Datasets:

PomboLabs
/

TRACE

Purpose. This document is the controlled vocabulary for the TRACE synthetic dataset. Every category our data-generation pipeline can draw from is defined here, with an operational definition and a canonical citation. If a category is not in this document, the generator will not produce it — and if it is here, its clinical validity is defensible against a peer-reviewed source.

Who this serves.

The data-generation pipeline (src/prepare_data.py) consumes this taxonomy as its source of truth.
The dataset paper's composition table is a direct rendering of this document.
Reviewers verifying "no invented clinical categories" can trace each entry -> citation -> CHH chapter / JABA paper / curriculum manual.

Status. Version 1, 2026-04-22. Breaking changes require a bumped version and a changelog entry.

Citation conventions. Throughout this document:

CHH = Cooper, Heron, & Heward (2020). Applied Behavior Analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson.
JABA = Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
BAP = Behavior Analysis in Practice
DOIs link to the authoritative source wherever possible.

0.A Program orientation — Acceleration vs Deceleration

Every ABA goal falls into one of two program orientations, a distinction that runs through virtually all clinical data systems:

Orientation	Purpose	Covers
Acceleration	Behaviors / skills to increase	Skill-acquisition programs (VB-MAPP, AFLS targets); adaptive behaviors (toileting, communication including AAC); FCT-trained replacement behaviors; independent coping with denied access
Deceleration	Behaviors to decrease	Target problem behaviors (section 5): SIB, aggression, elopement, tantrum, stereotypy, pica, etc.

Citation. Standard ABA terminology; see CHH Ch. 22 ("Differential Reinforcement" — acceleration via reinforcement of desired behavior) and Ch. 24 ("Extinction") together with Ch. 25 ("Antecedent Interventions") for deceleration.

Dataset usage.

section 1 teaching methods DTT, NET, Task Analysis, PRT, Incidental Teaching apply to acceleration programs.
section 1.4 FCT is the acceleration method paired with deceleration — it teaches a replacement behavior while reducing a target behavior.
section 1.5 BST is meta-level (trains staff on any program).
Task 2 session logs sample across both orientations per session — several acceleration targets and zero or more deceleration behaviors. Exact counts are pipeline hyperparameters.

0.B How taxonomy dimensions combine

Each teaching program generation example is produced by sampling one value from each of these dimensions:

Dimension	# values	Section
Teaching method	6 (optionally 8 if video modeling + script fading approved)	section 1
Skill domain	16 (VB-MAPP) + 6 (AFLS) = 22	section 2
Developmental level	5 (3 VB-MAPP + 2 AFLS)	section 2
Skill target	~250	section 2
Mastery state	7	section 3
Prompt hierarchy	6	section 8
Reinforcement schedule	7	section 9
Error correction	5	section 10
Mastery criteria	7	section 11

Each behavioral session interpretation example is produced by sampling:

Dimension	# values	Section
Session pattern	12	section 7
Primary skills observed	3–8 per session	section 2
Target behaviors observed (if any)	0–3 per session	section 5
Measurement types used	2–5 per session	section 6
Behavior function hypothesis	4 + "not applicable"	section 4
Escalation level	4	section 12
Confidence level	3	section 13
BIP component structure	4	section 11

1. Teaching methods

The first task (Teaching Program Generation) produces content modality-aware. A "mand" goal is not automatically a DTT program — real clinical practice picks the method that fits the skill and learner. The model must reason about method selection.

1.1 Discrete Trial Training (DTT)

Operational definition. A structured teaching format consisting of clearly defined trial units: discriminative stimulus (SD) -> learner response -> consequence (reinforcement or correction) -> inter-trial interval (ITI). Trials are massed in a contrived setting (usually table-based), with explicit prompt hierarchy and error-correction procedure.
When to use. Acquisition of discrete, decontextualized skills (receptive labels, tacts, matching, early imitation) especially early in instruction when stimulus control must be established.
Canonical citation. Lovaas, O. I. (1987). JCCP, 55(1), 3–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.55.1.3 — seminal EIBI trial establishing DTT-based programming. Modern definition: Smith, T. (2001). Focus on Autism, 16(2), 86–92.
Dataset usage. Default teaching method for early-learner (VB-MAPP Level 1–2) discrete skills. Output includes explicit SD, prompt hierarchy, stimulus array, error-correction, mastery criteria.

1.2 Natural Environment Teaching (NET)

Operational definition. Teaching that occurs within the learner's natural context, capitalizing on child-initiated motivation and ongoing activities. The teaching opportunity is embedded in the environment, not contrived.
When to use. Generalization phase, functional communication, requesting (mand) skills, when motivation is the limiting factor, or when the skill's natural occasion is ecologically predictable (e.g., requesting food during snack time).
Canonical citation. Hart, B. & Risley, T. R. (1975). JABA, 8(4), 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1975.8-411 (origin of incidental teaching). Autism extension: McGee, G. G., Krantz, P. J., & McClannahan, L. E. (1985). JABA, 18(1), 17–31.
Dataset usage. Default teaching method for mand targets and generalization-phase goals. Output emphasizes environmental setup / MO arrangement over contrived SD.

1.3 Task Analysis / Chaining

Operational definition. Decomposition of a complex behavior into sequential component steps, followed by teaching each step and chaining them together. Three chain types:
- Forward chaining — teach step 1 to mastery, then 1->2, then 1->2->3, etc.
- Backward chaining — complete all steps except the last; teach last; move backward.
- Total-task presentation — prompt through entire chain every trial; fade prompts across all steps.
When to use. Multi-step skills with a natural sequence: toileting, handwashing, dressing, cooking, social routines.
Canonical citation. CHH Ch. 23 ("Chaining"). Empirical comparison: Slocum, S. K. & Tiger, J. H. (2011). JABA, 44(4), 793–805. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2011.44-793
Dataset usage. Default for self-care (AFLS Basic Living), domestic, community, and vocational domains. Output structure replaces "SD" with "task analysis steps" (numbered list) + chain type + prompt strategy per step.

