translation translation |
|---|
{
"en": "With all this, we look forward to achieving an even more notable position for the magazines importance as a serious publication, one which will cause the medical community to look forward to each new issue and each new article.",
"es": "Con todo ello buscamos un posicionamiento notable que refleje la impo... |
{
"en": "This article deals with the emergence and consolidation of bioethics as a discipline.",
"es": "Este artículo trata sobre la emergencia y la consolidación de la bioética como disciplina."
} |
{
"en": "Within the framework of the historical sociology of bioethics , it seeks to reconstruct various origin narratives that imply different concepts of the discipline.",
"es": "Enmarcándonos en el área de la sociología histórica de la bioética intentaremos reconstruir las diversas narrativas de origen que impli... |
{
"en": "I will not offer a substantive definition of bioethics here, since I found that it can have different meanings and is still under discussion within the field itself .",
"es": "Aquí no brindaremos una definición sustantiva acerca de lo que la bioética es, ya que encontramos que asume significados diversos y... |
{
"en": "The reconstruction of these narratives helps us understand the assumptions in specific areas of the literature about the practices and fields of inquiry of bioethics.",
"es": "La reconstrucción de estos relatos de narrativas ayuda a comprender qué es lo que se entiende en la literatura específica sobre las... |
{
"en": "The data presented here are the product of a wide-ranging five-year research study 2008-2013 that combined qualitative methodological strategies from the interpretive paradigm of social studies .",
"es": "Los datos aquí presentados son producto de una investigación más amplia de cinco años de duración 2008... |
{
"en": "The principal techniques used were the analysis of written documents I analyzed a body of 502 texts, including scientific papers, local and international legislation, academic programming at universities and news articles, in-depth interviews of specialists I conducted 52 interviews of bioethics specialists ... |
{
"en": "For this article in particular, in terms of methodological strategy, I focused on document analysis .",
"es": "Para este artículo en particular, hemos puesto el foco, como estrategia metodológica, en el análisis documental ."
} |
{
"en": "I followed the criteria proposed by Belinchón, Ramos and Bellver 2007 for bibliographic surveys of bioethics topics, taking into account statistics on web sites, books, journals and frequently-consulted topics relating to bioethics, along with citation patterns, indexing and referencing as proposed by .",
... |
{
"en": "Based on this analysis, I argue that there are multiple origin narratives that coexist in a kind of amalgam; they involve different definitions and practices and have caused some authors to speak of “bioethics” as a plurality Gaines, Juengst, 2008; .",
"es": "Como resultado de este análisis, es posible afi... |
{
"en": "This situation leads certain theorists to conclude that bioethics is not a scientific discipline or a global field of inquiry because it does not possess a unified method, clear rules for citing authors at an international level, access to the same text books on all international circuits “canonical” texts o... |
{
"en": "Likewise, it has been pointed out that one of the characteristics of bioethics is that it is a multidisciplinary endeavor.",
"es": "Asimismo, se indica que una de las características de la bioética es que es una reflexión pluridisciplinar."
} |
{
"en": "This undermines the likelihood of its becoming a unified scientific field and it therefore remains in a “pre-science” stage.",
"es": "Esto atentaría contra la posibilidad de que se constituya como un campo científico unificado y por ello se encontraría todavía en un estadio de “pre-ciencia”."
} |
{
"en": "These views, based on positivist premises , assume that for bioethics to become a “scientific discipline” it must focus on achieving methodological monism, an empirical approach and the same working norms as natural sciences , ignoring the fact that there are other ways of constructing scientific knowledge i... |
{
"en": "Treating bioethics as a non-scientific space has given rise to theories claiming that it involves reflecting on moral issues and that bioethicists are therefore the “New Priests’ of contemporary secular society” and the “contemporary administrators of the sacred” , or a “cabal of moralizing intellectuals” , ... |
{
"en": "This type of interpretation has led to a significant number of publications in specialized journals by bioethicists themselves, arguing that bioethics is a scientific discipline .",
"es": "Este tipo de interpretaciones ha dado lugar a una cantidad importante de publicaciones en revistas especializadas, por... |
{
"en": "In fact, most works on bioethics begin with the question “What is bioethics?” ; .",
"es": "De hecho, la mayoría de los textos de bioética comienzan por el apartado ¿qué es la bioética? ; ."
