Publisher description for American surgery : an illustrated history / by Ira M. Rutkow ; Stanley B. Burns, photohistorian.
Bibliographic record and links to related information available from the Library of Congress catalog
Information from electronic data provided by the publisher. May be incomplete or contain other coding.
Written by a world-renowned historian of surgery, this volume is a masterful textual and pictorial history of the evolution of American surgery. Dr. Rutkow draws on his experience as a surgeon and a historian to provide an enlightening account of the development of surgery in the context of American social, economic, and political history. Interspersed with the narrative is an extraordinary collection of archival photographs and drawings, many of which have never before been published. The first section chronicles the history of American surgery from Native American practices and colonial times to the present. Particular attention is given to the professionalization and specialization of surgery, as well as to the influence of wars, technological advances, and other pivotal events on the profession. The second section details the history of specific surgical specialties. More than 1,000 biographical accounts of famous surgeons are deftly woven into the narrative.
Library of Congress subject headings for this publication:
Surgery -- United States -- History.
Surgery -- United States -- History -- Pictorial works.


The Barn at Henley opens for weddings August 13
Published 11:45 am Wednesday, August 10, 2022
The Barn at Henley is complete with detailed rooms that create an atmosphere that make each guest feel special. (For the Reporter/Jeremy Raines)
By SASHA JOHNS | Special to the Reporter
COLUMBIANA – Two local couples have built an event venue on a scenic piece of land just off Highway 61 on the edge of Columbiana.
Leigh Hulsey, one of the owners of The Barn at Henley as the venue has been named, said that it all started with friends that owned the adjacent property. She and her family had enjoyed time with her friends at their place, and they all eventually saw the opportunity to strike out in a business venture together by obtaining the adjacent 80 acres.
"We discussed it for a year," Hulsey said, "and then started planning a year ago." The Barn at Henley is a full, 2,400 square foot, finished barn venue, complete with a bar that can serve both indoor and outdoor events.
Perfect for weddings, it is complete with detailed rooms that make each guest feel special as soon as they arrive to prepare for their big day.
"We wanted brides to feel like they were in a princess room," Hulsey said. "The groom's room is equally masculine for our grooms and their party. In addition to the rooms at the Barn, the nearby Henley House is also available to use for entertaining and for family accommodations."
The facility boasts 150-year-old wooden doors that came from Egypt. These antique oak doors create entry ways and photo opportunities for wedding parties as well as guests. In addition, the large windows at the end of the barn, create an opportunity for sunset weddings. The attention to detail continues throughout the grounds of the barn with manicured landscaping that is perfect for outdoor weddings.
Leigh Hulsey and her husband Dennis, along with their friends and business partners Danny and Kathy Gingles, are all seasoned business owners. Hulsey owns a CrossFit in Alabaster and also serves on Helena's City Council. She and her business partners have a heart to serve. They are open to other kinds of events at the barn to help family and organizations create memories and fulfill lifelong dreams.
"Our first event at the Barn is mid-August," Hulsey said. "We are wide open to begin booking from then on."
For more information about the venue or to take a tour, visit the website Myhenleywedding.com or call 205-475-3217.
More News Main
You can always find your way back home
Pelham Civic Complex and Ice Arena to host motorcycle and ice racing event
HFD trades red for orange and blue
Facility dog brings smiles to Meadow View Elementary


Mayo Medical School: How to Get in 2023
Med School Spotlight™
Mayo Medical School: How to Get in
Mission Statement Available Programs Advanced Dual-Degree Programs Academic Curriculum Application Timeline Admissions Statistics and Eligibility Recommended Courses Tuition and Debt Funding Opportunities Selection Factors Interview Format Acceptance and Waitlist Information Contact Information FAQ
The Mayo medical school's focus on small class sizes, high patient-to-student ratios, flexible electives, and world-class research opportunities make it a perennial dream school for many medical students. However, with an overall medical school acceptance rate of 1.4% the Mayo Clinic Alix School of Medicine is among the most exclusive MD programs in the country. With the right information and preparation though, you can provide a strong application and significantly increase your chances to receive one of those coveted admittances. In this blog, we'll go over the necessary information to understand and improve your chances for success.
Note: If you want us to help you with your applications, interviews and/or standardized tests, book a free strategy call. If you are a university, business, or student organization representative and want to partner with us, visit our partnerships page.
"The Mayo Clinic Alix School of Medicine will educate and inspire a diverse workforce of physicians and scientists through excellence in medical education, research and clinical care; to alleviate human suffering by providing compassionate and culturally sensitive care; to enhance the biomedical sciences through discovery and innovation; and to advance the national health care system through population science and leadership."
Advanced Dual Degree Programs
In addition to the MD and MD-PhD programs, MCASOM also offers eight advanced degree programs through its Arizona and Minnesota campuses. Once students have completed 2-3 years of the MD program and are in good standing, they become eligible to participate in these programs (which Mayo refers to as "complementary academic enrichment experiences"). These programs cover a great range of medical specialties, including:
Check out our video for more information about the Mayo med school:
MCASOM's M.D. curriculum is centered around three main sections of work:
Subject Blocks
The 1st and 2nd year of the MD program are focused on two major subject blocks of coursework and applied learning/clinical integration activities.
The 1st year includes coursework on basic sciences including:
Basic Principals and Structure (anatomy, histology, genetics, biochemistry)
Human Structure (anatomy and radiology)
Normal Function (pathology, cell biology, immunology)
Principles of Disease (microbiology, pharmacology, therapeutics)
Additionally, 1st year students participate in the Basic Doctoring course that focuses on interviewing, patient histories, and physical examinations. 1st year students also begin work in health care delivery, which remains a part of their curriculum throughout their four years in the program and earns them a certification in HCD upon graduation.
The 2nd year subject block focuses on what MCASOM calls the "organ systems approach." This focuses on physiology, anatomy, and pathology in the following specialized courses:
Brain and Neuroscience
Introductory Psychiatry
The Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems
Hematology and Rheumatology
Gynecology, Urology, and the Renal System
The Gastrointestinal System
Additionally, 2nd year students participate in the Advanced Doctoring course, which builds on the foundations of the 1st year's basic course. Students conduct guided evaluations in clinical experiences that include:·
Clinical Integration with subject blocks (clinical practice related to the systems coursework listed above)
Lastly, 2nd year students also begin preparation for clinical clerkships that begin in the 3rd year, with courses focusing on:·
Hospital survival skills
Common presentations in specialties including ophthalmology, obstetrics and gynecology, dermatology, family medicine and many more
Musculoskeletal physical exams
Procedural and Communication skills
There is also an intensive review section toward the end of this year to prepare for the USMLE Step 1 exam.
Selectives
One of MCASOM's most inventive features is the use of what are called "selective" (self-directed elective) blocks, which are 1- to 2-week blocks of time that, as the name suggests, allows students to engage in self-directed study or activities that help develop a sense of personal responsibility and interest in specialization(s). These blocks emphasize cultivating a sense of career direction and/or personal exploration in various modalities including research, enhancement of clinical skills, professional skill development, and much more. Selectives also allow students to travel to and work at any of the other Mayo Clinic campuses (Arizona, Minnesota, or Florida) as well as other institutions within the Mayo Clinic Health System. Selectives can be self-proposed or -designed, or chosen from available clinical experiences under the guidance of a mentor. Selectives also encourage students to both give and receive feedback on the experience, which helps them develop a greater sense of their strengths and weaknesses as novice medical professionals.
For more information on this novel aspect of the Mayo MD program, check out the MCASOM Selectives page.
Check out the most important statistics and requirements of the Mayo medical school:
Clinical Clerkships and Electives
The 3rd and 4th years of the MCASOM MD program are, as with most MD programs, oriented around extensive clinical and applied work. These include required clerkships in:
Family medicine (6 weeks)
Internal medicine (6 weeks)
Neurology (3 weeks)
Obstetrics and Gynecology (6 weeks)
Pediatrics (6 weeks)
Psychiatry (3 weeks)
Surgery (6 weeks)
The 3rd year curriculum also includes a 3-week intersession that applies basic science knowledge in integrated topics like public health, radiology, professional conduct, and much more.
Lastly, there is a 12-week research quarter requirement that introduces principles and practices relating to biomedical research, which is a central aspect of the Mayo Clinic's overall project. This includes a supervised research project designed to complement your career interest and expose you to scientific research methods.
During the 4th year of the MCASOM MD program, students participate in four rigorous required clerkships that include·
Internal medicine (as a hospital subinternshp)
Residency boot camp
Social medicine
The nature of the 4th year is intensive preparation for specialization and residency, so students must participate in electives in a wide range of specialties and subspecialties. 4th year students also participate in the 12-week Community Physician Apprenticeship Program (CPAP), which focuses on community care in both hospital and outpatient environments. The 4th year culminates in M.D. students' preparedness for both residency and further graduate medical education.
Grading System Subject blocks in the 1st and 2nd years are graded Pass/Fail, with clerkships and other applied activities in the 3rd and 4th years being graded Honors/High Pass/Pass/Fail.
This is the general timeline for the Mayo Clinic Alix School of Medicine's application process. Be sure to check the exact medical school application timelines or the AAMC MSAR portal before beginning your application. MCASOM does not offer an Early Decision Program or EDP.
Admissions Statistics and Eligibility
Overall acceptance rate: 1.4%
In-state success rate: 1.3%
Out-of-state success rate: 1.4%
MCAT: 520
Mayo Medical School Overall Success Rate:
The Mayo Clinic's Alix School of Medicine only admits students who are citizens or permanent residents of the United States or Canada at the time of application. However, if a student meets these criteria but currently resides elsewhere, they may also be granted admission. Students with refugee or asylee status are also considered eligible for admission. Unfortunately, foreign nationals who do not meet any of the above criteria are not eligible for admission regardless of visa or permit status.
The Mayo medical school also does not accept transfer students, regardless of the location of their medical school or citizenship.
The Mayo Medical School does not have specific medical school prerequisites, but recommends that applicants have a strong background in life and social sciences including, but not limited to:·
Successful lab work is also recommended in these fields, though there is no indicated number of hours.
Additionally, MCASOM recommends the following nonacademic technical standards be demonstrated in applicants' materials:
Intellectual, integrative, and quantitative abilities
Behavioral attributes like good judgement, promptness, sensitivity, adaptability, toleration of taxing workloads, the ability to function under stress, and professionalism
Lastly, while the Mayo Medical School doesn't have especially concrete course requirements, they do require either a Bachelor's or Pharm.D. degree from an accredited college in the US or Canada. There are no substitutions for this degree requirement.
