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12_0	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	Anarchism Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is sceptical of authority and rejects all involuntary, coercive forms of hierarchy. Anarchism calls for the abolition of the state, which it holds to be unnecessary, undesirable, and harmful. As a historically left-wing movement, placed on the farthest lef...
12_1	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	of anarchism. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more. Anarchism employs a diversity of tactics in order to meet its ideal ends which can be broadly separated into revolutionary and evolutionary tactics; there is significant overlap between the tw...
12_2	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	anarchists, although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as William Godwin (1756–1836) and Wilhelm Weitling (1808–1871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation but did not use anarchist or anarchism in describing themselves ...
12_3	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	and emphasise its connections with socialism. Anarchism is broadly used to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement. Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above. Scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentials and criticise attempt...
12_4	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism (the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi. Alongside Stoicism, Taoism has been said to have had "significant anticipations" of anarchism. Anarchic...
12_5	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Renewed interest in antiquity during the Renaissance and in private judgment during the Reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism, particularly in France. Enlightenment challenges to intellectual authority (secular and religiou...
12_6	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	Workingmen's Association, a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with Karl Marx being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin's faction (the Jura Federation) a...
12_7	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	was a notable feature of the international syndicalism movement. In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from countries of the far east, travelling to the Japanese capital to study. In Latin America, Argentina was a s...
12_8	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	to the Kronstadt rebellion and Nestor Makhno's struggle in the Free Territory. With the anarchists being crushed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism and synthesis anarchism. The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anythi...
12_9	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	fight among communists and anarchists at a series of events named May Days as Joseph Stalin tried to seize control of the Republicans. Post-war era At the end of World War II, the anarchist movement was severely weakened. The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of Marxism–Le...
12_10	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum. During the protests, ad hoc leaderless anonymous cadres known as black blocs engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confront...
12_11	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	(anarcha-feminism, green anarchism, and post-anarchism) developed thereafter. Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate...
12_12	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	within the anarchist milieu was anarchism without adjectives, a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time. Belief in political nihilism has been espoused by anarchists. Despite separation, the va...
12_13	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	(1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property." Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socialist form of anarchism commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin. Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of the means of production which is ...
12_14	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views labour syndicates as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are direct action, workers' solidarity and workers' s...
12_15	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	philosophical approaches. The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents. Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. Its publicity has also led more scholars ...
12_16	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism." Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed. The principle of equal liberty is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equ...
12_17	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism as propaganda of the deed. Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in revolutions. Many anarchists, especially the Galleanists, believed that these attempts would be the impetus ...
12_18	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	evil. Anarchists took an active role in strike actions, although they tended to be antipathetic to formal syndicalism, seeing it as reformist. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced n...
12_19	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police; however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists and racists, taking anti-fascist action and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening. Evolutionary tactics Anarchists commonly...
12_20	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	theorize. The decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the...
12_21	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance. Anarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry, and surrealism are blend...
12_22	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	unionism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism, or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies a...
12_23	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	freedom and pleasure. Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together. Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from fre...
12_24	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid. Anarchist writers such as William Godwin (Political Justice)...
12_25	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	A. S. Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion. Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, ...
12_26	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England, and the Paideia School in Spain. Anarchism and the state Objection to the state and its institutions is a sine qua non of anarchism. Anarchists consider the st...
12_27	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be." A. John Simmons and Leslie Green, who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely. Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ....
12_28	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	"anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism." Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists (Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Gustav Landauer and Camillo Berneri) and publications such as Anarchy wrote about matters pertaining to the arts. Three overlapping propert...
12_29	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government." Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing; a response would be that ma...
12_30	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	(all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong. Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political Obligations. Law professor William A. Edmundson authored ...
12_31	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively. Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering. Friedrich Engels, considered to be one of the principa...
12_32	Anarchism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision, the conflict...
25_0	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	Autism Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents often notice signs during the first three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some autistic children experience ...
25_1	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	be used to assist autistic people to learn life skills necessary for living independently, as well as other social, communication, and language skills. Therapy also aims to reduce challenging behaviors and build upon strengths. Some autistic adults are unable to live independently. An autistic culture has developed, w...
25_2	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	of six months, become established by age two or three years and tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form. It is distinguished by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction, impairments in communication, and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eat...
