Question: Societies do fall apart from war, disease or chaos.

Following the coup, chaos ensued.


Question: Societies do fall apart from war, disease or chaos.

By 1929, the Great Depression arrived, causing political chaos throughout the world.


Question: Societies do fall apart from war, disease or chaos.

Social breakdown thesis also known as the anomie–social breakdown thesis is a theory that posits that individuals that are socially isolated living in atomized socially disintegrated societies are particularly likely to support right-wing populist parties.


Question: Societies do fall apart from war, disease or chaos.

In Tainter's view, while invasions, crop failures, disease or environmental degradation may be the "apparent" causes of societal collapse, the ultimate cause is an economic one, inherent in the structure of society rather than in external shocks which may batter them: "diminishing returns on investments in social complexity".


Question: Societies do fall apart from war, disease or chaos.

The economic system of many nations has been dislocated as a result of military expenditures and war related destruction.


Question: Societies do fall apart from war, disease or chaos.

Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (titled Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive for the British edition) is a 2005 book by academic and popular science author Jared Diamond, in which the author first defines "collapse": "a drastic decrease in human population size and/or political/economic/social complexity, over a considerable area, for an extended time.


Question: Societies do fall apart from war, disease or chaos.

Political decay is a political theory, originally described by Samuel P. Huntington, which describes how chaos and disorder can arise from social modernization increasing more rapidly than political and institutional modernization.


Question: Societies do fall apart from war, disease or chaos.

The diagram of history shows humanity having long periods of stability interrupted with short periods of transition.


Question: Societies do fall apart from war, disease or chaos.

And, in his final chapters, Tainter discusses why modern societies may not be able to choose to collapse: because surrounding them are other complex societies which will in some way absorb a collapsed region or prevent a general collapse; the Mayan and Chaocan regions had no powerful complex neighbors and so could collapse for centuries or millennia, as could the Western Roman Empire - but the Eastern Roman Empire, bordered as it was by the Parthian/Sassanid Empire, did not have the option of devolving into simpler smaller entities.


Question: Societies do fall apart from war, disease or chaos.

He recognizes collapse when a society involuntarily sheds a significant portion of its complexity.


Question: New Jersey is "losing 50 football fields of open space to development every day and the more we develop upstream the more flooding we have downstream."

During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters," which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States.


Question: New Jersey is "losing 50 football fields of open space to development every day and the more we develop upstream the more flooding we have downstream."

On January 30, 2015, days after the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers released a post-Sandy report examining flood risks for 31,200 miles (50,210 km) of the North Atlantic coast, President Obama issued an executive order directing federal agencies, state and local governments drawing federal funds to adopt stricter building and siting standards to reflect scientific projections that future flooding will be more frequent and intense due to climate change.


Question: New Jersey is "losing 50 football fields of open space to development every day and the more we develop upstream the more flooding we have downstream."

The watershed of the Delaware River drains an area of 14119 sqmi and encompasses 42 counties and 838 municipalities in five U.S. states -- New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware.


Question: New Jersey is "losing 50 football fields of open space to development every day and the more we develop upstream the more flooding we have downstream."

He examines the Dutch system of flood management and concludes that, in New Jersey, rebuilding so close to the ocean is environmentally and financially unsustainable.


Question: New Jersey is "losing 50 football fields of open space to development every day and the more we develop upstream the more flooding we have downstream."

According to the EPA, “the amount of newly created wetlands, however, could be much smaller than the lost area of wetlands— especially in developed areas protected with bulkheads, dikes, and other structures that keep new wetlands from forming inland.” When estimating a sea level rise within the next century of 50 cm (20 inches), the U.S. would lose 38% to 61% of its existing coastal wetlands.


Question: New Jersey is "losing 50 football fields of open space to development every day and the more we develop upstream the more flooding we have downstream."

Expanding agriculture can exacerbate water scarcity and drive habitat loss.


Question: New Jersey is "losing 50 football fields of open space to development every day and the more we develop upstream the more flooding we have downstream."

``Increasing population pressures, growing demand for fish and failures of governance are leading to unsustainable levels of exploitation of living aquatic resources and destruction of aquatic ecosystems.


Question: New Jersey is "losing 50 football fields of open space to development every day and the more we develop upstream the more flooding we have downstream."

Princeton is a municipality with a borough form of government in Mercer County, New Jersey, United States, that was established in its current form on January 1, 2013, through the consolidation of the Borough of Princeton and Princeton Township.


Question: New Jersey is "losing 50 football fields of open space to development every day and the more we develop upstream the more flooding we have downstream."

Wetlands in the U.S. are rapidly disappearing due to an increase in housing, industry, and agriculture, and rising sea levels contribute to this dangerous trend.


Question: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity are: burning of fossil fuels and deforestation leading to higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the air.


Question: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

At present, the primary source of CO 2 emissions is the burning of coal, natural gas, and petroleum for electricity and heat.


Question: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

The vast majority of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions come from combustion of fossil fuels, principally coal, oil, and natural gas, with additional contributions coming from deforestation, changes in land use, soil erosion and agriculture (including livestock).


Question: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

Many of the actions taken by humans that contribute to a heated environment stem from the burning of fossil fuel from a variety of sources, such as: electricity, cars, planes, space heating, manufacturing, or the destruction of forests.


Question: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), and secondarily the clearing of land, have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide, methane, and other heat-trapping ("greenhouse") gases in the atmosphere...There is international scientific consensus that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities.


Question: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

[clarification needed] This increase is the result of human activities by burning fossil fuels, deforestation and forest degradation in tropical and boreal regions.


Question: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

In November 2017, a statement by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries indicated that increasing levels of greenhouse gases from use of fossil fuels, human population growth, deforestation, and overuse of land for agricultural production, particularly by farming ruminants for meat consumption, are trending in ways that forecast an increase in human misery over coming decades.


Question: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

Network of African Science Academies: "A consensus, based on current evidence, now exists within the global scientific community that human activities are the main source of climate change and that the burning of fossil fuels is largely responsible for driving this change."


Question: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

The introduction includes this statement: There is strong evidence that the warming of the Earth over the last half-century has been caused largely by human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use, including agriculture and deforestation.


Question: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming.


Question: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

A consensus, based on current evidence, now exists within the global scientific community that human activities are the main source of climate change and that the burning of fossil fuels is largely responsible for driving this change...


Question: [Jonathan Overpeck:] ‘No doubt about it anymore — humans, mainly by burning fossil fuels, are cooking the planet,’ Overpeck said.

