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89 Long-Term Climate and Development Futures Section 3 3.4.2 Advancing Integrated Climate Action for Sustainable Development An inclusive, equitable approach to integrating adaptation, mitigation and development can advance sustainable development in the long term (high conﬁdence). Integrated responses can harness s...
{WGII SPM C.5.4, WGII SPM D.1, WGII SPM D.1.1, WGII SPM D.1.2, WGII SPM D.2, WGII SPM D.3, WGII SPM D.5, WGII SPM D.5.1, WGII SPM D.5.2; WGIII SPM D.1, WGIII SPM D.2, WGIII SPM D.2.4, WGIII SPM E.2.2, WGIII SPM E.2.3, WGIII SPM E.5.3, WGIII Cross-Chapter Box 5} Policies that shift development pathways towards sust...
Coastal cities and settlements play an important role in advancing climate resilient development due to the high number of people living in the Low Elevation Coastal Zone, the escalating and climate compounded risk that they face, and their vital role in national economies and beyond (high conﬁdence). {WGII SPM.D....
{WGII SPM D.1, WGII SPM D.1.1, WGII SPM D.4, WGII SPM D.4.3, WGII SPM D.5.1; WGIII SPM D.1.1} The cumulative scientiﬁc evidence is unequivocal: climate change is a threat to human well-being and planetary health (very high conﬁdence). Any further delay in concerted anticipatory global action on adaptation and miti...
90
91 Section 4 Near-Term Responses in a Changing Climate
92 Section 4 Section 1 Section 4 Section 4 : Near-Term Responses in a Changing Climate 4.1 The Timing and Urgency of Climate Action The magnitude and rate of climate change and associated risks depend strongly on near-term mitigation and adaptation actions (very high conﬁdence). Global warming is more likely than not...
Without urgent, effective and equitable adaptation and mitigation actions, climate change increasingly threatens the health and livelihoods of people around the globe, ecosystem health, and biodiversity, with severe adverse consequences for current and future generations (high conﬁdence). {WGI SPM B.1.3, WGI SPM B...
The best estimates [and very likely ranges] of global warming for the different scenarios in the near term are: 1.5 [1.2 to 1.7]°C (SSP1-1.9); 1.5 [1.2 to 1.8]°C (SSP1-2.6); 1.5 [1.2 to 1.8]°C (SSP2-4.5); 1.5 [1.2 to 1.8]°C (SSP3-7.0); and 1.6[1.3 to 1.9]°C (SSP5-8.5). {WGI SPM B.1.3, WGI Table SPM.1} (Cross-Section ...
{WGIII SPM footnote 30} 144 These numbers for CO2 are 48 [36 to 69]% in 2030, 65 [50 to 96] % in 2035, 80 [61 to109] % in 2040 and 99 [79 to 119]% in 2050. 145 These numbers for CO2 are 22 [1 to 44]% in 2030, 37 [21 to 59] % in 2035, 51 [36 to 70] % in 2040 and 73 [55 to 90]% in 2050. 146 In this context, ‘unabated fos...
In pathways that limit warming to 1.5°C (>50%) with no or limited overshoot, net global GHG emissions are projected to fall by 43 [34 to 60]%143 below 2019 levels by 2030, 60 [49 to 77]% by 2035, 69 [58 to 90]% by 2040 and 84 [73 to 98]% by 2050 (high conﬁdence) (Section 2.3.1, Table 2.2, Figure 2.5, Table 3.1)144...
{WGIII SPM B.6.3, WGIII 3.5.2, WGIII SPM B.6, WGIII SPM B.6., WGIII SPM C.1, WGIII SPM C1.1, WGIII Table SPM.2} (Cross-Section Box.2) Deep, rapid, and sustained mitigation and accelerated implementation of adaptation reduces the risks of climate change for humans and ecosystems. In modelled pathways that limit warmi...
93 Near-Term Responses in a Changing Climate Section 4 All global modelled pathways that limit warming to 2°C (>67%) or lower by 2100 involve reductions in both net CO2 emissions and non-CO2 emissions (see Figure 3.6) (high confidence). For example, in pathways that limit warming to 1.5°C (>50%) with no or limited ...