} |
{
"en": "And at least some bioethicists originally conceived of this body of knowledge as a discipline with its own characteristics, distinct from other academic fields .",
"es": "Y, los bioeticistas, al menos algunos en sus orígenes, concibieron a este cuerpo de conocimiento como una disciplina con sus característ... |
{
"en": ", p.207 argues that bioethics is a field of knowledge at the interface of different disciplines and that therefore one of its characteristics is disagreement among specialists about its epistemological foundations and object of study.",
"es": ", p.207 sostiene que la bioética es un campo de conocimiento en... |
{
"en": "Some authors have attempted to outline an epistemological status pertaining to Latin American and Caribbean bioethics ; -2006; ; , while others propose a broader geographical and cultural framework that would include the whole of Ibero-America Pessini, De Barchifontaine, Lolas Stepke, 2010.",
"es": "Alguno... |
{
"en": "The different approaches all signal a need for the region to generate its own theory, including a bioethics of intervention , protection Roland Schram, 2005, human development ;, narrative , human rights , gender studies and poverty and inequality in Latin American populations .",
"es": "En las distintas l... |
{
"en": "Overall, the various diverse narratives – which disagree on how to define bioethics – concur that the discipline or “non-discipline” emerged at the end of the 1960s in the United States -2006; due to developments in life sciences and medicine that led to modifications in ethical and regulatory frameworks in ... |
{
"en": "-2006 argues that there are four stages in the historical development of bioethics.",
"es": "-2006 sostiene que la bioética tuvo un desarrollo histórico en cuatro etapas."
} |
{
"en": "The first was its foundation in the 1970s, followed by its consolidation in the 1980s, when the discipline spread to Europe and the rest of the world, then the critique stage from 1990-2005 and lastly, from 2005 to the present, a stage of conceptual expansion linked to the Unesco Declaration on Bioethics and... |
{
"en": "I shall now analyze the principal narratives about the origin of bioethics in the United States, narratives that seek to answer the question “What is bioethics?” in the period that -2006 identifies as foundational.",
"es": "A continuación, analizaremos las principales narrativas de origen de la bioética en... |
{
"en": "These origin narratives typically privilege certain historic events and ignore others in the process of constructing a disciplinary memory.",
"es": "Estas narrativas de origen se caracterizan por privilegiar ciertos acontecimientos históricos y marginalizar otros como parte de un proceso de construcción de... |
{
"en": "Performing this kind of analysis can be useful in terms of understanding developments in Ibero-America, which I shall not be discussing in this article, but which stemmed from, referenced and critiqued the context of the United States.",
"es": "La realización de un análisis de este tipo puede ser un aporte... |
{
"en": "This context is usually assumed to be homogeneous, but as we shall see, American bioethicists themselves had differing concepts of what bioethics is and what it should study.",
"es": "Este contexto suele considerarse como homogéneo y veremos que los propios bioeticistas norteamericanos también tienen diver... |
{
"en": "What is bioethics?",
"es": "¿Qué es la bioética?"
} |
{
"en": "Answering the question “What is bioethics?” is, as I have said, fundamental for bioethicists, whose publications tend to begin by explaining what the discipline studies, when it arose and what issues it deals with.",
"es": "Responder a la pregunta sobre qué es la bioética resulta, como hemos mencionado, un... |
{
"en": "These stories operate as origin myths and provide a framework both for generating theories about bioethics and for the practices that arise from them .",
"es": "Estos relatos operan como mitos de origen y proveen un marco tanto para la generación de teoría sobre la bioética como para las prácticas que ésta... |
{
"en": "Each of the different narratives on “the history of bioethics” has implications for the practices and thematic priorities assigned to the discipline .",
"es": "Cada una de las diferentes narrativas sobre “la historia de la bioética” tiene implicancias para las prácticas y las prioridades temáticas que se a... |
{
"en": "These authors conducted an ethnographic study in which they interviewed the leading figures present at the inception of American bioethics, which led them to reconstruct at least five origin narratives in the context of bioethics in the United States.",
"es": "Estos autores, a partir de un estudio etnográf... |
{
"en": "The reference to the American context is essential, since the different strains of bioethics taught in Ibero-America maintain that the discipline arose in the United States and that an alternative theory is possible if it is formulated independently of developments in the United States ; .",
"es": "La refe... |
{
"en": "argue that when American bioethicists refer to the origin of bioethics they create at least five stories that can be grouped under three headings: a bioethics as reactive, b bioethics as proactive, or c bioethics as continuity. As regards the first of these, they argue that there are two versions of history.... |
{
"en": "In this narrative, new technologies are always a cause for moral concern and therefore we should focus on regulating scientific-technological developments.",
"es": "Para este relato las nuevas tecnologías son siempre moralmente preocupantes y por ello se focalizan en la regulación de los desarrollos cientí... |
{
"en": "Depending on one’s focus new reproductive technologies, organ transplants or experimentation on human beings, from this perspective, bioethics is perceived as having a “mission” to respond to the requirements of biomedicine or to monitor biomedicine in society’s name so as to guarantee social wellbeing.",
... |
{
"en": "According to the authors, the second version, bioethics as reactive, argues that the discipline arose as a response to cultural pluralism.",
"es": "La segunda versión de la bioética reactiva, indican los autores, es aquella que sostiene que la disciplina surgió como respuesta al pluralismo cultural."
