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solving problems, for example Ant colony optimization and Ant robotics. This area of biomimetics has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines that make use of "foraging trails", fault-tolerant storage, and networking algorithms. === As pets === From the late 1950s through the late 1970s, ant farms were popular ... | {
"page_id": 2594,
"title": "Ant"
} |
T. H. White in his fantasy novel The Once and Future King. The plot in French entomologist and writer Bernard Werber's Les Fourmis science-fiction trilogy is divided between the worlds of ants and humans; ants and their behaviour are described using contemporary scientific knowledge. H. G. Wells wrote about intelligent... | {
"page_id": 2594,
"title": "Ant"
} |
for the Study of Social Insects Myrmecological News (journal) Task allocation and partitioning in social insects == References == === Cited texts === Borror DJ, Triplehorn CA, Delong DM (1989). Introduction to the Study of Insects (6th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 978-0-03-025397-3. Hölldobler B, Wilson EO (... | {
"page_id": 2594,
"title": "Ant"
} |
Various tetradecadienyl acetate compounds serve as insect mating pheromones especially among the Pyralidae. These include: (Z,E)-3,5-tetradecadienyl acetate — Prionoxystus robiniaea mating attractant: 41 (E,E)-3,5-tetradecadienyl acetate — Accosus centerensis mating attractant: 41 (Z,E)-4,8-tetradecadienyl acetate — Bo... | {
"page_id": 70584868,
"title": "Tetradecadienyl acetates"
} |
In chemistry, isomerization or isomerisation is the process in which a molecule, polyatomic ion or molecular fragment is transformed into an isomer with a different chemical structure. Enolization is an example of isomerization, as is tautomerization. When the activation energy for the isomerization reaction is suffici... | {
"page_id": 264740,
"title": "Isomerization"
} |
forms. Aldose-ketose isomerism, also known as Lobry de Bruyn–van Ekenstein transformation, provides an example in saccharide chemistry. === Inorganic and organometallic chemistry === The compound with the formula (C5H5)2Fe2(CO)4 exists as three isomers in solution. In one isomer the CO ligands are terminal. When a pair... | {
"page_id": 264740,
"title": "Isomerization"
} |
Trifluoroethane may refer to either of two isomeric fluorocarbons which differ by the location of attachment of the fluorine atoms: 1,1,2-Trifluoroethane (R-143) 1,1,1-Trifluoroethane (R-143a) Both are used as refrigerant and propellant gases. | {
"page_id": 1968677,
"title": "Trifluoroethane"
} |
William Howard Stein (June 25, 1911 – February 2, 1980) was an American biochemist who collaborated in the determination of the ribonuclease sequence, as well as how its structure relates to catalytic activity, earning a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1972 for his work. Stein was also involved in the invention of the auto... | {
"page_id": 789033,
"title": "William Howard Stein"
} |
the Department of Biological Chemistry at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, in 1934 to focus on biochemistry. Hans Thatcher Clarke, the chairman of the department at the time, was collecting many talented graduate students who would become the distinguished biochemists of the early twentieth ... | {
"page_id": 789033,
"title": "William Howard Stein"
} |
=== Following the completion of his formal education, Stein became a researcher under Bergmann at Rockefeller Institute, where much of his most important work was done. Stanford Moore joined Bergmann's lab in 1939, where he and Stein began research focusing on amino acids. According to Moore, "During the early years of... | {
"page_id": 789033,
"title": "William Howard Stein"
} |
success in improving the analysis time for amino acids, Stein and Moore began to determine the structure of an entire protein molecule, specifically bovine ribonuclease, in the early 1950s. They determined the entire sequence of ribonuclease by 1960. This sequence combined with X-ray analysis of the crystallized ribonu... | {
"page_id": 789033,
"title": "William Howard Stein"
} |
1980). "William H. Stein". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 255 (20): 9517–9518. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)43417-5. PMID 7000757. == External links == "Form and Function: The First Sequence of an Enzyme, Ribonuclease". The Rockefeller University. William Howard Stein on Nobelprize.org with the Nobel Lecture, Decemb... | {
"page_id": 789033,
"title": "William Howard Stein"
} |