1.4 Functional Communication Training (FCT)

Operational definition. Procedure for teaching a communication response that serves the same function as a target problem behavior, paired with extinction of the problem behavior. Example: a child who tantrums to escape demands is taught to say/sign "break please," which is reinforced; the tantrum is placed on extinction.
When to use. Any target behavior with a clear social function (escape, attention, tangible). First-line strategy before consequence-based interventions.
Canonical citation. Carr, E. G. & Durand, V. M. (1985). JABA, 18(2), 111–126. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1985.18-111 (seminal). Modern practical review: Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P., & Bruzek, J. (2008). BAP, 1(1), 16–23.
Dataset usage. Default teaching method in behavior-intervention-adjacent recommendations (task 2 interpretation output when behavior data is present). Output ties communication response -> hypothesized function -> reinforcement schedule.

1.5 Behavior Skills Training (BST)

Operational definition. Staff/caregiver training procedure with four components in sequence: (1) Instruction, (2) Modeling, (3) Rehearsal, (4) Feedback, iterated until the trainee meets mastery criteria on a performance checklist.
When to use. Training RBTs on a new program, training caregivers on a home procedure, preparing staff for a BIP rollout.
Canonical citation. Parsons, M. B., Rollyson, J. H., & Reid, D. H. (2012). BAP, 5(2), 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391819
Dataset usage. Used in a minority of task 1 outputs when the target is a staff-facing training program (rather than a learner-facing teaching program). Output structure emphasizes trainer steps and fidelity checklist.

1.6 Pivotal Response Training (PRT)

Operational definition. Naturalistic teaching targeting "pivotal" behaviors that produce widespread collateral gains: motivation, self-initiation, responsivity to multiple cues, self-management. Uses child choice, interspersal of mastered/acquisition targets, natural reinforcers, and reinforcement of attempts (not just correct responses).
When to use. Language acquisition in autism, social initiation, generalization across contexts.
Canonical citation. Koegel, R. L., O'Dell, M. C., & Koegel, L. K. (1987). JADD, 17(2), 187–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01495055 (origin of NLP -> PRT). JABA-indexed: Laski, K. E., Charlop, M. H., & Schreibman, L. (1988). JABA, 21(4), 391–400.
Dataset usage. Used for a minority of early-language targets in naturalistic conditions. Output emphasizes motivation arrangement, child-choice, attempt-reinforcement.

Method-selection heuristics (encoded as prompt guidance, not hard rules)

Skill context	Default method	Alternative
Early discrete skills (tacts, receptive labels, matching)	DTT	PRT (if motivation is limiting)
Mand / requesting	NET	FCT (if replacing problem behavior)
Multi-step routines (dressing, handwashing)	Task Analysis	—
Problem-behavior reduction	FCT	—
Generalization phase	NET	PRT
Staff-facing training	BST	—
Social-initiation skills	PRT	NET

2. Skill curriculum (Acceleration targets)

All skill domains in this section are acceleration targets — goals we want the learner to perform MORE often / more independently. See section 0.A.

Two overlapping curricula are encoded: VB-MAPP (early learners, 0–48 months developmental age) and AFLS (adolescents / adults and functional living). Together they cover the full learner age span TRACE should handle.

2.1 VB-MAPP (Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program)

Primary citation. Sundberg, M. L. (2008). Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program. AVB Press. Validation study: Barnes, C. S., Mellor, J. R., & Rehfeldt, R. A. (2014). Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 30(1), 36–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40616-013-0004-5

Developmental levels:

Level 1 — 0–18 months typical developmental age
Level 2 — 18–30 months
Level 3 — 30–48 months

16 skill domains, each expanded to 5 representative targets per developmental level (Sundberg 2008):

1. Mand — requesting.

L1: single-word mands for preferred items; mands for missing items needed to complete an activity; mands for actions; mands for help; mands using 2-word phrases.
L2: mands for information using "what"; mands for information using "where"; mands using adjectives (big, little, more); mands for attention from peers; mands for others to stop an action.
L3: mands for information using "why"; mands for information using "when"; mands using complete sentences with correct grammar; mands for future events or items not present; mands using polite social conventions.

2. Tact — labeling / naming.

L1: common objects (ball, cup, shoe); familiar people by name; common actions (running, eating, sleeping); body parts (nose, eyes, mouth); common animals (dog, cat, bird).
L2: colors of objects; shapes (circle, square, triangle); adjectives (big/little, hot/cold); prepositions (in, on, under); emotions in self and others.
L3: community helpers and their roles; categories (fruits, vehicles, clothing); features of objects (color, shape, function); past-tense events; abstract concepts (same/different, first/last).

3. Echoic — vocal imitation.

L1: single vowel sounds; single consonant-vowel combinations; 1–2 syllable words; animal sounds; familiar words on request.
L2: 2-word phrases; 3-word phrases; blended consonants; novel words with correct articulation; short sentences.
L3: multi-syllable words accurately; full sentences with correct prosody; unfamiliar words from context; phrases with correct intonation patterns; complex instructions verbatim.

4. Listener Responding — receptive language.

L1: 1-step motor instructions (sit down, stand up); select correct item from an array of 2; point to named body parts; point to named common objects; follow instructions involving objects.
L2: select correct item from an array of 4–6; follow 2-step instructions; select items by feature (find something red); select items by function (find something you eat with); select items by class (find an animal).
L3: follow multi-step instructions with qualifiers; select items by multiple features simultaneously; follow conditional instructions (if X, then Y); respond to questions about stories read aloud; follow instructions involving temporal concepts (before, after).

5. Visual Perceptual Skills & Matching-to-Sample (VP-MTS).

L1: match identical objects; match identical pictures; match colors (identical chips); match shapes (identical blocks); complete simple 3–4 piece puzzles.
L2: match non-identical items by category; sort items into 2–3 categories; match quantities (1–5); match upper-case letters; complete 8–12 piece puzzles.
L3: match associated items (sock-shoe, cup-plate); sort by multiple attributes simultaneously; match upper to lower case letters; sequence 3–4 step picture sequences; reproduce block designs from model.