Check out the reasons prerequisites are so important for medical school applicants:
Tuition and Debt
Medical school tuition ranks among the most expensive in higher education, and MCASOM's M.D. program is no exception. The Mayo Medical school offers the following budgetary estimate for its MD program:
The Mayo medical school or MCASOM's funding opportunities are fairly extensive, in large part due to the school's considerable involvement with research industry development.
Institutional Aid
All students who apply are considered for scholarships funded by the school's benefactors, and these scholarships are awarded based on both prior academic performance and financial need. Financial need is determined by calculating parental income and asset data, which is the way most medical schools make this calculation. Additionally, scholarships with the Mayo medical school are reevaluated annually, and so are renewable depending on performance and student's circumstances. For more information on both Mayo's institutional aid programs and external funding programs available to MCASOM students, check out Mayo College's extensive Grants and Scholarships page.
Federal Loans
Eligible US citizens and permanent residents may be awarded federal loans through the US Department of Education. These include Federal Direct Unsubsidized Loans and Federal Direct PLUS Loans. To apply for federal financial aid, they must first complete the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). For more information on US Federal Student Aid, check out the Department of Education's Student Aid page on loan types and details. Learn more about how to pay for medical school in our blog.
The Mayo Medical School chooses its first-round interviewees based on six factors:
MCAT score and percentile (75th percentile or above)
Depth and breadth of extracurricular experiences like volunteering, research, and creative endeavors·
MCAT and GPA
As should be expected of a world-class medical school, admission to the Mayo medical school's MD program is extremely competitive. With an overall acceptance rate of just 1.4%, the odds are heavily against most applicants.
Accepted applicants had a median MCAT score of 520, with the overall range for accepted applicants extending from 512 to 524.
It's important to remember that you can retake the MCAT if you score below these medians, and it's quite common to do so. You can retake the MCAT up to three times in a year, and seven times in a lifetime. If you do poorly the first or even second time, reevaluate your MCAT prep strategies. Before you begin your prep, learn when to start studying for the MCAT and review the best MCAT study schedule to inspire your own. Make sure to take an MCAT diagnostic test to gauge your baseline and see improvements as you study. Forgo online forums like the MCAT subreddit to create your MCAT study plan – they are not helpful and often misleading. Practice with MCAT CARS passages, physics equations, and other sample questions. Remember, you should only take the MCAT when you are feeling 100% ready.
Successful applicants had a median cumulative GPA of 3.92 , making the quantitative thresholds of admission especially competitive. There is, as with most medical schools, the chance that a lower GPA can be offset by remarkably high MCAT scores (and vice versa), but you should strive to achieve this GPA threshold.
With these statistics in mind, work to make your other application materials impeccable in order to offset any perceived weaknesses in your numerical statistics.
Are you wondering if you really need to take the MCAT diagnostic test?
Applicant Essays
Your medical school personal statement is, as always, a massively influential piece of your application package for Mayo medical school. Unlike the hard numbers of your GPA and MCAT score, your personal statement allows you to speak directly to the admissions committee and contextualize who you are and why you want to be a doctor. It's an opportunity to craft an engaging, first-person narrative capable of presenting the emotional and psychological aspects of your relationship to medicine. The personal statement is something you want to spend a lot of time drafting and editing. Give yourself at least 8 weeks to craft a compelling statement.
As any academic essay, your personal statement for medical school will have an intro, body paragraphs, and conclusion. Your body paragraphs should be based in 2 or 3 solid experiences that demonstrate your suitability for medicine. Remember, this is not a CV – you need to create a narrative, so limit your experiences to those you can talk about in detail. For AMCAS personal statements, you will have only 5300 characters to convince the admissions committee that you are the right fit for medicine.
Secondary Essay
Students who pass through the first round of selection are asked to complete a secondary application, which is composed of two elements: a medical school secondary essay and your ranking of four campus track options, which are:
Arizona (ASU) 4-year track
Minnesota 4-year track
Arizona/Florida 2+2 track
Minnesota/Florida 2+2 track
The secondary essays are more specialized than personal statements and require responses of maximum 500-words to 3 prompts:
Why are you specifically interested in pursuing your medical education at Mayo Clinic Alix School of Medicine even if you gain acceptances to other highly ranked medical schools?
For this prompt, you'd want to find a way to tailor your intrinsic feelings and motivations to address Mayo's mission and research specialties. A good response might connect early fascination and ongoing work with patient care, one of Mayo's primary foci, or how your interest in/commitment to specific areas of research fit with ongoing research at one or more of their campuses. Don't just tell them what you think they want to hear, but do try to find a way to relate your experiences to the specificities of the school
We are all unique in different ways. Explain how your personal diversity manifests in your personal and professional activities.
This one may feel unwieldy at first, but the question ultimately reduces to this: how does diversity (in terms of differences among people and groups, etc.) inform your relationship to the world and your journey toward a career in medicine? This is a traditional diversity essay. Given Mayo's focus on public/world health programs, a successful essay would illustrate a commitment to helping others who are fundamentally different than the essay writer without resorting to saviorism or cliches. This prompt gives the writer a big green light for digging into what makes them unique, and how this uniqueness affects their relationships with others both generally and within the context of their journey toward medicine. And remember: the Mayo M.D. curriculum is very focused on patients, so be sure to lean heavily on your experiences with diversity in whatever clinical or volunteer experiences you've had so far. Have you worked with medically under-served communities, recent immigrants, or people from disadvantaged social/family backgrounds? A question like this is the perfect place to dig into what you've learned from these experiences.
Share with us your thoughts about the relevance—or not—of diverse learning environments in which you wish to learn medicine.
This may seem nearly identical to the prior prompt, but the point here is to speak a bit less of yourself and inner sense of diversity, and more about providing an analysis of how these differences and complexity make for a more fulfilling learning environment. To be clear, although there is the additional clause of "or not" in the prompt, the admissions committee at Mayo will surely be more amenable to an argument in favor or in praise of diversity than a dismissal. A winning essay might touch on any personal experiences in diverse learning environments so far, but these need to be extrapolated into coherent and convincing narrative. That is, you need to engage with the social science part of your knowledge here, showing an understanding of the philosophical and sociological significance of diverse learning environments and medical education in general. Have you met someone who changed your perspective on education? Have you worked or attended class with people from cultural or ethnic backgrounds that differ from your own? Try to find the ways in which your interactions with people different from you have altered your understanding of education and perhaps the world in general.
Check out our video on medical school secondary essays for more tips on how to craft winning responses to prompts like these:
The Mayo medical school only accepts letters of recommendation through the AMCAS letter service, they cannot be sent directly to the school. MCASOM requires three letters of recommendation or one composite or committee letter from a premed committee. All letters must be on official letterhead and have a handwritten signature by the letter writer.
At least one of your letters must be from a science professor, or at least a teaching assistant in the sciences. We recommend the former, but if you absolutely must rely on the latter you should be fine. For any other letters, Mayo medical school accepts letters from mentors, employers, and supervisors in both volunteer and other medical contexts.
Successful applicants to the Mayo medical school M.D. program typically have extensive relevant extracurricular involvement. In recent years, most matriculants displayed premed involvement in the following:
From this, it's safe to say that to get into MCASOM's M.D. program you'll want to at least spend some time volunteering in both medical and non-medical environments, and have substantial research experience. The good news is that this kind of work usually benefits the writing of both the initial personal statement and the secondary essays. And while shadowing is only recommended by Mayo medical school, you can see that 90% of this school's matriculants gained this important premed experience.
For more suggestions and tips, check out our blog on extracurriculars for medical school.
Interview Format
The Mayo medical school utilizes a comprehensive virtual interview day, which includes:
Welcome sessions at one of three campuses (depending on your campus rankings in the second application)
Two 1-on-1 virtual interviews lasting 30 minutes each
Connecting with current students
Save their virtuality, the two one-on-one interviews are the most important part of your interview day. They are conducted in traditional medical school interview format. Make sure to review common medical school interview questions, and panel interview questions. It is always a good idea to go over the most popular interview questions like "what is your greatest weakness" and "tell me about yourself", as these can be incorporated into any interview format
Acceptance and Waitlist Information
Mayo medical school makes their acceptance decisions following the completion of all applicant interviews and committee deliberations. Initial offers of acceptance are made in mid-February via phone call.
MCASOM utilizes an alternate or waitlist as well, and notifications for being placed on this list are sent just after initial offers of acceptance go out. If chosen for acceptance from this secondary list, students should expect to receive notice between March and June. Of the approximately 300 waitlisted students, 40 or so are usually granted acceptance. If placed on the waitlist, Mayo medical school welcomes significant updates to your application through their application portal. Additionally, the medical school letter of intent is given extra scrutiny in waitlist decisions, making it an especially valuable application piece.
The Mayo Clinic Alix School of Medicine program website
Mayo Medical School MD program website
MCASOM admissions page
1. Do I need a specific degree to get into the Mayo medical school?
You'll need a BA/BS or Pharm.D., but there's no specific major requirement for the Bachelor's. In fact, only 1% of recent matriculants had a math or science degree! Given Mayo's intense focus on research and innovation, you may want to show expertise in a field that involves these qualities, but there's clearly a lot of flexibility here. What matters most is doing incredibly well in whatever department you choose for your undergraduate work.
2. Does Mayo accept transfer students?
What about international students? Unfortunately, MCASOM does not accept transfer students, but international students (provided they're citizens or permanent residents of the U.S.) are encouraged to apply. That said, in recent years a staggeringly low number of international students have been admitted, so if you're applying from outside the U.S. be sure to make your application as strong as possible.
3. Does the Mayo medical school M.D. program have a research component?
Yes, every M.D. student (co-)designs and conducts a 12-week research project toward the end of the 3rd year of the program.
4. Does the Mayo medical school have specific course requirements for admission?
No, but significant experience in both life and social sciences is recommended. Additionally, there should be demonstrable research and lab experience during your undergraduate education.
5. What kind of GPA and MCAT scores do successful applicants have?
For recent matriculants, the median GPA was 3.95 and median MCAT score was 520. To have a truly competitive application, we recommend you aim for these median scores as minimums, and retake the MCAT as needed/able to score as high as possible if your initial scores are lower than the median.
6. What is Mayo medical school's overall acceptance rate?
1.4%. As should be expected of a world-class medical school, MCASOM is extremely selective.
7. How many letters of recommendation does Mayo medical school require?
Three individual letters or one composite/committee letter from a premed committee. All letters must be on official letterhead and have a handwritten signature by the letter writer(s).
8. What are Mayo medical school's tuition fees?
Annual tuition fees themselves total $58,900 (USD) for both in- and out-of-state students. With added costs like books, rent, transportation, and student insurance, Mayo estimates the total cost of attendance to be $95,196.