Arabinosyl nucleosides are derivatives of the nucleosides. They contain β-D-arabinofuranose, in contrast to most nucleosides which contain β-D-ribofuranose. They are used as cytostatics or virostatics. == Examples == == References == | {
"page_id": 40897065,
"title": "Arabinosyl nucleoside"
} |
An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain. A fatty acid chain is monounsaturated if it contains one double bond, and polyunsaturated if it contains more than one double bond. A saturated fat has no carbon-to-carbon double bonds, so the maximum possi... | {
"page_id": 264748,
"title": "Unsaturated fat"
} |
unsaturated fatty acids are palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, myristoleic acid, linoleic acid, and arachidonic acid. Foods containing unsaturated fats include avocado, nuts, olive oils, and vegetable oils such as canola. Meat products contain both saturated and unsaturated fats. Although unsaturated fats are conventionally... | {
"page_id": 264748,
"title": "Unsaturated fat"
} |
List of unsaturated fatty acids == References == | {
"page_id": 264748,
"title": "Unsaturated fat"
} |
This list of life sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life – such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings. This science is one of the two major branches of natural science, the other being physical science, which is concerned with non-living matter. Biol... | {
"page_id": 68140,
"title": "List of life sciences"
} |
generate useful biological knowledge Biophysics – study of biological processes by applying the theories and methods that have been traditionally used in the physical sciences Biomechanics – the study of the mechanics of living beings Botany – study of plants Agrostology – the study of grasses and grass-like species Ph... | {
"page_id": 68140,
"title": "List of life sciences"
} |
study of the causes and effects of disease or injury Human biology – the biological study of human beings Pharmacology – study of drug action Biological (or physical) anthropology – the study of humans, non-human primates, and hominids Biolinguistics – the study of the biology and evolution of language Physiology – the... | {
"page_id": 68140,
"title": "List of life sciences"
} |
and plant diseases) using other living organisms. Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology Bioelectronics – field at the convergence of electronics and biological sciences. The electrical state of biological matter s... | {
"page_id": 68140,
"title": "List of life sciences"
} |
which are long polymers composed of 13 or more nucleotide monomers; polypeptides, which are short polymers of amino acids; and polysaccharides, which are often linear bonded polymeric carbohydrate structures. Biotechnology – manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology Conservatio... | {
"page_id": 68140,
"title": "List of life sciences"
} |
single genes does not fall into the definition of genomics unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks. Health sciences – sciences which focus on health, or health care, as core parts of their subject ... | {
"page_id": 68140,
"title": "List of life sciences"
} |
human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques. Optogenetics – a neuromodulation technique employed in neuroscience that uses a combinatio... | {
"page_id": 68140,
"title": "List of life sciences"
} |
organism undergoes. == See also == Outline of biology Divisions of pharmacology Control theory == References == == Further reading == Magner, Lois N. (2002). A history of the life sciences (Rev. and expanded 3rd ed.). New York: M. Dekker. ISBN 0824708245. | {
"page_id": 68140,
"title": "List of life sciences"
} |
TIGR-Tas (Tandem Interspaced Guide RNA-associated proteins) is a family of RNA-guided DNA-targeting systems discovered in prokaryotes and their viruses. These systems represent a novel class of programmable molecular tools that utilize a unique dual-spacer targeting mechanism, distinct from CRISPR-Cas systems. TIGR-Tas... | {
"page_id": 80022060,
"title": "TIGR-Tas"
} |
Contains only the Nop domain TasH: Nop domain fused with an HNH nuclease domain TasR: Nop domain fused with a RuvC nuclease domain == Mechanism of action == === RNA processing === TIGR arrays are transcribed and processed into 36-nucleotide guide RNAs called tigRNAs. Processing occurs at precise sites within edge repea... | {
"page_id": 80022060,
"title": "TIGR-Tas"
} |
domain architecture and box C/D motifs These relationships suggest TIGR systems may represent an ancestral form of RNA-guided systems. == Applications and potential == === Genome editing === Faure, Zhang, and their team demonstrated that TIGR-TasR systems can be successfully adapted for: Programmable DNA cleavage in hu... | {
