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https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Biological_Chemistry/Fermentation_in_Food_Chemistry/01%3A_Modules/1.12%3A_Bread |
Bread is a staple food in many cultures. The key ingredients are a grain starch, water, and a leavening agent. However, there are some breads without leavening agents (tortillas or naan), but these are flat breads. Typical Steps in Bread Production: , also known as baker’s yeast, is the primary leavening agent i... | 4,795 | 4,891 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Logic_of_Organic_Synthesis_(Rao)/04%3A_The_Logic_of_Synthesis |
‘There could be ART in Organic Synthesis’ declared the inimitable monarch of organic synthesis, Professor R.B. Woodward. His school unveiled several elegant approaches covering a variety of complex structures and broke new grounds to define the art of organic synthesis. ‘If organic synthesis is a branch... | 38,775 | 4,892 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/General_Chemistry_Supplement_(Eames)/Chemistry_Basics/Alchemy |
If everything is made of the same 4 elements in different ratios, perhaps you can adjust the ratios of elements through various processes and change one material into another. This was called . In particular, people wanted to change inexpensive metals into gold. There were known examples of one materia... | 4,707 | 4,894 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/09%3A_Gases/9.05%3A_Gas_Laws |
Toward the end of the eighteenth century, many scientists began studying the relationships between pressure, temperature, and volume for gases. They began to realize that relationships between these measurements were the same for all gases. Gases behave similarly to a good approximation over a wide range of cond... | 1,474 | 4,895 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Biological_Chemistry/Fermentation_in_Food_Chemistry/01%3A_Modules/1.14%3A_Cider |
Cider is a drink made from apples. In the US, cider can refer to apple juice or the fermented, alcoholic version. This section will focus on the fermented, alcoholic drink. Typical Steps in Cider Production: Apples are the primary material used in cider production; thus, the final cider product quality and style... | 8,684 | 4,896 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/09%3A_Gases/9.03%3A_Pressure |
You are probably familiar with the general idea of pressure from experiences in pumping tires or squeezing balloons. A gas exerts force on any surface that it contacts. is called the and is represented by . The symbols and represent force and area, respectively. On the image below, a force is pushing dow... | 5,869 | 4,897 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Organic_Chemistry_(Morsch_et_al.)/17%3A_Alcohols_and_Phenols |
When you have completed Chapter 17, you should be able to In this chapter, we examine the chemistry of the alcohol family of compounds. Alcohols can undergo a wide variety of reactions, and because of this reactivity and because they can be prepared in a number of different ways, alcohols occupy an impo... | 1,407 | 4,901 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Biological_Chemistry/Book3A_Medicines_by_Design/05%3A_Medicines_for_the_Future |
he advances in drug development and delivery described in this booklet reflect scientists' growing knowledge about human biology. This knowledge has allowed them to develop medicines targeted to specific molecules or cells. In the future, doctors may be able to treat or prevent diseases with drugs that ... | 2,160 | 4,903 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Biological_Chemistry/Fermentation_in_Food_Chemistry/01%3A_Modules/1.15%3A_Wine |
Wine is defined as the fermented juice of a fruit. Wines have been produced from all kinds of plant materials and fruits. However, the most classic version is made from grapes. Typical Steps in Wine Production: The grape pulp has a high concentration of fermentable sugars while the skin and seeds have a lot of f... | 16,735 | 4,906 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chem1_(Lower)/06%3A_Properties_of_Gases/6.03%3A_Dalton's_Law |
Make sure you thoroughly understand the following essential ideas which have been presented below. Although all gases closely follow the ideal gas law under appropriate conditions, each gas is also a unique chemical substance consisting of molecular units that have definite masses. In this lesson we will see h... | 16,942 | 4,907 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Biological_Chemistry/Fermentation_in_Food_Chemistry/01%3A_Modules/1.13%3A_Beer |
Beer has been produced by humans for 6000 to 8000 years. The key ingredients are a malted barley, water, hops, and yeast. Typical Steps in Beer Production: Barley is a widely adaptable and hardy crop that can be produced in temperate and tropical areas. Barley kernels or grains are the fruit of the barley grass.... | 8,982 | 4,910 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Polymers/Copolymers |
The synthesis of macromolecules composed of more than one monomeric repeating unit has been explored as a means of controlling the properties of the resulting material. In this respect, it is useful to distinguish several ways in which different monomeric units might be incorporated in a polymeric molecule. The ... | 2,374 | 4,911 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_1e_(OpenSTAX)/09%3A_Gases/9.E%3A_Gases_(Exercises) |
Why are sharp knives more effective than dull knives (Hint: think about the definition of pressure)? The cutting edge of a knife that has been sharpened has a smaller surface area than a dull knife. Since pressure is force per unit area, a sharp knife will exert a higher pressure with the same amount of force an... | 27,470 | 4,912 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_1e_(OpenSTAX)/16%3A_Thermodynamics/16.2%3A_Entropy |
In 1824, at the age of 28, Nicolas Léonard Sadi (Figure \(\Page {2}\)) published the results of an extensive study regarding the efficiency of steam heat engines. In a later review of Carnot’s findings, Rudolf introduced a new thermodynamic property that relates the spontaneous heat flow accompanying a proce... | 12,456 | 4,913 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Quantum_Chemistry_(Blinder) |
