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very quantum nature, the retrieval process is thus probabilistic. Because quantum associative memories are free from cross-talk, however, spurious memories are never generated. Correspondingly, they have a superior capacity than classical ones. The number of parameters in the unitary matrix U is O ( p n ) {\displaystyl...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
dimension of the matrix (e.g. O ( n 2.373 ) {\displaystyle O{\mathord {\left(n^{2.373}\right)}}} ), but they are not restricted to sparse matrices. Quantum matrix inversion can be applied to machine learning methods in which the training reduces to solving a linear system of equations, for example in least-squares line...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
of quantum computation to learn in a short time and also use fewer parameters than its classical counterparts. It is theoretically and numerically proven that we can approximate non-linear functions, like those used in neural networks, on quantum circuits. Due to VQCs superiority, neural network has been replaced by VQ...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
perceptron and the computation of attention. An example of amplitude amplification being used in a machine learning algorithm is Grover's search algorithm minimization. In which a subroutine uses Grover's search algorithm to find an element less than some previously defined element. This can be done with an oracle that...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
systems of trapped ions and superconducting circuits. A quantum speedup of the agent's internal decision-making time has been experimentally demonstrated in trapped ions, while a quantum speedup of the learning time in a fully coherent (`quantum') interaction between agent and environment has been experimentally realiz...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
the simplicity of implementation, the threshold function is preferred by the majority of quantum neurons for activation functions. === Quantum sampling techniques === Sampling from high-dimensional probability distributions is at the core of a wide spectrum of computational techniques with important applications across...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
was later used to train a fully connected Boltzmann machine to generate, reconstruct, and classify down-scaled, low-resolution handwritten digits, among other synthetic datasets. In both cases, the models trained by quantum annealing had a similar or better performance in terms of quality. The ultimate question that dr...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
generated by a first-order logic template. This provides an exponential reduction in computational complexity in probabilistic inference, and, while the protocol relies on a universal quantum computer, under mild assumptions it can be embedded on contemporary quantum annealing hardware. === Quantum neural networks === ...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
of \| 0 ⟩ {\displaystyle \|0\rangle } and \| 1 ⟩ {\displaystyle \|1\rangle } in Dirac notation. === Quantum Convolution Neural Network === A novel design for multi-dimensional vectors that uses circuits as convolution filters is QCNN. It was inspired by the advantages of CNNs and the power of QML. It is made using a combin...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
the QCNN model does not include the corresponding quantum operation, the fundamental idea of the pooling layer is also offered to assure validity. In QCNN architecture, the pooling layer is typically placed between succeeding convolutional layers. Its function is to shrink the representation's spatial size while preser...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
the quantum state and the corresponding classical labels. Inspired by the extremely successful classical Generative adversarial network(GAN), dissipative quantum generative adversarial network (DQGAN) is introduced for unsupervised learning of the unlabeled training data . The generator and the discriminator are the tw...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
\bigotimes_{\mathbb{N}} \mathcal{M}_{d_O}, \] with the full sample algebra: \[ \mathcal{A}_{H,O} = \bigotimes_{\mathbb{N}} (\mathcal{M}_{d_H} \otimes \mathcal{M}_{d_O}). \] == Hidden Quantum Markov Models == Hidden Quantum Markov Models (HQMMs) are a quantum-enhanced version of classical Hidden Markov Models (HMMs), wh...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
system under study, as well as their interaction, are fully quantum. This section gives a few examples of results on this topic. One class of problem that can benefit from the fully quantum approach is that of 'learning' unknown quantum states, processes or measurements, in the sense that one can subsequently reproduce...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
XAI/XML). These efforts are often also referred to as Interpretable Machine Learning (IML, and by extension IQML). XQML/IQML can be considered as an alternative research direction instead of finding a quantum advantage. For example, XQML has been used in the context of mobile malware detection and classification. Quant...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