"page_id": 80022060,
"title": "TIGR-Tas"
} |
Androstenediol may refer to: 5-Androstenediol (androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol) – an endogenous weak androgen and estrogen and intermediate to/prohormone of testosterone 4-Androstenediol (androst-4-ene-3β,17β-diol) – a weak androgen and prohormone of testosterone and hence an anabolic-androgenic steroid 1-Androstenediol (5α-... | {
"page_id": 6031916,
"title": "Androstenediol (disambiguation)"
} |
In physics, a pair potential is a function that describes the potential energy of two interacting objects solely as a function of the distance between them. Some interactions, like Coulomb's law in electrodynamics or Newton's law of universal gravitation in mechanics naturally have this form for simple spherical object... | {
"page_id": 10422831,
"title": "Pair potential"
} |
to be short-range potentials. Other potentials, like the Coulomb or gravitational potential, are long range: they go slowly to zero and the contribution of particles at long distances still contributes to the total energy. == Computational cost == The total energy expression for pair potentials is quite simple to use f... | {
"page_id": 10422831,
"title": "Pair potential"
} |
In physics, a pseudopotential or effective potential is used as an approximation for the simplified description of complex systems. Applications include atomic physics and neutron scattering. The pseudopotential approximation was first introduced by Hans Hellmann in 1934. == Atomic physics == The pseudopotential is an ... | {
"page_id": 2099759,
"title": "Pseudopotential"
} |
different environments. Motivation: Reduction of basis set size Reduction of number of electrons Inclusion of relativistic and other effects Approximations: One-electron picture. The small-core approximation assumes that there is no significant overlap between core and valence wave-function. Nonlinear core corrections ... | {
"page_id": 2099759,
"title": "Pseudopotential"
} |
( r ) {\displaystyle V_{lm}(r)} is the pseudopotential that acts on the projected component. Different angular momentum states then feel different potentials, thus the HSC norm-conserving pseudopotential is non-local, in contrast to local pseudopotential which acts on all one-particle wave-functions in the same way. No... | {
"page_id": 2099759,
"title": "Pseudopotential"
} |
pseudo Hamiltonian now obeys the generalized equation H ^ | Ψ i ⟩ = ϵ i S ^ | Ψ i ⟩ {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|\Psi _{i}\rangle =\epsilon _{i}{\hat {S}}|\Psi _{i}\rangle } , where the operator S ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {S}}} is defined as S ^ = 1 + ∑ R , i , j | p R , i ⟩ q R , i j ⟨ p R , j | {\displaystyle {\hat {S}}=1... | {
"page_id": 2099759,
"title": "Pseudopotential"
} |
the constant neutron form factor. == Phillips pseudopotential == James Charles Phillips developed a simplified pseudopotential while at Bell Labs useful for describing silicon and germanium. == See also == Density functional theory Projector augmented wave method Marvin L. Cohen Alex Zunger == References == == Pseudopo... | {
"page_id": 2099759,
"title": "Pseudopotential"
} |
Heine, Volker (1970), "The Pseudopotential Concept", Solid State Physics, Solid State Physics, vol. 24, Academic Press, pp. 1–36, doi:10.1016/S0081-1947(08)60069-7, ISBN 9780126077247 Pickett, Warren E. (April 1989), "Pseudopotential methods in condensed matter applications", Computer Physics Reports, vol. 9, no. 3, pp... | {
"page_id": 2099759,
"title": "Pseudopotential"
} |
Georg K. H.; Marsman, Martijn; Marzari, Nicola; Michalicek, Gregor; Mirhosseini, Hossein; Müller, Tiziano M. A.; Petretto, Guido; Pickard, Chris J.; Poncé, Samuel; Rignanese, Gian-Marco; Rubel, Oleg; Ruh, Thomas; Sluydts, Michael; Vanpoucke, Danny E. P.; Vijay, Sudarshan; Wolloch, Michael; Wortmann, Daniel; Yakutovich,... | {
"page_id": 2099759,
"title": "Pseudopotential"
} |
What Darwin Didn't Know is a documentary show on BBC Four presented by Armand Marie Leroi which charts the progress in the field of evolutionary theory since the original publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species in 1859. The theory of evolution by natural selection is now orthodoxy, but when it was unve... | {
"page_id": 17959476,
"title": "What Darwin Didn't Know"
} |
Australasian Palaeontologists was formerly known as The Association of Australasian Palaeontologists, which was a specialist group of the Geological Society of Australia for palaeontologists in Australia. In 2015 members elected to shorten the name from The Association of Australasian Palaeontologists to Australasian P... | {