} |
{
"en": "It also assumes that bioethics arose out of the challenges appearing in biomedicine, but relates it to the idea of a collapse in the moral values that ought to regulate biomedical sciences.",
"es": "También se entiende que la bioética emergió a partir de los desafíos que aparecieron desde la biomedicina pe... |
{
"en": "A fresh approach was needed to respond to the newly-emerging ethical dilemmas that traditional medical ethics could not handle.",
"es": "Se necesitaba un nuevo abordaje para dar respuesta a los dilemas éticos que se generaban y que la ética médica tradicional no podía abordar."
} |
{
"en": "Thus, bioethics should focus on seeking common moral elements on which to base shared decisions about health and biomedical research.",
"es": "Por ello, se focalizan en buscar elementos morales comunes que puedan dar sustento a las decisiones compartidas en materia de salud e investigación biomédica."
} |
{
"en": "Topics of interest to this perspective are abortion, the status of the human embryo, refusal of treatment and bioethics committees as forums for public deliberation .",
"es": "Las temáticas de interés de esta perspectiva se relacionan con el aborto, el estatuto del embrión humano, el rechazo a tratamientos... |
{
"en": "Those who frame the origin of bioethics as proactive b argue, firstly, that the discipline arose as a social movement for defending the rights of patients within the healthcare system itself, and secondly, that it arose as a discipline capable of setting limits on future developments in life sciences, in ord... |
{
"en": "They link the origin of bioethics to the development of various different advocacy movements – for civil, political, cultural, economic, women’s and healthcare rights – in the 1960s and argue that the discipline arose as a continuation of those social movements.",
"es": "Aquí se ligan los orígenes de la bi... |
{
"en": "The bioethicist, from this perspective, is an advocate for patient rights, and participation in hospital committees or governmental commissions must be linked to patient advocacy.",
"es": "El bioeticista, desde esta perspectiva, es un activista en defensa de los derechos de los pacientes, y la participació... |
{
"en": "Furthermore, bioethics should seek to prevent environmental problems and “anticipate and prepare for such developments in advance” , p.319. Thus, one of the main issues from this perspective is stem cell research, genomics and biobanks .",
"es": "Además, la bioética puede ocuparse de prevenir problemáticas... |
{
"en": "Although they differ slightly regarding the purpose of the discipline, all these stories bioethics as reactive or proactive share the idea that bioethics emerged at the end of the 1960s for the first time in history.",
"es": "Con algunos matices sobre el propósito de la disciplina, todos estos relatos la b... |
{
"en": "The counterpoint is found in the narrative that sees bioethics as a historical continuation c of medical ethics and ancient Greek philosophy.",
"es": "El contrapunto se da con la narrativa que ubica a la bioética en continuidad histórica c con la ética médica y la filosofía de la antigüedad griega."