concepts. Usually a concept is a function on some domain, such as { 0 , 1 } n {\displaystyle \{0,1\}^{n}} . For example, the concept class could be the set of disjunctive normal form (DNF) formulas on n bits or the set of Boolean circuits of some constant depth. The goal for the learner is to learn (exactly or approxim...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
x D ( x ) \| x , c ( x ) ⟩ {\displaystyle \sum _{x}{\sqrt {D(x)}}\|x,c(x)\rangle } . In the PAC model (and the related agnostic model), this doesn't significantly reduce the number of examples needed: for every concept class, classical and quantum sample complexity are the same up to constant factors. However, for learni...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
arbitrary pairwise connectivity, showing that their model is capable of generating handwritten digits as well as reconstructing noisy images of bars and stripes and handwritten digits. Using a different annealing technology based on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), a quantum Hopfield network was implemented in 2009 th...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
to the field of quantum machine learning, in the form of a so-called quantum memristor, a quantized model of the standard classical memristor. This device can be constructed by means of a tunable resistor, weak measurements on the system, and a classical feed-forward mechanism. An implementation of a quantum memristor ...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
of the deliberation time of reinforcement learning agents employing internal quantum hardware. In March 2021, a team of researchers from Austria, The Netherlands, the US and Germany reported the experimental demonstration of a quantum speedup of the learning time of reinforcement learning agents interacting fully quant...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
computing startup QC Ware. "I have not seen a single piece of evidence that there exists a meaningful [machine learning] task for which it would make sense to use a quantum computer and not a classical computer," - physicist Ryan Sweke of the Free University of Berlin in Germany. “Don't fall for the hype!” - Frank Zick...	{ "page_id": 44108758, "title": "Quantum machine learning" }
The Korean Biology Olympiad (KBO) is a biology olympiad held by Korean Biology Educational Society. The top four finalists become eligible to join the International Biology Olympiad. == See also == List of biology awards == References ==	{ "page_id": 57019357, "title": "Korean Biology Olympiad" }
In chemistry, an acid–base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. It can be used to determine pH via titration. Several theoretical frameworks provide alternative conceptions of the reaction mechanisms and their application in solving related problems; these are called the acid–base the...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
(geinomai) 'engender'). The Lavoisier definition held for over 30 years, until the 1810 article and subsequent lectures by Sir Humphry Davy in which he proved the lack of oxygen in hydrogen sulfide (H2S), hydrogen telluride (H2Te), and the hydrohalic acids. However, Davy failed to develop a new theory, concluding that ...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
in aqueous solution. This is the species which is measured by pH indicators to measure the acidity or basicity of a solution. An Arrhenius base is a substance that dissociates in water to form hydroxide (OH−) ions; that is, a base increases the concentration of OH− ions in an aqueous solution. The Arrhenius definitions...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
"rise" by creating millions of tiny carbon dioxide bubbles. Baking powder is not to be confused with baking soda, which is sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and acidic salts. The bubbles are created because, when the baking powder is combined with water, the sod...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
(H+) – otherwise known as protons – to bases, which "accept" them. An acid–base reaction is, thus, the removal of a hydrogen ion from the acid and its addition to the base. The removal of a hydrogen ion from an acid produces its conjugate base, which is the acid with a hydrogen ion removed. The reception of a proton by...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
+ H 2 O base ↽ − − ⇀ H 3 O + conjugate acid + Cl − conjugate base {\displaystyle {\underset {\text{acid}}{{\ce {HCl_{\,}}}}}\ +\ {\underset {\text{base}}{{\ce {H2O}}}}\quad {\ce {<=>}}\quad {\underset {{\text{conjugate }} \atop {\text{acid }}}{{\ce {H3O+}}}}\ +{\underset {{\text{conjugate}} \atop {\text{base}}}{{\ce {C...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
3 ↽ − − ⇀ NH 4 + + CH 3 COO − {\displaystyle {\ce {CH3COOH + NH3 <=> NH4+ + CH3COO-}}} An H+ ion is removed from acetic acid, forming its conjugate base, the acetate ion, CH3COO−. The addition of an H+ ion to an ammonia molecule of the solvent creates its conjugate acid, the ammonium ion, NH+4. The Brønsted–Lowry model...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