25_3	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	such as pointing at things. Three- to five-year-old autistic children are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form attachments to their primary caregivers. Most autistic childr...
25_4	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	to half of autistic people do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs. Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of babbling, unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the...
25_5	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	figurative language, comprehension, and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends. Repetitive behavior Autistic individuals can display many for...
25_6	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	skin-picking, hand-biting and head-banging. No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors. Other symptoms Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but th...
25_7	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur. There is tentative evidence that gender dysphoria occurs more frequently in autistic people (see Autism ...
25_8	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms. However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur. Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained ...
25_9	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	explain less than 1% of cases of autism. The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous structural variation—such as deletions, duplications or inversions in genetic material during meiosis. Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic c...
25_10	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	exacerbate autism include certain foods, infectious diseases, solvents, PCBs, phthalates and phenols used in plastic products, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, alcohol, smoking, illicit drugs, vaccines, and prenatal stress. Some, such as the MMR vaccine, have been completely disproven. Parents may first becom...
25_11	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	pathophysiologies. There is evidence that gut–brain axis abnormalities may be involved. A 2015 review proposed that immune dysregulation, gastrointestinal inflammation, malfunction of the autonomic nervous system, gut flora alterations, and food metabolites may cause brain neuroinflammation and dysfunction. A 2016 re...
25_12	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in early childhood, typically before age three, and lead to clinically significant functional impairment. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repe...
25_13	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	neuropsychologist is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions. A differential diagnosis for ASD at this stage might also consider intellectual disability, hearing impairment, and a specific language impairment such as Landau–Kleffner syn...
25_14	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later. In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice. Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are ...
25_15	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	abnormalities of social interactions and communication, severely restricted interests, and highly repetitive behavior. These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance. Of the five PDD forms, Asperger syndrome is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; Rett syndrome and childhood disint...
25_16	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	subgroups within the autistic population and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, neurology and pediatrics. Newer technologies such as fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging can help identify biologically relevant phenotypes (observable traits) that can be viewed on brain scans, ...
25_17	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	following milestones "is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome". No response to name (or eye-to-eye gaze) by 6 months. No babbling by 12 months. No gesturing (pointing, waving, etc.) by...
25_18	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low sensitivity (many false-negatives) but good specificity (few false-positives). It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders. Screening tools ...
25_19	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	behavior analysts, special education teachers, speech pathologists, and licensed psychologists. Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy. However, the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced in recent years. Although many psychosocial int...
25_20	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	treatment on a specific area of deficit. The quality of research for early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI)—a treatment procedure incorporating over thirty hours per week of the structured type of ABA that is carried out with very young children—is currently low, and more vigorous research designs with larger ...
25_21	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided. It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up, and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs sh...
25_22	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	fluvoxamine, have been shown to be effective in reducing repetitive and ritualistic behaviors, while the stimulant medication methylphenidate is beneficial for some children with co-morbid inattentiveness or hyperactivity. There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adoles...
25_23	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	Chelation is not recommended for autistic people since the associated risks outweigh any potential benefits. Another alternative medicine practice with no evidence is CEASE therapy, a mixture of homeopathy, supplements, and 'vaccine detoxing'. Although popularly used as an alternative treatment for autistic people, a...
25_24	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	the improvement of the ASD symptoms. Other problems documented in the trials carried out include transgressions of the diet, small sample size, the heterogeneity of the participants and the possibility of a placebo effect. In the subset of people who have gluten sensitivity there is limited evidence that suggests that...
25_25	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	opportunities or self-determination. Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age. Few high-quality studies address long-term prognosis. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife. Acquiring lan...
25_26	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	37.2 million. In 2012, the NHS estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1%. Rates of PDD-NOS's has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 per 1,000. CDC estimates about 1 out o...
25_27	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	rates, if any change in the rate of autism exists at all. Males are at higher risk for ASD than females. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without. Several theories about the higher prevalence in males ...
25_28	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	syndrome, and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders. Intellectual disability. The percentage of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing intelligence of individuals on the...
25_29	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	two-thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of insomnia such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings, and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical ...
25_30	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	(αὐτός, meaning "self"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance". A Soviet child psychiatrist, Grunya Sukhareva, described a similar syndrome that was published in Russian...
25_31	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	Asperger. Kanner's reuse of autism led to decades of confused terminology like infantile schizophrenia, and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to "refrigerator mothers". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome. Ter...
25_32	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	general term of Autism Spectrum Disorders. The two categories that exist are impaired social communication and/or interaction, and restricted and/or repetitive behaviors. The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find difficult to deal with, and has given them ...
25_33	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	of those without autism, and the recognition of the autistic community as a minority group. Autism rights or neurodiversity advocates believe that the autism spectrum is genetic and should be accepted as a natural expression of the human genome. This perspective is distinct from fringe theories that autism is caused b...