The contributions of different sectors vary across modelled mitigation pathways. In most global modelled mitigation pathways, emissions from land-use, land-use change and forestry, via reforestation and reduced deforestation, and from the energy supply sector reach net zero CO2 emissions earlier than the buildings,...
94 Section 4 Section 1 Section 4 a) Sectoral emissions in pathways that limit warming to 1.5°C b) Greenhouse gas emissions by sector at the time of net zero CO2, compared to 2019 The transition towards net zero CO2 will have different pace across different sectors CO2 emissions from the electricity/fossil fuel indust...
95 Near-Term Responses in a Changing Climate Section 4 4.2 Beneﬁts of Strengthening Near-Term Action Figure 4.1: Sectoral emissions in pathways that limit warming to 1.5°C. Panel (a) shows sectoral CO2 and non-CO2 emissions in global modelled pathways that limit warming to 1.5°C (>50%) with no or limited overshoot. Th...
Positive (solid ﬁlled bars) and negative emissions (hatched bars) for different illustrative mitigation pathways are compared to GHG emissions from the year 2019. The category “energy supply (including electricity)” includes bioenergy with carbon capture and storage and direct air carbon capture and storage. {WGIII B...
Deep, rapid, and sustained mitigation actions would reduce future adaptation costs and losses and damages, enhance sustainable development co-beneﬁts, avoid locking-in emission sources, and reduce stranded assets and irreversible climate changes. These near-term actions involve higher up-front investments and disrup...
The magnitude and rate of climate change and associated risks depend strongly on near-term mitigation and adaptation actions, and projected adverse impacts and related losses and damages escalate with every increment of global warming (very high conﬁdence). Delayed mitigation action will further increase global war...
Mitigation will improve air quality and human health in the near term notably because many air pollutants are 148 In this context, ‘unabated fossil fuels’ refers to fossil fuels produced and used without interventions that substantially reduce the amount of GHG emitted throughout the life cycle; for example, capturi...
The continued installation of unabated fossil fuel148 infrastructure will ‘lock-in’ GHG emissions (high conﬁdence). Limiting global warming to 2°C or below will leave a substantial amount of fossil fuels unburned and could strand considerable fossil fuel infrastructure (high confidence), with globally discounted v...
96 Section 4 Section 1 Section 4 Scaling-up near-term climate actions (Section 4.1) will mobilise a mix of low-cost and high-cost options. High-cost options, as in energy and infrastructure, are needed to avoid future lock-ins, foster innovation and initiate transformational changes (Figure 4.4). Climate resilient ...
Societal choices and actions implemented in this decade will determine the extent to which medium and long-term development pathways will deliver higher or lower climate resilient development outcomes. (high conﬁdence) {WGII SPM D.2, WGII SPM D.5, WGII Box TS.8; WGIII SPM D.3, WGIII SPM E.2, WGIII SPM E.3, WGIII SP...
{WGII SPM D.2; WGIII SPM E.1, WGIII SPM E.2} Barriers to feasibility would need to be reduced or removed to deploy mitigation and adaptation options at scale. Many limits to feasibility and effectiveness of responses can be overcome by addressing a range of barriers, including economic, technological, institutional...
This encompasses three main directions: (a) economy-wide mainstreaming packages supporting options to improved sustainable low-emission economic recovery, development and job creation programs (Sections 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.8, 4.9) (b) safety nets and social protection in the transition (Section 4.4, 4.7); and (c) bro...
97 Near-Term Responses in a Changing Climate Section 4 Climate Resilient Development Emissions reductions Adaptation Sustainable Development Multiple interacting choices and actions can shift development pathways towards sustainability Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) achievement IPCC AR6 2030 Present world Past c...
Climate resilient development is the process of implementing greenhouse gas mitigation and adaptation measures to support sustainable development. Diverging pathways illustrate that interacting choices and actions made by diverse government, private sector and civil society actors can advance climate resilient develo...