6. Motor Imitation.

L1: gross motor actions (clap hands, stomp feet); actions with objects (bang drum, push car); 2-step motor sequences; fine motor actions (pinch, point); facial movements (open mouth, stick out tongue).
L2: 3-step motor sequences; novel motor actions on first attempt; actions in songs and finger plays; actions involving bilateral coordination; motor actions after a delay.
L3: complex multi-step sequences; motor actions from video models; handwriting strokes and letter forms; craft and art activities; sports-related motor sequences.

7. Independent Play.

L1: cause-and-effect toys independently; sensory toys for sustained periods; construction toys (blocks, Duplo); vehicles (pushing, rolling); electronic learning toys.
L2: simple pretend play sequences; art materials (coloring, playdough); age-appropriate puzzles independently; books independently; simple board or card games.
L3: elaborate pretend play with storylines; creative construction activities; rule-based games independently; independently select and transition between activities; hobby / special-interest activities productively.

8. Social Behavior & Social Play.

L1: eye contact during interactions; responds to own name; social games (peek-a-boo, tickle); shows items to others spontaneously; tolerates proximity of peers during parallel play.
L2: initiates social interactions with peers; takes turns during structured activities; shares materials when prompted; cooperative play with one peer; responds to peer initiations appropriately.
L3: maintains reciprocal conversations with peers; demonstrates empathy and perspective-taking; negotiates and compromises during group activities; joins ongoing peer activities appropriately; maintains friendships over time.

9. Intraverbal — fill-ins, WH answers without visual prompt.

L1: fills in words in songs and nursery rhymes; answers "what's your name"; fills in missing words in familiar phrases; answers simple what-questions about visible items; completes verbal routines (ready, set, ___).
L2: answers WH-questions about familiar topics; describes function of common objects; names items in categories when given the category; answers social questions (How are you?); describes recent events in sequence.
L3: answers why- and how-questions; provides definitions of words; answers hypothetical questions; engages in multi-turn conversations on a topic; makes inferences from given information.

10. LRFFC — Listener Responding by Feature, Function, Class.

L1: select items by function (What do you drink from?); select items by feature (What is round?); select items by class (Find the animal); select by single function from array of 3; select by single visible feature from array of 3.
L2: select items by function from array of 5–8; select items by feature from array of 5–8; select items by class from array of 5–8; select items by multiple features (round and red); select items by function when item not visible.
L3: select items given 2+ features/functions simultaneously; select items by class with exclusion (animal but not a pet); select items by abstract features (something needed when cold); select items by comparison (which is heavier); select items by negative features (not round, not food).

11. Reading.

L1: match letters to identical letters; identify own name in print; identify 5–10 upper-case letters; match words to identical words; track print left to right.
L2: identify all upper-case letters; identify all lower-case letters; read 10–20 sight words; sound out CVC words (cat, dog, run); read simple 2–3 word phrases.
L3: read sentences with comprehension; read short passages and answer questions; phonetic decoding for novel words; read and follow written instructions; read grade-level text with fluency.

12. Writing.

L1: trace horizontal and vertical lines; trace basic shapes (circle, cross); copy basic shapes from model; trace letters of own name; write own name from model.
L2: write own name independently; copy all upper-case letters from model; write upper-case letters from dictation; copy simple words from model; write numbers 1–10.
L3: write words from dictation; write simple sentences with spacing; write answers to questions; write short compositions (3–5 sentences); use basic punctuation and capitalization.

13. Math.

L1: rote count to 10; count objects 1–5 with 1:1 correspondence; identify numerals 1–5; match quantities to numerals 1–5; identify basic shapes in math context.
L2: count objects 1–20 with 1:1 correspondence; identify numerals 1–20; compare quantities (more/less/same); solve single-digit addition with manipulatives; identify coins by name.
L3: add single-digit numbers without manipulatives; subtract single-digit numbers; identify place value (ones, tens); tell time to the hour and half-hour; solve simple word problems.

14. Group & Classroom Skills.

L1: sits in designated area for 2–3 minutes; attends to teacher during group instruction; follows group instructions (everyone stand up); transitions between activities with prompts; waits in line briefly.
L2: sits in group for 10–15 minutes; raises hand to request or respond; follows classroom routines independently; works independently at desk for 5–10 minutes; transitions between activities independently.
L3: participates in group discussions; follows multi-step classroom instructions; works independently for 15+ minutes; self-monitors behavior using checklist; completes and turns in assignments independently.

15. Linguistic Structure — grammar.

L1: single words to communicate; combines 2 words (agent + action or action + object); basic noun-verb combinations; simple negation (no, not); basic pronouns (I, me, my).
L2: 3–4 word sentences; regular plurals (-s); present progressive (-ing); prepositions in sentences; regular past tense (-ed).
L3: complex sentences with conjunctions; irregular past tense correctly; pronouns with correct referents; questions with correct word order; passive voice and embedded clauses.

16. Spontaneous Vocal Behavior.

L1: spontaneous vocalizations during preferred activities; spontaneous naming of items; spontaneous requests without prompts; spontaneous greetings to familiar people; spontaneous comments on events.
L2: spontaneous descriptions of ongoing activities; spontaneous questions about the environment; spontaneous reporting of past events; spontaneous use of social phrases; spontaneous initiation of conversation with peers.
L3: spontaneous storytelling / narratives; spontaneous relevant comments in conversations; spontaneous adjustment of language to different listeners; spontaneous use of humor appropriately; spontaneous provision of explanations and reasons.

2.2 AFLS (Assessment of Functional Living Skills)

Primary citation. Partington, J. W., & Mueller, M. M. (2012). Assessment of Functional Living Skills. Behavior Analysts, Inc. / Stimulus Publications.

Developmental scope. Late-childhood through adult; skills are functional rather than milestone-bound.