} |
{
"en": "According to , some bioethicists argue that bioethics has a specific lineage and genealogy that is linked on a continuum with the philosophical and ethical values stemming from western medical and philosophical traditions.",
"es": "Según , algunos bioeticistas sostienen que la bioética tiene un linaje y un... |
{
"en": "This narrative claims that bioethics is merely an updated version of traditional medical ethics and philosophy, adapted to the new developments in life sciences and medicine at the end of the twentieth century.",
"es": "Esta narrativa indica que la bioética no sería más que una reactualización de la ética ... |
{
"en": "In this line of thinking, some bioethicists see the discipline as merely a part of medical ethics and others as a sub-discipline within philosophical ethics, but both varieties situate it within a heritage dating from the ancient Greeks.",
"es": "En esta línea, algunos bioeticistas ligan a la disciplina só... |
{
"en": "All these origin narratives are based on surveys of historical landmarks to illustrate their explanations of the rise of the discipline.",
"es": "Todas estas narrativas de origen se basan en la recopilación de hitos históricos para dar sentido a su explicación del surgimiento de la disciplina."
} |
{
"en": "The facts mentioned in history texts written by bioethicists reveal their assumptions about the origin and object of bioethics as a discipline.",
"es": "Los hechos mencionados en los textos históricos escritos por bioeticistas responden a la concepción que tienen sobre el origen y el objeto de la bioética ... |
{
"en": "Thus, in their stories the authors privilege the facts they consider important.",
"es": "Así es que los autores van privilegiando en sus relatos los hechos que ellos consideran importantes."
} |
{
"en": "This mainly reflects the fact that the history of bioethics is being written by practitioners in the field and analyses of bioethics by non-bioethicists remain scarce.",
"es": "Esto se debe, principalmente, a que la historia de la bioética es escrita por los propios actores del campo de estudio y todavía s... |
{
"en": "I am attempting here to prepare the way for this type of review and analysis of bioethics from outside the field, from a sociological perspective, as De Vries proposes 2004.",
"es": "Aquí estamos intentando abonar el camino hacia este tipo de revisiones y análisis sobre la bioética fuera del campo en persp... |
{
"en": "As an example of the historical landmarks mentioned we can point to the use of the term “bioethics” by oncologist Van Rensselaer Potter 1911-2001 in his pioneering text Bioethics: bridge to the future in 1971; many attribute the invention of the term “bioethics” to him ;; .",
"es": "Como ejemplo de los hit... |
{
"en": "Other landmark events were Henry Beecher’s paper on human experimentation at Harvard University in 1966, the founding of a national bioethics commission by the US Congress [in 1974] and the [New Jersey] Supreme Court ruling permitting artificial respiration to be withdrawn from Karen Ann Quinlan in New Jerse... |
{
"en": "The first heart transplant 1967 and the abortion debates stemming from the 1973 Roe vs.Wade ruling in the United States have also been identified as contributing to the emergence of bioethics .",
"es": "Además, se indican como propiciadores de la emergencia de la bioética al primer trasplante de corazón 19... |
{
"en": "Another issue that features prominently in the literature is the role of Daniel Callahan and André Hellegers, the respective founders of the Hastings Center in New York 1969 and the Kennedy Institute of Ethics at Georgetown University 1971, during this same era ; .",
"es": "Otra cuestión que resulta destac... |
{
"en": "Very few commentators note that Fritz Jahr, a German theologian, had already coined the term “bioethics” in a 1927 article on the relationship between human beings and other living creatures animals and plants, drawing on the philosophy of Immanuel Kant 1724-1804 .",
"es": "Muy pocas voces hacen referencia... |
{
"en": "Although his was the first recorded use of the term “bioethics,” there are few references in the literature to this theologian’s contributions and it is widely accepted that the birth of bioethics as a discipline can be traced to the end of the 1960s .",
"es": "A pesar de ser el primer registro histórico q... |
{
"en": "The fact that Jahr was a theologian is part of the reason he is not mentioned as inventor of the term, since one of the characteristics of all the origin narratives Gaines, Juengst 2008 is that they see bioethics as “a secular discipline based on medical or philosophical traditions, not theological ones” , p... |
{
"en": "Another recurrent trait of all the origin narratives is the way they separate the discipline from its religious content.",
"es": "Desligar a la disciplina de sus contenidos religiosos es también una de las características recurrentes de todas las narrativas de origen."
} |
{
"en": "Little is said about the fluid relationship between Callahan and Hellegers, both of whom were progressive lay Catholics, with officials at the Vatican ; ; , or the role of theologians and priests in early discussions about dilemmatic cases and their participation in governmental bioethics committees and comm... |
{
"en": "Nor is the role of Catholic bishops and hospitals in setting up the first bioethics committees mentioned .",
"es": "Tampoco se menciona el rol de los episcopados católicos y los hospitales confesionales en la constitución de los primeros comités de bioética ."
