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Introduction Individuals were first able to establish health savings accounts (HSAs) in 2004. These accounts allow people to pay for out-of-pocket medical expenses on a tax-advantaged basis. Individuals must have a qualifying high-deductible health plan (HDHP) to establish an HSA. After establishing an HSA, individuals... | Individuals began establishing health savings accounts (HSAs) in 2004. These savings accounts are generally used to pay for unreimbursed medical expenses on a tax-advantaged basis. Any unspent money accrues to the individual. To open an HSA, the individual must enroll in a qualifying high-deductible health plan (HDHP).... |
Introduction The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the safety of foods (including animal feeds) and cosmetics, and the safety and effectiveness of drugs, biologics (e.g., vaccines), and medical devices. With new authority that began in FY2010, FDA also regulates tobacco products according to their impact on ... | The President's budget request for FY2011 included $4.032 billion for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The total is made of $2.508 billion in direct appropriations (which FDA calls budget authority) and $1.523 billion in user fees. Overall, the request is 22.8% more than the enacted FY2010 total appropriation, w... |
Introduction The National Science Foundation (NSF) supports both basic research and education in the non-medical sciences and engineering. Congress established the foundation through the National Science Foundation Act of 1950 to "promote the progress of science; to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare;... | The National Science Foundation (NSF) supports both basic research and education in the non-medical sciences and engineering. NSF is a major source of federal support for U.S. university research, especially in certain fields such as mathematics and computer science. It is also responsible for significant shares of the... |
Background and Overview of the Framework Agreement The Framework Agreement is the latest achievement in the Doha Development Agenda(DDA) round of trade negotiations at the WTO. This round of trade negotiations was launched atthe 4th Ministerial of the WTO at Doha, Qatar in November 2001. Trade ministers set an ambitiou... | On July 31, 2004, the 147 members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) reached aFramework Agreement for conducting future Doha Round trade negotiations. The FrameworkAgreement is the latest step in the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) round of trade negotiationsat the WTO, which was launched at the 4th Ministerial of the... |
Types of Exchange Rate Policies There are a number of different types of exchange rate policies that a nation may adopt, depending on what it perceives to be in its best interest economically and/or politically. At one extreme, a country may decide to allow the value of its currency to fluctuate relative to other major... | According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), monetary authorities in East Asia (including Southeast Asia) have adopted a variety of foreign exchange rate policies, varying from Hong Kong's currency board system which links the Hong Kong dollar to the U.S. dollar, to the "independently floating" exchange rates of... |
Unemployment Compensation and Exhaustion of Benefits The cornerstone of an unemployed worker's income support is the joint federal-state Unemployment Compensation (UC) program, which may provide income support through the payment of UC benefits. The underlying framework of the UC system is contained in the Social Secur... | This report describes the history of temporary federal extensions to unemployment benefits from 1980 to the present. Among these extensions is the Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC08) program created by P.L. 110-252 (amended by P.L. 110-449, P.L. 111-5, P.L. 111-92, P.L. 111-118, P.L. 111-144, P.L. 111-157, P.L.... |
Introduction The Constitution guarantees those accused of a federal crime the right to trial in the state where the crime was committed, U.S. Const. Art. III, §2, cl.3, and the right to trial by a jury selected from the district where the crime was committed, U.S. Const. Amend. VI. In 1998, the Supreme Court held that ... | Venue, the place where federal criminal trials may be held, is a matter of constitutional and statutory law. Several proposals in the 109th Congress would have expanded federal venue. The Supreme Court's recent decisions in Cabrales and Rodriguez-Moreno suggest that a few of the proposals might have been more limited t... |
Overview Since the terrorist attacks of 2001 and the creation of the new Department of Homeland Security, there has been widespread interest in reorganizing the Houseand Senate committee systems to handle homeland security issues more effectively. Some changes to the committeesystems have already been made, but therear... | The 9/11 Commission Report recommended that the House and Senateeach have a "permanent standingcommittee" as the principal committee for conducting oversight and review for homeland security. Earlier, pursuantto PL 107-296, the Homeland SecurityAct, a new Department of Homeland Security was established. Congress bega... |
Background Many Americans view health care for their children and themselves as one of their top concerns. The adverse consequences of going without health insurance may include unmet health and dental needs, lower receipt of preventive services, avoidable hospitalizations, increased likelihood of receiving expensive e... | Medical child support is defined as the legal provision of payment of medical, dental, prescription, and other health care expenses for children living apart from one of their parents. It can include provisions for health care coverage (including payment of costs of premiums, co-payments, and deductibles) as well as ca... |
The Biotechnology Industry At its simplest, biotechnology is technology based on biology; it involves the use of a broad range of techniques and procedures for modifying living organisms to suit human purposes. Biotechnology has applications in engineering, manufacturing, food science, and, most prominently, medicine, ... | The recent enactment of the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act (AIA), P.L. 112-29, suggests congressional interest in patents on diagnostic methods. In particular, Section 27 of the AIA required the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office to conduct a study on the patenting of genetic diagnostic tests. The 2012 decision of the S... |
Background The United States has approximately 608,000 bridges on public roads subject to the National Bridge Inspection Standards mandated by Congress. About 48% of these bridges are owned by state governments and 50% by local governments. State governments generally own the larger and more heavily traveled bridges, s... | Of the 608,000 public road bridges in the United States, about 64,000 (10%) were classified as structurally deficient in 2013, and another 84,000 (14%) were classified as functionally obsolete. The number of structurally deficient and functionally obsolete bridges has been declining steadily for more than two decades, ... |
Background Trade Adjustment Assistance Community College and Career Training (TAACCCT) grants are competitive grants to institutions of higher education (IHEs) to support career training programs that can be completed in two years or less. Statute specifies that TAACCCT-funded programs should target workers who have be... | Trade Adjustment Assistance Community College and Career Training (TAACCCT) grants are competitive grants to institutions of higher education to support the development, offering, and improvement of career training programs that can be completed in two years or less. The program targets workers who have been adversely ... |