6 skill modules (we encode a representative subset of each):

Basic Living Skills — toileting, eating, dressing, hygiene, bathing (chaining-intensive).
Home Skills — meal preparation, cleaning, laundry, bed-making.
Community Participation Skills — safety signs, money handling, transportation, shopping, restaurants.
School Skills — classroom routines, assignments, social-academic interaction.
Vocational Skills — task completion, workplace etiquette, punctuality.
Independent Living Skills — budgeting, appointments, medication, self-advocacy.

Dataset usage. AFLS targets appear in task 1 examples for older learners (labeled "Adolescent" or "Adult" learner profile) and in task 2 session logs for those learner profiles. Teaching method defaults to Task Analysis / Chaining.

2.3 Learner-profile age bands

Profile label	Age band	Curricula
Early Learner	developmental age 0–48 mo	VB-MAPP
School-Age Learner	6–12 yr chronological, varying developmental	VB-MAPP L2–3 + AFLS School
Adolescent Learner	13–17 yr chronological, moderate-severe support needs	AFLS + VB-MAPP L3 for residual gaps
Adult Learner	18+ yr in residential / day program	AFLS + Community + Vocational

Dataset usage. Learner-profile label is a sampling dimension.

On distribution. No research source prescribes an ABA-population age-band distribution. The pipeline config sets a balanced default across the four profiles (rather than skewing toward any band) so the model trains on the full lifespan. Real-world caseload distributions vary by facility type (early-intervention centers skew Early; residential programs skew Adult). The exact ratio is a pipeline hyperparameter, not a clinical truth.

2.4 Gaps explicitly not covered in v1

Essential for Living (McGreevy, Fry, & Cornwall 2014) — skills for adults with severe support needs. Partially covered by AFLS; full EFL integration is not included in v1.
ABLLS-R (Partington 2010) — heavily overlaps VB-MAPP for early learners; not separately encoded.
PEAK (Dixon 2014+) — relational frame / advanced cognition; out of scope for baseline dataset.

3. Mastery states

Seven-state taxonomy describing where a skill is in its learning trajectory. Values are slot values in task 1 user prompts and targets in task 2 interpretation.

State	Operational criterion	Clinical meaning
Emerging	< 30% accuracy across recent sessions	Skill not yet acquired; high prompt levels needed
Developing	30–50% accuracy, inconsistent	Responding established; stimulus control unstable
Approaching mastery	50–70% accuracy, prompt fading in progress	Moving toward independence
Near mastery	70–85% accuracy, occasional errors	Stimulus control solid, complex stimuli still variable
Mastered (current level)	≥ 85% accuracy across 3 consecutive sessions	Meets mastery criterion for current step
Generalization phase	Mastered in training but not in novel settings / with novel materials / across therapists	Ready for NET-style generalization probes
Maintenance	Previously mastered; periodic probes to check retention	Maintenance schedule (weekly->monthly)

Citation. Mastery-criterion conventions follow CHH Ch. 26 ("Generalization and Maintenance of Behavior Change") and the programmatic mastery-criteria convention in CHH Ch. 28.

Dataset usage. Mastery state is a primary slot in every task 1 prompt. In task 2, the narrative "a previously mastered skill has regressed" vs "a developing skill has plateaued" is the basis for pattern detection (section 7).

4. Behavior functions

The four-function taxonomy of problem behavior is the spine of all behavior reasoning in ABA. Iwata's original functional analysis identified three (attention, escape, sensory); Hanley, Iwata & McCord formalized the fourth (tangible) as standard.

Function	Reinforcer	Example context	Hypothesis test
Escape (negative reinforcement)	Termination / avoidance of an aversive stimulus (demand, task, interaction)	Child hits when presented with math worksheet -> demand is removed	Elevated rate in demand condition vs control
Attention (positive reinforcement, social)	Attention from others (adult or peer)	Child yells when parent on phone -> parent attends	Elevated rate in attention condition vs control
Tangible (positive reinforcement, material)	Access to an item or activity	Child tantrums when iPad is taken away -> iPad is returned	Elevated rate when preferred item is restricted
Automatic (non-social / sensory)	Self-produced reinforcement (proprioceptive, auditory, visual, gustatory)	Repetitive hand-flapping persists during alone condition	Elevated rate in alone condition; persists across conditions

Canonical citations.

Iwata, B. A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K. J., Bauman, K. E., & Richman, G. S. (1982/1994). JABA, 27(2), 197–209. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1994.27-197 — THE foundational functional-analysis paper.
Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A., & McCord, B. E. (2003). JABA, 36(2), 147–185. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2003.36-147 — definitive review; formalizes four-function taxonomy including tangible.
Pre-FA conceptual roots: Carr, E. G. (1977). Psychological Bulletin, 84(4), 800–816.
CHH Ch. 27 ("Functional Behavior Assessment").

Clinical principle. Same topography can serve different functions across individuals. A "tantrum" in one client may be escape-maintained; in another, attention-maintained. Interventions must match function, not topography.

Dataset usage.

Task 2 interpretation output includes Function Hypothesis field when behavior data is present — one of the four functions or "Not Applicable" (skill-only sessions).
When present, the hypothesis cites the evidence in the session log (e.g., "elevated rate during demand presentation -> escape-maintained").

5. Target behaviors — Deceleration targets (with operational definitions)

All behaviors in this section are deceleration targets — behaviors we want to reduce. See section 0.A.

Eighteen challenging behaviors with JABA-grounded operational definitions suitable for staff scoring. Behaviors without a canonical operational definition in the literature (e.g., disrobing, grabbing/snatching) are deliberately excluded from v1 rather than invented.