Your friends at BeMo
BeMo Academic Consulting
Disclaimer: BeMo does not endorse or affiliate with any universities, colleges, or official test administrators. The content has been developed based on the most recent publicly available data provided from the official university website. However, you should always check the statistics/requirements with the official school website for the most up to date information. You are responsible for your own results.
Want more free tips? Subscribe to our channels for more free and useful content!
tags: Mayo Medical School, Med School Spotlight™, Mayo medical school statistics and requirements
University of Ottawa Faculty of Medicine: How to Get in
UCLA Medical School: How to Get in
University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine: How to Get in
McGill Medical School: How to Get in
Time Sensitive. Limited Spots Available:
We guarantee your acceptance to med school or we don't get paid.
Swipe up to see a great offer!


Your Secret Ballot Is In Jeopardy
There are few things more sacred to Americans than a secure and secret ballot.
On August 1, 2015, Vincent Carroll of the Denver Post wrote a column entitled: The high risk of e-voting pointing out some concerns with electronic transmission of military and overseas balloting. This overview should cause us all concern about both the security and the secrecy of ballots that are cast in this manner.
The Heritage Foundation also published a column with similar concerns on July 14, 2015.
The extent to which Internet–based voting allows our deployed military members —who have no access to mail ballots— to vote is a good practice. No one wants to get in the way of their right to vote. The question is: Is Internet and email balloting being used only as a rare exception, or is that method of voting expanding?
A 2011 Colorado State law (HB 11-1219) ensures that overseas military members get their ballots in order to vote and return their ballot through the mail in a timely fashion. They have 53 days from when the ballot leaves their County Clerk and Recorder's office to when their ballot must be returned in order to be counted for that election. In most situations, this is sufficient time. Service members may also request an electronic ballot be automatically sent to them, so that they can print it out, vote, and mail it back to their county office. All of this is important and necessary.
Senator Kevin Lundberg, was a member of the Senate State, Veterans, and Military Affairs Committee during 2006 when this bill's predecessor was passed. Senator Lundberg has spoken out against the use of the electronic transmission of voted ballots in all but the most rare of circumstances. He can be heard discussing this on a May 29, 2015 podcast with radio host Ken Clark, and Colorado Secretary of State Wayne Williams. The relevant portion of the conversation starts around 25 minutes in.
Consider a submariner who is underwater for months. Consider a service person deployed to a place in the world where mail isn't an option. The law makes it clear that the overseas or military voter may, "return the ballot by electronic transmission in circumstance where another more secure method, such as returning the ballot by mail, is not available or feasible." Note that the law acknowledges that electronic transmission is less secure than returning the ballot by mail.
In the May 29th podcast above, and a separate May 14, 2015 podcast, Secretary Williams says that this option for overseas and military voters to transmit their completed ballots electronically also applies to additional overseas voters, such as missionaries and students doing a semester abroad. The relevant portion of the podcast begins at about 1 hour and 21 minutes in. Senator Lundberg expresses concern in both of these podcasts about electronic transmission of completed ballots becoming a common practice as opposed to a "rare exception." According to Secretary Williams, there were over 3,000 military members who used the electronic transmission method of voting in the 2014 general election. That is over 50% of the number of military and overseas voters who voted. Not all of these 3,000 were in areas where mail services were neither available nor feasible. Some may have been right here at home.
How safe is electronic transmission of a completed ballot? The language in the 2011 legislation admits it is not as safe as mailing in a ballot. New headlines every day like this and this show how vulnerable data is to being hacked. Here is a quick demonstration of how ballot data, using a 3rd party vendor, might be hacked and how a vote can be changed.
As for the 3rd party vendor, the Colorado Secretary of State's office has contracted with Everyone Counts to be the technology link between the military or overseas voter and the County Clerk and Recorder's offices throughout the state. When a military or overseas voter marks their ballot online, it doesn't go directly to their County Clerk and Recorder. It goes first to Everyone Counts, along with the voters' verified identity. After a copy of the electronic ballot is saved, the voter emails it to the clerk. Although Everyone Counts boasts about "secure and reliable voting options," according to Secretary Williams in the May 14th podcast, the voter has to acknowledge that they are "voluntarily waiving their right to a secret ballot."
It disrupts a voter's access to a secret ballot when a commercial vendor collects the voter's choices. If Everyone Counts were to be hacked, what would happen to a voter's privacy? Would Everyone Counts be able to sell voter data?
The public was offered an opportunity to attend a July 7, 2015 Secretary of State hearing on the rules surrounding electronic transmission of ballots, and the opportunity to weigh in online if they were unable to attend the meeting. Most of the public comments were against electronic transmission of ballots.
While listening to the podcasts above, I heard an interesting question raised. The final caller on the May 14th podcast asked Secretary Williams about the family relationship between an employee of the Secretary of State's office and an employee of the vendor, Everyone Counts. The Secretary didn't answer the question, but if true, the Colorado Secretary of State should —at minimum—publicly disclose that fact, and ensure that there is an arms length relationship between the two entities, so that there is no appearance of impropriety.
If these issues are as concerning to you as they are to me, please contact the Colorado Secretary of State's office immediately to express that concern. You can send your comments to [email protected] and [email protected].
Stop Proposing Gun Laws That Don't Work
Do the gun controllers want to reduce deaths by murderers who use firearms, or do…
Parents Know Best … When It Comes to School Choice
Who knows how to educate your children better, you or some faceless bureaucrat at the…
Ballot Language Intends to Deceive Voters
Those who follow politics in Colorado Springs remember the controversy during the 2010 election about deceptive ballot language. Now the ballots are out in the City of Colorado Springs and whoever was in charge of the wording did it again.
Betty Matuska says:
How do I sign up for your newsletters to blind? Heard you on " my favorite", Join my Lakey
Just go to lauracarno.com and if there is not a pop-up to sign up, go to the right side where it says "connect with Laura" and click on the icon that looks like a letter. Let me know if you have any trouble with it.
Can Government Make Children Healthier?
The Death Penalty and George Brauchler


Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.
Last updated: 8 December 2014
Aloe barbadensis Mill., Aloe chinensis Steud. ex Baker, Aloe elongata Murray, Aloe flava Pers., Aloe indica Royle, Aloe lanzae Tod., Aloe maculata Forssk. [Illegitimate], Aloe rubescens DC., Aloe variegate Forssk. [Illegitimate], Aloe vulgaris Lam. [1]
Malaysia Lidah buaya (Peninsular); bunga raja raja (Sabah) [2]
English Barbados aloe, curaçao aloe, coastal aloe, Indian aloe, medicinal aloe, mediterranean aloe, true aloe, west indian aloe [2][3]
China Lu-hui [4]
India Kumari, ghikanuar, ghrit kumara [4]
Indonesia Lidah buaya [2]
Philippines Sabila (Tagalog); dilang-buwaya (Bikol); dilang-halo (Bisaya) [2]
Thailand Waan faimai (Northern); waan hang chorakhe, haang takhe (Central) [2][5]
Vietnam L[oo] h[ooj]i, l[uw] h[ooj]i, nha d[ar]m, cay aloe vera, cay lo hoi, cay nha dam [2][5]
Nepal Kunhur [4]
Sri Lanka Komarika [4]
Japan Aloe, feroxaroe [4][5]
Turkey Odagaci, sarisabir, sarysabyr [5]
Africa Aalwee, aalwyn [5]
France Aloes, aloes vulgaire, aloe vera [3][5]
Sweden Aloe, barbados aloe [5]
Poland Aloes, aloe vera, aloes de barbados, caraguata, erva-babosa, azehre vegetal [3]
Spain Aciber, aloe, flor do doserto, loto do deserto, linaloe, maguey morado, penca sabila, pitera amarelo, sabila do penca, savila, toots amarelo, zabila,zabila dos tos [5]
Russia Aloe, aloe nastojascee, aloe vera [5].
The origin of Aloe vera is unknown [2][6] but some authors presumed that it is originated from Arabia, Somalia, Sudan or Oman [7]. This plant has been introduced and naturalized throughout most of the tropics, subtropics and warmer regions but will not grow in rainforest regions or dry deserts [6][7]. It can be found in most of Africa, Southern Arabia, Madagascar, West Indies and Bahamas, Southern USA, Mexico, Central America, Arabia, other parts of Asia [6] and Australia [7].
A. vera is a plant from the family of Xanthorrhoeaceae [1]. It is a perennial shrub, 30-40 cm high [2].
The root is in the form of taproot, 5-10 cm long with abundant secondary root at the top of the soil. The root form a dense group and the secondary shoot that rise from the root gives rise to a new plant [2]. The stem is short [8].
The leaves is whether erect or slightly spreading, about 16 blades per plant, 40-50 cm x 6-7 cm in dimension, narrowly triangular, the upper surface greenish-grey to pale green together with spots and the lower blade usually lighter. The leave margin firm with minute deltoid pale teeth that measure 2 mm long. [2]
The inflorescence spike, simple and rarely branched, 60-100 cm tall, densely flowered with yellow, orange or red in colour. The anther and stigma is exserted. [2][8]
The fruit is in the form of capsule, ovoid and whitish green. The seed is numerous. [8]
No documentation.
Aqueous extract of A. vera has been reported to containtriglucosylated naphthalene derivative (e.g. aloveroside A, aloveroside B) and phenyl pyrones (e.g. ρ-coumaroyl aloenin, aloenin B, 10-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl aloenin, aloenin-2′-ρ-coumaroyl ester, aloenin aglycone). [9][10][11][12]
Methanol extract of dried A. vera powder has been reported to contain chromones (e.g. chrysophanol, 7-hydroxy-2,5-dimethylchromone, saiko-chromone A, 5-((S)-2′-oxo-4′-hydroxypentyl)-2-hydroxymethylchromone, 5-((S)-2′-oxo-4′-hydroxypentyl)-2-(β-glucopyranosyl-oxy-methyl)-chromone, 5-(hydroxymethyl)-7-methoxy-2-methylchromone, 5-((4E)-2′-oxo-pentenyl)-2-hydroxymethylchromone, 7-hydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methylchromone, cinnamoyl-C-glycoside chromone, aloesin, 8-C-glucosyl-(R)-aloesol, 8-C-glucosyl-7-O-methyl-(S)-aloesol, and isoaloeresin D) and antraquinone (e.g. 10-hydroxyaloin A, 10-hydroxyaloin B, aloe-emodin, barbaloin/aloin A, isobarbaloin/aloin B). [9][11][12][13][14]
A. vera was also been reported to contain anthraquinone dimers (e.g. elgnica dimer A and elgnica dimer B), glycoproteins (e.g. aloctin A), fatty acids (e.g. β-sitosterol, cholesterol, campesterol), polysaccharides (e.g. acemannan, neutral and acidic polysaccharides (consisted of glucose, galactose, mannose, glucuronic acid or uronic acid)) and prostaglandins. [10][14][15][16]
A. vera at various developmental stages possessed minerals with different concentrations (e.g. sodium, magnesium, calcium, potassium, phosphorus). [15]
Leaves, gel. [17]
A. vera has been traditionally used for burn healing but clinical evidence remains unclear. Mucilaginous tissue or A. veragel is located in the center of the A. vera leaf and have been used as cosmetics as well as medical products. A. vera gel has been used for many indications since the Roman era or even long before [17]. A. vera has been traditionally used as a topical treatment for burns, wounds, and various other skin conditions, and has also been used orally as a laxative [18].