Introduction Most measures considered by the Senate are taken from its Calendar of Business, which lists measures available for floor consideration under the heading "General Orders." Usually, measures are placed on the calendar under General Orders when they are reported by the committee to which they have been referr... | Two basic methods are used by the Senate to bring legislation to the floor for consideration: (1) The Senate, at the majority leader's request, grants unanimous consent to take up a matter, or (2) it agrees to his motion to proceed to consider it. Because the motion to proceed is subject to debate in most circumstances... |
Introduction Security-related implications are of concern in the lead-up to a Presidential election. These concerns are present when it is known there will be a change of Administration or in cases where the sitting president is running for reelection against an opponent vying for the office. A prospective presidential... | A presidential election period is a unique time in America and holds the promise of opportunity, as well as a possible risk to the nation's security interests. While possible changes in Administration during U.S. involvement in national security-related activities are not unique to the 2012-2013 election period, many o... |
Background Since achieving political independence in 1943, Lebanon has struggled to overcome a series of internal and external political and security challenges. Congress and the executive branch historically have sought to support pro-U.S. elements in the country, and in recent years the United States has invested mor... | Lebanon's small geographic size and population belie the important role it has long played in the security, stability, and economy of the Levant and the broader Middle East. Congress and the executive branch have recognized Lebanon's status as a venue for regional strategic competition and have engaged diplomatically, ... |
The Farm Credit System The Farm Credit System (FCS) was created to provide a permanent, reliable source of credit to U.S. agriculture. Before the Federal Farm Loan Act was enacted in 1916, credit was often unavailable or unaffordable in rural areas. Many lenders avoided farm loans due to the inherent risks of agricultu... | The Farm Credit System (FCS) is a nationwide financial cooperative lending to agricultural and aquatic producers, rural homeowners, and certain agriculture-related businesses and cooperatives. Established in 1916, this government-sponsored enterprise (GSE) has a statutory mandate to serve agriculture. It receives tax b... |
Introduction Program evaluations can play an important role in public policy debates and in oversight of government programs, potentially affecting decisions about program design, operation, and funding. Many different techniques of program evaluation can be used and presented with an intention to inform and influence ... | Program evaluations can play an important role in public policy debates and in oversight of government programs, potentially affecting decisions about program design, operation, and funding. One technique that has received significant recent attention is the randomized controlled trial (RCT). There are also many other ... |
Background In March 2010, the 111 th Congress passed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010. Jointly referred to as the Affordable Care Act (ACA), the ACA expands Medicaid eligibility, increases access to health insurance coverage, expands f... | In March 2010, Congress passed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA). The ACA, among other things, requires states to expand Medicaid eligibility or lose Medicaid funding. Following the enactment of the ACA, state attorneys general and others brought several lawsuits challenging various provisions of the... |
Water Rights in the Colorado River Basin Generally The law of water rights is traditionally an area regulated by the states, rather than the federal government. Individual states may choose the system under which water rights are allocated to water users. Western states, including Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, generally... | Concerns over fluctuating oil prices and declining petroleum production worldwide have revived interest in oil shale as a potential resource. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct; P.L. 109-58) identified oil shale as a strategically important domestic resource and directed the Department of the Interior to promote comm... |
Brief History of the 2015 Clean Water Rule The Clean Water Act (CWA) is the principal federal law governing pollution of the nation's surface waters. The CWA protects "navigable waters," defined in the statute as "waters of the United States, including the territorial seas." The scope of this term— waters of the United... | The Clean Water Act (CWA) is the principal federal law governing pollution of the nation's surface waters. The statute protects "navigable waters," which it defines as "the waters of the United States, including the territorial seas." The scope of the term waters of the United States, or WOTUS, is not defined in the CW... |
Introduction Background Public diplomacy is the promotion of America's interests, culture, and policies by informingand influencing foreign populations. From 1977 to the 1990s, all functions of State's Bureau ofEducational and Cultural Affairs and the USIA's international information and broadcasting activitiesmerged t... | Public diplomacy has been officially acknowledged as a tool in the foreign policy arsenalsince World War I. Later, during World War II, it became part of the U.S. government structurewhen in 1942 the President issued an executive order to create the Office of War Information (OWI). OWI aired the first Voice of America ... |
Resolutions of Inquiry Generally A resolution of inquiry is a resolution that formally calls on the executive branch to provide specified factual information to Congress. The use of resolutions of this type as a tool of oversight dates to the earliest days of Congress. Although there are historical examples of resoluti... | A resolution of inquiry is a simple resolution making a direct request or demand of the President or the head of an executive department to furnish the House with specific factual information in the Administration's possession. Under the rules and precedents of the House of Representatives, such resolutions, if properl... |
Implications of the Death of Osama bin Laden Issues and questions related to the killing of Osama bin Laden (OBL) are multifaceted and may have operational, regional, and policy implications. Operational policy issues include congressional notification, legal considerations, and current and future military activities.... | The May 1, 2011, killing of Osama bin Laden (OBL) by U.S. forces in Pakistan has led to a range of views about near- and long-term security and foreign policy implications for the United States. Experts have a range of views about the killing of OBL. Some consider his death to be a largely symbolic event, while others ... |
What Is the Farm Bill? The farm bill is an omnibus, multi-year law that governs an array of agricultural and food programs. Although agricultural policies sometimes are created and changed by freestanding legislation or as part of other major laws, the farm bill provides a predictable opportunity for policymakers to co... | The farm bill is an omnibus, multi-year law that governs an array of agricultural and food programs. Titles in the most recent farm bill encompassed farm commodity price and income supports, agricultural conservation, farm credit, trade, research, rural development, bioenergy, foreign food aid, and domestic nutrition a... |
History of the Secretary of the Senate The first Secretary of the Senate, Samuel Allyne Otis, was elected on April 8, 1789, two days after the Senate first achieved a quorum. The Secretary of the Senate was initially responsible for keeping the minutes and records of the Senate, transmitting messages to the House of Re... | The Secretary of the Senate is an officer of the Senate elected at the beginning of each Congress by the membership of the Senate. The Secretary has financial, administrative, and legislative responsibilities derived from law, Senate rules, and other sources. In addition, the Senate Committee on Rules and Administratio... |