#	Behavior	Operational definition	Citation
1	Self-injurious behavior (SIB)	Any response that produces tissue damage or has the potential to produce it, including head-hitting, self-biting, face-slapping, head-banging against objects, skin-picking, self-pinching, hair-pulling directed at self.	Iwata et al. 1982/1994
2	Head-directed SIB (subtype)	Contact between the individual's hand and head, OR between the head and a stationary object, with audible impact.	Iwata et al. 1982/1994
3	Aggression	Attempted or completed forceful contact directed toward another person: hitting, kicking, biting, hair-pulling, scratching, pinching, or throwing objects AT another person.	Marcus, B. A. et al. (2001). Behavior Modification, 25(2), 189–213. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445501252002
4	Property destruction	Hitting or kicking furniture/walls; throwing objects not intended to be thrown; tearing clothing, books, or materials; swiping items off surfaces; overturning furniture.	Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G., Contrucci, S. A., et al. (1999). JABA, 32(4), 437–449. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1999.32-437
5	Elopement	Full body (or pre-specified anatomical threshold) crossing a designated boundary (e.g., classroom door, yard fence) without adult approval.	Kodak, T., Grow, L., & Northup, J. (2004). JABA, 37(2), 229–232. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2004.37-229; Lang, R. et al. (2010). JABA, 43(1), 113–118.
6	Pica	Placement of any inedible (non-food) item past the plane of the lips, including mouthing and ingestion of objects (paper, dirt, cigarette butts, fabric, small toys, hair).	Piazza, C. C., Fisher, W. W., Hanley, G. P., et al. (1998). JABA, 31(2), 165–189. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1998.31-165
7	Motor stereotypy	Repetitive, non-functional motor movements (hand-flapping, body-rocking, finger-flicking, spinning) occurring independent of social context and serving no apparent instrumental purpose.	Rapp, J. T. & Vollmer, T. R. (2005). RIDD, 26(6), 527–547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2004.11.005
8	Vocal stereotypy	Non-contextual, non-communicative vocalization: repetitive sounds, words, phrases, humming, or echolalia outside appropriate conversational context.	Ahearn, W. H., Clark, K. M., MacDonald, R. P. F., & Chung, B. I. (2007). JABA, 40(2), 263–275. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2007.30-06
9	Tantrum	Co-occurring cluster of two or more of: crying/screaming, dropping to floor, kicking, hitting, throwing objects, lasting ≥ 3 s. Scored from onset of first component topography to 5 s without any component behavior.	Kurtz, P. F. et al. (2003). JABA, 36(2), 205–219. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2003.36-205; topography adapted from Carr & Durand 1985.
10	Non-compliance	Failure to initiate a requested response within 5 s of an instructional prompt (vocal, model, or physical), OR active refusal (verbal "no," walking away).	Wilder, D. A. et al. (2012). JABA, 45(1), 121–126. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2012.45-121
11	Mouthing (non-pica)	Placement of the hand, fingers, saliva, or non-food object into the mouth past the lip plane, excluding eating/drinking during scheduled meals.	Piazza, C. C., Hanley, G. P., & Fisher, W. W. (1996). JABA, 29(4), 437–449. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1996.29-437
12	Throwing	Propelling an object through the air with force (excluding task-relevant throwing such as during a game).	Property destruction literature, specifically Piazza et al. 1999 — throwing is often coded as a subtype.
13	Food refusal / selectivity	Rejection of presented food by turning the head, closing the mouth, batting the utensil away, or expelling food once placed in the mouth.	Piazza, C. C. et al. (2003). JABA, 36(2), 187–204 — feeding-disorder literature.
14	Rumination / regurgitation	Voluntary regurgitation of previously ingested food into the mouth, followed by re-chewing, re-swallowing, or expulsion. Scored per regurgitation episode.	Lyons, E. A., Rue, H. C., Luiselli, J. K., & DiGennaro, F. D. (2007). JABA, 40(4), 743–747. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2007.743-747. See also Kahng et al. 2003.
15	Sleep resistance / disruption	Non-compliance with bedtime routine (refusing to go to bed, leaving bed, repeated requests) OR night waking ≥ 5 min at a time. Scored as instances or total disrupted minutes per night.	Friman, P. C., Hoff, K. E., Schnoes, C., Freeman, K. A., Woods, D. W., & Blum, N. (1999). JABA, 32(4), 505–508. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1999.32-505
16	Verbal aggression / threats	Yelling, cursing, name-calling, or making verbal threats directed toward another person (e.g., "I'll hit you," "I hate you").	Kelley, M. E., Lerman, D. C., & Van Camp, C. M. (2002). JABA, 35(1), 59–63. See also Hagopian & Boelter 2005.
17	Food stealing	Taking food items not offered to the individual — from another person's plate, a storage area, or during restricted-access periods — and/or placing such items in the mouth outside designated meal/snack times.	Maglieri, K. A., DeLeon, I. G., Rodriguez-Catter, V., & Sevin, B. M. (2000). Adjunctive delivery of noncontingent reinforcement to treat food stealing during sessions of DRO. JABA, 33(4), 615–618. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2000.33-615
18	Inappropriate sexual behavior (ISB)	Engagement in sexual self-stimulation (genital contact, rhythmic self-stimulatory movements) in public or semi-public contexts where such behavior is socially or institutionally inappropriate. Scored per episode with onset/offset criteria specified in the program.	Davis, T. N., Machalicek, W., Scalzo, R., Kobylecky, A., Campbell, V., Pinkelman, S., Chan, J., & Sigafoos, J. (2016). A review and treatment selection model for individuals with developmental disabilities who engage in inappropriate sexual behavior. BAP, 9(4), 389–402. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-016-0149-5. See also Fyffe, C. E., Kahng, S., Fittro, E., & Russell, D. (2004). JABA, 37(3), 401–404.

Dataset usage.

Task 2 session logs include 0–3 target behaviors per log. Sampling weight biased toward the common behaviors (tantrum, non-compliance, aggression, stereotypy, elopement).
Each target behavior in a log has an associated function hypothesis (section 4) that drives the interpretation output.

6. Measurement types

Real session logs mix measurement types; task 2 inputs must reflect this heterogeneity.