The production of A. vera juice involves crushing, grinding or pressing of the entire leaf of the aloe vera plant followed by various steps of filtration and stabilization of the juice. Then, the A. vera juice incorporated in or mixed with other solutions or agents to produce the pharmaceutical, cosmetic or food product. [19]
The amount of A. vera that in the pharmaceutical industry is not negligible as far as the manufacturing of topical ointments, gel preparations, tablets and capsules are concerned [19]. In the cosmetic, A. vera gel find its application primarily acted as skin healer and prevents injury of epithelial tissues, cures acne and gives a youthful glow to skin and also acts as extremely powerful laxative [20]. Some toiletry industries has been made by A. vera, where it is used as a base for the preparation of creams, lotions, soaps, shampoos and facial cleaners. In the food industry, A. vera has been utilised as a resource of functional food, especially for the preparation of health food drinks and other beverages, including tea [19].
Burn and wound healing activity
A. vera gel administered to full-thickness burns by direct contact with a hot plate Hartley guinea pigs significantly (p<0.02) showed a complete healing after average 30 days of treatment, which was faster compared to control group (50 days). [21]
A. vera geladministered to second-degree burns in guinea pigs hindered the wound healing process by significantly (p<0.01) thicken the granulation tissue with a significant (p<0.001) decreased in amount of hair follicles compared to 1% silver sulfadiazine cream. [22]
A. vera mature leaves gel administered to burn-created skin to Large White juvenile pigs (25-32 kg) for a duration of 6 weeks showed evaporative cooling capacities by decreasing the subdermal temperature within the burn skin of pigs due to its analgesic properties. [23]
Lyophilized A. vera powder of mature leaves gel (30 mg) administered orally and topically twice a day to excision wound-induced to male Wistar rats (150-200 g) for a duration of 8 days increased the collagen content of the granulation tissue and its crosslinking degree evidenced by the improved aldehyde content and reduced acid solubility observed compared to untreated control. [24]
Lyophilized A. vera powder of mature leaves gel (30 mg) administered orally and topically twice a day to excision wound-induced to male Wistar rats (150-200 g) for a duration of 16 days showed a wound healing properties by positively influenced the synthesis of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) components of the wound matrix with the elevated amount of ground substance synthesized and levels of reported glycohydrolases (hyaluronic acid and dermatan sulfate) compared to untreated control. [25]
Lyophilized A. vera gel administered to second degree burn wound-induced in male Wistar rats for a duration 14 days showed a better healing area compared to untreated and normal saline treated group. The gel significantly (p<0.05) reduced the vasodilation, increased the postcapillary venular permeability as encountered in the untreated burn, increased the arteriolar diameter up to normal condition, reduced the amount of leukocyte adhesion as observed and showed that the postcapillary venular permeability was not different from the sham controls. [26]
Mannose-6-phosphate sugar of A. vera gel (300 mg/kg) administered by subcutaneous injections daily to wound-induced adult male ICR mice (30 g) for a duration of 7 days significantly (p<0.01) decreased the wound diameter about 4.3 mm (50.7 %) compared to saline treated control group with 2.8 mm (42.1 %). [27]
Mannose-6-phosphate sugar of A. vera gel (300 mg/kg) administered by subcutaneous injections daily to adult male ICR mice (30 g) for a duration of 7 days before the ear swelling croton oil assay to induce inflammation for 6 hours significantly (p=0.05) showed the lower average ear weight (5.5 mg) compared to saline treated control group (7.3 mg). [27]
Aqueous and chloroform extract of A. vera fresh leaves gel (100 mg/kg) administered intraperitoneally to carrageenan-induced edema in paw of male Wistar rats (180-200 g) for a duration of 4 hours before an hour of carrageenan injection decreased the paw volumes from 160 µL to 75 and 62 µL, respectively comparable to standard indomethacin and dexamethasone. [28]
Aloctin A isolated from A. vera (5.0 mg/kg) administered intraperitoneally to arthritic-induced female Sprague-Dawley rats (±200 g) for a duration of 15 days inhibited the swelling in the injected foot and in the secondary lesion (day 14: 57.2 %; day 21: 56.6 % and day 14: 43.4 %; day 21: 72.3 % inhibition ratio, respectively) compared to gastric gavage administration of 2.0 mg/kg indomethacin (day 14: 38.1 %; day 21: 23.9 % and day 14: 12.1 %; day 21: -1.2 % inhibition ratio, respectively ) and 2.0 mg/kg prednisolone (day 14: 58.3 %; day 21: 43.2 % and day 14: 82.2 %; day 21: 35.7 % inhibition ratio, respectively). [29]
Aloctin A isolated from A. vera (10.0 mg/kg) administered intraperitoneally to carrageenan-induced edema in paw female Sprague-Dawley rats (±200 g) for a duration of 5 hours suppressed the swelling in the rat hind paw (95.3 % inhibition ratio) compared to gastric gavage administration of 2.0 mg/kg indomethacin (59.0 % inhibition ratio) in dose-dependent manner. [29]
C-glucosyl chromone identified as 8-[C-β-D-[2-O-(E)-cinnamoyl]glucopyranosyl]-2-[(R)-2-hydroxypropyl]-7-methoxy-5-methylchromone from ethanol extract of A. vera leaves (200 µg/mouse ear) administered to croton oil-induced ear swelling in male BalbC mice (20-25 g) for a duration of 6 hours showed anti-inflammatory activity with no reduction in thymus weight comparable to administration of 200 µg/mouse ear hydrocortisone but with 50 % thymus weight decrement. [30]
A. vera administered orally to several reagents (kaolin carrageenan, albumin, dextran, gelatin, and mustard) induced-hind paw rats showed remarkable anti-inflammatory activity especially in gelatin-induced and kaolin-induced edema and showed lowest activity for dextran-induced edema, dependent on the presence of anthraquinones in the extract. [31]
A. vera and its compound namely gibberellin (2-100 mg/kg) administered to streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice inhibited the polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration into the site, thus provided anti-inflammatory activity in a dose dependant manner. [32]
Antiallergic activity
Alprogen of glycoproteins compound isolated from A. vera fresh leaves showed antiallergic activity by significantly (p<0.001) inhibited the mediator releases (histamine and leukotriene) and Ca2+ influx caused by activation of mast cells (0.1 µg/mL ovalbumin) by specific antigen-antibody reactions in vitro of Hartley albino female guinea pigs (200-250 g) lung. The extract reduced the amount of hispidine and leukotrienes (7.5±7.50 % and 23.2±6.23 pmol/4x105 cells,respectively) compared to control (29.0±1.10 % and 42.9±5.40 pmol/4x105 cells, respectively). [33]
Antihyperglycemic activity
A. vera of fresh leaves gel and its isolated phytosterols (lophenol, 24-methyl-lophenol, 24-ethyl-lophenol, cycloartanol, and 24-methylene-cycloartanol) (1 µg/mL) was administered orally to type 2 diabetic BKS.Cg-m+/+Leprdb/J (db/db) mice. The extracts significantly decreased (15-18 %) the hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels in mice compared to vehicle (saline)-treated mice after 35 days and reduced blood glucose levels to approximately 64%, 28%, 47%, 51%, and 55% of control levels, respectively for a duration of 28 days treatment. [34]
A. vera dried sap (500 mg/kg) administered orally twice daily for duration of 7 days significantly (p<0.01) lowered the glucose blood levels in alloxan-induced diabetic of Swiss albino mice (394 ± 22.0 mg/dl) compared to glibenclamide (726 ± 30.9 mg/dl) and control mice (646 ± 35.9 mg/dl). [35]
Bitter principle of A. vera leaves (5 mg/kg) administered intraperitoneally to alloxan-induced diabetic of Swiss albino mice for duration of 24 hours highly significant lowered the glucose blood levels compared to oral administration of A. vera extract. Bitter principle of A. vera leaves and A. vera extract administered once a day and twice daily, respectively for chronic studies for a duration of 4 days showed the maximum blood glucose level reduction at the 5th day. The reduction was suggested due to stimulation synthesis and/or release of insulin from the beta cells of the Islets of Langerhans. [36]
A. vera leaves pulp extract (500 mg/kg) administered orally to streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type I diabetic female Wistar rats (150-200 g) for a duration of 6 hours and STZ-induced type II diabetic Wistar pups for a duration of 5 hours showed antihyperglycaemic activity in both but effectively enhanced in type II compared to glibenclamide. Contrarily, the A. vera leaves gel extract (10 mL/kg) administered orally to the rats had a hyperglycemic effect in the type II diabetic rats [37].