25_34	Autism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism	those without autism, and the recognition of the autistic community as a minority group. Autism rights or neurodiversity advocates believe that the autism spectrum is genetic and should be accepted as a natural expression of the human genome. This perspective is distinct from fringe theories that autism is caused by e...
39_0	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	Albedo Albedo (; ) is the measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation and measured on a scale from 0, corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation, to 1, corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation. Surface albedo is defined as the ratio o...
39_1	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	3 μm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.4–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation). Albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental m...
39_2	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments on bo...
39_3	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about . In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water – a so-called ocean planet – the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost . In 2021, scientists reported that Earth dimmed by ~0.5% over two decades (1998-2017) as measured by earthsh...
39_4	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	blue-sky albedo) can then be given as: This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface. Examples of terrestrial albedo effects Illumination Albedo is not directly dependent on illumination becau...
39_5	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes. Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and ...
39_6	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the alb...
39_7	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedb...
39_8	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Res...
39_9	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local cl...
39_10	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming. Water Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations. At the scale of the ...
39_11	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9. Clouds Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures...
39_12	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. As per Spracklen et al. the effects are: Aerosol direct effect. Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atm...
39_13	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo. Human activities Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult, further study is required to determine ant...
39_14	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	the highest known optical albedos of any body in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark sur...
39_15	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces. One of these five parameters is yet another type of albedo called the single-scattering albedo. It is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves...
39_16	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	reflector) at the same distance as the target that would return the same echo power. Those components of the received echo that return from first-surface reflections (as from a smooth or mirror-like surface) are dominated by the OC component as there is a reversal in polarization upon reflection. If the surface is ro...
39_17	Albedo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	(OC+SC) radar albedo reported in those references. Relationship to Surface Bulk Density In the event that most of the echo is from first surface reflections ( or so), the OC radar albedo is a first-order approximation of the Fresnel reflection coefficient (aka reflectivity) and can be used to estimate the bulk densit...
290_0	A	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A	A A, or a, is the first letter and the first vowel of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. Its name in English is a (pronounced ), plural aes. It is similar in shape to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives. The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle,...
290_1	A	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A	the alphabet, they had no use for a letter to represent the glottal stop—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in Phoenician and other Semitic languages, and that was the first phoneme of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel , and called it by t...
290_2	A	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A	a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the "perishable" nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as majuscu...
290_3	A	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A	saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the Italic and Roman forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form, also called script a, is used in most current handwriting; it consists of a circle and vertical stroke on the right ("ɑ"). This slowly developed f...
290_4	A	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A	aside from italic type where script a ("ɑ"), also called Latin alpha, is used in contrast with Latin "a" (such as in the International Phonetic Alphabet). Use in writing systems English In modern English orthography, the letter represents at least seven different vowel sounds: the near-open front unrounded vowel ...
290_5	A	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A	is the third-most-commonly used letter in English (after and ) and French, the second most common in Spanish, and the most common in Portuguese. About 8.167% of letters used in English texts tend to be ; the number is around 7.636% in French, 11.525% in Spanish, and 14.634% for Portuguese. Other languages In most la...
290_6	A	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A	"invented the convention of representing unknowns in equations by x, y, and z, and knowns by a, b, and c", and this convention is still often followed, especially in elementary algebra. In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote segments, lines, rays, etc. A capital A is also typically used as one of the le...
290_7	A	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A	brassiere. Related characters Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet Æ æ : Latin AE ligature A with diacritics: Å å Ǻ ǻ Ḁ ḁ ẚ Ă ă Ặ ặ Ắ ắ Ằ ằ Ẳ ẳ Ẵ ẵ Ȃ ȃ Â â Ậ ậ Ấ ấ Ầ ầ Ẫ ẫ Ẩ ẩ Ả ả Ǎ ǎ Ⱥ ⱥ Ȧ ȧ Ǡ ǡ Ạ ạ Ä ä Ǟ ǟ À à Ȁ ȁ Á á Ā ā Ā̀ ā̀ Ã ã Ą ą Ą́ ą́ Ą̃ ą̃ A̲ a̲ ᶏ Phonetic alphabet symbols related to A ...
290_8	A	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A	unrounded vowel in the IPA ᶐ : Latin small letter alpha with retroflex hook Ɐ ɐ : Turned A, which represents a near-open central vowel in the IPA Λ ʌ : Turned V (also called a wedge, a caret, or a hat), which represents an open-mid back unrounded vowel in the IPA Ɒ ɒ : Turned alpha / script A, which represents an open...
290_9	A	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A	a is used in Indo-European studies ꬱ : Small letter a reversed-schwa is used in the Teuthonista phonetic transcription system Ꞻ ꞻ : Glottal A, used in the transliteration of Ugaritic Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations ª : an ordinal indicator Å : Ångström sign ∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in predicate lo...
303_0	Alabama	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama	Alabama Alabama () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered by Tennessee to the north; Georgia to the east; Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south; and Mississippi to the west. Alabama is the 30th largest by area and the 24th-most populous of the U.S. states. With a total of of inland ...
303_1	Alabama	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama	December 1819, Alabama was recognized as a state. During the antebellum period, Alabama was a major producer of cotton, and widely used African American slave labor. In 1861, the state seceded from the United States to become part of the Confederate States of America, with Montgomery acting as its first capital, and r...
303_2	Alabama	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama	NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville would help Alabama's economic growth in the mid-to-late 20th century, by developing an aerospace industry. Alabama's economy in the 21st century is based on automotive, finance, tourism, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and t...
303_3	Alabama	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama	form is ). The suggestion that "Alabama" was borrowed from the Choctaw language is unlikely. The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources. The first usage appears in three accounts of the Hernando de Soto expedition of 1540: Garcilaso de la Vega used , while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel ...