Climatic and non-climatic events, such as droughts, ﬂoods or pandemics, pose more severe shocks to pathways with lower climate resilient development (red to yellow) than to pathways with higher climate resilient development (green). There are limits to adaptation and adaptive capacity for some human and natural syste...
Multiple climatic and non-climatic risks will interact, resulting in increased compounding and cascading impacts becoming more difﬁcult to manage (high conﬁdence). Losses and damages will increase with increasing global warming (very high conﬁdence), while strongly concentrated among the poorest vulnerable populatio...
98 Section 4 Section 1 Section 4 Global warming will continue to increase in the near term (2021–2040) mainly due to increased cumulative CO2 emissions in nearly all considered scenarios and pathways. In the near term, every region in the world is projected to face further increases in climate hazards (medium to hi...
If a large explosive volcanic eruption were to occur in the near term150 , it would temporarily and partially mask human-caused climate change by reducing global surface temperature and precipitation, especially over land, for one to three years (medium conﬁdence). {WGI SPM B.1.3, WGI SPM B.1.4, WGI SPM C.1, WGI S...
Urbanisation increases hot extremes (very high conﬁdence) and precipitation runoff intensity (high conﬁdence). Increasing urbanisation in low-lying and coastal zones will be a major driver of increasing exposure to extreme riverﬂow events and sea level rise hazards, increasing risks (high conﬁdence) (Figure 4.3). V...
The main internal variability phenomena include El Niño–Southern Oscillation, Paciﬁc Decadal Variability and Atlantic Multi-decadal Variability through their regional influence. The internal variability of global surface temperature in any single year is estimated to be about ±0.25°C (5 to 95% range, high confidence)....
{WGI SPM B.2.2, WGI TS Figure TS.6; WGII SPM B.1.4, WGII SPM B.4.4, WGII Figure SPM.2} • Increasing frequency of marine heatwaves will increase risks of biodiversity loss in the oceans, including from mass mortality events (high conﬁdence). {WGI SPM B.2.3; WGII SPM B.1.2, WGII Figure SPM.2; SROCC SPM B.5.1} • Nea...
{WGI SPM B.2.4, WGI SPM C.2.2, WGI SPM C.2.6, WGI 11.7} • High risks from dryland water scarcity, wildﬁre damage, and permafrost degradation (medium conﬁdence). {SRCCL SPM A.5.3.} • Continued sea level rise and increased frequency and magnitude of extreme sea level events encroaching on coastal human settlements an...
99 Near-Term Responses in a Changing Climate Section 4 • Cryosphere-related changes in ﬂoods, landslides, and water availability have the potential to lead to severe consequences for people, infrastructure and the economy in most mountain regions (high conﬁdence). {WGII TS C.4.2} • The projected increase in frequenc...
These interacting impacts will increase food prices, reduce household incomes, and lead to health risks of malnutrition and climate-related mortality with no or low levels of adaptation, especially in tropical regions (high conﬁdence). Concurrent and cascading risks from climate change to food systems, human settl...
Increasing transboundary risks are projected across the food, energy and water sectors as impacts from weather and climate extremes propagate through supply-chains, markets, and natural resource ﬂows (high conﬁdence) and may interact with impacts from other crises such as pandemics. Risks also arise from some resp...
100 Section 4 Section 1 Section 4 absolute increase (and percent increase) Every region faces more severe and/or frequent compound and cascading climate risks a) Increase in the population exposed to sea level rise from 2020 to 2040 Frequency of events that currently occur on average once every 100 years Multiple cli...
Projected change to 1-in-100 year events under the intermediate SSP2-4.5 scenario
101 Near-Term Responses in a Changing Climate Section 4 Figure 4.3: Every region faces more severe or frequent compound and/or cascading climate risks in the near term. Changes in risk result from changes in the degree of the hazard, the population exposed, and the degree of vulnerability of people, assets, or ecosyst...
A peak-over-threshold (99.7%) method was applied to the historical tide gauge observations available in the Global Extreme Sea Level Analysis version 2 database, which is the same information as WGI Figure 9.32, except here the panel uses relative sea level projections under SSP2-4.5 for the year 2040 instead of 2050...