Antitumour activity
Aloe-emodin (AE), a hydroxyanthraquinone constituent of A. vera leaves inhibited the growth of human neuroectodermal tumors in mice through the induction of apoptosis, where the selectivity against neuroectodermal tumor cells was founded on a specific energy-dependent pathway of drug incorporation. [38]
Antiulcerative activity
Aloe-emodin of A. vera showed the growth inhibition of H. pylori collected from peptic ulcer patients in vitro by inhibited its Arylamine N-acetyltransferase (NAT) activities. [39]
A. vera leaves gel also reported to has antiulcer activity in rats with peptic ulcer disease. [40]
Lyophilized of whole A. vera fresh leaves extract (2, 3, and 4-year-old plants) showed different content of flavonoids for different growth stages A. veta. The 3-year-old extract (100mg/L) exhibited the fastest DPPH radical scavenging rate of activity over the first 16 and 30 minutes (67.95±0.99 % and 72.19±0.98 % inhibition, respectively) compared to BHT, α-tocopherol, 4-year-old and 2-year-old growth stages of A. vera (64.60±1.12 %, 64.20±1.55 %, 56.85±3.42 %, 51.92±0.45 % and 70.52±0.89 %, 65.20±1.32 %, 67.64±2.99 %, 62.70±0.44 % inhibition, respectively). [41]
Antimicrobial activity
Antifungal activity
Aqueous ethanol extract of A. vera fresh leaves showed significant (P<0.001) antifungal activity based on fungicidal concentration against fungus growth of Botrytis gladiolorum (MFC 80 µL/mL), Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. gladioli (MFC 100 µL/mL), Heterosporium pruneti (MFC 100 µL/mL) and Penicillium gladioli (MFC 100 µL/mL)compared to control (70% aqueous ethanol) and standard antimycotic drug (Diflazon).[42]
Ethanol extract of A. vera dry leaves showed antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger, Cladosporium herbarum, and Fusarium moniliforme (at 5 mg/mL) for a duration of 48 hours incubation at 28oC using disc plate method with 14 mm, 18 mm, and 33.7 mm inhibition, respectively. Compound F isolated from ethanol extract and compound I from aqueous extract of A. vera showed MIC value of 125 µL/mL and 250 µL/mL, respectively. [43]
Antivirus activity
A combination of acemannan (ACE-M) extracted from A. vera with suboptimal noncytotoxic concentrations of azidothymidine (AZT) synergistically acted to inhibit the replication of HIV-1 or with acyclovir (ACY) to inhibit herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). [44]
Purified extracts of A. vera leaves gel namely R1 (from immature leaves harvested in the early summer), S1 (from mature leaves harvested in the autumn), and F2 (from ethanol extract of freeze mature leaves harvested in the autumn) at concentration of 10-1 dilution showed substantial antiviral activity against human cytomegalovirus using plaque inhibition test. [45]
Laxative activity
Barbaloin constituent of A. vera (31.1 mg/kg) administered intracecally for a duration of 4 hours showed a cathartic effect by increase the water content and stimulated mucus secretion caused by the existence of aloe-emodin-9-anthrone(AE-anthrone) (568 µg/rat) from barbaloin in the rat large intestine. [46]
Clinical findings
Herbal therapies in general and A. vera in particular, are already widely used by patients with inflammatory bowel disease [47][48]. Previous clinical trials of varying design and accessibility have claimed that Boswellia serrata and several traditional Chinese medical approaches are beneficial in active ulcerative colitis. In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, treatment for 4 weeks with oral A. vera gel produced a symptomatic clinical response more frequently than did placebo [47]. A. vera gel may decrease the production of stomach acid and also block the growth of Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium that causes stomach ulcers [48]. However, statistically significant clinical studies on the efficacy of A. vera gel on human health are very limited and often inconclusive [49].
Reported clinical trials
One non-randomised, unblinded study assessed wound healing with polyethylene oxide wound gel or polyethylene oxide wound gel saturated with A. vera in 17 patients with acne vulgaris. Half-face treatments were carried out so that each patient received both treatments. By day 5, 90% of wounds were healed (complete re-epithelialisation) with A. vera compared with 40-50% without A. vera. Wound healing was 72 hours faster with A. vera. It is significant to reduce bacterial contamination, subsequent keloid formation, and/or pigmentary changes. [50]
One randomised, unblinded trial assessed wound healing with standard wound care with or without A. vera dermal gel every 8-12 hours in 40 women after gynaecological surgery. All women had complications of wound healing after surgery. Details of the standard treatment were not provided and 50% of the women did not complete the trial. Mean healing time (to completely epithelised wound) was significantly longer with A. vera (83 days) than with standard treatment (53 days). [51]
A single small trial of A. vera supplementation versus gauze suggests delayed healing with A. vera, the results of this trial are uninterpretable since there was a large differential loss to follow up. A plaster cast applied to an amputation stump accelerated wound healing compared with elastic compression. This clinical trial reported that there were no statistically significant differences in healing for other dressing comparisons (e.g. gauze, foam, and alginate). [52]
Burned skin
A systematic review was conducted to determine the efficacy of topical A. vera for the treatment of burn wounds. 4 controlled clinical trials for burn healing with a total of 371 patients were included. Two reviewers independently extracted data on study characteristics, patient characteristics, intervention, and outcome measure. In first and second degree burns, the healing process of burnt wound as well as post-skin grafting might be effective using A. vera since it increases the rate of epithelialisation when compared with conventional treatments. [17]
While scientific research is slow to acknowledge the fact that A. vera gel is very soothing to burned skin and does promote healing, it has been reported to be effective in treating various types of burns depending on the severity of the burn [17][53]. In a reported clinical study, 27 patients with partial thickness burn wound were treated with A. vera gel compared with vaseline gauze. This study revealed the effectiveness of A. vera gel in treating lesion when it healed faster than the vaseline gauze area. According to these 27 cases, only some minor adverse effects, such as discomfort and pain were encountered [53].
Aloe may also provide benefit to the skin burns that result from radiation therapy. A blinded clinical trial evaluated the prophylactic use of a mild soap alone compared to the use of A. vera gel together with the mild soap. Lower cumulative doses of radiation showed no difference existed in the effect of adding aloe. In patients receiving higher cumulative radiation doses, the median time for skin changes were observed in 3 weeks for the patients treated with mild soap only, while 5 weeks for the patients treated with both mild soap and aloe gel. When the cumulative dose increases over time, there seems to be a protective effect of adding aloe to the soap regimen. [54]
Psoriasis vulgaris
Evidence from one human trial suggests that 0.5% extract from A. vera in a hydrophilic cream is an effective skin treatment and may improve symptoms of certain skin conditions such as psoriasis vulgaris. One randomised, double-blind trial assessed a topical 0.5% hydrophilic A. vera cream compared with placebo cream in 60 patients with mild to moderate chronic plaque-type psoriasis over four weeks. Patients were followed-up for 12 months. The effect of a commercial A. vera gel on stable plaque psoriasis was modest. The rate of cure was significantly better with A. vera (83%) than with placebo (7%) with no relapses. [55]
Radiation-induced skin injury
Two randomised trials assessed the effects of A. vera in women with radiation-induced skin injury associated with treatment for breast cancer. One trial was double-blind (194 patients) and was found no significant difference in severity score between topical A. vera gel and placebo gel. [56]
The other trial (108 patients) assessed usual care with or without topical A. vera gel; there was no significant difference between study treatments. [56]
Reports in the 1930s of topical aloe's beneficial effects on skin after radiation exposure lead to widespread use in skin products. Currently, aloe gel is sometimes recommended for radiation-induced dermatitis, although scientific evidence suggests a lack of benefit in this area [57]. In addition data on atopic dermatitis and chronic venous insufficiency treated with A. vera gel and tea tree oil also indicated that there is no compelling evidence for their effectiveness as reviewed from the various clinical studies [58].
Preliminary evidence suggests that A. vera gel may improve symptoms of genital herpes. Two randomised, double-blind trials compared topical A. vera cream (0.5% hydrophilic) or placebo three times daily for two weeks in 180 men with a first episode of genital herpes; one also assessed topical A. vera gel. Response rates in the two trials were almost identical. The proportions of patients cured in the two trials were 70% and 67% with Aloe vera cream, 45% with A. vera gel, and 7.5% and 7.0% with placebo. A. vera cream healing times were 4.8 and 4.9 day, 7.0 days with A. vera gel, and 14 and 12 days with placebo. Limited evidence from human studies suggests that 0.5% extract from A. vera in a hydrophilic cream may be an effective treatment of genital herpes in men (better than aloe gel or placebo). [59]
A review of a total of 108 trials examining 36 herbs and 9 vitamin/mineral supplements including 58 controlled clinical trials (42 randomised and 16 non-randomized trials) involving 4565 patients with diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance revealed that A. vera is one of the most promising herbs for antidiabetic. Of these 58 trials, the direction of the evidence for improved glucose control was positive in 76% (44 of 58). The plant has positive preliminary results with very few adverse effects reported as generally safe. [60]
A. vera is also has been recognised among 45 plants and their products (active, natural principles and crude extracts) that have been used in the Indian traditional system of medicine to have shown experimental or clinical evidence of antidiabetic activity. [61]
In a study of 35 men and women with constipation, those who received capsules containing aloe latex, and other laxatives including psyllium (a natural substance high in fiber) experienced softer and more frequent stools compared to those who received placebo. [62]
Hypoglycemic effect
Preliminary studies suggest that aloe latex may help lower blood sugar levels (hypoglycemic effect) in people with type 2 diabetes (adult onset diabetes) [35][60]. Although further studies are need to fully assess the safety and effectiveness of aloe in the treatment of diabetes, it seems possible that the herb may prove to be a useful addition to the diet, exercise, and medication program for type 2 diabetics [60].
Acemannan, a component of A. vera, has been shown in laboratory tests to have immune-stimulating and anti-viral activities. Double-blind placebo-controlled pilot trial of acemannan involved 63 patients (all were males (mean age 39 years). 6 patients in the acemannan group and 5 in the placebo group developed AIDS-defining illnesses. 24 patients, 11 receiving placebo and 13 receiving acemannan discontinued study therapy prematurely, none due to serious adverse reactions. Results from early human studies are mixed, and due to weaknesses in the way these studies were designed, firm conclusions are not possible. Without further human trials, the evidence cannot be considered convincing either in favour or against this use of aloe. [63]
Mucositis (mouth sore)
There is preliminary evidence from a human trial that oral A. vera does not prevent mucositis (mouth sores) associated with radiation therapy. Oral A. vera also did not improve tolerance to head-and-neck radiotherapy, reduce soreness, or improve patient well-being. This clinical study had been conducted among 58 patients with head-and-neck cancer. [64]
Immunostimulant activity
Enhancement of macrophage activity, T-cell function, and interferon production by the body was reported with use of this agent. Acemannan has been anecdotally reported to be a potential therapeutic agent in the treatment of HIV and herpes simplex type 1, yet supportive evidence is lacking at this time. [63]
A study of randomized patients to receive either daily topical application of the hydrogel study dressing (acemannan hydrogel wound dressing) or a moist saline gauze dressing was conducted. Results show complete healing of the study ulcer occurred in 19 of 30 subjects during the 10-week observation period. An amorphous hydrogel dressing derived from the A. vera containing acemannan is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the management of stages I through IV pressure ulcers. The effectiveness of Acemannan hydrogel dressing is almost like moist saline gauze wound dressing for the management of pressure ulcers. [65]
A new bioadhesive patch of A. vera hydrogel, tried for aphthous stomatitis, was found effective in more than 80% of cases with 90% compliance in adhesivity, acceptability and palatability of the formulation. [66]
84 subjects presenting with clinically significant Acne vulgaris were randomly assigned with different test preparations (aloe gel, placebo or control preparations). In combination with Ocimum oil, the effect by A. vera on the anti-acne properties induced synergistic effect which is more effective than the drug 1% Clindamycin in the treatment of Acne vulgaris. [67]
Some research suggests aloe might lower blood sugar. If you take aloe by mouth and you have diabetes, monitor your blood sugar levels closely. [68]
Intestinal conditions such as Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, or obstruction
Do not take aloe latex if you have any of these conditions. Aloe latex is a bowel irritant. Remember, products made from whole aloe leaves will contain some aloe latex. [48][68]
Do not take aloe latex if you have haemorrhoids. It could make the condition worse. Remember, products made from whole aloe leaves will contain some aloe latex. [48][68]
High doses of aloe latex for prolonged amounts of time have been attributed to kidney failure, some deaths and other serious conditions. [48][68]
Aloe might affect blood sugar levels and could interfere with blood sugar control during and after surgery. Stop taking aloe at least 2 weeks before a scheduled surgery. [68]
Allergic responses
Aloe belongs to the lily family of plants, which includes garlic and onions as well as flowers such as crocus, hyacinth, lilies, and tulips. Individuals who are allergic to other members of the lily family may also be sensitive to aloe. For susceptible individuals, touching aloe plants, applying aloe gel, or taking aloe juice supplements may result in allergic responses such as upset stomach or skin rash. [48]
Skin products used to treat radiation dermatitis vary among institutions. Nurses should be aware that some patients may be predisposed to skin problems. Newly developed products based on A. vera need to take into account. These products should undergo some research or clinical trials so that effective treatment can be instituted. [54]
A. vera gel might cause dermatological side effects such as burning red, rashes and itching of the skin [48][49][68]. Some cases of contact dermatitis may have been caused by handling aloe plants or applying aloe gel [48]. Discontinuing topical use is suggested if rash or irritation develops [69].