There is considerable evidence that over the very recent period of the last 100–1000 years, the sharp increases in human activity, especially the burning of fossil fuels, has caused the parallel sharp and accelerating increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases which trap the sun's heat.


Question: 'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong "cause and effect relationship" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere.

Hansen testified that "Global warming has reached a level such that we can ascribe with a high degree of confidence a cause and effect relationship between the greenhouse effect and observed warming...It is already happening now" and "The greenhouse effect has been detected and it is changing our climate now...We already reached the point where the greenhouse effect is important."


Question: 'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong "cause and effect relationship" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere.

During a senate meeting on June 23, 1988, Hansen reported that he was ninety-nine percent certain the earth was warmer then than it had ever been measured to be, there was a clear cause and effect relationship with the greenhouse effect and lastly that due to global warming, the likelihood of freak weather was steadily increasing.


Question: 'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong "cause and effect relationship" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere.

...Dr. James E. Hansen of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration told a Congressional committee that it was 99 percent certain that the warming trend was not a natural variation but was caused by a buildup of carbon dioxide and other artificial gases in the atmosphere.


Question: 'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong "cause and effect relationship" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere.

Context for the founding of the GCC from 1988 included the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and NASA climatologist James Hansen's congressional testimony that climate change was occurring.


Question: 'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong "cause and effect relationship" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere.

There were increasing heatwaves and drought problems in the summer of 1988, and NASA climate scientist James Hansen's testimony in the U.S. Senate sparked worldwide interest.


Question: 'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong "cause and effect relationship" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere.

In June 1988, James E. Hansen made one of the first assessments that human-caused warming had already measurably affected global climate.


Question: 'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong "cause and effect relationship" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere.

James E. Hansen (1941 --), American climatologist


Question: 'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong "cause and effect relationship" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere.

Public attention was renewed amidst summer droughts and heat waves when James Hansen testified to a Congressional hearing on 23 June 1988, stating with high confidence that long term warming was underway with severe warming likely within the next 50 years, and warning of likely storms and floods.


Question: 'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong "cause and effect relationship" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere.

Revelle, Plass and other scientists alerted media to press for government attention, the dangers of global warming came to the fore at James Hansen's 1988 Congressional testimony.


Question: 'On June 23, 1988, NASA scientist James Hansen testified before the House of Representatives that there was a strong "cause and effect relationship" between observed temperatures and human emissions into the atmosphere.

Retrieved 2010-08-28. the leading international network of climate scientists has concluded for the first time that global warming is 'unequivocal' and that human activity is the main driver, 'very likely' causing most of the rise in temperatures since 1950 Stevens, William K. (2007-02-06).


Question: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.13,14

This has caused an increase in hydrogen ion (acidity) of about 30% since the start of the industrial age through a process known as "ocean acidification."


Question: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.13,14

Ocean acidification has increased 26% since the beginning of the industrial era.


Question: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.13,14

Between 1751 and 1996, surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14, representing an increase of almost 30% in H+ ion concentration in the world's oceans.


Question: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.13,14

The effects of ocean acidification can already be seen and have been happening since the start of the industrial revolution, with pH levels of the ocean dropping by 0.1 since the pre-industrial revolution times.


Question: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.13,14

More recently, anthropogenic activities have steadily increased the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere; about 30–40% of the added CO2 is absorbed by the oceans, forming carbonic acid and lowering the pH (now below 8.1) through a process called ocean acidification.


Question: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.13,14

Addition of carbon dioxide to the ocean water makes the oceans more acidic.


Question: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.13,14

Since the time of the Industrial Revolution about 200 years ago, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased from about 280 parts per million to 370 parts per million, an increase of around 30%.


Question: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.13,14

Ocean acidification is the increase in the acidity of the Earth's oceans caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide () from the atmosphere.


Question: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.13,14

In water, CO becomes a weak [[carbonic acid]], and the increase in the greenhouse gas since the [[Industrial Revolution]] has already lowered the average [[pH]] (the laboratory measure of acidity) of seawater by 0.1 units, to 8.2.


Question: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.13,14

Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (around 1750) have produced a 45% increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, from 280 ppm in 1750 to 415 ppm in 2019.


Question: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent.13,14

"Ocean Growing More Acidic Faster Than Once Thought; Increasing Acidity Threatens Sea Life".


Question: Obama administration's Clean Power Plan would have little or no effect on carbon dioxide emissions.

The final version of the plan aims to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from electrical power generation by 32 percent by 2030, relative to 2005 levels.


Question: Obama administration's Clean Power Plan would have little or no effect on carbon dioxide emissions.

The Obama administration designed the plan to lower the carbon dioxide emitted by power generators.


Question: Obama administration's Clean Power Plan would have little or no effect on carbon dioxide emissions.

The Clean Power Plan was an Obama administration policy aimed at combating anthropogenic climate change (global warming) that was first proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in June 2014.


Question: Obama administration's Clean Power Plan would have little or no effect on carbon dioxide emissions.

In 2014, President Barack Obama proposed a series of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations, known as the Clean Power Plan that would reduce carbon pollution from coal-fired power plants.


Question: Obama administration's Clean Power Plan would have little or no effect on carbon dioxide emissions.

In 2015, Obama also announced the Clean Power Plan, which is the final version of regulations originally proposed by the EPA the previous year, and which pertains to carbon dioxide emissions from power plants.


Question: Obama administration's Clean Power Plan would have little or no effect on carbon dioxide emissions.

According to Energy Innovation’s Energy Policy Simulator, a repeal of the Clean Power Plan would lead to an increase in carbon dioxide emissions of more than 500 million metric tons by 2030, and by 2050, that figure would rise to more than 1,200 million metric tons.


Question: Obama administration's Clean Power Plan would have little or no effect on carbon dioxide emissions.

The Clean Power Plan was an Obama administration policy aimed at combating global warming that was first proposed in 2014.


Question: Obama administration's Clean Power Plan would have little or no effect on carbon dioxide emissions.

In June 2015, the Obama administration released the President's 21st Century Clean Transportation Plan with the goal of reducing carbon pollution by converting the nation's century old infrastructure into one based on clean energy.This plan intended to battle climate change by reducing emissions through a switch to more sustainable forms of transportation, resulting from a potential increase of innovation in both public transit and electric vehicle production in the United States.The President stated that the revitalization of the infrastructure would not only create jobs, but also allow for quicker deliveries of goods, and allow for a greater variety of transportation options that would facilitate travel for Americans.The President's multibillion dollar proposal provided incentives to reduce reliance on international oil and fossil fuels.