Adaptation responses are immediately needed to reduce rising climate risks, especially for the most vulnerable. Equity, inclusion and just transitions are key to progress on adaptation and deeper societal ambitions for accelerated mitigation. (high conﬁdence) Adaptation and mitigation actions, across scales, sectors ...
{WGII SPM B.5.1, WGII SPM C.2.9, WGII SPM D.2.1, WGII TS Box TS.4; WGIII SPM D.3, WGIII SPM D.3.3, WGIII SPM WGIII SPM E.3, SR1.5 SPM D.4.5} (Figure 4.3c) Regions and people with considerable development constraints have high vulnerability to climatic hazards. Adaptation outcomes for the most vulnerable within and ...
Several risks can be moderated with adaptation (high conﬁdence). The largest adaptation gaps exist among lower income population groups (high conﬁdence) and adaptation progress is unevenly distributed with observed adaptation gaps (high conﬁdence). Present development challenges causing high vulnerability are inﬂu...
Such actions with ﬂexible pathways may encourage low-regret and timely actions (very high conﬁdence). Integrating climate adaptation into social protection programmes, including cash transfers and public works programmes, would increase resilience to climate change, especially when supported by basic services and ...
102 Section 4 Section 1 Section 4 and burdens, especially for vulnerable countries and communities. {WGIII SPM D.3, WGIII SPM D.3.2, WGIII SPM D.3.3, WGIII SPM D.3.4, WGIII TS Box TS.4} Development priorities among countries also reﬂect different starting points and contexts, and enabling conditions for shifting de...
Individuals with high socio-economic status contribute disproportionately to emissions, and have the highest potential for emissions reductions, e.g., as citizens, investors, consumers, role models, and professionals (high conﬁdence). There are options on design of instruments such as taxes, subsidies, prices, and...
Broadening equitable access to domestic and international ﬁnance, technologies and capacity can also act as a catalyst for accelerating mitigation and shifting development pathways in low-income contexts (high conﬁdence). Eradicating extreme poverty, energy poverty, and providing decent living standards to all in t...
System transitions151 consistent with pathways that limit warming to 1.5°C (>50%) with no or limited overshoot are more rapid and pronounced in the near-term than in those that limit warming to 2°C (>67%) (high conﬁdence). Such a systemic change is unprecedented in terms of scale, but not necessarily in terms of s...
This report has a particular focus on the following system transitions: energy; industry; cities, settlements and infrastructure; land, ocean, food and water; health and nutrition; and society, livelihood and economies. {WGII SPM A, WGII Figure SPM.1, WGII Figure SPM.4; SR1.5 SPM C.2} 152 See Annex I: Glossary. globa...
103 Near-Term Responses in a Changing Climate Section 4 There are multiple opportunities for scaling up climate action Costs are lower than the reference 0–20 (USD per tCO2-eq) 20–50 (USD per tCO2-eq) 50–100 (USD per tCO2-eq) 100–200 (USD per tCO2-eq) Cost not allocated due to high variability or lack of data Net life...
WASH, nutrition and diets) Green infrastructure and ecosystem services Sustainable land use and urban planning Sustainable urban water management Climate services, including Early Warning Systems Livelihood diversiﬁcation Disaster risk management Social safety nets Risk spreading and sharing Planned relocation and rese...
104 Section 4 Section 1 Section 4 Figure 4.4: Multiple Opportunities for scaling up climate action. Panel (a) presents selected mitigation and adaptation options across different systems. The left hand side of panel (a) shows climate responses and adaptation options assessed for their multidimensional feasibility at g...
Synergies with mitigation are identiﬁed as high, medium, and low. The right-hand side of panel (a) provides an overview of selected mitigation options and their estimated costs and potentials in 2030. Relative potentials and costs will vary by place, context and time and in the longer term compared to 2030. Costs are...
Only discounted lifetime monetary costs are considered. Where a gradual colour transition is shown, the breakdown of the potential into cost categories is not well known or depends heavily on factors such as geographical location, resource availability, and regional circumstances, and the colours indicate the range o...