Introduction Decentralization is the most distinctive characteristic of the congressional committee system. Because of the high volume and complexity of its work, Congress divides its legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks among committees and subcommittees. Within assigned subject areas, committees ... | Because of the high volume and complexity of its work, Congress divides its tasks among committees and subcommittees. Both the House and Senate have their own committee systems, which are similar but not identical. Within chamber guidelines, however, each committee adopts its own rules; thus, there is considerable vari... |
Overview of the America COMPETES Act The America COMPETES Act was a response to concerns that the United States may not be able to compete economically with other nations in the future. The act mainly addresses concerns about insufficient investment in science and engineering research; STEM education; and STEM workforc... | The America COMPETES Act (P.L. 110-69) became law on August 9, 2007. The act responds to concerns that the United States may not be able to compete economically with other nations in the future due to insufficient investment today in science and technology research and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics ... |
Introduction The Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) protects the interests of participants and beneficiaries in private-sector employee benefit plans. Governmental plans and church plans generally are not subject to the law. ERISA supersedes state laws relating to employee benefit plans except for ... | Due to the recent economic decline and the desire to enact large-scale health reform, the current federal regulation of pension plans, health plans, and other employee benefit plans has received considerable congressional attention. The Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) provides a comprehensive fe... |
Most Recent Developments On November 29, 1999, President Clinton signed into law the ConsolidatedAppropriations Act for FY2000 ( H.R. 3194 ; P.L. 106-113 ), legislationthat enacts by reference H.R. 3422 , the Foreign OperationsAppropriations Act, FY2000. H.R. 3422 was the third ForeignOperations measure debated by Cong... | The annual Foreign Operations appropriations bill is the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. foreign aid budget and influences executive branch foreign policymaking generally. It contains the largest share -- over two-thirds -- of total U.S. internationalaffairs spending. For FY2000, Pr... |
Introduction1 Eight times since the enactment of the War Powers Resolution in 1973, Members of Congress have filed suit to force various Presidents to comply with its requirements or otherwise to recognize Congress's war powers under the Constitution. In each instance where a ruling was delivered, the reviewing court r... | Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution confers on Congress the power to "declare War." Modern Presidents, however, have contended that, notwithstanding this clause, they do not need congressional authorization to use force. Partly in response to that contention, and because of widespread concern that Congress had al... |
Introduction In the United States, births to unmarried women (i.e., nonmarital births) are widespread, including families of varying income class, race, ethnicity, and geographic area. Many analysts attribute this to changed attitudes over many years about fertility and marriage. They find that many adult women and tee... | Although nonmarital births (i.e., births to unmarried women) are not a new phenomenon, their impact on families has not diminished and there is much agreement that the complexity of modern family relationships and living arrangements may further complicate the well-being of children born to unwed mothers. For the past ... |
Introduction On January 30, 2009, a Monaco Declaration was signed by more than 150 marine scientists from 26 countries, calling for immediate action by policymakers to reduce carbon dioxide emissions so as to avoid widespread and severe damage to marine ecosystems from ocean acidification. The Monaco Declaration is bas... | With increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, the extent of effects on the ocean and marine resources is an increasing concern. One aspect of this issue is the ongoing process (known as ocean acidification) whereby seawater becomes less alkaline as more CO2 dissolves in it, causing hydrogen ... |
Introduction The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) provides a range of benefits and services to veterans who meet certain eligibility criteria. These benefits and services include, among other things, hospital and medical care, disability compensation and pensions, education, vocational rehabilitation and employment ... | The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) provides a range of benefits and services to veterans who meet certain eligibility criteria. These benefits and services include hospital and medical care, disability compensation and pensions, education, vocational rehabilitation and employment services, assistance to homeless v... |
Introduction Detection of and protection against illicit acquisition and use of special nuclear material (SNM) is a longstanding concern of the U.S. government. Since the development of nuclear weapons, federal agencies have been involved in securing U.S. nuclear assets against diversion, theft, and attack. Similarly, ... | The U.S. government has implemented a series of programs to protect the nation against terrorist nuclear attack. Some of these programs predate September 11, 2001, while others were established since then. Most programs are within the Nuclear Regulatory Commission; the Departments of Defense, Energy, and State; and age... |
Introduction Foster care is a temporary living arrangement for children who cannot remain safely in their own homes. For nearly every child who enters foster care, a first goal of the child welfare agency is to ensure necessary services are identified, and provided, so that the child can quickly and safely return to hi... | Under Title IV-E of the Social Security Act, states, territories, and tribes are entitled to claim partial federal reimbursement for the cost of providing foster care, adoption assistance, and kinship guardianship assistance to children who meet federal eligibility criteria. The Title IV-E program, as it is commonly ca... |
Introduction Every year, disasters such as wildfires, floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanoes, and winter storms affect American communities. In the aftermath of a major disaster, a potential threat to safety and obstacle to recovery is the presence of significant amounts of disaster debris. Depending on ... | Every year, communities in the United States are affected by disasters such as hurricanes, earthquakes, tornadoes, volcanoes, floods, wildfires, and winter storms. After a disaster, when a region turns its attention to rebuilding, one of the greatest challenges often involves properly managing disaster-related debris. ... |
Categories of Disadvantaged Small Businesses 8(a) Participants Small businesses that are at least 51% unconditionally owned and controlled by "socially and economically disadvantaged individuals" or groups are eligible for the Minority Small Business and Capital Ownership Development Program. Implemented by the SBA und... | Three primary categories of "disadvantaged" small businesses are currently eligible for various contracting programs under federal law: (1) small businesses participating in the Small Business Administration's (SBA's) Minority Small Business and Capital Ownership Development Program (commonly known as the 8(a) Program)... |
