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First they help describe people and help understand the dimensions of difference among people | [
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Second traits are useful because they help explain behaviour | [
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The sons people act may be partly a function of their personality traits | [
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Third traits are useful because they can help predict future example the sorts of careers individuals will find satisfying who will tolerate stress better and who is likely to get along well with others | [
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Thus personality is useful in describing explaining and predicting differences among individuals | [
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All good scientific theories enable researchers to describe explain and predict in their domains | [
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Just as an economic theory might be useful in describing explaining and predicting fluctuations in the economy personality traits describe explain and predict differences among people And Mechanisms Psychological mechanisms are like traits except that the term mechanisms refers more to the processes of personality | [
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For example most psychological involve an activity | [
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Someone who is extraverted for example may look for and notice opportunities to interact with other people | [
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That is an extraverted person is prepared to notice and act on certain kinds of social information Courage is an example of a trait that is activated only under particular circumstances Stock Photo indd 4 PM Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Psychology 5Most psychological mechanisms have three essential inputs deci... | [
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A psycho logical mechanism may make people more sensitive to certain kinds of information from the environment may make them more likely to think about specific options and may guide their be haviour toward certain categories of action | [
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For example an extraverted person may look for oppor tunities to be with other people may consider in each situation the possibilities for human contact and interaction and may encourage others to interact with them | [
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Our personalities contain many psychological mechanisms of this procedures that have the key elements of inputs decision rules and outputs Figure 1 Figure 1 1 Psychological mechanisms have three essential ingredients | [
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Our personalities contain many such mechanisms This does not mean that all of our traits and psychological mechanisms are activated at all times | [
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In fact at any point in time only a few are activated | [
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Consider the trait of courageousness | [
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This trait is activated only under particular conditions such as when people face serious dangers and threats to their lives | [
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Some people are more courageous than others but we will never know which people are courageous unless and until the right situation presents itself | [
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Look around next time you are in Who do you think has the trait of You know until you are in a situation that provides the potential for courageous behaviour Within the Individual Within the individual means that personality is something a person carries with themselves over time and from one situation to the next | [
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Typically we feel that we are today the same people we were last week last month and last year | [
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We also feel that we will continue to have these personalities into the coming months and years | [
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And although our personalities are certainly influenced by our environments and especially by the significant others in our lives we feel that we carry with us the same personalities from situation to situation in our lives | [
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The definition of personality stresses that the important sources of personality reside within the individual and hence are at least somewhat stable over time and somewhat consistent over situations That Are Organized and Relatively Enduring Organized means that the psychological traits and mechanisms for a given perso... | [
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Rather personality is organized because the mechanisms and traits are linked to one another in a coherent fashion | [
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Imagine the simple case of two desire for food and a desire for indd 5 PM6 Introductionintimacy | [
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If you have not eaten for a while and are experiencing hunger pangs then your desire for food might override your desire for intimacy | [
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On the other hand if you have already eaten then your desire for food may temporarily subside allowing you to pursue intimacy | [
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Our personalities are organized in the sense that they contain decision rules that govern which needs are activated depending on the circumstances Psychological traits are also relatively enduring over time particularly in adulthood and are somewhat sistent over situations | [
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To say that someone is angry at this moment is not saying anything about a trait | [
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A person may be angry now but not tomorrow or may be angry in this situation but not in others | [
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Anger is more of a state than a trait | [
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To say that someone is anger prone or generally hot tempered however is to describe a psychological trait | [
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Someone who is anger prone is frequently angry relative to others and shows this prone ness time and time again in many different situations g the person is argumentative at work is hostile and aggressive while playing team sports for recreation and argues a lot with family There may be some occasions when this general... | [
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Some situations may be overpowering and suppress the expression of psychological traits | [
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Individuals who are generally talkative for example may remain quiet during a lecture at the movies or in an you undoubtedly have experienced someone who could not or would not keep quiet in any of these The debate about whether people are consistent across situations in their lives has a long history in personality ps... | [
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Some psychologists have argued that the evidence for consistency is weak | [
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For example honesty measured in one situation cheating on a may not correlate with honesty measured in another situation cheating on income | [
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We will explore this debate more fully later in the book | [
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For now we will simply say that most personality psychologists maintain that although people are not perfectly consistent there is enough consistency to warrant including this characteristic in a definition of personality The fact that personality includes relatively enduring psychological traits and mechanisms does no... | [
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Indeed describing precisely the ways in which we change over time is one goal of psychologists And That Influence In the definition of personality an emphasis on the influential forces of personality means that personality traits and mechanisms can have an effect on lives | [
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Personality influences how we act how we view ourselves how we think about the world how we interact with others how we feel how we select our our social what goals and desires we pursue in life and how we react to our circumstances | [
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People are not passive beings merely responding to external forces | [
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Rather personality plays a key role in affecting how people shape their lives | [
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It is in this sense that personality traits are forces that influence how we think act and feel The Interactions with This feature of personality is perhaps the most difficult to describe because the nature of interaction is complex | [
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In Chapter 15 we examine interactionism in greater detail | [
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For now however it is sufficient to note that interactions with situations include perceptions selection and manipulations | [
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Perceptions refers to how we or interpret an environment | [
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Two people may be indd 6 PM Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Psychology 7exposed to the same objective event yet what they pay attention to and how they interpret the event may be very different | [
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And this difference is a function of their personalities | [