The green arrow represents the demand-side emissions reductions potentials. The range in potential is shown by a line connecting dots displaying the highest and the lowest potentials reported in the literature. Food shows demand-side potential of socio-cultural factors and infrastructure use, and changes in land-use p...
Energy Systems Rapid and deep reductions in GHG emissions require major energy system transitions (high conﬁdence). Adaptation options can help reduce climate-related risks to the energy system (very high conﬁdence). Net zero CO2 energy systems entail: a substantial reduction in overall fossil fuel use, minimal use...
{WGIII SPM footnote 54} 154 The mitigation potentials and mitigation costs of individual technologies in a speciﬁc context or region may differ greatly from the provided estimates (medium conﬁdence). {WGIII SPM C.12.1} conﬁdence). The most feasible energy system adaptation options support infrastructure resilience, r...
105 Near-Term Responses in a Changing Climate Section 4 transformational changes in production processes (high conﬁdence). Light industry and manufacturing can be largely decarbonized through available abatement technologies (e.g., material efﬁciency, circularity), electriﬁcation (e.g., electrothermal heating, heat ...
{WGII TS.B.9.1, WGII 16.5.2; WGIII SPM C.5, WGIII SPM C.5.2, WGIII SPM C.5.3, WGIII TS.5.5} Many industrial and service sectors are negatively affected by climate change through supply and operational disruptions, especially from extreme events (high conﬁdence), and will require adaptation efforts. Water intensive ...
Cities, Settlements and Infrastructure Urban systems are critical for achieving deep emissions reductions and advancing climate resilient development, particularly when this involves integrated planning that incorporates physical, natural and social infrastructure (high conﬁdence). Deep emissions reductions and int...
Effective mitigation can be advanced at each of the design, construction, retroﬁt, use and disposal stages for buildings. Mitigation interventions for buildings include: at the construction phase, low- 155 A set of measures and daily practices that avoid demand for energy, materials, land and water while delivering h...
Electric vehicles powered by low-emissions electricity offer the largest decarbonisation potential for land-based transport, on a life cycle basis (high conﬁdence). Costs of electriﬁed vehicles are decreasing and their adoption is accelerating, but they require continued investments in supporting infrastructure to ...
{WGII SPM B.2.5; WGIII SPM C.6.2, WGIII SPM C.8, WGIII SPM C.8.1, WGIII SPM C.8.2, WGIII SPM C.10.2, WGIII SPM C.10.3, WGIII SPM C.10.4} Green/natural and blue infrastructure such as urban forestry, green roofs, ponds and lakes, and river restoration can mitigate climate change through carbon uptake and storage, a...
106 Section 4 Section 1 Section 4 and marginalised communities including people living in informal settlements (high conﬁdence). {WGII SPM C.2.5, WGII SPM C.2.6, WGII SPM C.2.7, WGII SPM D.3.2, WGII TS.E.1.4, WGII Cross-Chapter Box FEAS; WGIII SPM C.6, WGIII SPM C.6.2, WGIII SPM D.1.3, WGIII SPM D.2.1} Responses to ...
Conservation, improved management, and restoration of forests and other ecosystems offer the largest share of economic mitigation potential, with reduced deforestation in tropical regions having the highest total mitigation potential. Ecosystem restoration, reforestation, and afforestation can lead to trade-offs d...
(high conﬁdence) {WGII SPM C.2.1, WGII SPM C.2.2, WGII SPM C.2.5; WGIII SPM C.9.1; SRCCL SPM B.1.1, SRCCL SPM B.5.4, SRCCL SPM D.1; SROCC SPM C} Some options, such as conservation of high-carbon ecosystems (e.g., peatlands, wetlands, rangelands, mangroves and forests), have immediate impacts while others, such as ...
by protection, restoration, precautionary ecosystem-based management of renewable resource use, and the reduction of pollution and other stressors (high confidence). {WGII SPM C.2.4, WGII SPM D.4; SROCC SPM C.2} Large-scale land conversion for bioenergy, biochar, or afforestation can increase risks to biodiversity...