Overview The Nuclear Security Enterprise Responsibility for U.S. nuclear weapons resides with both the Department of Defense (DOD) and the Department of Energy (DOE). DOD develops, deploys, and operates the missiles and aircraft that can deliver nuclear warheads. It also generates the military requirements for the warh... | The annual Energy and Water Development appropriations bill funds civil works projects of the Army Corps of Engineers, the Department of the Interior's Bureau of Reclamation, the Department of Energy (DOE), and several independent agencies. The DOE budget includes funding for the National Nuclear Security Administratio... |
Overview The 113 th Congress has made fighting trafficking in persons (TIP) within the United States a legislative priority. TIP is believed to be one of the most prolific areas of contemporary criminal activity and is of significant interest to the United States as a serious human rights concern. TIP is both an intern... | Legislation aimed at preventing trafficking in persons (TIP) is unambiguously part of the legislative agenda of the 113th Congress. TIP is believed to be one of the most prolific areas of contemporary criminal activity and is of significant interest to the United States as a serious human rights concern. TIP is both an... |
Population Size and GrowthâThe United States Is Getting Bigger The U.S. population has experienced remarkable growth since 1950. From a base of about 152 million Americans in 1950, an additional 156 million persons were added to the population between 1950 and 2009, with the number of additional women slightly outnum... | The United States, the third most populous country globally, accounts for about 4.5% of the world's population. The U.S. populationâcurrently estimated at 308.7 million personsâhas more than doubled since its 1950 level of 152.3 million. More than just being double in size, the population has become qualitatively d... |
Introduction The U.S. government's national security system includes the organizations, structures, and processes that govern decision-making, budgeting, planning and execution, and congressional oversight of executive branch national security activities. National security strategic guidance documents, including public... | Strategy—together with decision-making, planning and execution, budgeting, and congressional oversight—is a critical component of U.S. government thinking and practice in the arena of national security. In theory, effective national security strategy-making can sharpen priorities and refine approaches; provide a single... |
Introduction Lying, or making a false statement, is a federal crime under a number of circumstances. It is a federal crime to make a material false statement in a matter within the jurisdiction of a federal agency or department. Perjury is also a federal crime. Perjury is a false statement made under oath before a fede... | Federal courts, Congress, and federal agencies rely upon truthful information in order to make informed decisions. Federal law therefore proscribes providing the federal courts, Congress, or federal agencies with false information. The prohibition takes four forms: false statements; perjury in judicial proceedings; per... |
Introduction On August 2, 2005, the President signed the Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act for FY2006 ( P.L. 109-54 , H.R. 2361 ). Title II of P.L. 109-54 provided $7.73 billion for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), subject to an across-the-board rescission of 0.476%. The President... | Early in the first session, the 109th Congress eliminated the Veterans Affairs, Housing and Urban Development (VA-HUD), and Independent Agencies appropriations subcommittee and moved funding jurisdiction for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to the Interior subcommittee. As enacted in August 2005, Title II of t... |
Introduction Estimates of military spending by foreign nations are available from a number of sources. ThisCRS report lists and compares military expenditures of the United States and foreign countries usingtwo of the most commonly cited and readily available publications: The Military Balance, publishedin October of e... | This report lists and compares military expenditures of the United States and foreign nations using two sources: the London-based International Institute for Strategic Studies' (IISS) The MilitaryBalance, and the U.S. State Department's World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers (WMEAT). Although the IISS and the ... |
Introduction The Earth's surface has warmed by 1.1 o to 1.5 o Fahrenheit since the Industrial Revolution and precipitation has increased over the past century, although some regions have become wetter while some have become drier. Increases in ocean temperatures, altered wind patterns, extreme weather events, melting g... | On June 2, 2008, the Senate agreed to consider a bill (S. 3036) to control greenhouse gas emissions in the United States. In the 111th Congress, leadership in both chambers have announced their intentions to pass bills in 2009 to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. These actions are indicative of the pressures Members of ... |
Introduction Biomass energy, or bioenergy, may receive more attention from stakeholders as an alternative to fossil fuels because of its potential to minimize the environmental impacts of energy production, provide energy security, and promote economic development. Biomass is organic matter—woody biomass, agricultural ... | To promote energy diversity and improve energy security, Congress has expressed interest in biopower—electricity generated from biomass. Biopower, a baseload power source, can be produced from a large range of biomass feedstocks nationwide (e.g., urban, agricultural, and forestry wastes and residues). The two most comm... |
2005 Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission Recommendation In May 2005, the Secretary of Defense recommended to the 2005 Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission, also known as the BRAC Commission, the establishment of a new Walter Reed National Military Medical Center (WRNMMC). Included in Commission R... | The 2005 Defense Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission recommended that the Department of Defense (DOD) establish a new Walter Reed National Military Medical Center (WRNMMC) on the site of the current National Naval Medical Center (NNMC) in Bethesda, Maryland. The President approved the recommendation in Septe... |
Introduction The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was last comprehensively amended by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB; P.L. 107-110 ). Appropriations for most programs authorized by the ESEA were authorized through FY2007. As Congress has not reauthorized the ESEA, appropriations for ESEA progra... | The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was last comprehensively amended by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB; P.L. 107-110). Appropriations for most programs authorized by the ESEA were authorized through FY2007. As Congress has not reauthorized the ESEA, appropriations for ESEA programs are current... |
Introduction The federal government loses both individual and corporate income tax revenue from the shifting of profits and income into low-tax countries. The revenue losses from this tax avoidance and evasion are difficult to estimate, but some have suggested that the annual cost of offshore tax abuses may be around $... | Addressing tax evasion and avoidance through use of tax havens has been the subject of a number of proposals in Congress and by the President. Actions by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the G-20 industrialized nations also have addressed this issue. In the 111th Congress, the HIRE A... |
Background The ADEA prohibits discrimination against workers over 40 years of age in compensation or with respect to employment "terms, conditions, or privileges." The act's legislative history contained a Statement of Managers, which suggested that the practice of coordinating retiree health plans with Medicare was no... | Under the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has the authority to issue reasonable exemptions the Commission finds to be in the public interest. In 2004, the EEOC approved a narrowly drawn exemption to permit the practice of coordinating employer-provided ret... |