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This is Wikidedia passages dataset for ODQA retriever. Each passages have 256~ tokens splitteed by gpt-4 tokenizer using tiktoken.

Token count

{'~128': 1415068, '128~256': 1290011,
'256~512': 18756476, '512~1024': 667,
'1024~2048': 12, '2048~4096': 0, '4096~8192': 0,
'8192~16384': 0, '16384~32768': 0, '32768~65536': 0,
'65536~128000': 0, '128000~': 0}

Text count

{'~512': 1556876,'512~1024': 6074975, '1024~2048': 13830329,
'2048~4096': 49, '4096~8192': 2, '8192~16384': 3, '16384~32768': 0,
'32768~65536': 0, '65536~': 0}

Token percent

{'~128': '6.59%', '128~256': '6.01%', '256~512': '87.39%',
'512~1024': '0.00%', '1024~2048': '0.00%', '2048~4096': '0.00%',
'4096~8192': '0.00%', '8192~16384': '0.00%', '16384~32768': '0.00%',
'32768~65536': '0.00%', '65536~128000': '0.00%', '128000~': '0.00%'}

Text percent

{'~512': '7.25%', '512~1024': '28.31%', '1024~2048': '64.44%',
'2048~4096': '0.00%', '4096~8192': '0.00%', '8192~16384': '0.00%',
'16384~32768': '0.00%', '32768~65536': '0.00%', '65536~': '0.00%'}

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