Question: Obama administration's Clean Power Plan would have little or no effect on carbon dioxide emissions.

The U.S. has goals to significantly lower carbon dioxide emissions


Question: Obama administration's Clean Power Plan would have little or no effect on carbon dioxide emissions.

President Obamas plan included the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (ACES) proposed a cap and trade system which would bring in revenue that would used to invest in clean energy technology creating 5 million new jobs The bill was passed through the house but never made it to the senate floor and therefore was never written into law.


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

For example, "a 3°C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m in elevation.


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

A microthermal climate is one of low annual mean temperatures, generally between 0 °C (32 °F) and 14 °C (57 °F) which experiences short summers and has a potential evaporation between 14 centimetres (5.5 in) and 43 centimetres (17 in).


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

Recent evidence suggests that a sudden and short-lived climatic shift between 2200 and 2100 BCE occurred in the region between Tibet and Iceland, with some evidence suggesting a global change.


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures.


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

One such method, based on principles of dendroclimatology, uses the width and other characteristics of tree rings to infer temperature.


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

The value of tree rings for climate study was not solidly established until the 1960s.


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

The deviation of some tree ring proxy measurements from the instrumental record since the 1950s raises the question of the reliability of tree ring proxies in the period before the instrumental temperature record.


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

Dendroclimatology is the science of determining past climates from trees, primarily from properties of the annual tree rings.


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

Dendroclimatologist Keith Briffa's February 1998 study reporting a divergence problem affecting some tree ring proxies after 1960 warned that this problem had to be taken into account to avoid overestimating past temperatures.


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

Global temperature records taken from ice cores, tree rings, and lake deposits, have shown that the Earth may have been slightly cooler globally (by 0.03 °C) than in the early and mid-20th century.


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

Tree-ring evidence shows a rise in C cosmogenic isotope.


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

Several scientific sources state that the decline being referred to is a decline in tree ring climate proxy metrics, not temperature.


Question: Tree-rings diverge from temperature after 1960

Stress, too little precipitation or unsuitable temperatures, can alter the growth rate of trees, which allows scientists to infer climate trends by analyzing the growth rate of tree rings.


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

The temperature in New York City exceeds nearby rural temperatures by an average of 2–3 °C and at times 5–10 °C differences have been recorded.


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

They concluded that global mean temperatures can be determined even though meteorological stations are typically in the Northern hemisphere and confined to continental regions.


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

In September 2017, NASA reported radiation levels on the surface of the planet Mars were temporarily doubled, and were associated with an aurora 25 times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected, solar storm in the middle of the month.


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

Deep space missions are visible for long periods of time from a large portion of the Earth's surface, and so require few stations (the DSN has only three main sites).


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

Three were located at Goldstone, and one each at Canberra and Madrid.


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly.


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

No climate station directly at site but in the general area.


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

The following chart is from NASA data of combined land-surface air and sea-surface water temperature anomalies.


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

While the Alaska Interconnection is often referred to as one interconnected grid, its two parts are not connected to each other through interties, nor are the two grids connected to any other interconnection, making the grids in Alaska isolated circuits.


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

The warming has not been globally uniform.


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

Some systems are designed to operate in one mode only, heating or cooling, depending on climate.


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

MSU Channel 1 is not used to monitor atmospheric temperature because it's too much sensitive to the emission from the surface, furthermore it is heavily contaminated by water vapor/liquid water in the lowermost troposphere.


Question: Yet, according to NASA, only one temperature sensing station is necessary for the two cities and the vast area between them to be adequately represented in their network.”

The satellite time series is not homogeneous.


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

These include processes such as variations in solar radiation, variations in the Earth's orbit, variations in the albedo or reflectivity of the continents, atmosphere, and oceans, mountain-building and continental drift and changes in greenhouse gas concentrations.


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

Volcanic eruptions, solar variations and anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere and land use change are external forcings.


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans.


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

Suggested causes of ice age periods include the positions of the continents, variations in the Earth's orbit, changes in the solar output, and volcanism.


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

Natural climate forcings include changes in the Sun's brightness, Milankovitch cycles (small variations in the shape of Earth's orbit and its axis of rotation that occur over thousands of years) and volcanic eruptions that inject light-reflecting particles as high as the stratosphere.


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

Climate forcings are changes that cause temperatures to rise or fall, disrupting the energy balance.


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

A forcing is something that is imposed externally on the climate system.


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or "forcing mechanisms".


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

A number of inputs can give rise to radiative forcing; the extra downwelling radiation due to the greenhouse effect, solar radiation variability due to orbital changes, changes in solar irradiance, direct aerosol effects – for example changes in albedo due to cloud cover – indirect aerosol effects, and changes in land use.


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

The climate system will vary in response to changes in forcings.


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

In this context, the term "forcing" signifies a physical process that affects the Earth's climate.


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

Climate models include different external forcings for their models.


Question: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) AR4 report defines radiative forcings as: "Radiative forcing is a measure of the influence a factor has in altering the balance of incoming and outgoing energy in the Earth-atmosphere system and is an index of the importance of the factor as a potential climate change mechanism.


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

The average global temperature on Earth has increased by about 0.8° Celsius (1.4° Fahrenheit) since 1880; Two-thirds of the warming has occurred since 1975, at a rate of roughly 0.15-0.20 °C per decade.


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

One argument is that of global warming occurring due to human-caused emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels.


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strengthened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation, causing the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century.


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions – primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation – have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere, leading to global warming.


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

Before the Industrial Revolution, naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases caused the air near the surface to be warmer by about 33 °C (59 °F) than it would be in their absence.


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

Climate proxy records show that natural variations offset the early effects of the Industrial Revolution, so there was little net warming between the 18th century and the mid-19th century, when thermometer records began to provide global coverage.


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

Global warming refers to the warming caused by human technology since the 19th century or earlier.


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

Human-caused increases in greenhouse gases are responsible for most of the observed global average surface warming of roughly 0.8 °C (1.5 °F) over the past 140 years.


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

The global average and combined land and ocean surface temperature, show a warming of 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C, in the period 1880 to 2012, based on multiple independently produced datasets.


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

IPCC AR4 WG1 Ch9 2007, p. 690: "Recent estimates indicate a relatively small combined effect of natural forcings on the global mean temperature evolution of the second half of the 20th century, with a small net cooling from the combined effects of solar and volcanic forcings."


