
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Another example of a synthesis problem makes use of the cycloaddition reactions discussed here. Consider the synthesis of bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane, \(9\), from compounds with fewer carbons. Whenever a ring has to be constructed, you should consider the possibility of cycloaddition reactions, especially [4 + 2] cycl... | 1,897 | 358 |
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Band Theory was developed with some help from the knowledge gained during the quantum revolution in science. In 1928, Felix Bloch had the idea to take the quantum theory and apply it to solids. In 1927, Walter Heitler and Fritz London discovered bands- very closely spaced orbitals with not much differen... | 3,112 | 362 |
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Among the organic nitrogen compounds having nitrogen above the oxidation level of ammonia are a wide variety of substances with \(\ce{N-N}\) bonds. We shall mention only a very few of the more important of these substances: hydrazines, azo and diazo compounds, and azides. Organic hydrazines or diazanes are subst... | 6,003 | 363 |
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For a review of determining concentration of solutions, click the following link and select CoreChem: Solution Concentrations Mercury is a liquid metal which is found naturally in ores, typically combined with other elements. It is commonly used in electrical products, including fluorescent light bulbs, dry cel... | 2,804 | 364 |
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The general character of alkene polymerization by radical and ionic mechanisms was discussed briefly in . The same principles apply to the polymerization of alkadienes, with the added feature that there are additional ways of linking the monomer units. The polymer chain may grow by either 1,2 or 1,4 addition to... | 3,634 | 366 |
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A multipole expansion is a mathematical series representing a function that depends on angles—usually the two angles on a sphere. These series are useful because they can often be truncated, meaning that only the first few terms need to be retained for a good approximation to the original function. Mult... | 7,278 | 367 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms_and_Molecules/Electronic_Configurations/Electronic_Structure_and_Orbitals |
In any introductory chemistry course you will have come across the electronic structures of hydrogen and carbon drawn as: The circles show energy levels - representing increasing distances from the nucleus. You could straighten the circles out and draw the electronic structure as a simple energy diagram. Orbits ... | 5,945 | 368 |
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Precipitation reactions occur when cations and anions in aqueous solution combine to form an insoluble ionic solid called a . Whether or not such a reaction occurs can be determined by using the for common ionic solids. Because not all aqueous reactions form precipitates, one must consult the solubil... | 24,894 | 370 |
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In measuring optical rotation, plane-polarized light travels down a long tube containing the sample. If it is a liquid, the sample may be placed in the tube as a pure liquid (its is sometimes called a neat sample). Usually, the sample is dissolved in a solvent and the resulting solution is placed in the tube. Th... | 888 | 371 |
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If you're observant and pay attention to nutrition labels on foods, you may have noticed labels like the one here, where the fats don't seem to add up. If one 12 g serving of Crisco contains 3 g of saturated fat, 0g of trans fat, 6 g of polyunsaturated fat, and 2.5 g of monounsaturated fat what happened to the... | 11,574 | 372 |
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Aldehdyes are oxidized easily by moist silver oxide or by potassium permanganate solution to the corresponding acids. The mechanism of the permanganate oxidation has some resemblance to the chromic acid oxidation of alcohols (Section 15-6B): Many aldehydes are oxidized easily by atmospheric oxygen in a radical-c... | 2,554 | 374 |
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Most alkenes react readily with ozone \(\left( \ce{O_3} \right)\), even at low temperatures, to yield cyclic peroxidic derivatives known as . For example, These substances, like most compounds with peroxide \(\left( \ce{O-O} \right)\) bonds, may explode violently and unpredictably. Therefore ozonizations must b... | 5,997 | 375 |
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Heat and work are both forms of transferring energy, and under the right circumstance, one form may be transformed into the other. However, the second law of thermodynamics puts a limitation on this. To go from work to heat is called dissipation and there is no limitation on this at all. In fact it was ... | 5,958 | 376 |
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Silver nitrate, AgNO , is the least expensive silver salt and is relatively stable to light. It easily dissolves in water (2150 g/L at 20 °C). As the nitrate can be easily replaced by other ligands AgNO is a versatile starting point for the synthesis of other silver compounds. Silver nitrate can be pre... | 1,276 | 377 |
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A rearrangement is a reaction in which one molecule undergoes bonding changes, with the transfer of one atom or group from one position in the molecule to another. Proton tautomerism is a kind of rearrangement. A proton is removed from one site in the molecule and put back in a different site nearby. Tautomerism... | 2,357 | 379 |
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State the balanced equation representing the dissolution of potassium chromate and write its solubility product expression. \[ \mathrm{K_2CrO_4 \rightleftharpoons 2K^+ + CrO_4^{2-} }\nonumber \] \[ \mathrm{K_{sp} = [K^+]^2 [CrO_4^{2-}] }\nonumber \] Consider Mercury(I) bromide. Estimate the co... | 21,408 | 380 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Quantum_States_of_Atoms_and_Molecules_(Zielinksi_et_al)/04%3A_Electronic_Spectroscopy_of_Cyanine_Dyes/4.04%3A_Spectroscopy_of_the_Particle-in-a-Box_Model |
The wavefunctions that describe electrons in atoms and molecules are called orbitals. An orbital is a wavefunction for a single electron. When we say an electron is in orbital \(n\), we mean that it is described by a particular wavefunction \(Ψ_n\) and has energy \(E_n\). All the properties of this electron can ... | 5,543 | 381 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_14%3A_The_Carbon_Family/Z114_Chemistry_of_Flerovium_(Z114) |
The synthesis of element 114 was reported in January of 1999 by scientists from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna (near Moscow) and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (in California). In an experiment lasting more than 40 days Russian scientists bombarded a film of Pu-244 supplied by... | 844 | 382 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_15%3A_The_Nitrogen_Family/Z051_Chemistry_of_Antimony_(Z51) |
Antimony and its compounds have been known for centuries. Scientific study of the element began during the early 17th century, much of the important work being done by Nicolas Lemery. The name of the element comes from the Greek anti + monos for "not alone", while the modern symbol is rooted in the Lati... | 1,664 | 383 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/06%3A_Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/6.01%3A_Collision_Theory/6.1.01%3A_Collisional_Cross_Section |
The collisional cross section is an "effective area" that quantifies the likelihood of a scattering event when an incident species strikes a target species. In a a hard object approximation, the cross section is the area of the conventional geometric cross section. The collisional cross sections typical... | 5,467 | 385 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/06%3A_Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/6.03%3A_Reaction_Profiles/6.3.03%3A_RK3._Activation_Barriers |
Why do reactions take place at different rates? Why do some happen quickly, and others proceed very slowly? Why might the same reaction proceed at different rates under different conditions? There are a number of factors that influence reaction rates, but this article focuses on the activation barrier. An activa... | 3,741 | 386 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Coordination_Chemistry/Structure_and_Nomenclature_of_Coordination_Compounds/Coordination_Numbers_and_Geometry/Jahn-Teller_Distortions |
The Jahn-Teller effect is a geometric distortion of a non-linear molecular system that reduces its symmetry and energy. This distortion is typically observed among where the two axial bonds can be shorter or longer than those of the equatorial bonds. This effect can also be observed in . This effect ... | 7,354 | 388 |
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