"page_id": 19335737,
"title": "Association of Australasian Palaeontologists"
} |
The term zygoma generally refers to the zygomatic bone, a bone of the human skull that is commonly referred to as the cheekbone or malar bone, but it may also refer to: The zygomatic arch, a structure in the human skull formed primarily by parts of the zygomatic bone and the temporal bone The zygomatic process, a bony ... | {
"page_id": 330303,
"title": "Zygoma"
} |
A trichocyst is an organelle found in certain ciliates and dinoflagellates. A trichocyst can be found in tetrahymena and along cila pathways of several metabolic systems. It is also a structure in the cortex of certain ciliate and flagellate protozoans consisting of a cavity and long, thin threads that can be ejected i... | {
"page_id": 7735873,
"title": "Trichocyst"
} |
Bioactive agents are substances that can influence an organism, tissue or cell. Examples include enzymes, drugs, vitamins, phytochemicals, and bioactive compounds. Bioactive agents can be incorporated into polymers, which has applications in drug delivery and commercial production of household goods and biomedical devi... | {
"page_id": 69339714,
"title": "Bioactive agents"
} |
Artbreeder, formerly known as Ganbreeder, is a collaborative, machine learning-based art website. Using the models StyleGAN and BigGAN, the website allows users to generate and modify images of faces, landscapes, and paintings, among other categories. == Overview == On Artbreeder, users mainly interact through the remi... | {
"page_id": 66980419,
"title": "Artbreeder"
} |
that were introduced into Artbreeder, are Pattern, which creates AI Pattern Images, Outpainting or Uncropping was also an added feature to Artbreeder, that allows the user to expand the image beyond the normal dimensions of the image. == Reception == The artwork generated by users of the website has been described as "... | {
"page_id": 66980419,
"title": "Artbreeder"
} |
The characteristic energy length scale χ {\displaystyle \chi } describes the size of the region from which energy flows to a rapidly moving crack. If material properties change within the characteristic energy length scale, local wave speeds can dominate crack dynamics. This can lead to supersonic fracture. == Referenc... | {
"page_id": 2230854,
"title": "Characteristic energy length scale"
} |
The Okinawa diet describes the traditional dietary practices of indigenous people of the Ryukyu Islands (belonging to Japan), which were claimed to have contributed to their relative longevity over a period of study in the 20th century. == Relative longevity == As assessed over 1949 to 1998, people from the Ryukyu Isla... | {
"page_id": 461383,
"title": "Okinawa diet"
} |
sugar and 15% of the grains of the average Japanese dietary intake. Okinawan cuisine consists of smaller meal portions of green and yellow vegetables, soy and other legumes, relatively small amounts of rice compared to mainland Japan, as well as occasional fish and pork. The center of the Okinawan cuisine is the sweet ... | {
"page_id": 461383,
"title": "Okinawa diet"
} |
Since then, dietary practices shifted towards Western and mainland Japanese patterns, with fat intake rising from about 6% to 27% of total caloric intake and the sweet potato being supplanted with rice and bread. Another low-calorie staple in Okinawa was seaweed, particularly, konbu or kombu. This plant, like much of t... | {
"page_id": 461383,
"title": "Okinawa diet"
} |
body fat levels in women. In the 21st century, the shifting dietary trend coincided with a decrease in longevity, where Okinawans actually developed a lower life expectancy than the Japanese average. Overall, the traditional Okinawa diet led to little weight gain with age, low body mass index throughout life, and low r... | {
"page_id": 461383,
"title": "Okinawa diet"
} |
In chemistry, an onium ion is a cation formally obtained by the protonation of mononuclear parent hydride of a pnictogen (group 15 of the periodic table), chalcogen (group 16), or halogen (group 17). The oldest-known onium ion, and the namesake for the class, is ammonium, NH+4, the protonated derivative of ammonia, NH3... | {
"page_id": 5900871,
"title": "Onium ion"
} |
space.) ethanium, C2H+7 (protonated ethane) propanium, C3H+9 (propane protonated on an unspecified carbon) propylium, or propan-1-ylium (propane protonated on an end carbon) propan-2-ylium (propane protonated on the middle carbon) butanium, C4H+11 (butane protonated on an unspecified carbon) n-butanium (n-butane proton... | {
"page_id": 5900871,
"title": "Onium ion"
} |