is a typical Lewis acid, Lewis base reaction. All compounds of group 13 elements with a formula AX3 can behave as Lewis acids. Similarly, compounds of group 15 elements with a formula DY3, such as amines, NR3, and phosphines, PR3, can behave as Lewis bases. Adducts between them have the formula X3A←DY3 with a dative co...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
formulated the solvent-based theory in 1925, thereby generalizing the Arrhenius definition to cover aprotic solvents. Germann pointed out that in many solutions, there are ions in equilibrium with the neutral solvent molecules: solvonium ions: a generic name for positive ions. These are also sometimes called solvo-acid...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
defined as a base. Thus, in liquid ammonia, KNH2 (supplying NH−2) is a strong base, and NH4NO3 (supplying NH+4) is a strong acid. In liquid sulfur dioxide (SO2), thionyl compounds (supplying SO2+) behave as acids, and sulfites (supplying SO2−3) behave as bases. The non-aqueous acid–base reactions in liquid ammonia are ...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
on their own right. On the other hand, solvent system theory has been criticized as being too general to be useful. Also, it has been thought that there is something intrinsically acidic about hydrogen compounds, a property not shared by non-hydrogenic solvonium salts. === Lux–Flood definition === This acid–base theory...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
+ + 2 SbS 4 3 − (species exchanged: 3 S 2 − anions) 2 Na + Cl 2 ⟶ 2 Na + + 2 Cl − (species exchanged: 2 electrons) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{ccccll}_{\text{(base)}}&&_{\text{(acid)}}\\[4pt]{\ce {Na2O}}&+&{\ce {SO3}}&\longrightarrow &{\ce {2Na+{}+\ SO4^{2}-}}&{\text{(species exchanged: }}{\ce {O^{2}-}}{\text{anion)}...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
equation show that there is no single order of Lewis base strengths or Lewis acid strengths. == Acid–base equilibrium == The reaction of a strong acid with a strong base is essentially a quantitative reaction. For example, HCl ( aq ) + Na ( OH ) ( aq ) ⟶ H 2 O + NaCl ( aq ) {\displaystyle {\ce {HCl_{(aq)}{}+ Na(OH)_{(a...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
2 − ] ; K = K a 1 K a 2 {\displaystyle \left[{\ce {A-}}\right]\!\left[{\ce {H2PO4-}}\right]=K{\bigl [}{\ce {AH}}{\bigr ]}\!\left[{\ce {HPO4^2-}}\right];\quad K={\frac {K_{a1}}{K_{a2}}}} == Acid–alkali reaction == An acid–alkali reaction is a special case of an acid–base reaction, where the base used is also an alkali. ...	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
– an on-line text John W. Kimball's online biology book section of acid and bases.	{ "page_id": 3038, "title": "Acid–base reaction" }
Copper sulfate may refer to: Copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4, a common, greenish blue compound used as a fungicide and herbicide Copper(I) sulfate, Cu2SO4, an unstable white solid which is uncommonly used	{ "page_id": 592865, "title": "Copper sulfate" }
Auger architectomics is a scientific imaging technique that allows biologists, working in the field of nano-technology, to slice open the cells of living organisms to view and assess their internal workings. Using argon gas etching to open the cells and a scanning electron microscope to create a three-dimensional view,...	{ "page_id": 39455714, "title": "Auger architectomics" }
to assess the effectiveness of such drugs by determining if a single cell can be "powered down" with targeted treatment. Based on the development of the anti-mitochondrial antifungal assay system, the University of the Free State scientists felt there was a need to analyse the system in more detail. As a result, they a...	{ "page_id": 39455714, "title": "Auger architectomics" }
by auger electron spectroscopy (AES) and used to identify the atom and its intensity. Similarly, the surface area can be screened by an electron beam eventually yielding auger electrons that are mapped, showing the distribution of atoms in different colours covering a surface area of predetermined size. The previously-...	{ "page_id": 39455714, "title": "Auger architectomics" }
The molecular formula C10H14N2 (molar mass: 162.23 g/mol, exact mass: 162.1157 u) may refer to: Anabasine Nicotine Phenylpiperazine Rivanicline	{ "page_id": 23661539, "title": "C10H14N2" }
In forest ecology, a snag refers to a standing dead or dying tree, often missing a top or most of the smaller branches. In freshwater ecology it refers to trees, branches, and other pieces of naturally occurring wood found sunken in rivers and streams; it is also known as coarse woody debris. Snags provide habitat for ...	{ "page_id": 2165732, "title": "Snag (ecology)" }
Snag creation occurs naturally as trees die due to old age, disease, drought, or wildfire. A snag undergoes a series of changes from the time the tree dies until final collapse, and each stage in the decay process has particular value to certain wildlife species. Snag persistence depends on two factors, the size of the...	{ "page_id": 2165732, "title": "Snag (ecology)" }
flowing through alluvial flood plains. Snags are important as sites for biofilm growth and for shelter and feeding of aquatic invertebrates in both lowland and upland rivers and streams. In Australia, the role of freshwater snags has been largely ignored until recently, and more than one million snags have been removed...	{ "page_id": 2165732, "title": "Snag (ecology)" }