There have been a few reports of liver problems in some people who have taken an aloe leaf extract; however, this is uncommon. It is thought to only occur in people who are extra sensitive (hypersensitive) to aloe. [68]
Aloe latex can cause some side effects such as stomach pain and cramps. Long-term use of large amounts of aloe latex might cause diarrhoea, nausea, kidney problems, and blood in the urine, low potassium, muscle weakness, weight loss, and heart disturbances. Taking aloe latex 1 gram per day for several days can be fatal [48][68]. The oral use of aloe gel is inadvisable for individuals with any esophageal, stomach, or bowel disease due to the possibility that aloe gel may be contaminated with aloe latex. Individuals who have haemorrhoids should not take aloe latex due to the possibility that its use may worsen the condition [48].
Pregnancy/Breast Feeding
A possible presence of oestrogenic compounds in the aqueous extracts from the aloe leaves are used to regulate the menstrual cycle and to treat dysmenorrhea or infertility in women [70]. However, it is recommended that aloe latex should not to be used by pregnant or nursing women without supervision of a healthcare professional [71]. Although topical use of aloe is unlikely to be harmful during pregnancy or breastfeeding, oral use is not recommended due to theoretical stimulation of uterine contractions which may associated with miscarriage [48]. It could also be a risk for birth defects [68]. Women who are breast-feeding should also avoid taking/consuming aloe latex. Potentially harmful chemicals/active ingredients from aloe latex may pass from the mother to the baby in breast milk. The baby may develop diarrhoea [48].
Age limitation
Do not use in children under 2 years of age unless recommended by a physician. Babies and young children may be more likely to have reactions to chemicals in aloe latex [48]. Children at the range ages of 12-18 years old may experience abdominal pain, cramps and diarrhoea [48][68]. Caution is advised in patients with diabetes or hypoglycemia or kidney disease.
A. vera does not cause adverse dermal toxicity [72]. However, some patients may experience burning after topical application. The use of aloe on surgical wounds has been reported to slow healing and, in one case, to cause redness and burning (severe dermatitis) when A. vera was applied to the face after a skin-peeling procedure (dermabrasion). Patients undergoing dermabrasion or chemical peel procedures should be cautioned specifically against the use of A. vera topically in the first weeks after surgery. Application of aloe prior to sun exposure may lead to rash in sun-exposed areas [73].
The use of aloe or aloe latex by mouth for laxative effects can cause cramping or diarrhoea. Use for over seven days may cause dependency or worsening of constipation after the aloe is stopped [62]. There is a report of hepatitis (liver inflammation) with the use of oral aloe. From the study, improvement and resolution of liver damage following the rapid discontinuation of A. vera provide strong evidence that the A. vera preparation has caused the acute hepatitis [74].
Electrolyte imbalances in the blood, including low potassium levels, may be caused by the laxative effect of aloe. This effect may be greater in people with diabetes or kidney disease. Low potassium levels can lead to abnormal heart rhythms or muscle weakness. People with heart disease, kidney disease, or electrolyte abnormalities should not take aloe by mouth. Healthcare professionals should monitor for changes in potassium and other electrolytes in individuals who take aloe by mouth for more than a few days. [75]
Interaction & Depletion
Interaction with drug
Medications for diabetes (Antidiabetes drugs)
There is a scientific rationale for the use of A. vera as an antidiabetic agent [76]. Taking aloe gel along with diabetes medications might cause the blood sugar to go too low. People with diabetes who use aloe latex either alone or in combination with other medications must be monitored closely by health care providers to avoid potential complications from low blood sugar levels followed by the changes intake of dose diabetes medication [68]. Some medications used for diabetes include glimepiride (Amaryl), glyburide (DiaBeta, Glynase PresTab, Micronase), insulin, pioglitazone (Actos), rosiglitazone (Avandia), chlorpropamide (Diabinese), glipizide (Glucotrol), tolbutamide (Orinase), metformin, tolazamide, acarbose, acetohexamide, miglitol, repaglinide and nateglinide [36][68].
Medications taken by mouth (Oral drugs)
When taken by mouth, aloe latex which is a strong laxative will promotes the production of mucus and causes spasms in the lower gastrointestinal (GI) tract by irritating the inside layer of the large intestines and colon [48]. Laxatives can decrease how much medicine absorbed by the body. Taking aloe latex along with medications (orally) might decrease the effectiveness of your medication [68]. So that, the oral use of aloe latex is not recommended. In 2002, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required manufacturers of aloe-containing laxative products to remove those products from the market because no credible evidence showed aloe laxatives to be either safe or effective to use [48].
Sevoflurane (Ultane)
Aloe appeared to interact with the general anesthetic sevoflurane [77]. Aloe might decrease clotting of the blood. Sevoflurane is used as anesthesia during surgery. Sevoflurane also decreases clotting of the blood. Taking aloe before surgery might cause increased bleeding during the surgical procedure. Do not take aloe orally if the patients are having surgery within 2 weeks [68].
Stimulant laxatives
When taken orally aloe latex is a type of laxative called a stimulant laxative. Stimulant laxatives speed up the bowels. Taking aloe latex along with other stimulant laxatives could speed up the bowels too much and cause dehydration and low minerals in the body. Some stimulant laxatives include bisacodyl (Correctol, Dulcolax), cascara, castor oil (Purge), senna (Senokot), and others. [68]
Warfarin (Coumadin)
When taken orally, aloe latex is a type of laxative called a stimulant laxative. Stimulant laxatives speed up the bowels and can cause diarrhoea in some people. Diarrhoea can increase the effects of warfarin and increase the risk of bleeding. Do not take excessive amounts of aloe latex together with warfarin. [68]
Digoxin (Lanoxin)
When taken by mouth aloe latex is a type of laxative called a stimulant laxative. Stimulant laxatives can decrease potassium levels in the body. Instead of increasing the risk of side effects of digoxin (Lanoxin) [68], combination of these two medications will lowering the potassium levels, thus resulting in muscle weakness and potentially dangerous changes in heart rhythm. Digoxin side effects may include changes in vision, drowsiness, heart rhythm changes, nausea, and vomiting [48].
Water pills (Diuretic drugs)
"Water pills" can also decrease potassium in the body. Taking aloe latex along with "water pills" might decrease potassium in the body too much. Some "water pills" that can decrease potassium include chlorothiazide (Diuril), chlorthalidone (Thalitone), furosemide (Lasix), hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ, Hydrodiuril, Microzide), and others. [68]
Both corticosteroid drugs and aloe latex may promote the loss of potassium from the body. It is best not to take aloe latex and corticosteroids at the same time. Corticosteroids are used for a wide range of inflammatory conditions including arthritis, asthma, cancer, eye conditions, and skin infections. Commonly prescribed corticosteroids include beclomethasone (Beconase, Beclovent, Vancenase, Vanceril), dexamethasone (Decadron), hydrocortisone, methylprednisolone (Medrol), prednisolone, prednisone (Deltasone, Orasone) and triamcinolone (Azmacort, Nasacort) [48]. Aloe gel may enhance the ability of hydrocortisone to reduce swelling [78].
Zidovudine (ZDV) or didanosine (ddI)
Acemannan was well tolerated and showed no significant pharmacokinetic interaction with zidovudine (ZDV). Zidovudine was given to antiretroviral therapy among patients with advanced HIV disease together with acamannan (400 mg orally four times daily) [63]. Zidovudine does not cure HIV or AIDS, but combinations of drugs that treat HIV infection may slow progress of the disease development.
Interaction with other Herbs
If aloe latex is taken at the same time as other herbs that also affect the heart, potentially dangerous changes in heart function may result. Some herbal products with heart effects are European Mistletoe, Ginger (in large doses, Hawthorn, Motherwort, Panax Ginseng, Pleurisy Root and Squill. Aloe latex possibly could increase the laxative effects of other herbal laxatives including Alder Buckthorn, Cascara, Castor Oil, Rhubarb, Senna and Yellow Dock. Both aloe latex and extremely large amounts of true licorice (not licorice flavoring) can promote the loss of potassium from the body, potentially causing muscle weakness and changes in heart rhythm. Low levels of potassium (due to oral aloe) could interfere with cardiac glycosides as well as affect other antiarrhythmic agents. Potassium deficiency can be exacerbated by simultaneous applications of thiazide diuretics, cortico-adrenal steroids or licorice root [79]. The amounts of licorice ordinarily consumed as candy are not thought to be large enough to present a problem. Some interactions between herbal products and medications can be more severe than others. It is recommended to tell the doctor or pharmacist what medications you are currently taking, including any over-the-counter products, vitamins, and herbals to avoid harmful interaction [48].
People with known allergy to garlic, onions, tulips, or other plants of the Liliaceae family may have allergic reactions to aloe [48]. A. vera is contraindicated (in individuals with) hemorrhoids, heart conditions, and kidney disorders. Likely unsafe for use during pregnancy because aloe can induce abortions and stimulate menstruation. A. vera is contraindicated when menstruating, due to possible stimulation of endometrial activity [61]. Aloe latex should not be taken internally if the following drugs are also taken: digoxin (Lanoxin), diuretics, steroids, drugs for irregular heartbeat and drugs that cause potassium loss [80].