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

The global temperature increase since the beginning of the industrial period (taken as 1750) is about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), and the radiative forcing due to CO 2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases – mainly methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons – emitted since that time is about 2.6 W/m2.


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

"Estimating Changes in Global Temperature since the Preindustrial Period".


Question: Globally averaged thermometers show two periods of warming since 1900: a half-degree from natural causes in the first half of the 20th century, before there was an increase in industrial carbon dioxide that was enough to produce it, and another half-degree in the last quarter of the century.

Since the start of the 20th century, the global mean surface temperature of the Earth has increased by more than 0.7°C and the rate of warming has been largest in the last 30 years.


Question: Electricity rates are 40 percent higher in states that have required utility companies to use a certain amount of renewable energy such as solar power.

Renewable portfolio standards require renewable energy to exist (most of them intermittent such as wind and solar), but at the expense of utilities and consumers.


Question: Electricity rates are 40 percent higher in states that have required utility companies to use a certain amount of renewable energy such as solar power.

Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, with wind power providing a significant share of electricity in some regional areas: for example, 14 percent in the US state of Iowa, 40 percent in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, and 20 percent in Denmark.


Question: Electricity rates are 40 percent higher in states that have required utility companies to use a certain amount of renewable energy such as solar power.

Wind and Solar are able to produce electricity for 20-40% of the year.


Question: Electricity rates are 40 percent higher in states that have required utility companies to use a certain amount of renewable energy such as solar power.

In 2015, electric power generation from wind power was 10 percent or more in twelve U.S. states: Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Minnesota, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, and South Dakota, Vermont, and Texas.


Question: Electricity rates are 40 percent higher in states that have required utility companies to use a certain amount of renewable energy such as solar power.

Financial incentives to support renewable energy are available in some other US states.


Question: Electricity rates are 40 percent higher in states that have required utility companies to use a certain amount of renewable energy such as solar power.

The following places meet 90% or more of their average yearly electricity demand with renewable energy (incomplete list):


Question: Electricity rates are 40 percent higher in states that have required utility companies to use a certain amount of renewable energy such as solar power.

[citation needed] South Australia has the highest retail price for electricity in the country.


Question: Electricity rates are 40 percent higher in states that have required utility companies to use a certain amount of renewable energy such as solar power.

Outside of the US, a higher proportion of petroleum tends to be used for electricity.


Question: Electricity rates are 40 percent higher in states that have required utility companies to use a certain amount of renewable energy such as solar power.

In 2014, the share of world energy consumption for electricity generation by source was coal at 41%, natural gas at 22%, nuclear at 11%, hydro at 16%, other sources (solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, etc.)


Question: it later emerged that its creator Dr Michael Mann had spliced too [sic] datasets together – tree-rings showing temperatures going back hundreds of years, then recent thermometer readings for the more recent decades.

Mann said, "Ten years ago, the availability of data became quite sparse by the time you got back to 1,000 AD, and what we had then was weighted towards tree-ring data; but now you can go back 1,300 years without using tree-ring data at all and still get a verifiable conclusion."


Question: it later emerged that its creator Dr Michael Mann had spliced too [sic] datasets together – tree-rings showing temperatures going back hundreds of years, then recent thermometer readings for the more recent decades.

Using various high-resolution proxies including tree rings, ice cores and sediments, Mann and Jones published reconstructions in August 2003 which indicated that "late 20th century warmth is unprecedented for at least roughly the past two millennia for the Northern Hemisphere.


Question: it later emerged that its creator Dr Michael Mann had spliced too [sic] datasets together – tree-rings showing temperatures going back hundreds of years, then recent thermometer readings for the more recent decades.

For his postdoctoral research, Mann joined Bradley and tree ring specialist Malcolm K. Hughes to develop a new statistical approach to reconstruct underlying spatial patterns of temperature variation combining diverse datasets of proxy information covering different periods across the globe, including a rich resource of tree ring networks for some areas and sparser proxies such as lake sediments, ice cores and corals, as well as some historical records.


Question: it later emerged that its creator Dr Michael Mann had spliced too [sic] datasets together – tree-rings showing temperatures going back hundreds of years, then recent thermometer readings for the more recent decades.

"Mike's Nature trick" referred to Michael E. Mann's paper on temperature trends published by Michael Mann in Nature in 1998, which combined various proxy records and related them to actual temperature records: it included a figure later dubbed the ""hockey stick" graph, which clearly distinguished between the proxy and instrumental data.


Question: it later emerged that its creator Dr Michael Mann had spliced too [sic] datasets together – tree-rings showing temperatures going back hundreds of years, then recent thermometer readings for the more recent decades.

By combining multiple tree-ring studies (sometimes with other climate proxy records), scientists have estimated past regional and global climates (see Temperature record of the past 1000 years).


Question: it later emerged that its creator Dr Michael Mann had spliced too [sic] datasets together – tree-rings showing temperatures going back hundreds of years, then recent thermometer readings for the more recent decades.

The deviation of some tree ring proxy measurements from the instrumental record since the 1950s raises the question of the reliability of tree ring proxies in the period before the instrumental temperature record.


Question: it later emerged that its creator Dr Michael Mann had spliced too [sic] datasets together – tree-rings showing temperatures going back hundreds of years, then recent thermometer readings for the more recent decades.

The longer history of the proxy is then used to reconstruct temperature from earlier periods.


Question: it later emerged that its creator Dr Michael Mann had spliced too [sic] datasets together – tree-rings showing temperatures going back hundreds of years, then recent thermometer readings for the more recent decades.


Question: it later emerged that its creator Dr Michael Mann had spliced too [sic] datasets together – tree-rings showing temperatures going back hundreds of years, then recent thermometer readings for the more recent decades.

Gore's use of long ice core records of CO2 and temperature (from oxygen isotope measurements) in Antarctic ice cores to illustrate the correlation between the two drew some scrutiny; Schmidt, Steig and Michael E. Mann back up Gore's data.


Question: it later emerged that its creator Dr Michael Mann had spliced too [sic] datasets together – tree-rings showing temperatures going back hundreds of years, then recent thermometer readings for the more recent decades.

published on 10 February 2005 used a wavelet transform technique to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere temperatures over the last 2,000 years, combining low-resolution proxy data such as lake and ocean sediments for century-scale or longer changes, with tree ring proxies only used for annual to decadal resolution.