the Montgomery in the rivers of Alabama to pull out and clear snags. Starting in 1824, there were successful efforts to remove snags from the Mississippi and its tributaries. By 1835, a lieutenant reported to the Chief of Engineers that steamboat travel had become much safer, but by the mid-1840s the appropriations for...	{ "page_id": 2165732, "title": "Snag (ecology)" }
Hybrid speciation is a form of speciation where hybridization between two different species leads to a new species, reproductively isolated from the parent species. Previously, reproductive isolation between two species and their parents was thought to be particularly difficult to achieve, and thus hybrid species were ...	{ "page_id": 7474152, "title": "Hybrid speciation" }
is fertile (i.e. capable of reproduction and thus theoretically could propagate), this poor adaptation would be unlikely to support the establishment of a permanent population. Likewise, lions and tigers have historically overlapped in a portion of their range and can theoretically produce wild hybrids: ligers, which a...	{ "page_id": 7474152, "title": "Hybrid speciation" }
the Amboseli National Park in Kenya, yellow baboons and anubis baboons regularly interbreed. The hybrid males reach maturity earlier than their pure-bred cousins, setting up a situation where the hybrid population may over time replace one or both of the parent species in the area. == Genetics of hybridization == Genet...	{ "page_id": 7474152, "title": "Hybrid speciation" }
the other. Also, the male sex determination gene in the hybrids is only found in the genome of the pool frog, further undermining stability. Such instability can also lead to rapid reduction of chromosome numbers, creating reproductive barriers and thus allowing speciation. == Hybrid speciation in animals == === Homopl...	{ "page_id": 7474152, "title": "Hybrid speciation" }
DNA. === Multiple hybrids during rapid divergence === Rapidly diverging species can sometimes form multiple hybrid species, giving rise to a species complex, like several physically divergent but closely related genera of cichlid fishes in Lake Malawi. The duck genus Anas (mallards and teals) has a very recent divergen...	{ "page_id": 7474152, "title": "Hybrid speciation" }
low frequencies in populations and are produced when unreduced gametes combine with haploid (1N) gametes to produce a triploid offspring that can function as a bridge to the formation of tetraploids. In both paths, the polyploid hybrids are reproductively isolated from the parents due to the difference in ploidy. Polyp...	{ "page_id": 7474152, "title": "Hybrid speciation" }
Pteropsida is a subdivision of vascular plants that is no longer in use. It included all flowering plants and ferns and was divided into Filicinae, Gymnospermae, and Angiospermae. == References ==	{ "page_id": 1772523, "title": "Pteropsida" }
Quantum contextuality is a feature of the phenomenology of quantum mechanics whereby measurements of quantum observables cannot simply be thought of as revealing pre-existing values. Any attempt to do so in a realistic hidden-variable theory leads to values that are dependent upon the choice of the other (compatible) o...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
Such a theory would suppose the following. All quantum-mechanical observables may be simultaneously assigned definite values (this is the realism postulate, which is false in standard quantum mechanics, since there are observables that are indefinite in every given quantum state). These global value assignments may det...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
data is locally consistent but globally inconsistent. This framework gives rise in a natural way to a qualitative hierarchy of contextuality: (Probabilistic) contextuality may be witnessed in measurement statistics, e.g. by the violation of an inequality. A representative example is the KCBS proof of contextuality. Log...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
In the CbD approach, developed by Ehtibar Dzhafarov, Janne Kujala, and colleagues, (non)contextuality is treated as a property of any system of random variables, defined as a set R = { R q c : q ∈ Q , q ≺ c , c ∈ C } {\displaystyle {\mathcal {R}}=\{R_{q}^{c}:q\in Q,q\prec c,c\in C\}} in which each random variable R q c...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
systems of dichotomous ( ± 1 {\displaystyle \pm 1} ) random variables, C n = { ( R 1 1 , R 2 1 ) , ( R 2 2 , R 3 2 ) , … , ( R n n , R 1 n ) } {\displaystyle {\mathcal {C}}_{n}={\big \{}(R_{1}^{1},R_{2}^{1}),(R_{2}^{2},R_{3}^{2}),\ldots ,(R_{n}^{n},R_{1}^{n}){\big \}}} ( n ≥ 2 {\displaystyle n\geq 2} ), it has been sho...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
n ) ≤ n − 2 , {\displaystyle D({\mathcal {C}}_{n})\leq n-2,} which includes the Bell/CHSH inequality ( n = 4 {\displaystyle n=4} ), KCBS inequality ( n = 5 {\displaystyle n=5} ), and other famous inequalities. That nonlocality is a special case of contextuality follows in CbD from the fact that being jointly distribute...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