Type	Operational definition	Use case	Citation
Frequency (event recording)	Raw count of occurrences of a discrete, quickly-completing behavior during a session. "12 requests this session."	Discrete, countable behaviors with clear onset/offset.	CHH Ch. 4
Rate	Frequency normalized to time: count ÷ session duration. "0.4 requests per minute."	Compare sessions of different durations.	CHH Ch. 4
Duration	Total elapsed time a behavior lasts (sum across instances). "Tantrum total duration: 8 min."	Behaviors with meaningful length (tantrums, on-task engagement, stereotypy).	CHH Ch. 4
Latency	Time from SD to initiation of response. "Mean latency: 3.2 s."	Responsivity / prompt dependency.	CHH Ch. 4
Partial-interval recording (PIR)	Divide session into intervals (e.g., 10 s); mark each interval if behavior occurred at any point. Overestimates prevalence.	Hard-to-count behaviors (stereotypy).	Powell, Martindale & Kulp 1975; Harrop & Daniels 1986
Whole-interval recording	Mark interval only if behavior occurred for the entire interval. Underestimates.	Behaviors to increase (on-task engagement).	Cooper et al. Ch. 4
Momentary time sampling (MTS)	Check once at the end of each interval whether behavior is occurring. Efficient for groups. Approximates duration.	Multi-client settings; duration estimation.	Powell et al. 1975

Inter-Observer Agreement (IOA). Two observers independently record the same session; agreement expressed as percent or κ. Minimum acceptable: ≥ 80% across 33% of sessions for scientific validity.

Citation: CHH Ch. 5 ("Improving and Assessing the Quality of Behavioral Measurement"); Kazdin, A. E. (1977). JABA, 10(1), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1977.10-141

Dataset usage.

Every task 2 session log includes at least one Primary Measurement Type per target skill or behavior.
~25% of logs include an IOA subset (percentage agreement reported) to test the model's ability to interpret reliability.
Accuracy % (trial-based correct/total) is the dominant measurement for skill-acquisition programs — this stays.

6.1 Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) data

ABC recording supplements behavior frequency counts with the immediate environmental context around each occurrence. A subset of task 2 session logs (~30%) include ABC entries for target behaviors, enabling function-hypothesis reasoning beyond what frequency data alone supports.

Antecedent — what was happening immediately before (≤ 10 s) the behavior occurred.
Behavior — the target behavior as operationally defined (section 5).
Consequence — what happened immediately after (≤ 10 s), including any staff response.

Citation. Bijou, S. W., Peterson, R. F., & Ault, M. H. (1968). A method to integrate descriptive and experimental field studies at the level of data and empirical concepts. JABA, 1(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1968.1-175. See also CHH Ch. 27 ("Functional Behavior Assessment").

The remaining ~70% of logs include frequency-only behavior data, giving the model exposure to both enriched and minimal log formats.

6.2 Program execution context

Each acceleration and deceleration program is associated with one or more settings in which it runs:

Context tag	Setting
D	Day (school or day habilitation)
R	Residential (home, group home, dormitory)
Both	Runs across settings

Dataset usage. Each synthetic task 1 program and task 2 session log carries a context tag. Default sampling ~40% D, ~30% R, ~30% Both. No research source prescribes exact proportions; this is a pipeline hyperparameter.

7. Session patterns (for Task 2)

Behavioral session interpretation requires recognizing patterns across sessions. Fourteen clinically meaningful patterns are encoded.

#	Pattern	Signature	Concern level	Extends prepare_data.py?
1	Mastery progression	Ascending accuracy, mastery criterion within reach	None	Yes
2	Regression	Previously mastered skill shows declining accuracy	High	Yes
3	Plateau	Flat accuracy below mastery for ≥ 5 sessions	Moderate	Yes
4	Frustration pattern	Declining accuracy + escape-function behavioral indicators	High	Yes
5	Variable performance	High session-to-session SD, no clear trend	Moderate	Yes
6	Prompt dependency	High prompted accuracy, low independent accuracy, prolonged	Moderate	Yes
7	Rapid acquisition	Accelerated mastery beyond expected timeline	None (good)	Yes
8	Generalization failure	Mastered in training, low accuracy in novel settings/stimuli	Moderate	Yes
9	Extinction burst	Temporary spike in problem behavior during reduction procedure	Expected	Yes
10	Skill loss after break	Performance drop after absence, recovering	Moderate	Yes
11	Motivating operation shift	Responding drops when MO changes (e.g., satiation of reinforcer); recovers when MO restored	Moderate	No — new in v1, grounded in Michael 1993 / CHH Ch.16
12	Setting event trigger	Accuracy or behavior changes correlated with an external setting event (illness, sleep disruption, schedule change)	Moderate	No — new in v1, grounded in Smith & Iwata 1997 / Bijou & Baer 1961

Citations.

Patterns 1–10 draw from standard single-case-design interpretation literature (CHH Ch. 6, 7). Specific ones:
- Regression / skill loss: CHH Ch. 26 (maintenance).
- Extinction burst: CHH Ch. 24.
- Prompt dependency: Time-delay literature (Touchette, Touchette 1971; CHH Ch. 21 prompting).
- Generalization failure: Stokes & Baer 1977 "An implicit technology of generalization" JABA, 10(2); CHH Ch. 26.
Patterns 11–12 are TRACE additions with specific literature grounding:
- MO shift: CHH Ch. 16 ("Motivating Operations"); Michael, J. (1993). Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 59(3), 533–552.
- Setting event: Bijou & Baer 1961; Smith, R. G. & Iwata, B. A. (1997). JABA, 30(2), 343–375.

Honest framing. This 12-pattern taxonomy is our operationalization for the dataset — no single paper proposes these as a canonical pattern set. Each underlying concept is well-grounded (citations above); the clustering into 12 discrete labels is a design choice that makes session interpretation a tractable classification task.

Dataset usage. Each task 2 example is generated from one of these 12 patterns as its hidden label. The interpretation output includes the pattern classification as a structured field (section 12).

8. Prompt hierarchies

Six prompt-fading strategies used in DTT and related methods.