tennesside) ==== Pseudohalogen onium cations ==== aminodiazonium, [H2N=N=N]+ ⇌ [H2N−N≡N]+ (protonated hydrogen azide) methylidyneammonium and hydrocyanonium, H2CN+, isomers HC≡NH+ ⇌ N≡CH+2 (protonated hydrogen cyanide) === Group 18 (noble gas) onium cations === hydrohelium or helonium, better known as helium hydride io... | {
"page_id": 5900871,
"title": "Onium ion"
} |
triphenylselenonium, (C6H5)3Se+ tertiary telluronium cations, R3Te+ triphenyltelluronium, (C6H5)3Te+ primary fluoronium cations, RFH+ (protonated fluorides RF) secondary fluoronium cations, R2F+ dichlorofluoronium, Cl2F+ secondary iodonium cations, R2I+ diphenyliodonium, (C6H5)2I+ == Onium cations with polyvalent subst... | {
"page_id": 5900871,
"title": "Onium ion"
} |
borenium cations, R2B+ (protonated borylenes a.k.a. boranylidenes) carbenium cations, R3C+ (protonated carbenes) have a tricoordinated carbon atom with a +1 charge. alkenium cations, CnH+2n+1 (n ≥ 2) (protonated alkenes) methenium cation, H3C+ (protonated methylene) ethenium, C2H+5 (protonated ethene) benzenium, C6H+7 ... | {
"page_id": 5900871,
"title": "Onium ion"
} |
An Ellingham diagram is a graph showing the temperature dependence of the stability of compounds. This analysis is usually used to evaluate the ease of reduction of metal oxides and sulfides. These diagrams were first constructed by Harold Ellingham in 1944. In metallurgy, the Ellingham diagram is used to predict the e... | {
"page_id": 3738185,
"title": "Ellingham diagram"
} |
metal, the dominant contribution to the entropy change (ΔS) is the removal of 1⁄2 mol O2, so that ΔS is negative and roughly equal for all metals. The slope of the plots d Δ G / d T = − Δ S {\displaystyle d\Delta G/dT=-\Delta S} is therefore positive for all metals, with ΔG always becoming more negative with lower ... | {
"page_id": 3738185,
"title": "Ellingham diagram"
} |
For example, the line for Al (oxidation of aluminium) is found to be below that for Fe (formation of Fe2O3) meaning that aluminium oxide is more stable than iron(III) oxide. Stability of metallic oxides decreases with increase in temperature. Highly unstable oxides like Ag2O and HgO easily undergo thermal decomposition... | {
"page_id": 3738185,
"title": "Ellingham diagram"
} |
reduction of metal oxides is often effected by a carbothermic reaction, using carbon as a reducing agent. Carbon is available cheaply as coal, which can be rendered to coke. When carbon reacts with oxygen it forms the gaseous oxides carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, so the thermodynamics of its oxidation is different... | {
"page_id": 3738185,
"title": "Ellingham diagram"
} |
higher temperature) even in the presence of carbon – though this is mainly because the kinetics for gaseous CO reacting with the ore are better. === Reducing agent for chromic oxide—carbon cannot be used === The Ellingham curve for the reaction 2C(s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g) slopes down and falls below the curves for all the m... | {
"page_id": 3738185,
"title": "Ellingham diagram"
} |
reactions. The original paper by Ellingham explicitly to the reduction of both oxygen and sulfur by metallurgical processes, and anticipated the use of such diagrams for other compounds, including chlorides, carbides, and sulfates. The concept is generally useful for studying the comparative stability of compounds acro... | {
"page_id": 3738185,
"title": "Ellingham diagram"
} |
Myzocytosis (from Greek: myzein, (μυζεῖν) meaning "to suck" and kytos (κύτος) meaning "container", hence referring to "cell") is a method of feeding found in some heterotrophic organisms. It is also called "cellular vampirism" as the predatory cell pierces the cell wall and/or cell membrane of the prey cell with a feed... | {
"page_id": 2755147,
"title": "Myzocytosis"
} |
A direct acoustic cochlear implant - also DACI - is an acoustic implant which converts sound in mechanical vibrations that stimulate directly the perilymph inside the cochlea. The hearing function of the external and middle ear is being taken over by a little motor of a cochlear implant, directly stimulating the cochle... | {
"page_id": 39914061,
"title": "Direct acoustic cochlear implant"
} |
the above solutions is ideal. To this end, the direct acoustic cochlear implant was developed. A DACI brings the sound directly to the cochlea, and provides the most natural way of sound amplification. == History == The first DACI was implanted in Hannover. In Belgium, the first DACI was implanted at the Catholic Unive... | {
"page_id": 39914061,
"title": "Direct acoustic cochlear implant"
} |