in standard definitions of contextuality. This breaks the interpretation of nonlocality as a special case of contextuality, and does not treat irreducible randomness as nonclassical. Nevertheless, it recovers the usual notion of contextuality when outcome determinism is imposed. Spekkens' contextuality can be motivated...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
ϕ n ⟩ {\displaystyle \|\phi _{n}\rangle } within a specified context, has been called a modality by Auffèves and Grangier Since it is clear that \| ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle \|\psi \rangle } alone does not define a modality, what is its status ? If N ≥ 3 {\displaystyle N\geq 3} , one sees easily that \| ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle \|\psi \...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
=== Other frameworks and extensions === A form of contextuality that may present in the dynamics of a quantum system was introduced by Shane Mansfield and Elham Kashefi, and has been shown to relate to computational quantum advantages. As a notion of contextuality that applies to transformations it is inequivalent to t...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
′ . {\displaystyle e=\lambda e^{NC}+(1-\lambda )e'\,.} The maximum value of λ over all such decompositions is the noncontextual fraction of e denoted NCF(e), while the remainder CF(e)=(1-NCF(e)) is the contextual fraction of e. The idea is that we look for a noncontextual explanation for the highest possible fraction o...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
{P} } representing all possible noncontextual systems with the same single-variable marginals. For cyclic systems of dichotomous random variables, it is shown that if the system is contextual (i.e., D ( C n ) > Δ ( C n ) {\displaystyle D\left({\mathcal {C}}_{n}\right)>\Delta \left({\mathcal {C}}_{n}\right)} ), C N T 2 ...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
in quantum computing. === Magic state distillation === Magic state distillation is a scheme for quantum computing in which quantum circuits constructed only of Clifford operators, which by themselves are fault-tolerant but efficiently classically simulable, are injected with certain "magic" states that promote the comp...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
were sufficient to compute a non-linear function. This in turn could be used to boost computational power to that of a universal classical computer, i.e. to solve problems in the complexity class P. This is sometimes referred to as measurement-based classical computation. The specific examples made use of the Greenberg...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
of the quantum system to the probability of success and the degree of non-linearity of the target function. Preparation contextuality has been shown to enable quantum advantages in cryptographic random-access codes and in state-discrimination tasks. In classical simulations of quantum systems, contextuality has been sh...	{ "page_id": 38407148, "title": "Quantum contextuality" }
Peanut butter is a viscoelastic food that exhibits both solid and fluid behaviors. It consists of ground up peanuts and may contain additional additives, such as stabilizers, sugars, or salt. Its characteristic soft, spreadable texture can be further defined through rheology – the study of flow and deformation of matte...	{ "page_id": 76090350, "title": "Rheology of peanut butter" }
it is unable to crystallize at room temperature. The melting point of peanut oil is 3 °C (37 °F). At room temperature, the oils in natural peanut butter remain liquid, causing a phase separation. Within the stabilized peanut butter, the microstructural features are able to remain well-dispersed in a matrix of stabilize...	{ "page_id": 76090350, "title": "Rheology of peanut butter" }
size difference in peanut and oil particles. The larger peanut particles likely form loosely bound aggregates that break down as shear rate increases (e.g. mixing), which allow the oil to better disperse between peanut particles, resulting in a reduced viscosity. === Rough plates with parallel plate rheometers === Anot...	{ "page_id": 76090350, "title": "Rheology of peanut butter" }
G’’ until critical strain amplitude is reached. Beyond this critical point, both moduli start to increase. The initial observed decrease was likely due to a structure breakdown under strain. Mentioned previously, the increase in strain causes loosely aggregated peanut particles to break, allowing a more homogeneous oil...	{ "page_id": 76090350, "title": "Rheology of peanut butter" }
void space than larger particles, density would increase as grinding time increased. For shorter grinding times, there is a wider particle size distribution, meaning the overall peanut particle size is less uniform. This results in a wider linear viscoelastic region, and allows unstabilized peanut butter to behave more...	{ "page_id": 76090350, "title": "Rheology of peanut butter" }
Glucuronidase may refer to several enzymes: Alpha-glucuronidase Beta-glucuronidase Glycyrrhizinate beta-glucuronidase Glucuronosyl-disulfoglucosamine glucuronidase	{ "page_id": 20712430, "title": "Glucuronidase" }