#	Strategy	Sequence	When to use
1	Most-to-Least (errorless)	Full physical -> partial physical -> gestural -> positional -> independent	Acquisition, early learner, safety-critical skills
2	Least-to-Most	Independent -> gestural -> positional -> partial physical -> full physical	Learner already has partial repertoire; promotes independence
3	Graduated Guidance	Hand-over-hand with fading pressure -> shadow -> independent	Motor skills, self-care chaining
4	Time Delay (progressive)	0 s delay -> 2 s -> 4 s -> 6 s -> learner responds independently	Prompt-dependency prevention; ideal for fading
5	Stimulus Fading	Exaggerated stimulus -> gradually reduce salience -> natural stimulus	Receptive discrimination, early reading
6	Stimulus Shaping	Modified stimulus -> gradually reshape to target -> natural stimulus	Complex visual discriminations

Citations. CHH Ch. 21 ("Imitation, Shaping, and Prompting") and Ch. 17 ("Stimulus Control"). Time delay: Touchette & Howard 1984 JABA.

Dataset usage. One of the six sampled per task 1 DTT / Task-Analysis example. Output describes the sequence and current prompt level based on mastery state (section 3).

9. Reinforcement schedules

Seven reinforcement arrangements — intentional kept to the commonly-used set for cleanliness.

#	Schedule	Description	Typical use
1	CRF (continuous reinforcement)	Every correct response reinforced	Acquisition phase
2	FR-2 (fixed ratio 2)	Every 2nd correct response reinforced	Thinning as accuracy stabilizes
3	VR-3 (variable ratio 3)	Average of every 3rd correct response	Maintenance, resistance to extinction
4	DRO (differential reinforcement of other behavior)	Reinforce any behavior other than the problem behavior during an interval	Behavior reduction
5	DRA (differential reinforcement of alternative)	Reinforce a specific alternative behavior, extinguish problem behavior	FCT pairing
6	DRI (differential reinforcement of incompatible)	Reinforce a behavior physically incompatible with the problem behavior	Stereotypy reduction
7	Token economy	Tokens delivered per correct response, exchanged later for a back-up reinforcer	Group / classroom settings

Citations. CHH Ch. 13 ("Schedules of Reinforcement"), Ch. 22 ("Differential Reinforcement").

Dataset usage. One schedule sampled per task 1 example. Task 2 recommendations may suggest schedule changes (e.g., "thin from CRF to FR-2 as accuracy exceeds 85%").

10. Error correction procedures

Five error-correction procedures used in DTT and related formats.

#	Procedure	Steps
1	Transfer trial	Represent SD -> prompt at effective level -> reinforce prompted response -> distractor trial -> re-present SD independently
2	4-step	Model -> lead (do together) -> test (independent) -> distractor -> retest
3	Backstep	Return to previous prompt level that produced success -> successful response -> re-attempt at target prompt level
4	Simple correction	"No, watch me" -> model -> re-present SD -> differential reinforcement
5	Error-free	Prevent errors by using high prompts from start; fade gradually (paired with most-to-least)

Citations. CHH Ch. 21. Specific: Heward, W. L. (1994) error-correction comparison.

Dataset usage. One procedure sampled per task 1 DTT example.

11. Mastery criteria options + BIP components

11.1 Mastery criteria

Seven mastery criteria conventions common in ABA practice.

80% accuracy across 2 consecutive sessions with ≥ 10 trials each.
90% accuracy across 3 consecutive sessions.
80% accuracy with 2 different therapists and 2 different settings (generalization-inclusive).
80% accuracy at independent prompt level across 3 sessions.
90% first-trial-correct across 5 consecutive sessions.
Fluency criterion: correct responses within 3-second latency at 90% accuracy.
Demonstrated use in natural environment × 3 independent instances.

Citation. CHH Ch. 28 ("Developing Behavior-Change Programs").

11.2 BIP components (for task 2 recommendations)

When a target behavior is present in a session log, the task 2 recommendation field is structured along four BIP dimensions.

Component	Purpose	Example content
Antecedent strategies	Prevent the behavior before it occurs by modifying the environment	Shorten tasks; offer choice; pre-teach coping; non-contingent attention; reduce demand difficulty; provide warnings before transitions
Replacement behavior (teach)	A skill that produces the same function more appropriately; pair with FCT	Teach "break please" for escape-function tantrums; teach "look at me" for attention-function disruption
Consequence strategies	Staff response after the behavior	Do not reinforce (extinction); redirection; blocking; DRA/DRI; differential reinforcement of replacement behavior
Crisis plan	Safety procedure if behavior escalates	Staff call-tree; environmental safety (clear hazards); agreed restraint/escape procedures per facility policy; post-incident debrief

Citations.

Antecedent strategies: CHH Ch. 25 ("Antecedent Interventions"); Smith, R. G. & Iwata, B. A. (1997). JABA, 30(2), 343–375.
Replacement behaviors: Carr & Durand 1985 (FCT).
Consequence strategies: CHH Ch. 22 (differential reinforcement), Ch. 24 (extinction).
Crisis plan: no canonical JABA paper — cite BACB 5th ed. Task List G-15 / H-8 and the BACB Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts (2020). Flagged in section 15.

12. Escalation level (structured output for Task 2)

Every task 2 interpretation emits an escalation level as a classification label. This is the safety-critical head.

Level	Meaning	Trigger examples
1. Continue monitoring	Current programming is effective; no changes	Mastery progression; rapid acquisition
2. Adjust next session	Implement a specific programming change at next session	Plateau -> change prompt strategy; prompt dependency -> introduce time delay
3. Supervisor review	Elevate to supervising BCBA within 24–48 hr	Regression; new emergence of problem behavior; unclear function
4. Safety — immediate	Stop program; contact supervisor and/or family immediately; consider crisis-plan activation	SIB escalation; aggression resulting in injury; high-rate elopement; extinction burst exceeding safety threshold

Clinical principle. Escalation level is ordinal — mistaking level 4 for level 1 is catastrophically worse than mistaking level 2 for level 1. Evaluation uses quadratic-weighted κ (section 13) to penalize distant mistakes accordingly.