Sex Offender Registration Earlier federal law, the Jacob Wetterling Act, encouraged the states to establish and maintain a registration system. Each of them has done so. The Walsh Act preserves the basis structure of the earlier law, expands upon it, and makes more specific matters that were previously left to individu... | The Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act, P.L. 109-248 ( H.R. 4472 ), serves four purposes. It reformulates the federal standards for sex offender registration in state, territorial and tribal sexual offender registries, and does so in a manner designed to make the system more uniform, more inclusive, more inform... |
Introduction Federal financial regulation encompasses vastly diverse markets, participants, and regulators. As a result, regulators' goals, powers, and methods differ between regulators and sometimes within each regulator's jurisdiction. This report provides background on the financial regulatory structure in order to ... | The financial regulatory system has been described as fragmented, with multiple overlapping regulators and a dual state-federal regulatory system. The system evolved piecemeal, punctuated by major changes in response to various historical financial crises. The most recent financial crisis also resulted in changes to th... |
Introduction(1) On November 15, 2002, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld issued a memorandum tosenior staff regarding the implementation of the new base realignment and closure (BRAC) roundauthorized by Congress in 2001. (2) He emphasized that, as part of the Department of Defense'stransformation initiative, "new for... | On November 15, 2002, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld announced the first steps inimplementing the new 2005 base realignment and closure (BRAC) law. These includeddevelopment of a force structure plan, comprehensive inventory of military installations, andestablishment of criteria for selecting bases for closure a... |
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Department of Commerce (DOC) Department of Defense (DOD) Department of Education (ED) Department of Energy (DOE) Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Department of the Interior (DOI) Departm... | During the 109th Congress, the President submitted to the Senate 283 nominations to executive department full-time positions. Of these 283 nominations, 233 were confirmed; nine were withdrawn; and 41 were returned to him in accordance with Senate rules. For those nominations that were confirmed, an average of 75 days e... |
Eligibility for SNF Care To be eligible to receive Medicare Part A SNF coverage, a beneficiary must have had an inpatient hospital stay of at least 3 consecutive calendar days (not including the day of discharge) and must be transferred to a participating SNF, usually within 30 days after discharge from the hospital. I... | A Medicare skilled nursing facility (SNF) is an institution, or distinct part of an institution (e.g., building, floor, wing), that provides post-acute skilled nursing care and/or skilled rehabilitation services, has in effect a written agreement to transfer patients between one or more hospitals and the SNF, and is ce... |
Introduction This report provides an analytic overview of the professional experiences and qualifications of those individuals who are currently serving as active U.S. circuit court judges. Ongoing congressional interest in the professional experiences of judicial nominees reflects, in part, the evaluative role of Cong... | This report provides an analysis of the professional qualifications and experiences of U.S. circuit court judges who are currently serving on the federal bench. Interest in the professional qualifications of those nominated to the federal judiciary has been demonstrated by Congress and others. Congressional interest in... |
Introduction In 1996, Congress passed the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA, P.L. 104-199 ) "[t]o define and protect the institution of marriage." DOMA (1) allows states to refuse to recognize same-sex marriages or partnerships and (2) limits the recognition of these same-sex partnerships for purposes of any act of Congre... | The information provided in this report reflects law and policies prior to the 2013 Supreme Court decision in United States v. Windsor. The federal government provides a variety of benefits to its 4.4 million civilian and military employees and 4.7 million civilian and military retirees. Among these benefits are health... |
Introduction Most large dams and water diversion structures in the West were built by, or with the assistance of, the Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) within the Department of Interior. Reclamation's mission is to manage, develop, and protect water and related resources in an environmentally and economically sound m... | The Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) is responsible for the construction of most of the large irrigation and water resources infrastructure in the West. These water resource facilities are dispersed throughout 17 western states and have an original development cost of more than $21 billion. Most of Reclamation's inf... |
Introduction Growing demands on the transportation system and constraints on public resources have led to calls for more private sector involvement in the provision of highway and transit infrastructure through what are known as "public-private partnerships" or "P3s." As defined by the U.S. Department of Transportation... | Growing demands on the transportation system and constraints on public resources have led to calls for more private sector involvement in the provision of highway and transit infrastructure through what are known as "public-private partnerships" or "P3s." A P3, broadly defined, is any arrangement whereby the private se... |
Introduction Alien legalization or "amnesty," as well as special provisions to allow certain aliens to adjust to legal permanent resident (LPR) status, are among the most controversial issues of U.S. immigration policy. Among the thorny questions raised by such proposals are: would unauthorized aliens (i.e., illegal al... | Immigration patterns have changed substantially since 1952, when policy makers codifying the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) assumed that most aliens becoming legal permanent residents (LPRs) of the United States would be arriving from abroad. In 1975, more than 80% of all LPRs arrived from abroad. By 2005, howev... |
Introduction The effectiveness of the nation's schools is a concern at all levels of government. It is generally held that all students in elementary and secondary education should have access to quality public schools, providing all students with an opportunity to meet rigorous academic standards. Examining whether st... | Over the last two decades, there has been interest in developing federal policies that focus on student outcomes in elementary and secondary education. Perhaps most prominently, the enactment of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB; P.L. 107-110), which amended and reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Educat... |
Introduction Every four years, the two major political parties, and some third parties, select their presidential nominees at conventions. These conventions are run by and for parties, without a formal role for the federal government. Federal funds do, however, provide certain financial support to convention committees... | This report provides overview and analysis of two recurring questions surrounding the federal government's role in financing presidential nominating conventions. First, how much public funding supports presidential nominating conventions? Second, what options exist for changing that amount if Congress chooses to do so?... |