In condensed matter physics, the Fermi surface is the surface in reciprocal space which separates occupied electron states from unoccupied electron states at zero temperature. The shape of the Fermi surface is derived from the periodicity and symmetry of the crystalline lattice and from the occupation of electronic ene...	{ "page_id": 986096, "title": "Fermi surface" }
must be minimal, meaning that they cannot change state. If, for a particle in some state, there existed an unoccupied lower state that it could occupy, then the energy difference between those states would give the electron an additional enthalpy. Hence, the enthalpy of the electron would not be minimal. Therefore, at ...	{ "page_id": 986096, "title": "Fermi surface" }
both electron and hole pockets in its Fermi surface due to multiple bands crossing the Fermi energy along the k z {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} _{z}} direction. Often in a metal, the Fermi surface radius k F {\displaystyle k_{\rm {F}}} is larger than the size of the first Brillouin zone, which results in a portion of the ...	{ "page_id": 986096, "title": "Fermi surface" }
{\displaystyle H} , for example the de Haas–van Alphen effect (dHvA) and the Shubnikov–de Haas effect (SdH). The former is an oscillation in magnetic susceptibility and the latter in resistivity. The oscillations are periodic versus 1 / H {\displaystyle 1/H} and occur because of the quantization of energy levels in the...	{ "page_id": 986096, "title": "Fermi surface" }
the Fermi surface, is the angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). An example of the Fermi surface of superconducting cuprates measured by ARPES is shown in Figure 3. === Measurement using ACAR === With positron annihilation it is also possible to determine the Fermi surface as the annihilation process conser...	{ "page_id": 986096, "title": "Fermi surface" }
Tiago de Paula Peixoto is a Brazilian physicist who works in the areas of network science, statistical physics, and complex systems. He is currently an full professor of Complex Systems and Network Science at the Interdisciplinary Transformation University. == Career == Peixoto is mostly known for his work in statistic...	{ "page_id": 61869041, "title": "Tiago P. Peixoto" }
A time-of-flight (TOF) detector is a particle detector which can discriminate between a lighter and a heavier elementary particle of same momentum using their time of flight between two scintillators. The first of the scintillators activates a clock upon being hit while the other stops the clock upon being hit. If the ...	{ "page_id": 1379315, "title": "Time-of-flight detector" }
Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering the disciplines of medicinal chemistry and drug design relating to chemotherapeutic agents in cancer. It is published by Bentham Science Publishers and the editor-in-chief is Simone Carradori ("G. d'Annunzio" University of Chieti-Pes...	{ "page_id": 60034038, "title": "Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry" }
Freezer burn is a condition that occurs when frozen food has been damaged by dehydration and oxidation due to air reaching the food. It is generally caused by food not being securely wrapped in air-tight packaging. Freezer burn appears as grayish-brown leathery spots on frozen food and occurs when air reaches the food'...	{ "page_id": 1641463, "title": "Freezer burn" }
Pharmaceutical drugs become known for off-label use when publications begin discussing how they can be used for off-label treatment of medical conditions. == List == Actiq (oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate), a controlled substance, is used off-label to treat moderate to severe chronic, non-malignant pain even though ...	{ "page_id": 53677048, "title": "List of drugs known for off-label use" }
preventing recurrent episodes. Although the exact mechanism of colchicine is not fully understood, its anti-inflammatory effect for pericarditis appears to be related to its ability to inhibit microtubule self-assembly, resulting in decreased leucocyte motility and phagocytosis. Other non-FDA-approved uses include acti...	{ "page_id": 53677048, "title": "List of drugs known for off-label use" }
sleep disorder, and obstructive sleep apnea. It is often used off-label as a nootropic. Prazosin (Minipress) for nightmares: prazosin is approved for the use of hypertension. A 2012 systematic review showed a small benefit for the treatment of PTSD-associated night terrors. Other non-FDA-approved uses for prazosin incl...	{ "page_id": 53677048, "title": "List of drugs known for off-label use" }
See also == Lists of drugs List of off-label promotion pharmaceutical settlements Marketing of off-label use == References ==	{ "page_id": 53677048, "title": "List of drugs known for off-label use" }
Sympathetic cooling is a process in which particles of one type cool particles of another type. Typically, atomic ions that can be directly laser cooled are used to cool nearby ions or atoms, by way of their mutual Coulomb interaction. This technique is used to cool ions and atoms that cannot be cooled directly by lase...	{ "page_id": 11996151, "title": "Sympathetic cooling" }