Dataset usage. Every task 2 example has a gold-standard escalation level derived deterministically from the pattern (section 7), the target behaviors (section 5), and severity markers.

On distribution. No research source prescribes a specific class balance for escalation labels. The pipeline config (not this taxonomy) sets a default that keeps the minority class (level 4 "safety-immediate") present for training representation while reflecting that most sessions do not require immediate safety action. The exact ratio is a pipeline hyperparameter, not a clinical truth; see configs/data-generation.yaml once implemented.

Framing as our contribution. No canonical source specifies this 4-level escalation ordinal. It is TRACE's operationalization, designed to (a) make safety a first-class output and (b) support quadratic-weighted κ evaluation. We cite it as a project design choice, not a clinical taxonomy.

13. Confidence level (structured output for Task 2)

Three-level confidence expression acknowledging uncertainty.

Level	Meaning	Example justifications
High	Pattern and recommendation well-supported by the data in this log	Multiple sessions of clear data; IOA present and ≥ 80%; single clear pattern
Moderate	Data supports the hypothesis but alternatives cannot be fully ruled out	No IOA; few sessions; multiple partially-matching patterns
Low	Insufficient data to rule in a specific pattern; recommend data collection before programming changes	< 3 sessions; no IOA; high variability; contradictory signals

Citations. Calibrated uncertainty expression follows general clinical-LM principles (Med-PaLM 2, Singhal et al. 2025). No single ABA-specific source; flagged as project innovation.

Dataset usage. Confidence is sampled based on objective data-quality features of the log (number of sessions, IOA presence, variance). Evaluation computes calibration metrics (ECE, Brier — section 13 of literature-foundation.md).

14. Coverage matrix (dimension interactions)

Not every combination is valid. The pipeline enforces these constraints:

Teaching method	Compatible skill domains	Compatible learner profiles
DTT	All discrete VB-MAPP domains (Mand, Tact, Listener Responding, Echoic, Motor Imitation, VP/MTS, LRFFC, Intraverbal, Math, Reading early)	Early, School-Age
NET	Mand, Tact, Social Behavior, Spontaneous Vocal Behavior, Independent Play	All
Task Analysis	AFLS modules, Writing (multi-step), complex Math, domestic/vocational	School-Age, Adolescent, Adult
FCT	Triggered by target behavior in session log, not by skill domain	All
BST	N/A — staff-facing	Training-program variant
PRT	Mand, Tact, Social Behavior, Spontaneous Vocal Behavior	Early, School-Age

Target behavior	Plausible functions	Typical severity / escalation
SIB	All four; most often automatic or escape	L3 – L4
Aggression	Most often escape or tangible	L3 – L4
Elopement	Escape, tangible, or automatic	L2 – L4 (depends on environmental risk)
Tantrum	Most often escape or tangible	L2 – L3
Non-compliance	Primarily escape	L1 – L2
Stereotypy	Primarily automatic	L1 – L2 (unless interfering with learning)
Pica	Automatic (oral)	L3 – L4 (safety)

Dataset usage. Generators sample valid combinations only. Invalid combinations (e.g., DTT for a multi-step handwashing skill) are not produced, or are produced deliberately as negative-training examples (rare; labeled).

15. Gaps (explicitly acknowledged)

The following areas in the taxonomy have weaker citation grounding. We cite what exists, note the limitation in the dataset card, and flag them as future-work extensions.

Crisis plan components — no canonical JABA paper. Cited: BACB 5th ed. Task List G-15 / H-8 and the 2020 Ethics Code. Acceptable because BIP crisis planning is a BACB-regulated practice area.
Patterns 11–12 (MO shift, setting event) — session-level operationalization is TRACE's contribution; underlying concepts grounded in Michael 1993, Smith & Iwata 1997, Bijou & Baer 1961.
Disrobing, grabbing/snatching, cascading drift, comorbid skill-behavior — considered for v1 but excluded because no canonical operational definition exists. We do not invent what the literature has not defined.
Essential for Living / PEAK / ABLLS-R — not encoded in v1. VB-MAPP + AFLS provide sufficient coverage for baseline dataset.
Severity index within target behaviors — no encoded numeric severity scale. v1 treats severity as implicit in the behavior type + escalation level.
Multi-function (mixed-function) behaviors — v1 assigns a single function hypothesis; real clinical reality includes mixed functions. Flagged as a known limitation.
Cultural / linguistic variation — v1 is English-only, US/North-American ABA convention. Flagged in dataset card limitations.
Escalation ordinal (4 levels) and confidence ordinal (3 levels) — TRACE design choices, not citation-grounded taxonomies. Framed as project contributions; their clinical validity will be evaluated empirically (quadratic-weighted κ vs BCBA raters).
Class distributions (escalation levels, learner profiles, pattern frequencies) — no research source prescribes exact proportions. These are pipeline hyperparameters tuned for training balance, not clinical truths.

16. Changelog

v1.0 (2026-04-22) — initial taxonomy, drawn from VB-MAPP (Sundberg 2008), AFLS (Partington & Mueller 2012), Cooper/Heron/Heward (2020), Iwata (1982/1994), Hanley/Iwata/McCord (2003), Carr & Durand (1985), and supporting JABA operational-definition literature.

17. How this taxonomy is consumed by the pipeline

src/prepare_data.py imports taxonomy as Python constants generated from this document.
Each training example is produced by (a) sampling a valid combination of taxonomy values, (b) running the relevant generation template, (c) applying quality + safety filters.
A provenance record is written per example: taxonomy slot values, template ID, teacher model, seed, filter thresholds, timestamp.
If this taxonomy changes, the pipeline version and dataset version both bump; old data is preserved as a previous version on HuggingFace.

See schema-v1.md (next) for the precise JSON structure of training examples.