Introduction A small, densely populated Central American country that has deep historical, familial, and economic ties to the United States, El Salvador has been a focus of sustained congressional interest (see Figure 1 for a map and key country data). After a troubled history of authoritarian rule and a civil war (198... | Congress has had significant interest in El Salvador, a small Central American nation that has had a large percentage of its population living in the United States since the country's civil conflict (1980-1992). During the 1980s, the U.S. government spent billions of dollars supporting the Salvadoran government's count... |
Introduction Beginning in 1986, Congress passed several pieces of legislation that placed individual limits on Members' mail costs and required public disclosure of each Member's overall franking expenditures. These changes helped reduce overall congressional mail postage costs to $23.8 million during the 113 th Congre... | Despite significant reductions in congressional mail postage costs over the past 25 years, critics continue to raise concerns about the franking privilege. While proponents of the franking privilege argue that the frank allows Members to fulfill their representational duties by providing for greater communication betwe... |
Introduction Congress is deeply divided over implementation of the Affordable Care Act (ACA), which President Obama signed into law in March 2010. Since the ACA's enactment, lawmakers opposed to specific provisions in the ACA or the entire law have repeatedly debated its implementation and considered bills to repeal, d... | Congress is deeply divided over implementation of the Affordable Care Act (ACA), the health reform law enacted in March 2010. Since the ACA's enactment, lawmakers opposed to specific provisions in the ACA or the entire law have repeatedly debated its implementation and considered bills to repeal, defund, delay, or othe... |
Introduction In 2008 and 2009, collapsing world credit markets and a slowing global economy combined to create the weakest market in decades for production and sale of motor vehicles in the United States and other industrial countries. The declines in production and sales were serious business challenges for all automa... | The recent recession and accompanying credit crisis posed severe challenges for all automakers, but especially for General Motors and Chrysler. Executives of both companies testified before congressional committees in the fall of 2008 requesting federal bridge loans. Legislation that would have provided such financial ... |
Overview On an undisclosed date in 2010, Burma (Myanmar) is to hold its first national parliamentary elections since the ill-fated vote in 1990. Depending on the manner in which the election is held and the outcome of the vote, Burma's prospects for a more democratic government may be at stake. The current ruling milit... | On an undisclosed date in 2010, Burma plans to hold its first parliamentary elections in 20 years. The elections are to be held under a new constitution, supposedly approved in a national referendum held in 2008 in the immediate aftermath of the widespread destruction caused by Cyclone Nargis. The official results of t... |
Introduction Broad efforts are underway to expand the use of renewable energy technologies to increase domestic energy production, improve U.S. energy security, create new industries and new jobs, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, renewable energy technologies... | Congress created the Section 1603 grant program as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA; P.L. 111-5). This program, administered by the U.S. Department of the Treasury, provides cash grant incentives for renewable energy projects. Initially, the Section 1603 grant program was scheduled to ex... |
Introduction After several years of rapid growth in defense budgets, measures to reduce federal budget deficits have led to projections of a substantial decline in military spending over the next decade. As a result of limits on discretionary spending in the Budget Control Act of 2011 ( P.L. 112-25 ), the Department o... | Senior Department of Defense (DOD) leaders have invoked the specter of a "hollow force" to describe what could happen to the U.S. Armed Forces if significant cuts to the defense budget are enacted. While some Members and staff might be familiar with the hollow force and its causes, newer Members and staff might not hav... |
Introduction The use of financial derivatives by American industry began in agriculture in the 19 th century. Later, they were widely used in foreign exchange transactions, as well as in the bond markets. Their use in energy markets began in a modest way with the introduction of a heating oil futures contract in 1978 a... | Risk management is important in the energy industries because of the volatility of oil and natural gas prices. Price volatility can reduce the profit of business strategies and hurt consumers. The use of financial derivatives, both traded and over-the-counter, has developed as a low cost method of hedging price risk. H... |
Overview On September 15, 2008, Robert Mugabe, president of Zimbabwe for more than two decades, and opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai signed a power-sharing arrangement to resolve a political standoff stemming from flawed elections earlier in the year. The Global Political Agreement (GPA) laid the foundations for a t... | Zimbabwe's prospects appeared promising in 1980, as it gained independence after a long liberation war. However, rising inflation and unemployment bred discontent in the 1990s and led in 1999 to the formation of the opposition Movement for Democratic Change (MDC). The MDC surprised many with its initial success, campai... |
Overview Côte d'Ivoire, a West African country of 21.5 million people that is nearly as large as New Mexico and is the world's leading cocoa producer, is emerging from a severe political-military crisis. It grew out of a disputed November 28, 2010 presidential runoff election between former president Laurent Gbagbo ( b... | Côte d'Ivoire is emerging from a severe political-military crisis that followed a disputed November 28, 2010, presidential runoff election between former president Laurent Gbagbo and his, former Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara. Both claimed electoral victory and formed opposing governments. Their rivalry spurred a ful... |
Overview Senegal has remained relatively stable but poor since gaining independence from France in 1960. It is an electoral democracy and among the few countries in Africa never to have experienced a coup d'état. Senegal is also diplomatically influential, particularly among Francophone African states, and its relative... | Successive U.S. Administrations have viewed Senegal as a democratic leader in Africa, an anchor of regional stability, and a partner in addressing development challenges and combating transnational security threats. Senegalese President Macky Sall met with President Barack Obama at the White House in March 2013, and Pr... |
Introduction This report is intended to provide Members and congressional staff with the background needed to understand the debate over proposed strategies to redesign the global nuclear fuel cycle. It begins with a look at the motivating factors underlying the resurgent interest in nuclear power in some parts of the ... | After several decades of widespread stagnation, nuclear power has attracted renewed interest in recent years. New license applications for 30 reactors have been announced in the United States, and another 548 are under construction, planned, or proposed around the world. In the United States, interest appears driven, i... |
Introduction There is a broad-based consensus that the U.S. immigration system is broken. This consensus erodes, however, as soon as the options to reform the U.S. immigration system are debated. Substantial efforts to comprehensively reform immigration law failed in the 109 th and 110 th Congresses, prompting some to ... | There is a broad-based consensus that the U.S. immigration system is broken. This consensus erodes, however, as soon as the options to reform the U.S. immigration system are debated. Substantial efforts to comprehensively reform immigration law failed in the 109th and 110th Congresses. Whether and how the 112th Congres... |