TK is an experimental cell therapy which may be used to treat high-risk leukemia. It is currently undergoing a Phase III clinical trial to determine efficacy and clinical usefulness. TK is currently being investigated in patients with acute leukemia in first or subsequent complete remission and at high risk of relapse ... | {
"page_id": 39782989,
"title": "TK cell therapy"
} |
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is a spectro-analytical procedure for the quantitative measurement of chemical elements. AAS is based on the absorption of light by free metallic ions that have been atomized from a sample. An alternative technique is atomic emission spectroscopy (AES). In analytical chemistry, the ... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
and most commonly used atomizers in AAS are flames, principally the air-acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2300 °C and the nitrous oxide system (N2O)-acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2700 °C. The latter flame, in addition, offers a more reducing environment, being ideally suited for analytes with a ... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
in case the degree of phase transfer is different for the analyte in the calibration standard and in the sample. Ionization is generally undesirable, as it reduces the number of atoms that are available for measurement, i.e., the sensitivity. In flame AAS, a steady-state signal is generated during the time period when ... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
of a more homogeneous temperature distribution over their length. The so-called stabilized temperature platform furnace (STPF) concept, proposed by Walter Slavin, based on research of Boris L'vov, makes ET AAS essentially free from interference. The major components of this concept are atomization of the sample from a ... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
occurs in a low-pressure argon gas atmosphere between 1 and 10 torr. In this atmosphere lies a pair of electrodes applying a DC voltage of 250 to 1000 V to break down the argon gas into positively charged ions and electrons. These ions, under the influence of the electric field, are accelerated into the cathode surface... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
technique is an atomization method limited only for the determination of mercury due to it being the only metallic element to have a large vapor pressure at ambient temperature. Because of this, it has an important use in determining organic mercury compounds in samples and their distribution in the environment. The me... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
sealed lamp, filled with argon or neon gas at low pressure, is a cylindrical metal cathode containing the element of interest and an anode. A high voltage is applied across the anode and cathode, resulting in an ionization of the fill gas. The gas ions are accelerated towards the cathode and, upon impact on the cathode... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
The radiation intensity emitted by these lamps decreases significantly with increasing wavelength, so that they can be only used in the wavelength range between 190 and about 320 nm. ==== Continuum sources ==== When a continuum radiation source is used for AAS, it is necessary to use a high-resolution monochromator, as... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
state detectors might be preferred because of their better signal-to-noise ratio. ==== Spectrometers for CS AAS ==== When a continuum radiation source is used for AAS measurement it is indispensable to work with a high-resolution monochromator. The resolution has to be equal to or better than the half-width of an atomi... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
examples known that an absorption line from one element will overlap with another. Molecular absorption, in contrast, is much broader, so that it is more likely that some molecular absorption band will overlap with an atomic line. This kind of absorption might be caused by un-dissociated molecules of concomitant elemen... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
is the oldest and still most commonly used technique, particularly for flame AAS. In this case, a separate source (a deuterium lamp) with broad emission is used to measure the background absorption over the entire width of the exit slit of the spectrometer. The use of a separate lamp makes this technique the least accu... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
line, and two σ components, which are moved to higher and lower wavelengths, respectively. Total absorption is measured without magnetic field and background absorption with the magnetic field on. The π component has to be removed in this case, e.g. using a polarizer, and the σ components do not overlap with the emissi... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