Some studies reported positive results while others showed adverse effects in the patients taking A. vera gel and placebos [50][52]. Of the 30 patients randomized to A. vera gel, one complained of abdominal bloating, one of pain in her feet, one of sore throat, one of transient ankle swelling, one of acne and one of worsening eczema. Of the 14 patients taking placebo, two reported bloating, one foot pain and one acne problem. No patients developed abnormal blood tests attributable to A. vera gel or placebo, or were withdrawn from the trial because of adverse effects [47].
A. vera leaf gel has been used for centuries as a topical wound healing agent for traumatic wounds (from mechanical, traumatic, or thermal injury, including contusions, abrasions, punctures, fractures, sunburn and burns), and chronic wounds (including pressure and diabetic ulcers) [47]. Although previous studies failed to support the use of aloe in diabetes, several recent animal studies have shown that both aloe gel and aloe latex may help to lower blood sugar levels [48]. The results from a small study investigated taking A. vera orally and its effects on ulcerative colitis showed that after 4 weeks, aloe produced clinical effects greater than placebo although more studies are needed [47]. Another case has reported that 35% of patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome showed response to the treatment of A. vera compared to placebo group of 22% showing treatment in one month duration [81].
In another case reports and a few small studies, application of A. vera gel was helped to lessen or prevent damage caused by frostbite for individuals and animals exposed to extremely cold temperatures. It is believed that chemicals in A. vera gel may keep small blood vessels in the fingers and toes from shrinking, thereby preventing the surrounding tissues from freezing [48].
A 39-year-old liver transplant patient who took a laxative containing aloe for ten months has developed melanosis coli. One year after stopping the anthranoid medication, the pigments disappeared but a polypoid lesion appeared in the transverse colon [82]. A 47-year-old South African, developed acute oliguric renal failure and liver dysfunction after ingestion of an herbal remedy, found by mass spectrometric and chromatographic analysis, to contain Cape aloes [83].
Aloe is reported safe in recommended dosages. But, based on pharmacology, long term use or higher than recommended dosages may cause fluid and electrolyte imbalances [75]. As aloe is a laxative, products should not be taken long-term unless aloin and aloe-emodin free products are used. If used in wound healing and wound has not improved in five to seven days, seek further medical attention. Aloe gel is available in a number of topical products such as creams, gels, lotions, and ointments. It can also be obtained from an aloe houseplant, simply by breaking off one of the plants leaves [48].
The following doses have been studied in scientific research:
Oral (by mouth) as an oral supplement
The dose often recommended is the minimum amount to maintain a soft stool, typically 0.04-0.17 g of dried juice (corresponds to 10-30 mg hydroxyanthraquinones). As an alternative, in combination with celandin (300 mg) and psyllium (50 mg), 150 mg of the dried juice/day of aloe has been found effective as a laxative in research [62]. For daily intake, 100-200 mg aloe or 50mg aloe latex is recommended, particularly in the evening; however, it might not be safe to take aloe latex for this use [68].
Itchy rash on the skin or mouth (Lichen planus)
A. vera may be useful in lichen planus, a disease that involves the skin and mucous membranes characterized by unique eruptions. The cause of this disease is unknown, but has been linked to emotional stress, and has also been attributed to viral infections [84]. Research shows that using a mouthwash containing aloe 3 times daily for 12 weeks or applying a gel containing aloe twice daily for 8 weeks can reduce pain associated with itchy rashes in the mouth. Other research shows that using a mouthwash containing aloe 4 times daily for one month reduces pain and increases healing similarly to standard treatment in people with itchy rashes in the mouth [68].
1 tablespoon of the aloe latex (5-15 mL) has been used twice daily [68]. However, safety and efficacy of this dose has not been proven.
Acemannan (1000-1600 mg) taken orally in four equal doses. A study demonstrated that acemannan at an oral daily dose of 1600 mg does not prevent the decline in CD4 cell count (white blood cells that play important roles in the immune system) characteristic of progressive HIV disease [63]. However, effectiveness and safety have not been proven by studies.
A. vera gel taken orally helped reduce symptoms of patients with ulcerative colitis due to its anti-inflammatory effect. [47]
Topical (applied to the skin) → Adults (18 years and older)
Hydrophilic cream of 0.5% (by weight) of a 50% ethanol extract of aloe, combined with mineral and castor oils, applied 3 times daily aloe for five consecutive days per week for up to 4-8 weeks seems to reduce the skin plaques and decrease the severity of psoriasis. However, using an aloe gel does not seem to improve other symptoms associated with psoriasis, including skin redness [55][68].
Cold sores (herpes simplex virus [HSV-1])
Some evidence shows that applying an aloe extract 0.5% cream 3 times daily increases healing rates in men with cold sores [68].
Genital herpes (herpes simplex virus [HSV-2])
Hydrophilic cream of 0.5% (by weight) of a 50% ethanol extract, combined with liquid paraffin and castor oil, three times daily on lesions for five consecutive days per week, for up to two weeks has been studied. [59]
Some creams for minor burns have just 0.5% A. vera. [68]
Dosage Range
Figure 1: The line drawing of A. vera (L.) Burm. f. [2].
The plant list. Ver 1.1. Aloe vera (L.) Burm f [homepage on the Internet]. c2013 [updated 2012 March 26; cited 2014 November 18]. Available from: http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-298116.
Aguilar NO, Brink M. Aloe vera (L.) Burm f. In: de Padua L S, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ, editors. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 12(1): Medicinal and poisonous plants 1. Leiden, Netherlands: Backhuys Publisher, 1999; p. 104-105.
Schmelzer GH. Plant resources of tropical Africa: Medicinal plants Vol. 1. Leiden, Netherlands: Backhyus publisher; 2008. p. 82.
Kapoor LD. Handbooks of ayuverdic medicinal plants: Herbal reference library ed. Boca Raton: Florida: CRC press LLC; 2001. p. 28.
Philippines Medicinal Plants.Sabila. Aloe vera Linn. [homepage on the Internet]. c2014 [updated 2014 Aug; cited 2014 Oct 14]. Available from: http://www.stuartxchange.com/Sabila.html
Panda H. Aloe Vera Handbook Cultivation, Research Finding, Products, Formulations, Extraction & Processing. India: National Institute of Industrial Re; 2003.
Prota4u. Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. [homepage on the Internet]. No date [cited 2014 Nov 17]. Available from: http://www.prota4u.org/
Sittichai N, Picheansoonthon C, editor. Herbal medicines used in primary health care in ASEAN. Nonthaburi, Thailand: Thai Traditional and Alternative Medicine; 2014. p. 79-80
Wu XF, Wan JZ, Luo BJ, Yang MR, Ding WJ, Zhong JS. A novel naphthalene derivative from Aloe barbadensis. Yao Xue Xue Bao. 2013;48(5):723-7.
Yang QY, Yao CS, Fang WS. A new triglucosylated naphthalene glycoside from Aloe vera L. Fitoterapia. 2010;81: 59-62.
Zhong J, Huang Y, Ding W, Wu X, Wan J, Luo H. Chemical constituents of Aloe barbadensis Miller and their inhibitory effects on phosphodiesterase-4D2013. Fitoterapia. 2013;91:159-165.
Wu X, Ding W, Zhong J, Wan J, Xie Z. Simultaneous qualitative and quantitative determination of phenolic compounds in Aloe barbadensis Mill by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry-ion trap-time-of-flight and high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2013;80:94-106.
Pan X, Cao X, Dong Y, Zhao H. Preparative isolation and purification of cinnamoyl-C-glycoside chromone from aloe vera by high-speed countercurrent chromatography. Se Pu. 2005;23(1):96-9.
McCarthy TJ, Mapp RK. A comparative investigation of methods used to estimate aloin and related compounds in Aloes. Planta Med. 1970;18(1):36-43.
Ray A, Aswatha SM. An analysis of the influence of growth periods on physical appearance, and acemannan and elemental distribution of Aloe vera L. gel. Ind Crops Prod. 2013;48:36-42.
Nejatzadeh-Barandozi F, Enferandi ST. FT-IR study of the polysaccharides isolated from the skin juice, gel juice, and flower of Aloe vera tissues affected by fertilizer treatment. Org Med Chem Lett. 2012;2(1):33-41.
Maenthaisong R, Chaiyakunapruk N, Niruntraporn S, Kongkaew C. The efficacy of Aloe vera used for burn wound healing: A Systematic Review. J Burns. 2007; 33:713-718.
Cassandra LQ. Plant Monograph Book. Georgia (USA): 2013; p. 12-22.
Ramachandra CT, Srinivasa Rao P. Processing of Aloe vera leaf gel: A Review. Am J Agric Biol Sci. 2008; 3(2):502-510.
Pankaj KS, Deen DG, Ritu S, et al. Therapeutic and Medicinal Uses of Aloe vera: A Review. J Pharmacol Pharm. 2013; 4:599-610.
Rodriguez-Bigas M, Cruz NI, Suarez A. Comparative evaluation of Aloe vera in the management of burn wounds in guinea pigs. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1988;81(3):386-389.
Kaufman T, Kalderon N, Ullmann Y, Berger J. Aloe vera gel hindered wound healing of experimental second-degree burns: A quantitative controlled study. J Burn Care Rehabil. 1988;9(2):156-159.
Cuttle L, Kempf M, Kravchuk O, et al. The efficacy of Aloe vera, tea tree oil and saliva as first aid treatment for partial thickness burn injuries. Burns. 2008;34(8):1176-11782.
Chithra P, Sajithlal GB, Chandrakasan G. Influence of Aloe vera on collagen characteristics in healing dermal wounds in rats. Mol Cell Biochem. 1998;181(1-2):71-76.
Chithra P, Sajithlal GB, Chandrakasan G. Influence of Aloe vera on the glycosaminoglycans in the matrix of healing dermal wounds in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 1998;59(3):179-186.
Somboonwong J, Thanamittramanee S, Jariyapongskul A, Patumraj S. Therapeutic effects of Aloe vera on cutaneous microcirculation and wound healing in second degree burn model in rats. J Med Assoc Thai. 2000;83(4):417-425.
Davis RH, Donato JJ, Hartman GM, Haas RC. Anti-inflammatory and wound healing activity of a growth substance in Aloe vera. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1994;84(2):77-81.
Vazquez B, Avila G, Segura D, Escalante B. Antiinflammatory activity of extracts from Aloe vera gel. J Ethnopharmacol. 1996;55(1):69-75.
Saito H, Ishiguro T, Imanishi K, Suzuki I. Pharmacological studies on a plant lectin aloctin A. II. Inhibitory effect of aloctin A on experimental models of inflammation in rats. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1982;32(1):139-142.