This course is designed to introduce students to a thorough, research-oriented view of Physical Chemistry. This content builds on the introduction to quantum mechanics where Students will solve the Schrödinger equation in 1-, 2-, and 3-dimensions for several problems of interest in chemistry, including the parti... | 620 | 4,915 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Qualitative_Analysis_of_Common_Cations_in_Water_(Malik) |
The purpose of these experiments is to teach chemical principles behind experimental techniques required for the separation and identification of chemical substances. The techniques will be applied for the separation and identification of fourteen important cations in water solution as a model. The fourteen cati... | 1,450 | 4,919 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Book%3A_Introduction_to_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Wikibook) |
Inorganic chemistry is the study of the synthesis, reactions, structures and properties of compounds of the elements. Inorganic chemistry encompasses the compounds - both molecular and extended solids - of everything else in the periodic table, and overlaps with organic chemistry in the area of organometallic ch... | 699 | 4,922 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Biological_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Biological_Chemistry)/Enzymes/HIV |
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus, which is a class of viruses that carry genetic information in RNA.There are two types of HIV, HIV-1 and HIV-2, with HIV-1 being the most predominant, it is commonly called just HIV. Both types of HIV damage a person’s body by destroying specific blood ... | 7,703 | 4,927 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Biological_Chemistry/Book3A_Medicines_by_Design/01%3A_ABCs_of_Pharmacology |
now why some people's stomachs burn after they swallow an aspirin tablet? Or why a swig of grapefruit juice with breakfast can raise blood levels of some medicines in certain people? Understanding some of the basics of the science of pharmacology will help answer these questions, and many more, about yo... | 1,672 | 4,928 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chem1_(Lower)/14%3A_Thermochemistry/14.05%3A_Calorimetry |
Make sure you thoroughly understand the following essential concept: Constant Volume Calorimetry, also know as bomb calorimetry, is used to measure the heat of a reaction while holding volume constant and resisting large amounts of pressure. Although these two aspects of bomb calorimetry make for accurate result... | 7,696 | 4,932 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_1e_(OpenSTAX)/12%3A_Kinetics/12.3%3A_Rate_Laws |
As described in the previous module, the rate of a reaction is affected by the concentrations of reactants. or are mathematical expressions that describe the relationship between the rate of a chemical reaction and the concentration of its reactants. In general, a rate law (or differential rate law, as it is... | 10,110 | 4,935 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_1e_(OpenSTAX)/Appendices/Essential_Mathematics |
Exponential notation is used to express very large and very small numbers as a product of two numbers. The first number of the product, the , is usually a number not less than 1 and not greater than 10. The second number of the product, the , is written as 10 with an exponent. Some examples of exponential nota... | 7,866 | 4,940 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_1e_(OpenSTAX)/12%3A_Kinetics/12.7%3A_Catalysis |
We have seen that the rate of many reactions can be accelerated by catalysts. A catalyst speeds up the rate of a reaction by lowering the activation energy; in addition, the catalyst is regenerated in the process. Several reactions that are thermodynamically favorable in the absence of a catalyst only occur at a... | 11,595 | 4,942 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Complex_Molecular_Synthesis_(Salomon)/05%3A_Polyketides |
The polyketides, a diverse family of highly oxygenated natural products, are characterized by the presence of many β-dihydroxy or β-hydroxycarbonyl consonant polar functional relationships. Some polyketides have carbon skeletons comprized of a long straight chain of carbon atoms that is often crosslinked into on... | 1,551 | 4,943 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Carbohydrates |
Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of organic compounds found in living organisms. They originate as products of , an endothermic reductive condensation of carbon dioxide requiring light energy and the pigment chlorophyll. \[ nCO_2 + n H_2O + \text{Energy} \rightarrow C_nH_{2n}O_n + nO_2\] As no... | 833 | 4,944 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_1e_(OpenSTAX)/09%3A_Gases/9.1%3A_Gas_Pressure |
The earth’s atmosphere exerts a pressure, as does any other gas. Although we do not normally notice atmospheric pressure, we are sensitive to pressure changes—for example, when your ears “pop” during take-off and landing while flying, or when you dive underwater. Gas pressure is caused by the force exerted by ga... | 12,158 | 4,949 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chem1_(Lower)/08%3A_Solutions/8.06%3A__Reverse_Osmosis |
\[E=mc^2\] If it takes a pressure of \(Π\) atm to bring about osmotic equilibrium, then it follows that applying a hydrostatic pressure greater than this to the high-solute side of an osmotic cell will force water to flow back into the fresh-water side. This process, known as , is now the major technology... | 10,106 | 4,954 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Environmental_Chemistry/Toxicology_MSDT/6%3A_Principles_of_Toxicology |
ToxTutor is divided into the following sections:
Each section of ToxTutor contains one or more related content pages. and buttons are provided to allow you to navigate through these pages. For more information, see the "Getting Around" section below.