Question: “For example, Canadian polar bear biologist Ian Stirling learned in the 1970s that spring sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea periodically gets so thick that seals depart, depriving local polar bears of their prey and causing their numbers to plummet.

Then they begin the long walk from the denning area to the sea ice, where the mother can once again catch seals.


Question: “For example, Canadian polar bear biologist Ian Stirling learned in the 1970s that spring sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea periodically gets so thick that seals depart, depriving local polar bears of their prey and causing their numbers to plummet.

It has been claimed that polar bears will be able to adapt to terrestrial food sources as the sea ice they use to hunt seals disappears.


Question: “For example, Canadian polar bear biologist Ian Stirling learned in the 1970s that spring sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea periodically gets so thick that seals depart, depriving local polar bears of their prey and causing their numbers to plummet.

Polar bears hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice, often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present.


Question: “For example, Canadian polar bear biologist Ian Stirling learned in the 1970s that spring sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea periodically gets so thick that seals depart, depriving local polar bears of their prey and causing their numbers to plummet.

The polar bear tends to frequent areas where sea ice meets water, such as polynyas and leads (temporary stretches of open water in Arctic ice), to hunt the seals that make up most of its diet.


Question: “For example, Canadian polar bear biologist Ian Stirling learned in the 1970s that spring sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea periodically gets so thick that seals depart, depriving local polar bears of their prey and causing their numbers to plummet.

Steven Amstrup and other U.S. Geological Survey scientists have predicted two-thirds of the world's polar bears may disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by climate change, though the validity of this study has been debated.


Question: “For example, Canadian polar bear biologist Ian Stirling learned in the 1970s that spring sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea periodically gets so thick that seals depart, depriving local polar bears of their prey and causing their numbers to plummet.

The arctic refuge is where polar bears main habitat is to den and the melting arctic sea ice is causing a loss of species.


Question: “For example, Canadian polar bear biologist Ian Stirling learned in the 1970s that spring sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea periodically gets so thick that seals depart, depriving local polar bears of their prey and causing their numbers to plummet.

Reduced sea ice due to melting is causing polar bears to search for new sources of food.


Question: “For example, Canadian polar bear biologist Ian Stirling learned in the 1970s that spring sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea periodically gets so thick that seals depart, depriving local polar bears of their prey and causing their numbers to plummet.

A subsequent in depth international independent study, Re-Assessment of the Baffin Bay and Kane Basin Polar Bear Subpopulations: Final Report to the Canada-Greenland Joint Commission on Polar Bear has determined that polar bear populations are not declining overall and are increasing significantly in some areas.


Question: “For example, Canadian polar bear biologist Ian Stirling learned in the 1970s that spring sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea periodically gets so thick that seals depart, depriving local polar bears of their prey and causing their numbers to plummet.

Ian Stirling (born September 26, 1941) is a research scientist emeritus with Environment and Climate Change Canada and an adjunct professor in the University of Alberta Department of Biological Sciences.


Question: “For example, Canadian polar bear biologist Ian Stirling learned in the 1970s that spring sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea periodically gets so thick that seals depart, depriving local polar bears of their prey and causing their numbers to plummet.

The Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears is a multilateral treaty signed in Oslo, November 15, 1973 by the five nations with the largest polar bear populations : Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway (Svalbard), the United States, and the Soviet Union.


Question: “For example, Canadian polar bear biologist Ian Stirling learned in the 1970s that spring sea ice in the southern Beaufort Sea periodically gets so thick that seals depart, depriving local polar bears of their prey and causing their numbers to plummet.

Polar Bears are increasing in number.


Question: There are about 120,000 solar energy jobs in the United States, but only 1,700 of them are in Georgia.

As of 2016, more than 260,000 people worked in the solar industry and 43 states deployed net metering, where energy utilities bought back excess power generated by solar arrays.


Question: There are about 120,000 solar energy jobs in the United States, but only 1,700 of them are in Georgia.

The solar industry is currently one of the fastest growing in the United States, employing more than 250,000 people as of 2018.


Question: There are about 120,000 solar energy jobs in the United States, but only 1,700 of them are in Georgia.

[clarification needed] Solar jobs have more than doubled in the United States over the last decade growing 153% since 2010 to 242,343 workers directly employed by the industry.


Question: There are about 120,000 solar energy jobs in the United States, but only 1,700 of them are in Georgia.

There are a many different solar industry jobs.


Question: There are about 120,000 solar energy jobs in the United States, but only 1,700 of them are in Georgia.

The solar industry is projected to employ over 420,000 individuals by 2020- nearly double of the 260,000 solar workers in 2016- and contribute $30 billion to the United States economy annually.


Question: There are about 120,000 solar energy jobs in the United States, but only 1,700 of them are in Georgia.

The U.S. Department of Energy stated (in 2006) that more than 1.5 million homes and businesses were currently using solar water heating in the United States, representing a capacity of over 1,000 megawatts (MW) of thermal energy generation.


Question: There are about 120,000 solar energy jobs in the United States, but only 1,700 of them are in Georgia.

In 2018 Japan’s slowing economy meant that employment in the solar pv industry fell from 302 000 in 2016 to an estimated 272 000 jobs in 2017.


Question: There are about 120,000 solar energy jobs in the United States, but only 1,700 of them are in Georgia.

The American solar energy industry is highly reliant on foreign parts (80% of parts are made abroad); as a result, the tariffs could raise the costs of solar energy, reduce innovation and reduce jobs in the industry—which in 2017 employed nearly four times as many American workers as the coal industry.


Question: There are about 120,000 solar energy jobs in the United States, but only 1,700 of them are in Georgia.

The United States is one of the world's largest producers of solar power.


Question: There are about 120,000 solar energy jobs in the United States, but only 1,700 of them are in Georgia.

The United States has some of the largest solar farms in the world.


Question: There are about 120,000 solar energy jobs in the United States, but only 1,700 of them are in Georgia.


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

§ 7401) is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level.


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

The Clean Air Act of 1963 was the first federal legislation regarding air pollution control.


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

The Clean Air Act of 1970 (1970 CAA) authorized the development of comprehensive federal and state regulations to limit emissions from both stationary (industrial) sources and mobile sources.


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

In 1997 EPA tightened the NAAQS regarding permissible levels of the ground-level ozone that make up smog and the fine airborne particulate matter that makes up soot.


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

The first federal legislation to actually pertain to "controlling" air pollution was the Clean Air Act of 1963.