Introduction The Water Resources Development Act of 2000 (Title VI, P.L. 106-541 ) authorized involvement of federal agencies in projects to restore the Everglades; these projects are coordinated under a planning framework—the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP or the plan). The Everglades is the defining ... | The Everglades, a unique network of subtropical wetlands in Florida, is half its original size. Many factors contributed to its decline, including flood control projects and agricultural and urban development. Federal, state, tribal, and local agencies collaborated to develop a Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan... |
Most Recent Developments Continuing Appropriations Resolution (CR) Further Extended in the 112th Congress (P.L. 112-4 and P.L. 112-6); Full-Year Continuing Appropriations Measures Considered (H.R. 1 and S.Amdt. 149) P.L. 111-242 , the initial Continuing Appropriations Act, 2011, was amended twice more in March 2011 to ... | This report tracks FY2011 appropriations for the Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education, and Related Agencies (L-HHS-ED). This legislation provides discretionary funds for three major federal departments and 14 related agencies. The report summarizes L-HHS-ED discretionary funding issues but not... |
Introduction The U.S. Constitution provides Congress with powers over the Armed Forces, including the power "to make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces." As such, Congress has oversight of Department of Defense (DOD) policies and programs. Congressional efforts to address military sexu... | Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution gives Congress the power to raise and support armies; provide and maintain a navy and make rules for the governance of those forces. Under this authority, Congress determines military criminal law applicable to members of the Armed Forces. Congress has determined that sexua... |
Overview A series of elections in Lebanon, Iran, Afghanistan, and Iraq may be critical in determining the future direction and success of U.S. policy toward the Middle East. In 2009, as the Obama Administration and Members of the 111 th Congress face the challenges of withdrawing from Iraq, stabilizing Afghanistan, and... | The strategic influence of Iran in the Middle East, the stability of Iraq, and the ongoing war in Afghanistan are at the forefront of U.S. policy and Congressional interest in the region. The Obama Administration and many Members of the 111th Congress are making decisions about the U.S. approach to the Middle East at a... |
Insider Trading The provisions of the new law expressly affirm that there exists no exemption for Members of Congress, congressional employees, or for other federal officers or employees from the "insider trading" prohibitions in federal securities law and regulation. It should be emphasized that there never was any ex... | The STOCK Act (Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act of 2012) was signed into law on April 4, 2012. It affirms and makes explicit the fact that there is no exemption from the "insider trading" laws and regulations for Members of Congress, congressional employees, or any federal officials. The law also expressly a... |
The Davis-Bacon Act of 1931 (As Amended) Early in the 20 th century, it was not at all clear that the federal government had the authority to regulate wages and conditions of work in the private sector. When Congress attempted to deal legislatively with hours of work, child labor or minimum wages, its enactments were o... | The Davis-Bacon Act of 1931, as amended, requires that contractors engaging in certain federal contract construction pay workers on such projects not less than the locally prevailing wage for comparable work. In addition, such contractors are required to file payroll reports and to meet other administrative and labor s... |
Introduction In the first few months of 2005, two leading data brokers, LexisNexis and ChoicePoint, announced that unauthorized individuals had breached their security measures and obtained personal information (e.g., Social Security numbers, addresses) about hundreds of thousands of individuals. These companies and ot... | Disclosures of breaches of the customer databases of LexisNexis and ChoicePoint have raised interest in the business and regulation of data brokers, companies that collect personal information from public and private records and sell this information to public and private sector entities. The growth of this industry ha... |
Background Derivatives are financial instruments that come in several different forms, including futures , options , and swaps . A derivative is a contract that derives its value from some underlying asset at a designated point in time. The derivative may be tied to a physical commodity, a stock index, an interest rate... | Derivatives are financial instruments that come in several different forms, including futures, options, and swaps. A derivative is a contract that derives its value from some underlying asset at a designated point in time. The derivative may be tied to a physical commodity, a stock index, an interest rate, or some othe... |
Introduction On January 10, 2013, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) released a final rule implementing the Ability-to-Repay (ATR) requirement of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (Dodd-Frank Act; P.L. 111-203 ). The final rule is effective January 10, 2014, one year after it wa... | On January 10, 2013, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) released a final rule implementing the Ability-to-Repay (ATR) requirement of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (Dodd-Frank Act). The rule is effective January 10, 2014. The ATR rule will require a lender to determine based ... |
Introduction Oil is a dominant source of energy in the United States, accounting for approximately 37% of total energy consum ption in 2016. Its use is widespread, providing fuel for the transportation, industrial, and residential sectors. Vast quantities of oil continuously enter the country via vessel or pipeline. Va... | Oil is a primary source of energy in the United States. Domestic oil production has increased in recent years, and vast quantities of oil continually enter the country via vessel or pipeline, moving throughout the country to various destinations. With such widespread use and nonstop movement, it is inevitable that some... |
Introduction The federal procurement process (i.e., the process whereby agencies obtain goods and services from the private sector) requires funding. Contractors are generally paid using appropriated funds, and agency personnel—who are generally also paid with appropriated funds—are responsible for entering and adminis... | When confronted with actual or potential funding gaps, funding shortfalls, or budget cuts, the federal government has a number of options as to prospective and existing procurement contracts. Many of these options arise from contract law and, in particular, certain standard clauses included in federal procurement contr... |
Introduction The child tax credit was created in 1997 by the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 ( P.L. 105-34 ) to help ease the financial burden that families incur when they have children. Like other tax credits, the child tax credit reduces tax liability dollar for dollar of the value of the credit. Initially the child tax... | This report provides an overview of the child tax credit under current law, including temporary changes made by the 2017 tax revision (P.L. 115-97). When calculating the total amount of federal income taxes owed, eligible taxpayers can reduce their federal income tax liability by the amount of the child tax credit. Cur... |