The basic principles of toxicology described in Tox... | 1,304 | 4,964 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/General_Chemistry_Supplement_(Eames)/Gases/Gas_Laws |
Boyle was an Irish nobleman who is often described as one of the first modern chemists, as opposed to the old alchemists. However, many of his ideas and experiments came from earlier chemist/alchemists. Boyle observed that for a particular sample of gas at a constant temperature, if the pressure or volu... | 3,925 | 4,968 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Complex_Molecular_Synthesis_(Salomon)/04%3A_Terpenes |
A trivial pattern characterizes the structures of fatty acids: their carbon skeletons generally have even numbers of carbons. This is a consequence of their biosynthetic origins. They are oligomers of the two-carbon building block, acetyl CoA. Terpenes are a structurally and functionally diverse family of natura... | 1,140 | 4,974 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chem1_(Lower)/08%3A_Solutions/8.09%3A_Distillation |
Make sure you thoroughly understand the following essential ideas: Distillation is a process whereby a mixture of liquids having different vapor pressures is separated into its components. At first one might think that this would be quite simple: if you have a solution consisting of liquid A that boils at 50°C a... | 18,480 | 4,978 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Phenols |
Compounds in which a hydroxyl group is bonded to an aromatic ring are called phenols. The chemical behavior of phenols is different in some respects from that of the alcohols, so it is sensible to treat them as a similar but characteristically distinct group. A corresponding difference in reactivity was... | 745 | 4,982 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/CLUE%3A_Chemistry_Life_the_Universe_and_Everything |
We developed much of the material in this new curriculum using research on how people learn and our own work on how to improve understanding and problem solving in college-level science classes. In previous studies we have found that our methods, which include dramatic reorganization and reduction of materials c... | 793 | 4,984 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Chemistry_of_the_Main_Group_Elements_(Barron) |
The main group ( - and -block) elements are among the most diverse in the Periodic Table. Ranging from non-metallic gases (e.g., hydrogen and fluorine), through semi-metals (e.g., metalloids such as silicon) to highly reactive metals (e.g., sodium and potassium). The study of the main group elements is importan... | 675 | 4,986 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chemistry_1e_(OpenSTAX)/17%3A_Electrochemistry |
Electrochemistry deals with chemical reactions that produce electricity and the changes associated with the passage of electrical current through matter. The reactions involve electron transfer, and so they are oxidation-reduction (or redox) reactions. Many metals may be purified or electroplated using electroch... | 789 | 5,000 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Chemistry_and_Global_Awareness_(Gordon) |
Chemistry is all around us "from the air we breathe to the food we eat" to the items at the supermarket that say “no chemicals added”. In fact, it is impossible to create something without using chemistry because chemistry consists of all matter. It allows us to answer questions as simple as why a candle goes ou... | 1,418 | 5,003 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chem1_(Lower)/12%3A_Solubility_Equilibria |
Make sure you thoroughly understand the following essential ideas: Dissolution of a salt in water is a chemical process that is governed by the same laws of chemical equilibrium that apply to any other reaction. There are, however, a number of special aspects of of these equilibria that set them somewhat apart f... | 27,440 | 5,007 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Chemometrics_Using_R_(Harvey) |
Although you may not yet know what we mean by the term chemometrics, you almost certainly make routine use of chemometric techniques in your classes and labs: reporting an average result for several trials of an experiment or creating a calibration curve and using it to find an analyte’s concentration are two ex... | 1,118 | 5,016 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Organometallic_Chemistry_(Evans) |
Organometallic (OM) chemistry is the study of compounds containing, and reactions involving, metal-carbon bonds. The metal-carbon bond may be transient or temporary, but if one exists during a reaction or in a compound of interest, we’re squarely in the domain of organometallic chemistry. Despite the denotationa... | 1,008 | 5,020 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Book%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Saito) |
Inorganic chemistry is of fundamental importance not only as a basic science but also as one of the most useful sources for modern technologies. Elementary substances and solid-state inorganic compounds are widely used in the core of information, communication, automotive, aviation and space industries ... | 1,390 | 5,024 |
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