Enhancing natural water retention such as by restoring wetlands and rivers, land use planning such as no build zones or upstream forest management, can further reduce ﬂood risk (medium conﬁdence). For inland ﬂooding, combinations of non-structural measures like early warning systems and structural measures like lev...
Ecosystem-based management in fisheries and aquaculture supports food security, biodiversity, human health and well-being (high confidence). {WGII SPM C.2.2, WGII SPM C.2; SROCC SPM C2.3, SROCC SPM C.2.4} 4.5.5. Health and Nutrition Human health will beneﬁt from integrated mitigation and adaptation options that ma...
107 Near-Term Responses in a Changing Climate Section 4 Improved access to clean energy sources and technologies, and shifts to active mobility (e.g., walking and cycling) and public transport can deliver socioeconomic, air quality and health benefits, especially for women and children (high confidence). {WGII SPM C...
For vector-borne diseases, effective adaptation options include surveillance, early warning systems, and vaccine development (very high conﬁdence). Effective adaptation options for reducing mental health risks under climate change include improving surveillance and access to mental health care, and monitoring of p...
Climate literacy and information provided through climate services and community approaches, including those that are informed by Indigenous Knowledge and local knowledge, can accelerate behavioural changes and planning (high conﬁdence). Educational and information programmes, using the arts, participatory modelli...
Climate services that are demand-driven and inclusive of different users and providers can improve agricultural practices, inform better water use and efﬁciency, and enable resilient infrastructure planning (high conﬁdence). Policy mixes that include weather and health insurance, social protection and adaptive safe...
Increasing adaptive capacity minimises risk associated with involuntary migration and immobility and improves the degree of choice under which migration decisions are made, while policy interventions can remove barriers and expand the alternatives for safe, orderly and regular migration that allows vulnerable peopl...
108 Section 4 Section 1 Section 4 Many mitigation and adaptation actions have multiple synergies with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), but some actions can also have trade-offs. Potential synergies with SDGs exceed potential trade-offs. Synergies and trade-offs are context specific and depend on: means and sca...
Clean energy supply systems have multiple co-benefits, including improvements in air quality and health. Heat Health Action Plans that include early warning and response systems, approaches that mainstream health into food, livelihoods, social protection, water and sanitation benefit health and well- being. There a...
There is a strong link between sustainable development, vulnerability and climate risks. Social safety nets that support climate change adaptation have strong co-beneﬁts with development goals such as education, poverty alleviation, gender inclusion and food security. Land restoration contributes to mitigation and...
Countries at all stages of economic development seek to improve the well-being of people, and their development priorities reﬂect different starting points and contexts. Different contexts include but are not limited to social, economic, environmental, cultural, or political circumstances, resource endowment, capa...
109 Near-Term Responses in a Changing Climate Section 4 Near-term adaptation and mitigation actions have more synergies than trade-offs with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Synergies and trade-offs depend on context and scale Energy systems SDGs Urban and infrastructure Land system Ocean ecosystems Society, liv...
Synergies and trade-offs across all individual options within a sector/system are aggregated into sector/system potentials for the whole mitigation or adaptation portfolio. The length of each bar represents the total number of mitigation or adaptation options under each system/sector. The number of adaptation and mit...
110 Section 4 Section 1 Section 4 in WGIII Figure SPM.8 under Urban systems, under Buildings and under Transport and adaptation options listed in WGII Figure SPM.4b under Urban and infrastructure systems. Land system comprises mitigation options listed in WGIII Figure SPM.8 under AFOLU and adaptation options listed in...
The bars denote the strength of the connection and do not consider the strength of the impact on the SDGs. The synergies and trade-offs differ depending on the context and the scale of implementation. Scale of implementation particularly matters when there is competition for scarce resources. For the sake of uniformi...
Climate laws have been growing in number and have helped deliver mitigation and adaptation outcomes (medium conﬁdence). {WGII SPM C.5, WGII SPM C.5.1, WGII SPM C5.4, WGII SPM C.5.6; WGIII SPM B.5.2, WGIII SPM E.3.1} Effective municipal, national and sub-national climate institutions, such as expert and co-ordi...