A vaccine passport or proof of vaccination is an immunity passport employed as a credential in countries and jurisdictions as part of efforts to control the COVID-19 pandemic via vaccination. A vaccine passport is typically issued by a government or health authority, and usually consists of a digital or printed record....	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
passports due to worries that discrimination and economic harm would occur, but later joined the other nations of the United Kingdom in mandating vaccine passports due to the threat of the Omicron variant. == History and background == Many governments, including Finland and Germany, expressed early interest in the conc...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
Ecma International announced revisions to Ecma-417 (Architectures for distributed real-time access systems) relevant to standards for vaccine passports. An early advocate of immunity passports during the COVID-19 pandemic was Sam Rainsy, the Cambodian opposition leader. In exile and under confinement in Paris, he propo...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
eligible for a Green Pass, exempting them from isolation requirements and mandatory COVID-19 tests, including those on arrival from overseas. In February 2021, Israel became one of the first countries to implement a vaccine passport system, dubbed the Green Pass. They are required in order to access venues such as gyms...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
though by April 2021 the system began to accept records of receiving the Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, and Janssen vaccines. As of March 2021, the app was optional and its use was restricted to Chinese citizens. The digital health passport is intended to better facilitate travel. Privacy advocates and Chinese netizens have...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
like malls, shopping centres and markets must be fully vaccinated. The country uses the Tawakkalna app which includes information for health appointments, vaccination status and alerts users to COVID-19 exposure for contact tracing purposes. ==== Singapore ==== Since 10 August 2021, all residents dining out must be ful...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
caretaker Minister of Health of Bulgaria, Stoycho Katsarov, introduced the Green Certificate (Bulgarian: Зелен Сертификат). Since 21 October 2021, all visitors to cinemas, theaters, concerts, museums, galleries, supermarkets over 300 square meters, fitness centers, gyms, restaurants and entertainment centers in Bulgari...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
in accordance with EU Directive 2021/953, effective 1 July 2021. ===== Hungary ===== Outside of the application of the EUDCC, Hungary recognises Kazakh and Indian vaccine passports. ===== Ireland ===== In July 2021, Ireland introduced a vaccine certificate program (EU Digital COVID Certificate) which allowed vaccinated...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
Scotland Covid Status", and Northern Ireland as "COVIDCert NI". By December 2021, all four nations had mandated proof of vaccination or a recent negative test in specific settings. The exact rules vary by nation, but they primarily applied to venues such as cinemas, nightclubs, and venues hosting large organized events...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
boarding domestic and/or international commercial airplanes departing from most Canada-based airports, and those riding on the cross-country Via Rail services. Travellers by land (via the United States border) are required to be fully vaccinated to enter Canada and must provide a negative test 72-hours before land cros...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
===== Manitoba ===== Manitoba was the first province to introduce a passport system in Canada on 17 July 2021. The passport requirement was removed for movie theatres, museums and galleries on 7 August 2021, only to be reinstated on 3 September 2021, upon Manitoba expanding its passport system. The province utilized ph...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
passport system on 30 November 2021 to access non-essential indoor facilities. ==== United States ==== Although the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issues a COVID-19 vaccine card that may be accepted as proof of vaccination (but is vulnerable to forgery and counterfeiting, and thus not a verifiable pro...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
codes that are only usable within the issuing state, and others have broad interoperability, with New York offering both types of credentials for its residents. Arizona, Maryland, Mississippi, North Dakota, Washington, West Virginia, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia have contracted with the organization MyIR t...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }
and swimming pools. This document was given to people with two doses of the COVID-19 vaccine, later it was upscaled to three doses and later on in the same year four doses were required, being one of the most drastic vaccines passports in the world. Chile is the only country in the world with entry procedures such as r...	{ "page_id": 68750333, "title": "Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic" }

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