Hutter JA, Salman M, Stavinoha WB, et al. Antiinflammatory C-glucosyl chromone from Aloe barbadensis. J Nat Prod. 1996;59(5):541-543.
Davis RH, Leitner MG, Russo JM, Byrne ME. Anti-inflammatory activity of Aloe vera against a spectrum of irritants. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1989;79(6):263-276.
Davis RH, Maro NP. Aloe vera and gibberellin. Anti-inflammatory activity in diabetes. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1989;79(1):24-26.
Ro JY, Lee BC, Kim JY, et al. Inhibitory mechanism of aloe single component (alprogen) on mediator release in guinea pig lung mast cells activated with specific antigen-antibody reactions. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2000;292(1):114-121.
Tanaka M, Misawa E, Ito Y, et al. Identification of five phytosterols from Aloe vera gel as anti-diabetic compounds. Biol Pharm Bull. 2006;29(7):1418-1422.
Ghannam N, Kingston M, Al-Meshaal IA, Tariq M, Parman NS, Woodhouse N. The antidiabetic activity of aloes: preliminary clinical and experimental observations. Horm Res. 1986;24(4):288-294.
Ajabnoor MA. Effect of aloes on blood glucose levels in normal and alloxan diabetic mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 1990;28(2):215-220.
Okyar A, Can A, Akev N, Baktir G, Sutlupinar N. Effect of Aloe vera leaves on blood glucose level in type I and type II diabetic rat models. PhytotherRes. 2001;15(2):157-161.
Pecere T, Gazzola MV, Mucignat C, et al. Aloe-emodin is a new type of anticancer agent with selective activity against neuroectodermal tumors. Cancer Res. 2000;60(11):2800-2804.
Wang HH, Chung JG, Ho CC, Wu LT, Chang SH. Aloe-emodin effects on arylamine N-acetyltransferase activity in the bacterium Helicobacter pylori. Planta Med. 1998;64(2):176-8.
Sotnikova EP. Therapeutic use of aloe in experimental stomach ulcers. Vrachebnoe delo. 1984(6):71-74.
Hu Y, Xu J, Hu Q. Evaluation of antioxidant potential of aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller) extracts. J Agric Food Chem. 2003;51(26):7788-7791.
Rosca-Casian O, Parvu M, Vlase L, Tamas M. Antifungal activity of Aloe vera leaves. Fitoterapia. 2007;78(3):219-222.
Ali MIA, Shalaby NMM, Elgamal MHA, Mousa ASM. Antifungal effects of different plant extracts and their major components of selected aloe species. Phytother Res. 1999;13(5):401-7.
Kahlon JB, Kemp MC, Yawei N, Carpenter RH, Shannon WM, McAnalley BH. In vitro evaluation of the synergistic antiviral effects of acemannan in combination with azidothymidine and acyclovir. Mol Biother. 1991;3(4):214-23.
Saoo K, Miki H, Ohmori M, Winters WD. Antiviral activity of aloe extracts against cytomegalovirus. Phytother Res. 1996;10(4):348-350.
Ishii Y, Tanizawa H, Takino Y. Studies of aloe. V. Mechanism of cathartic effect. (4). Biol Pharm Bull. 1994;17(5):651-653.
Langmead L, Feakins RM, Goldthorpe S, et al. Randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial of oral Aloe vera gel for active ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2004;19(7):739-747.
Let's Drug. Application of Aloe vera. [homepage on the Internet]. c2014 [updated 2014; cited 2014 December 8]. Available from: http://www.letsdrug.com/meds/260/
Sahu PK, Giri DD, Singh R, et al. Therapeutic and medicinal uses of Aloe vera: a review. Pharmacol Pharm. 2013;4(08):599.
Fulton JE. The stimulation of postdermabrasion wound healing with stabilised Aloe vera gel-polyethylene oxide dressing. J Dermatol Surg Oncol. 1990;16(5):460-467.
Schmidt JM, Greenspoon JS. Aloe vera dermal wound gel is associated with a delay in wound healing. Obstet Gynecol. 1991;78(1):115-117.
Vermeulen H, Ubbink DT, Goossens A, de Vos R, Legemate DA, Westerbos SJ. Dressings and topical agents for surgical wounds healing by secondary intention. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004(2):CD003554.
Visuthikosol V, Chowchuen B, Sukwanarat Y, Sriurairatana S, Boonpucknavig V. Effect of Aloe vera gel to healing of burn wound a clinical and histologic study. J Med Assoc Thai. 1995;78(8):403-409
Olsen DL, Raub JW, Bradley C, et al. The effect of Aloe vera gel/mild soap versus mild soap alone in preventing skin reactions in patients undergoing radiation therapy. Oncol Nurs Forum. 2001;28(3):543-547.
Syed TA, Ahmad SA, Holt AH, Ahmad SA., Ahmad SH, Afzal M. Management of psoriasis with Aloe vera extract in a hydrophilic cream: A placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Trop Med Int Health. 1996; 1(4): 505–509.
Williams MS, Burk M, Loprinzi CL, et al. Phase III double-blind evaluation of an Aloe vera gel as a prophylactic agent for radiation-induced skin toxicity. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1996;36(2):345-349.
Richardson J, Smith JE, McIntyre M, Thomas R, Pilkington K. Aloe vera for preventing radiation-induced skin reactions: a systematic literature review. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 2005;17(6):478-484.
Ernst E, Pittler MH, Stevinson C. Complementary/alternative medicine in dermatology: Evidence-assessed efficacy of two diseases and two treatments. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2002; 3(5): 341-348.
Syed TA, Cheema KM, Ahmad SA, Holt Jr AH. Aloe vera extracts 0.5% in a hydrophilic cream versus Aloe vera gel for the management of genital herpes in males. A placebo-controlled, double-blind, comparative study. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 1996; 7(3): 294-295. In: Vogler BK, Ernst E. Aloe vera: a systematic review of its clinical effectiveness. Brit J Gen Pract. 1999; 49(447): 823-828.
Yeh GY, Eisenberg DM, Kaptchuk TJ, Phillips RS. Systematic review of herbs and dietary supplements for glycemic control in diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003; 26(4): 1277-1294.
Grover JK, Yadav S, Vats V. Medicinal plants of India with anti-diabetic potential. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002; 81(1): 81-100.
Odes HS, Madar Z. A double-blind trial of a celandin, Aloe vera and psyllium laxative preparation in adult patients with constipation. Digestion. 1991; 49(2): 65-71.
Montaner JS, Gill J, Singer J, et al. Double-blind placebo-controlled pilot trial of acemannan in advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1996;12(2): 153-157.
Su CK, Mehta V, Ravikumar L, et al. Phase II double-blind randomized study comparing oral Aloe vera versus placebo to prevent radiation-related mucositis in patients with head-and-neck neoplasms. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004;60(1):171-177.
Thomas DR, Goode PS, La Master K, Tennyson T. Acemannan hydrogel dressing versus saline dressing for pressure ulcers. A randomized, controlled trial. Adv Wound Care. 1998;11(6): 273-276.
Andriani E, Bugli T, Aalders M, et al. The effectiveness and acceptance of a medical device for the treatment of aphthous stomatitis. Clinical observation in pediatric age. Minerva Pediatr. 1999; 52(1-2): 15-20.
Orafidiya LO, Agbani EO, Oyedele AO, Babalola OO, Onayemi O, Aiyedun FF. The effect of Aloe vera gel on the anti-acne properties of the essential oil of Ocimum gratissimum Linn leaf – a preliminary clinical investigation. Int J Aromather. 2004; 14(1): 15-21.
WebMD. Vitamin & Supplement. Aloe vera (Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f) [homepage on the Internet]. c2014 [updated 2014; cited 2014 December 18]. Available from: http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-607-aloe.
Ernst E. Adverse effects of herbal drugs in dermatology. Br J Dermatol. 2000; 143(5): 923-929.
Telefo PB, Moundipa PF, Tchana AF, Tchouanguep DC, Mbiapo FT. Effects of an aqueous extract of Aloe buettneri, Dicliptera verticillata, Hibiscus macranthus, and Justicia insularis on some biochemical and physiological parameters of reproduction in immature female rat. J Ethnopharmacol. 1998; 63(3): 193-200.
Barnes J. 2003. Pregnancy complementary therapies in pregnancy. Pharm J. 2003; 270(7241): 402-404.
Moghbel A, Hematti A, Ghalambor A, Khorsgani ZN, Agheli H, Allipanah S. Wound healing and toxicity evaluation of Aloe vera cream. Toxicol Lett. 2007; 1(172): S233
Hunter D, Frumkin A. Adverse reactions to vitamin E and Aloe vera preparations after dermabrasion and chemical peel. Cutis. 1991; 47(3): 193-196.
Rabe C, Musch A, Schirmacher P, Kruis W, Hoffmann R. Acute hepatitis induced by an Aloe vera preparation: a case report. World J Gastroenterol. 2005; 11(2): 303-304.
Ishii Y, Tanizawa H, Takino Y. Studies of aloe. III. Mechanism of cathartic effect (2). Chem Pharm Bull. Tokyo. 1990; 38(1): 197-200.
Rajasekaran S, Ravi K, Sivagnanam K, Subramanian S. Beneficial effects of Aloe vera leaf gel extract on lipid profile status in rats with streptozotocin diabetes. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2006; 33(3): 232–237.
Lee A, Chui PT, Aun CS, Gin T, Lau AS. Possible interaction between sevoflurane and Aloe vera. Ann Pharmacother. 2004; 38(10): 1651-1654.
Davis RH, Parker WL, Murdoch DP. Aloe vera as a biologically active vehicle for hydrocortisone acetate. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1991; 81(1): 1-9.
Mumoli N, Cei M. Licorice-induced hypokalemia. Int J Cardiol. 2008; 124(3): e42-e44.
Shane-McWhorter L. Biological complementary therapies: a focus on botanical products in diabetes. Diabetes Spectr. 2001; 14(4): 199-208.
Davis K, Philpott S, Kumar D, Mendall M. Randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial of Aloe vera for irritable bowel syndrome. St Georges Hospital Medical School, London, UK. Int J Clin Pract. 2006; 60(9): 1080-1086.
Willems M, van Buuren H, de Krijger R. Anthranoid self-medication causing rapid development of melanosis coli. Neth J Med. 2003; 61(1): 22-24.
Luyckx VA, Ballantine R, Claeys M, et al. Herbal remedy-associated acute renal failure secondary to Cape aloes. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 39(3): 1-5.
Hayes SM. Lichen planus--report of successful treatment with Aloe vera. Gen Dent. 1998; 47(3): 268-272.