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

The Clean Air Act of 1963 (42 U.S.C.


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

Clean Air Act" of 1963


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

the Clean Air Act gives the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to regulate greenhouse gases, such as tailpipe emissions.


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

Since 1950, many countries have significantly reduced black carbon emissions, especially from fossil fuel sources, primarily to improve public health from improved air quality, and “technology exists for a drastic reduction of fossil fuel related BC” throughout the world.


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

Established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under authority of the Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C.


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

According to the EPA, the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments has prevented or will prevent:


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

In the United States, despite the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in non-attainment areas—regions in which the concentration of certain air pollutants exceeded federal standards.


Question: The United States has been restricting soot emissions  in Draconian fashion since the Clean Air Act of 1963.

The Air Pollution Control Act" of 1955


Question: The public understand it, in that if  you get a fall evening or spring evening and the sky is clear the heat  will escape and the temperature will drop and you get frost.

As the water vapor condenses into liquid, latent heat is released, which warms the air, causing it to become less dense than the surrounding, drier air.


Question: The public understand it, in that if  you get a fall evening or spring evening and the sky is clear the heat  will escape and the temperature will drop and you get frost.

During colder periods of the year, night-time temperatures can drop to freezing or below due to the exceptional radiation loss under the clear skies.


Question: The public understand it, in that if  you get a fall evening or spring evening and the sky is clear the heat  will escape and the temperature will drop and you get frost.

Frost or freezing occurs when the temperature of air falls below the freezing point of water (0 ° C, 32 ° F, 273.15 K).


Question: The public understand it, in that if  you get a fall evening or spring evening and the sky is clear the heat  will escape and the temperature will drop and you get frost.

Sublimation refers to evaporation from snow and ice.


Question: The public understand it, in that if  you get a fall evening or spring evening and the sky is clear the heat  will escape and the temperature will drop and you get frost.

The temperature of the troposphere decreases with altitude.


Question: The public understand it, in that if  you get a fall evening or spring evening and the sky is clear the heat  will escape and the temperature will drop and you get frost.

In the troposphere, temperature decreases with altitude.


Question: The public understand it, in that if  you get a fall evening or spring evening and the sky is clear the heat  will escape and the temperature will drop and you get frost.

Pre-dusk, during early to intermediate stages of twilight, there may be enough light in the sky under clear-sky conditions to read outdoors without artificial illumination, but at the end of civil twilight, when the earth rotates to a point at which the center of the sun is at 6 ° below the local horizon, artificial illumination is required to read outside.


Question: The public understand it, in that if  you get a fall evening or spring evening and the sky is clear the heat  will escape and the temperature will drop and you get frost.

Most regions have distinct seasons where summer is usually not spoiled by rain and winter turns wet, snowy and humid with mild, cool to cold temperatures, while spring and fall see warm to mild weather characterised by flowers blooming in spring and falling leaves in autumn.


Question: The public understand it, in that if  you get a fall evening or spring evening and the sky is clear the heat  will escape and the temperature will drop and you get frost.

Winter is the coldest season of the year in polar and temperate climates, between autumn and spring.


Question: Neptune's orbit is 164 years so observations (1950 to present day) span less than a third of a Neptunian year.

The average distance between Neptune and the Sun is 4.5 billion km (about 30.1 astronomical units (AU)), and it completes an orbit on average every 164.79 years, subject to a variability of around ±0.1 years.


Question: Neptune's orbit is 164 years so observations (1950 to present day) span less than a third of a Neptunian year.

Neptune's 164 year orbital period means that the planet takes an average of 13 years to move through each constellation of the zodiac.


Question: Neptune's orbit is 164 years so observations (1950 to present day) span less than a third of a Neptunian year.

Neptune orbits the Sun once every 164.8 years at an average distance of 30.1 au (4.5 billion km; 2.8 billion mi).


Question: Neptune's orbit is 164 years so observations (1950 to present day) span less than a third of a Neptunian year.

Observed from Neptune, it would appear to go around it during one Neptunian year but it actually orbits the Sun, not Neptune.


Question: Neptune's orbit is 164 years so observations (1950 to present day) span less than a third of a Neptunian year.

The long orbital period of Neptune results in seasons lasting forty years.


Question: Neptune's orbit is 164 years so observations (1950 to present day) span less than a third of a Neptunian year.

Pluto has yet to complete a full orbit of the Sun since its discovery, as one Plutonian year is 247.68 years long.


Question: Neptune's orbit is 164 years so observations (1950 to present day) span less than a third of a Neptunian year.

Because of its great distance from the Sun, Neptune 's outer atmosphere is one of the coldest places in the Solar System, with temperatures at its cloud tops approaching 55 K. Temperatures at the planet 's centre are approximately 5400 K. Neptune has a faint and fragmented ring system (labelled ``arcs''), which was first detected during the 1960s and confirmed by Voyager 2.


Question: Neptune's orbit is 164 years so observations (1950 to present day) span less than a third of a Neptunian year.

The semi-major axis of Pluto's orbit varies between about 39.3 and 39.6 au with a period of about 19,951 years, corresponding to an orbital period varying between 246 and 249 years.


Question: Neptune's orbit is 164 years so observations (1950 to present day) span less than a third of a Neptunian year.

Kepler-421b is an exoplanet that, as of July 2014, has the longest known year of any transiting planet (704 days), although not as long as the planets that have been directly imaged, or many of the planets found by the radial-velocity method, or as long as some transiting planet candidates which are listed as planets in the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia (KIC 5010054 b etc.).


Question: Neptune's orbit is 164 years so observations (1950 to present day) span less than a third of a Neptunian year.

Pluto's orbital period is currently about 248 years.


Question: Neptune's orbit is 164 years so observations (1950 to present day) span less than a third of a Neptunian year.

The galactic year, also known as a cosmic year, is the duration of time required for the Solar System to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.


Question: Antarctic ice fluctuates wildly year to year, and the link to man-made global warming there is not clear, NASA ice expert Walt Meier said.

There is a scientific consensus linking human activities to global warming due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions.


Question: Antarctic ice fluctuates wildly year to year, and the link to man-made global warming there is not clear, NASA ice expert Walt Meier said.

The change was attributed to increasingly cold winters in the Arctic stratosphere at an altitude of approximately 20 km (12 mi), a change associated with global warming in a relationship that is still under investigation.


Question: Antarctic ice fluctuates wildly year to year, and the link to man-made global warming there is not clear, NASA ice expert Walt Meier said.