} |
{
"en": "There are references to the fact that early on there were “some priests” involved , but as time went on the discipline became increasingly secular and rooted in the scientific and academic field . argue that Callahan’s vision of bioethics as having a “‘religious-to-secular’ trajectory” is a simplification of... |
{
"en": "The latter two were the respective founders of the first American bioethics centers ...",
"es": "Estos últimos fundaron los primeros centros académicos de bioética en EEUU."
} |
{
"en": "Early contributors to bioethics who spoke and wrote out of Jewish religious traditions were ... Rabbis J. David Bleich, David Feldman, Immanuel Jakobovits, and Seymour Siegel.” , p.489.",
"es": "También voces desde el judaísmo aportaron para el desarrollo de la disciplina como los rabinos David Bleich, Dav... |
{
"en": "even tells the story of his own and many of his colleagues’ journey from the priesthood to teaching medical ethics, participating in government bioethics commissions and academic conferences in the late 1960s, in the wake of the publication of Pope Paul VI’s encyclical Humanae Vitae 1968, which was a fundame... |
{
"en": "This perspective has been explored further in some studies analyzing the connection between bioethics and Catholicism, an aspect that, along with the development of a personalist bioethics linked to the official doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church , does not feature in the various origin narratives.",
"e... |
{
"en": "Another element barely discussed in the narratives compiled by is the influence of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Unesco, which since 1984 has “play[ed] an important role as a catalyst and think tank, informing public opinion on the human rights implications of scientifi... |
{
"en": "In 1991, this organization held its first meeting on bioethics and human rights in Moscow, Russia, and invited specialists from member countries and the United States to coordinate an action plan to institutionalize bioethics worldwide .",
"es": "Esta organización preparó para 1991 su primera reunión sobre... |
{
"en": "The Unesco Bioethics Programme 1993 has helped to develop ethical norms at an international level by issuing declarations The Human Genome and Human Rights, 1997; Genetic Data, 2003; Bioethics and Human Rights, 2005; by setting up international bioethics committees International Bioethics Committee, 1993; In... |
{
"en": "Likewise, there are few references to the various declarations of the World Health Organization, especially the Helsinki Declaration of 1964, which has encountered much resistance from the biomedical and pharmaceutical industry .",
"es": "También hay pocas menciones sobre las distintas declaraciones de la ... |
{
"en": "One last element not mentioned in the origin narratives specifically involves bioethics committees, for the direct predecessors of these professional bodies were medical ethics groups responsible for abortions and involuntary sterilization of women in the early twentieth century, and more broadly, their ante... |
{
"en": "In this regard, some authors argue that bioethics is a discipline which regulates conduct and tends to maintain the status quo, since it does not guarantee to protect people from the abuses of the biomedical system , and that the concepts of human dignity and eugenics in the Nazi era have implications curren... |
{
"en": "The hegemonic narratives situate the first committees historically as emerging in the 1960s; they frequently refer to the “God squad” , p.238, a hospital committee in the United States responsible for deciding which patients would be referred for the new renal dialysis treatment and which would not and would... |
{
"en": "I shall not go into any detail here about the specific issue of bioethics committees and their different origin narratives; I focus rather on how academic bioethicists publishing in specialized journals describe the historical origin of bioethics and the issues it deals with.",
"es": "Aquí no profundizarem... |
{
"en": "I rely on the work of anthropologists , because they use ethnographic research to show a plurality of origin narratives about bioethics, implying that there are different concepts among specialists of what bioethics should be at the present time.",
"es": "Nos hemos basado en el trabajo de los antropólogos ... |
{
"en": "I also point to those elements that are rarely mentioned or not directly named in the construction of the memory narrative .",
"es": "También hemos señalado aquellos elementos que aparecen poco mencionados o directamente no se nombran como parte de la construcción del relato de memoria ."