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For example two people can look at an inkblot yet one person sees two cannibals cooking a human over a fire whereas the other perceives a smiling clown waving hello | [
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As another example a stranger may smile at someone on the one person might perceive the smile as a smirk whereas another person might perceive the smile as a friendly gesture | [
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It is the same smile just as it is the same inkblot yet how people interpret these situations can be determined by their personalities Selection describes the manner in which we choose situations to we choose our friends hobbies university or college classes and careers | [
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How we go about making these selections is at least in part a of our personalities | [
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How we use our free time is especially a reflection of our traits | [
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One person may take up the hobby of parachute jumping whereas another may prefer to spend time quietly gardening | [
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We select from what life offers us and these choices are partly a function of personality Evocations are the reactions we produce in others often quite unintentionally | [
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To some extent we create the social environments that we inhabit | [
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A child with a high activity level for example may evoke in parents at tempts to constrain the child even though these attempts are not intended or desired by the child | [
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A person who is physically large may evoke feelings of intimidation in others even if intimidation is not the goal | [
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Our evocative interactions are also essential features of our personalities Manipulations are the ways in which we intentionally attempt to influence others | [
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Someone who is anxious or frightened easily may try to influence their group to avoid scary movies or risky activities | [
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Someone who is highly conscientious may insist that everyone follow the rules | [
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Or a man who is very neat and orderly may insist that his partner pick up her things | [
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The ways in which we attempt to manipulate the behaviour thoughts and feelings of others are essential features of our personalities | [
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All of these forms of perceptions selection evocations and central to understanding the connections between the of people and the environments they inhabit And Adaptations to An emphasis on adaptations conveys the notion that a central feature of personality concerns adaptive accomplishing goals coping adjusting and de... | [
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Few things are more obvious about human behaviour than the fact that it is goal functional and purposeful | [
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Even behaviour that does not appear as excessive may in fact be functional | [
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For example people who worry a lot often receive lots of support from others | [
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Consequently what appears on the surface to be maladaptive may in fact have some re warding characteristics for the person social | [
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In addition some aspects of personality pro cesses represent deficits in normal adaptations such as breakdowns in the ability to cope with stress to regulate social behaviour or to manage emotions | [
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Although knowledge of the adap tive functions of personality traits and mechanisms is currently limited it remains an indispensable key to understanding the nature of human personality The Environment The physical environment often poses challenges for people | [
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Some of these are direct threats to survival | [
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For example food shortages create the problem of securing adequate nutrients for survival | [
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Extremes of indd 7 PM8 Introductiontemperature pose the problem of maintaining thermal homeostasis | [
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Heights snakes spiders and strangers can all pose threats to survival | [
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Human beings like other animals have evolved solutions to these adaptive problems | [
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Hunger pangs motivate us to seek food and taste preferences guide our choices of which foods to consume | [
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Shivering mechanisms help combat the cold and sweat glands help fight the heat | [
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At a level our fears of heights snakes spiders and most common human us avoid or safely interact with these environmental threats to our survival Our social environment also poses adaptive challenges | [
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We may desire the prestige of a good job but there are many other people competing for the same positions | [
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We may desire interesting friends and mates but there are many others competing for them | [
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We may desire greater emotional closeness with others but may not know how to achieve closeness | [
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The ways in which we cope with our social challenges we encounter in our struggle for belongingness love and central to an understanding of personality The particular aspect of the environment that is important at any moment in time is frequently determined by personality | [
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A person who is talkative for example will notice more opportunities in the social environment to strike up conversations than will someone who is low on talkativeness | [
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A person who is disagreeable will occupy a social environment where people frequently argue with them | [
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A person for whom status is very will pay attention to the relative hierarchical positions of is up who is down who is as cending who is sliding | [
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In short from among the potentially infinite dimensions of the environments we inhabit our represents only the small subset of features that our psychological direct us to attend and respond to In addition to our physical and social environments we have an intrapsychic environment | [
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Intrapsychic means the mind We all have memories dreams desires fantasies and a collection of private experiences that we live with each day | [
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This intrapsychic environment although not as objectively as our social or physical environment is nevertheless real to each of us and makes up an important part of our psychological reality | [
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For example our good or bad we feel about ourselves at any given depend on our assessment of the degree to which we are succeeding in at taining our goals | [
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Success at work and success at friendship may provide two different forms of success experience and hence form different intrapsychic memories | [
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We are influenced by our memories of these experiences whenever we think about our own | [
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Our intrapsychic environment no less than our physical and social environments provides a critical context for understanding human personality | [
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Exercise Write a essay about a good friend someone you know well in which you describe what is characteristic enduring and functional about that person | [
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Include in this description those elements of the ways in which they interact with or adapt to the physical social and intrapsy chic environments | [
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Which traits or characteristics about this person do you think are most indd 8 PM Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Psychology 9Three Levels of Personality Analysis Although the definition of personality used in this book is quite broad and encompassing personality can be analyzed at three levels | [
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These three levels are well summarized by Kluckhohn and Murray in their 1948 book on culture and personality in which they state that every human being is in certain respects 1 like all others human nature 2 like some others level of individual and group and 3 like no others individual uniqueness Another way to think o... | [
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For example most humans have language skills which allow us to learn and use a language | [
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All cultures on Earth speak a language so spoken language is part of the universal human nature | [
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At a psychological level all humans pos sess fundamental psychological example the desire to live with others and belong to social these mechanisms are part of general human nature | [
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