[1] In their latest study (September 20, 2007) NASA researchers have confirmed that Antarctic snow is melting farther inland from the coast over time, melting at higher altitudes than ever and increasingly melting on Antarctica's largest ice shelf.


Question: Antarctic ice fluctuates wildly year to year, and the link to man-made global warming there is not clear, NASA ice expert Walt Meier said.

There is evidence from one study that Antarctica is warming as a result of human carbon dioxide emissions, but this remains ambiguous.


Question: Antarctic ice fluctuates wildly year to year, and the link to man-made global warming there is not clear, NASA ice expert Walt Meier said.

...Dr. James E. Hansen of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration told a Congressional committee that it was 99 percent certain that the warming trend was not a natural variation but was caused by a buildup of carbon dioxide and other artificial gases in the atmosphere.


Question: Antarctic ice fluctuates wildly year to year, and the link to man-made global warming there is not clear, NASA ice expert Walt Meier said.

Relationships between global climate and changes in ice extent are complex.


Question: Antarctic ice fluctuates wildly year to year, and the link to man-made global warming there is not clear, NASA ice expert Walt Meier said.

The warming has not been globally uniform.


Question: Antarctic ice fluctuates wildly year to year, and the link to man-made global warming there is not clear, NASA ice expert Walt Meier said.

The rate of ice loss from glaciers and ice sheets in the Antarctic is a key area of uncertainty since this source could account for 90% of the potential sea level rise: increased ocean warmth is undermining and threatening to unplug Antarctic glacier outlets, potentially resulting in more rapid sea level rise.


Question: Antarctic ice fluctuates wildly year to year, and the link to man-made global warming there is not clear, NASA ice expert Walt Meier said.

"Ice melting across globe at accelerating rate, NASA says."


Question: Antarctic ice fluctuates wildly year to year, and the link to man-made global warming there is not clear, NASA ice expert Walt Meier said.

"Stability of the West Antarctic ice sheet in a warming world".


Question: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think.

Abrupt climate change, tipping points in the climate system: Climate change could result in global, large-scale changes.


Question: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think.

"Climate change could impact the poor much more than previously thought".


Question: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think.

In November 2017, a second warning to humanity signed by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries stated that "the current trajectory of potentially catastrophic climate change due to rising greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agricultural production – particularly from farming ruminants for meat consumption" is "especially troubling".


Question: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think.

David Wallace-Wells, "The Uninhabitable Earth: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think," New York Magazine, July 9, 2017.


Question: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think.

This article is about climate change scenarios.


Question: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think.

Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue.


Question: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think.

Climate change may also lead to new human diseases.


Question: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think.

Abrupt climate change has likely been the cause of wide ranging and severe effects:


Question: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think.

There are risks of irreversible climate changes, and the possibility of sudden changes in climate.


Question: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think.

"Domino-effect of climate events could push Earth into a 'hothouse' state".


Question: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think.

"Sun's Shifts May Cause Global Warming".


Question: Famine, economic collapse, a sun that cooks us: What climate change could wreak — sooner than you think.

"Domino-effect of climate events could move Earth into a 'hothouse' state".


Question: Early 20th century warming was in large part due to rising solar activity and relatively quiet volcanic activity.

The average global temperature on Earth has increased by about 0.8° Celsius (1.4° Fahrenheit) since 1880; Two-thirds of the warming has occurred since 1975, at a rate of roughly 0.15-0.20 °C per decade.


Question: Early 20th century warming was in large part due to rising solar activity and relatively quiet volcanic activity.

Some studies associate solar cycle-driven irradiation increases with part of twentieth century warming.


Question: Early 20th century warming was in large part due to rising solar activity and relatively quiet volcanic activity.

Given that records of solar activity are accurate, solar activity may have contributed to part of the modern warming that peaked in the 1930s, in addition to the 60-year temperature cycles that result in roughly 0.5 °C of warming during the increasing temperature phase.


Question: Early 20th century warming was in large part due to rising solar activity and relatively quiet volcanic activity.

Models indicate that solar and volcanic activity can explain periods of relative warmth and cold between A.D. 1000 and 1900.


Question: Early 20th century warming was in large part due to rising solar activity and relatively quiet volcanic activity.

Models indicate that solar and volcanic forcings can explain periods of relative warmth and cold between A.D. 1000 and 1900, but human-induced forcings are needed to reproduce the late-20th century warming.


Question: Early 20th century warming was in large part due to rising solar activity and relatively quiet volcanic activity.

The slower pace of warming can be attributed to a combination of natural fluctuations, reduced solar activity, and increased volcanic activity.


Question: Early 20th century warming was in large part due to rising solar activity and relatively quiet volcanic activity.

IPCC AR4 WG1 Ch9 2007, p. 690: "Recent estimates indicate a relatively small combined effect of natural forcings on the global mean temperature evolution of the second half of the 20th century, with a small net cooling from the combined effects of solar and volcanic forcings."


Question: Early 20th century warming was in large part due to rising solar activity and relatively quiet volcanic activity.

Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities.


Question: Early 20th century warming was in large part due to rising solar activity and relatively quiet volcanic activity.

Three mechanisms are proposed by which solar activity affects climate:


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

The reasoning in this argument is valid, because there is no way in which the premises, 1 and 2, could be true and the conclusion, 3, be false.


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

"It is likely that increases in GHG concentrations alone would have caused more warming than observed because volcanic and anthropogenic aerosols have offset some warming that would otherwise have taken place."


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

According to this summary, the Fourth Assessment Report found that human actions are "very likely" the cause of global warming, meaning a 90% or greater probability.


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

The statement concludes with a call for "reduction in anthropogenic (human-caused) sources of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions contributing to global climate change and the conservation of CO 2- consuming photosynthesizers (i.e., plants)."


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

While ‘climate change’ can be due to natural forces or human activity, there is now substantial evidence to indicate that human activity – and specifically increased greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions – is a key factor in the pace and extent of global temperature increases.


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

Rennie 2009: "Claim 1: Anthropogenic CO2 can't be changing climate, because CO2 is only a trace gas in the atmosphere and the amount produced by humans is dwarfed by the amount from volcanoes and other natural sources.


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

"Warming 'very likely' human-made".


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

Analysis of carbon isotopes in atmospheric CO 2 shows that the recent observed CO 2 increase cannot have come from the oceans, volcanoes, or the biosphere, and thus is not a response to rising temperatures as would be required if the same processes creating past lags were active now.