} |
{
"en": "This process of retrospective harmonization, characteristic of the creation of any origin story, is performed from the present to give meaning to joint action and provide a frame of reference for the future .",
"es": "Este proceso de armonización retrospectiva característico de toda elaboración narrativa d... |
{
"en": "Another dimension that helps us establish the different conceptions of bioethics involves the topics covered by bioethicists in specialized journals.",
"es": "Una dimensión que también ayuda a establecer cuáles son las distintas conceptualizaciones sobre la bioética se relaciona con las temáticas que abord... |
{
"en": "We have seen what bioethics is which in fact implies assumptions about what it should be in the present and the future according to bioethicists around the world; now we shall take a look at the issues discussed and explored in published texts.",
"es": "Ya hemos visto lo que la bioética es que en realidad ... |
{
"en": "What is bioethics about?",
"es": "¿De qué trata la bioética?"
} |
{
"en": "Academic bioethics texts published in the United States cover a wide variety of topics dealing with the legitimacy or illegitimacy of certain practices related to life sciences and biomedicine.",
"es": "Los textos que se publican en bioética en la academia norteamericana abarcan una gran cantidad de temáti... |
{
"en": "They propose arguments for and against presumed ethical dilemmas or even tragic dilemmas that require decision-making in which someone will either benefit or lose.",
"es": "Se proponen argumentos a favor y en contra de lo que consideran es un dilema ético o hasta un dilema trágico que requiere tomar una de... |
{
"en": "These decisions generally involve questions of individual life or death or situations that involve benefit or damage to the health of populations Pérez Tamayo, Lisker, Tapia, 2007.",
"es": "Estas decisiones generalmente implican cuestiones de vida o muerte de los individuos o situaciones que implican un be... |
{
"en": "I shall not analyze the content of the debates on the different issues.",
"es": "Aquí no analizaremos el contenido de los debates sobre los distintos temas."
} |
{
"en": "I shall explain which topics generate discussion in the discipline, as seen in academic publications, bearing in mind that within each topic there may be different perspectives.",
"es": "Dejaremos planteados, más bien, cuáles son los tópicos sobre los que giran las discusiones de la disciplina plasmadas en... |
{
"en": "Throughout the survey of specific literature from the late 1990s on, I detected recurrent themes that can be grouped under six discussion headings: 1 what is bioethics and what should it be?, appropriate characteristics for a bioethics expert/professional, the role of hospital committees and government/inter... |
{
"en": "All these topics are rooted in the connections between America and European countries, where biomedical research underwent a paradigm shift after the public learned about the first cloned mammal, the famous case of the sheep “Dolly” in 1997 or, in the same period, the development of research on adult and emb... |
{
"en": "In this sense, there was more development and production of texts and reflections on the potential of these techniques and less on “doctor/patient relationship” issues or bioethics in hospitals.",
"es": "En este sentido, hay más desarrollo y producción de textos y reflexiones relacionadas con los potencial... |
{
"en": "Regarding what bioethics actually is or should be and the role of bioethicists in contemporary societies, there are, as I mentioned earlier, various points of view.",
"es": "Respecto a lo que es debe ser la bioética y el rol de los bioeticistas en las sociedades contemporáneas, como ya mencionamos, hay dis... |
{
"en": "Discussions revolve around characterizing bioethics as applied ethics and the need to set its limits as a scientific field .",
"es": "Las discusiones rondan en caracterizar a la bioética como una ética aplicada y la necesidad de delimitarla como un campo científico ."
} |
{
"en": "Some also stress that it involves reflecting on the “moral order of society” and that it is a necessary field since politicians do not understand and therefore “need help from experts” to legislate the development, advances and potential future problems created by developments in life sciences .",
"es": "A... |
{
"en": "In this line of argument, some authors tend to position bioethics as outside politics while others, on the contrary, stress that because it promotes and introduces values and images into public debates, bioethics should be seen as a political activity . insists that bioethics is “helpful for resolving sociop... |
{
"en": "In this line of argument, some bioethicists stress that regional differences should be respected even within countries themselves and that issues like “the status of the human embryo” should be decided in local parliaments and not via national bioethics commissions .",
"es": "En esta línea, algunos bioetic... |
{
"en": "Regarding stem cell research, assisted reproduction, reproductive cloning and, to a lesser extent, abortion, there is a great deal of discussion about establishing the “status of the human embryo.”",
"es": "En relación a la investigación con células madre, la reproducción asistida, la clonación reproductiv... |
{
"en": "There are numerous debates about the importance of names, in other words, the issue of whether it can be established especially in legal texts that the union of a spermatozoid and an ovum is a “person,” a “piece of property,” a “zygote,” a “pre-embryo” or something else has practical implications in terms of... |
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