Prohibiting Mental Health Factors Under the Gun Control Act of 1968 Under the Gun Control Act of 1968 (GCA) , as amended, certain categories of persons are prohibited from possessing, shipping, transporting, and receiving firearms and ammunition. These nine categories of persons who are prohibited include 1. persons co... | Questions about the scope and efficacy of the background checks required during certain firearm purchases have gained prominence following recent mass shootings. These background checks are intended to identify whether potential purchasers are prohibited from purchasing or possessing firearms due to one or more "prohib... |
Introduction During the past two decades, Members of Congress have demonstrated an interest in U.S. participation in the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (popularly known as the World Heritage Conve... | The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (the World Heritage Convention) identifies and helps protect international sites of such exceptional ecological, scientific, or cultural importance that their pr... |
Background Firefighting activities are traditionally the responsibility of states and local communities. As such, funding for firefighters is provided mostly by state and local governments. During the 1990s, shortfalls in state and local budgets, coupled with increased responsibilities (i.e., counterterrorism) of local... | The Assistance to Firefighters Grant (AFG) Program, also known as the FIRE Act grant program, was established by Title XVII of the FY2001 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 106-398). The program provides federal grants directly to local fire departments and unaffiliated Emergency Medical Services (EMS) organizati... |
Introduction The central issue addressed by this report is how much Congress should consider appropriating for the continued sustainment and modernization of the B-52, B-1, and B-2 bombers over the remainder of their service lives. Many military experts note the advanced age of the United States' long-range bomber flee... | The United States' existing long-range bomber fleet of B-52s, B-1s, and B-2s are at a critical point in their operational life span. With the average age of each airframe being 50, 28, and 20 years old, respectively, military analysts are beginning to question just how long these aircraft can physically last and contin... |
Section 212(f) of the INA The provisions currently in Section 212(f)—which have been part of the INA since its enactment in 1952 —state, in relevant part, that Whenever the President finds that the entry of any aliens or of any class of aliens into the United States would be detrimental to the interests of the United ... | The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) provides that individual aliens outside the United States are "inadmissible"—or barred from admission to the country—on health, criminal, security, and other grounds set forth in the INA. However, the INA also grants the Executive several broader authorities that could be used ... |
Introduction In 2007, the Supreme Court rendered one of its most important environmental decisions. The case, Massachusetts v. EPA , was a challenge to the denial by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of a petition asking it to take two actions—(a) find under the Clean Air Act (CAA) that greenhouse gases (GHGs) ... | In 2007, the Supreme Court rendered one of its most important environmental decisions. In Massachusetts v. EPA, the Court held 5-4 that greenhouse gases (GHGs), widely viewed as contributing to climate change, constitute "air pollutants" as that phrase is used in the Clean Air Act (CAA). As a result, said the Court, th... |
Background During the Obama Administration, the United States considered two mega-regional free trade agreements that its participants argued were comprehensive and high-standard: the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) among the United States and 11 other countries, and the U.S.-European Transatlantic Trade and Investment... | During the Obama Administration, the United States negotiated two mega-regional free trade agreements that its participants argued were comprehensive and high-standard: the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) among the United States and 11 other countries, and the U.S.-European Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnershi... |
Introduction: Why is Ukraine Important? More than a dozen years after achieving independence, Ukraine continues to undergo a difficulttransition to democracy and a free market economy. It is also undergoing a related search for itsidentity, as either an independent, central European state or as a close partner of Russi... | Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, many Western analysts have viewed a stable, independent and sovereign Ukraine as a key element in European security, pointing to its size,strategic location and economic potential. Those who are concerned about Russia's motives andgoals in the region see an independent Uk... |
Background and Purpose The Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification (WARN) Act requires qualified employers that intend to carry out plant closings or mass layoffs to provide 60 days' advance notice to affected employees, states, and localities. There are several purposes to the WARN Act. Notices provide workers w... | Enacted by the 100th Congress, the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification (WARN) Act requires qualified employers that intend to carry out plant closings or mass layoffs to provide 60 days' notice to affected employees, states, and localities. The purpose of the notice to workers is to allow them to seek alterna... |
Introduction The Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), finalized in December 2013, is the newest international trade agreement to enter into force at the World Trade Organization (WTO), after two-thirds of WTO member countries ratified the multilateral agreement as of February 22, 2017. The TFA is important to Congress b... | The Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), finalized in December 2013, is the newest international trade agreement in the World Trade Organization (WTO), having entered into force on February 22, 2017, when two-thirds of WTO members, including the United States, ratified the multilateral agreement. Congress has an interes... |
Introduction Every four years, the two major political parties, and some third parties, select their presidential nominees at conventions. These conventions are run by and for parties, without a formal role for the federal government. Until recently, voluntary taxpayer designations provided certain financial support to... | During the 113th Congress, legislation (H.R. 2019) became law (P.L. 113-94) eliminating Presidential Election Campaign Fund (PECF) funding for convention operations. The 2012 Democratic and Republican convention committees each received grants, financed with public funds, of approximately $18.2 million (for a total of ... |
A Brief Overview of the Issues Related to Prison Population Growth The Government Accountability Office (GAO) reported that BOP faces several challenges resulting from the increasing number of inmates placed under its supervision. According to GAO, BOP reported increased use of double and triple bunking, which brings ... | Since the early 1980s, there has been a historically unprecedented increase in the federal prison population. The total number of inmates under the Bureau of Prisons' (BOP) jurisdiction increased from approximately 25,000 in FY1980 to over 205,000 in FY2015. Between FY1980 and FY2013, the federal prison population incr... |
Introduction The attacks of September 11, 2001, heightened interest in port and maritime security. Much of this interest has focused on cargo container ships because of concern that terrorists could use containers to transport weapons into the United States, yet only a small fraction of the millions of cargo containers... | While much attention has been focused on threats to maritime security posed by cargo container ships, terrorists could also attempt to use oil tankers to stage an attack. If they were able to place an atomic bomb in a tanker and detonate it in a U.S. port, they would cause massive destruction and might halt crude oil s... |
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