changes of background absorption, as they may be observed in ET AAS, do not cause any problem. In addition, as the same algorithm is used for background correction and elimination of lamp noise, the background corrected signals show a much better signal-to-noise ratio compared to the uncorrected signals, which is also ... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
Twenty-five years of furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy, Spectrochim. Acta Part B, 39: 149–157. B.V. L'vov (2005), Fifty years of atomic absorption spectrometry; J. Anal. Chem., 60: 382–392. H. Massmann (1968), Vergleich von Atomabsorption und Atomfluoreszenz in der Graphitküvette, Spectrochim. Acta Part B, 23: 215... | {
"page_id": 2637,
"title": "Atomic absorption spectroscopy"
} |
Speculative evolution is a subgenre of science fiction and an artistic movement focused on hypothetical scenarios in the evolution of life, and a significant form of fictional biology. It is also known as speculative biology and it is referred to as speculative zoology in regards to hypothetical animals. Works incorpor... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
following the publication of After Man. Speculative evolution can be useful in exploring and showcasing patterns present in the present and in the past. By extrapolating past trends into the future, scientists can research and predict the most likely scenarios of how certain organisms and lineages could respond to ecol... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
of alien creatures and several distinct Martian cultures and ethnic groups. Stanley Weinbaum's Planetary series also includes significantly conceptualized and developed alien life. Frederik Pohl wrote that before Weinbaum, science fiction's aliens "might be catmen, lizard-men, antmen, plantmen or rockmen; but they were... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
and illustrator Leo Lionni published Parallel Botany, a "field guide to imaginary plants", presented with academic-style mentions of genuine people and places. Parallel Botany has been compared to the 1972 book Invisible Cities by Italo Calvino, in which Marco Polo in a dialogue with Kublai Khan describes 55 cities, wh... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
same set of adaptations. The success of After Man inspired Dixon to continue writing books that explained factual scientific processes through fictional examples. The New Dinosaurs was in essence a book about zoogeography, something the general public would be unfamiliar with, using a world in which the non-avian dinos... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
being reinforced with recent biology studies. A creature dubbed "Ceticaris", conceived by artist John Meszaros as a filter-feeding anomalocarid, was published in the 2013 book All Your Yesterdays, and in 2014, the actual Cambrian anomalocarid Tamisiocaris was discovered to have been a filter-feeder. In honor of Meszaro... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
essential in understanding what is being studied. Paleontologists apply their own understanding of natural processes and biology to understand the appearances and lifestyles of extinct organisms that are discovered, varying in how far their speculation goes. For instance, All Yesterdays and its sequel All Your Yesterda... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
identified with terms such as "astrobiology", "xenobiology" or "exobiology", these terms designate actual scientific fields largely unrelated to speculative evolution. Though 20th century work in exobiology sometimes formulated "audacious" ideas about extraterrestrial forms of life. Astrophysicists Carl Sagan and Edwin... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
adaptation of the book, Alien Planet (2005) where exploration of Darwin IV is instead carried out by robotic probes and the segments detailing the ecosystems of the planet are intercut with interviews with scientists, such as Michio Kaku, Jack Horner and James B. Garvin. Other examples of speculative evolution focused ... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
Naish, "the series will be a mainstay in discussions about creature design and speculative biology for some time yet." === Alternative evolution === Similar to alternate history, alternative evolution is the exploration of possible alternate scenarios that could have played out in the Earth's past to give rise to alter... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