Climate-related litigation is growing, with a large number of cases in some developed countries and with a much smaller number in some developing countries, and in some cases has inﬂuenced the outcome and ambition of climate governance (medium conﬁdence). {WGII SPM C2.6, WGII SPM C.5.2, WGII SPM C.5.5, WGII SPM C.5...
{WGII SPM C.5.5, WGII SPM C.5.6, WGII SPM D.1.1, WGII SPM D.2, WGII SPM D.3.2; SRCCL SPM C.3, SRCCL TS.1} Drawing on diverse knowledge and partnerships, including with women, youth, Indigenous Peoples, local communities, and ethnic minorities can facilitate climate resilient development and has allowed locally app...
{WGII SPM C.5.4; WGIII SPM E.4.1} Where implemented, carbon pricing instruments have incentivized low-cost emissions reduction measures, but have been less effective, on their own and at prevailing prices during the assessment period, to promote higher-cost measures necessary for further reductions (medium conﬁden...
111 Near-Term Responses in a Changing Climate Section 4 4.8.1. Finance for Mitigation and Adaptation Actions Improved availability and access to ﬁnance157 will enable accelerated climate action (very high conﬁdence). Addressing needs and gaps and broadening equitable access to domestic and international ﬁnance, when...
Finance for Mitigation and Adaptation Actions Improved availability and access to ﬁnance157 will enable accelerated climate action (very high conﬁdence). Addressing needs and gaps and broadening equitable access to domestic and international ﬁnance, when combined with other supportive actions, can act as a catalyst...
Increased ﬁnance would address soft limits to adaptation and rising climate risks while also averting 157 Finance can originate from diverse sources, singly or in combination: public or private, local, national or international, bilateral or multilateral, and alternative sources (e.g., philanthropic, carbon offsets)...
Financial and technological resources enable effective and ongoing implementation of adaptation, especially when supported by institutions with a strong understanding of adaptation needs and capacity (high conﬁdence). Average annual modelled mitigation investment requirements for 2020 to 2030 in scenarios that lim...
There is no consistent evidence that current emission trading systems have led to signiﬁcant emissions leakage (medium conﬁdence). {WGIII SPM E4.2, WGIII SPM E.4.6} Removing fossil fuel subsidies would reduce emissions, improve public revenue and macroeconomic performance, and yield other environmental and sustain...
Economy-wide packages can meet short-term economic goals while reducing emissions and shifting development pathways towards sustainability (medium confidence). Examples are public spending commitments; pricing reforms; and investment in education and training, R&D and infrastructure (high confidence). Effective po...
112 Section 4 Section 1 Section 4 There is sufﬁcient global capital and liquidity to close global investment gaps, given the size of the global ﬁnancial system, but there are barriers to redirect capital to climate action both within and outside the global ﬁnancial sector and in the context of economic vulnerabilit...
Tracked ﬁnancial ﬂows fall short of the levels needed for adaptation and to achieve mitigation goals across all sectors and regions (high conﬁdence). These gaps create many opportunities and the challenge of closing gaps is largest in developing countries (high conﬁdence). This includes a stronger alignment of pub...
Accelerated support from developed countries and multilateral institutions is a critical enabler to enhance mitigation and adaptation action and can address inequities in ﬁnance, including its costs, terms and conditions, and economic vulnerability to climate change. Scaled-up public grants for mitigation and adap...
International Cooperation and Coordination International cooperation is a critical enabler for achieving ambitious climate change mitigation goals and climate resilient development (high conﬁdence). Climate resilient development is enabled by increased international cooperation including mobilising and enhancing a...
By integrating equity and climate justice, national and international policies can help to facilitate shifting development pathways towards sustainability, especially by mobilising and enhancing access to ﬁnance for vulnerable regions, sectors and communities (high conﬁdence). International cooperation and coordin...
Multilateral governance efforts can help reconcile contested interests, world views and values about how to address climate change. International environment and sectoral agreements, and initiatives in some cases, may help to stimulate low GHG investment and reduce emissions (such as ozone depletion, transboundary...

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