Skull Island as a surviving fragment of ancient Gondwana. Prehistoric creatures on a declining, eroding island had evolved into "a menagerie of nightmares". A hypothetical natural history of dragons is a popular subject of speculative zoology, being explored in works such as Peter Dickinson's The Flight of Dragons (197... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
compares them to Wells' initial visions in The Time Machine, he nonetheless continues the use of analogous evolution, which is a larger trend in speculative zoology. Future evolution has also been explored on TV, with the mockumentary series The Future is Wild in 2002, for which Dixon was a consultant (and author of th... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
that come later. A minor species that later becomes more relevant is the guppy (Poecilia), whose descendants become terrestrial tripods and compete against the birds after a severe mass extinction which killed 99% of all species on the moon. Another relevant seed world, Batrachiterra, involves various species of frogs ... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
Yesterdays, the sequel to All Yesterdays and a free downloadable book featuring speculative renditions of extinct animals. The Neocene project. A collaborative speculative evolution project exploring Earth's life as imagined 25 million years in the future. Archived site of Project Nereus. A speculative evolution projec... | {
"page_id": 46926424,
"title": "Speculative evolution"
} |
Chargaff's rules (given by Erwin Chargaff) state that in the DNA of any species and any organism, the amount of guanine should be equal to the amount of cytosine and the amount of adenine should be equal to the amount of thymine. Further, a 1:1 stoichiometric ratio of purine and pyrimidine bases (i.e., A+G=T+C) should ... | {
"page_id": 526941,
"title": "Chargaff's rules"
} |
a role. The rule itself has consequences. In most bacterial genomes (which are generally 80–90% coding) genes are arranged in such a fashion that approximately 50% of the coding sequence lies on either strand. Wacław Szybalski, in the 1960s, showed that in bacteriophage coding sequences purines (A and G) exceed pyrimid... | {
"page_id": 526941,
"title": "Chargaff's rules"
} |
80–90% of the strand, there appears to be (1) a selective pressure on the third base to minimize the number of purine bases in the strand with the greater coding content; and (2) that this pressure is proportional to the mismatch in the length of the coding sequences between the two strands. The origin of the deviation... | {
"page_id": 526941,
"title": "Chargaff's rules"
} |
is proposed as follows: Examples — computing whole human genome using the first codons reading frame provides: 36530115 TTT and 36381293 AAA (ratio % = 1.00409). 2087242 TCG and 2085226 CGA (ratio % = 1.00096), etc... In 2020, it is suggested that the physical properties of the dsDNA (double stranded DNA) and the tende... | {
"page_id": 526941,
"title": "Chargaff's rules"
} |
McInerney JO (1998). "Replicational and transcriptional selection on codon usage in Borrelia burgdorferi". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 95 (18): 10698–10703. Bibcode:1998PNAS...9510698M. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.18.10698. PMC 27958. PMID 9724767. == External links == CBS Genome Atlas Database Archived 2016-05-16 at the Portugues... | {
"page_id": 526941,
"title": "Chargaff's rules"
} |
A water bath is laboratory equipment made from a container filled with heated water. It is used to incubate samples in water at a constant temperature over a long period of time. Most water baths have a digital or an analogue interface to allow users to set a desired temperature, but some water baths have their tempera... | {
"page_id": 26413670,
"title": "Laboratory water bath"
} |
more uniform temperature. === Non-circulating water baths === This type of water bath relies primarily on convection instead of water being uniformly heated. Therefore, it is less accurate in terms of temperature control. In addition, there are add-ons that provide stirring to non-circulating water baths to create more... | {
"page_id": 26413670,
"title": "Laboratory water bath"
} |
Crystallopathy is a harmful state or disease associated with the formation and aggregation of crystals in tissues or cavities, or in other words, a heterogeneous group of diseases caused by intrinsic or environmental microparticles or crystals, promoting tissue inflammation and scarring. == Composition == Crystallopath... | {
"page_id": 63834727,
"title": "Crystallopathy"
} |
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