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

Secondly, although the narrator commentary during the presentation of the graph is consistent with the conclusions of the paper from which the figure originates, it incorrectly rules out a contribution by anthropogenic greenhouse gases to 20th century global warming.


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

Singer argues, contrary to the scientific consensus on climate change, that there is no evidence that global warming is attributable to human-caused increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, and that humanity would benefit if temperatures do rise.


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

A 2017 Politico article states that increased CO 2 levels may have a negative impact on the nutritional quality of various human food crops, by increasing the levels of carbohydrates, such as glucose, while decreasing the levels of important nutrients such as protein, iron, and zinc.


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

Attributing detected temperature changes and extreme events to human-caused increases in greenhouse gases requires scientists to rule out known internal climate variability and natural external forcings.


Question: But that conclusion holds true only if there are no other sources of c12 increases which are not human caused.

Network of African Science Academies: "A consensus, based on current evidence, now exists within the global scientific community that human activities are the main source of climate change and that the burning of fossil fuels is largely responsible for driving this change."


Question: Jupiter's climate change is due to shifts in internal turbulence fueled from an internal heat source - the planet radiates twice as much energy as it receives from the sun.

The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior.


Question: Jupiter's climate change is due to shifts in internal turbulence fueled from an internal heat source - the planet radiates twice as much energy as it receives from the sun.

When a planet generates a significant amount of heat internally, such as is the case for Jupiter, convection in the atmosphere can transport thermal energy from the higher temperature interior up to the surface.


Question: Jupiter's climate change is due to shifts in internal turbulence fueled from an internal heat source - the planet radiates twice as much energy as it receives from the sun.

"New storm on Jupiter hints at climate changes".


Question: Jupiter's climate change is due to shifts in internal turbulence fueled from an internal heat source - the planet radiates twice as much energy as it receives from the sun.

Climate change may be due to internal processes in Earth sphere's and/or following external forcings.


Question: Jupiter's climate change is due to shifts in internal turbulence fueled from an internal heat source - the planet radiates twice as much energy as it receives from the sun.

Climate forcings are changes that cause temperatures to rise or fall, disrupting the energy balance.


Question: Jupiter's climate change is due to shifts in internal turbulence fueled from an internal heat source - the planet radiates twice as much energy as it receives from the sun.

The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without this atmosphere.


Question: Jupiter's climate change is due to shifts in internal turbulence fueled from an internal heat source - the planet radiates twice as much energy as it receives from the sun.

These changes can influence the planetary climate.


Question: Jupiter's climate change is due to shifts in internal turbulence fueled from an internal heat source - the planet radiates twice as much energy as it receives from the sun.

Climate forcing is the difference between radiant energy (sunlight) received by the Earth and the outgoing longwave radiation back to space.


Question: Jupiter's climate change is due to shifts in internal turbulence fueled from an internal heat source - the planet radiates twice as much energy as it receives from the sun.

The Sun is the predominant source of energy input to the Earth's climate system.


Question: The bottom line is there’s no solid connection between climate change and the major indicators of extreme weather

Other likely changes are listed below: Increased areas will be affected by drought There will be increased intense tropical cyclone activity There will be increased incidences of extreme high sea level (excluding tsunamis) Storm strength leading to extreme weather is increasing, such as the power dissipation index of hurricane intensity.


Question: The bottom line is there’s no solid connection between climate change and the major indicators of extreme weather

The letter goes on to warn of predicted impacts on the United States such as sea level rise and increases in extreme weather events, water scarcity, heat waves, wildfires, and the disturbance of biological systems.


Question: The bottom line is there’s no solid connection between climate change and the major indicators of extreme weather

This could lead to changing, and for all emissions scenarios more unpredictable, weather patterns around the world, less frost days, more extreme events (droughts and storm or flood disasters), and warmer sea temperatures and melting glaciers causing sea levels to rise.


Question: The bottom line is there’s no solid connection between climate change and the major indicators of extreme weather

Weather events are due to multiple factors, and so cannot be said to be caused by one precondition, but climate change affects aspects of extreme events, and very likely worsened some of the impacts of Harvey.


Question: The bottom line is there’s no solid connection between climate change and the major indicators of extreme weather

"Q&A: How is Arctic warming linked to the 'polar vortex' and other extreme weather?".


Question: The bottom line is there’s no solid connection between climate change and the major indicators of extreme weather

There are many facts that point to the existence of climate change.


Question: The bottom line is there’s no solid connection between climate change and the major indicators of extreme weather

Detection of a climate signal does not always imply significant attribution.


Question: The bottom line is there’s no solid connection between climate change and the major indicators of extreme weather

This link is associated with climate variability and change.


Question: The bottom line is there’s no solid connection between climate change and the major indicators of extreme weather

Scientists attribute extreme weather to man-made climate change.


Question: The bottom line is there’s no solid connection between climate change and the major indicators of extreme weather

This is worsened by extreme weather events caused by climate change.


Question: The bottom line is there’s no solid connection between climate change and the major indicators of extreme weather

The links between the gradual environmental degradation of climate change and displacement are complex: as the decision to migrate is taken at the household level, it is difficult to measure the respective influence of climate change in these decisions with regard to other influencing factors, such as poverty, population growth or employment options.


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

This has had cascading effects, especially on grizzly bear populations as pine nuts are an important source of winter time food in periods of large snowpack.


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

Global warming refers to the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system.


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

Sirius's heliacal rising, just before the start of the Nile flood, gave Sopdet a close connection with the flood and the resulting growth of plants.


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

"Field evidence for a rapidly cascading underground food web".


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

Climate change effects have been linked to the rise and also the collapse of various civilizations.


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

Climate change has been linked to an increase in violent conflict by amplifying poverty and economic shocks, which are well-documented drivers of these conflicts.


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

Climate refugees or climate migrants are a subset of environmental migrants who were forced to flee "due to sudden or gradual alterations in the natural environment related to at least one of three impacts of climate change: sea-level rise, extreme weather events, and drought and water scarcity.


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

This article is about climate change scenarios.


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

"Domino-effect of climate events could move Earth into a 'hothouse' state".


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

A report released in March 2012 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) confirmed that a strong body of evidence links global warming to an increase in heat waves, a rise in episodes of heavy rainfall and other precipitation, and more frequent coastal flooding.


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

"Climate-change–driven accelerated sea-level rise detected in the altimeter era".


Question: "the cascading effects" of climate change contributed to the rise of ISIS.

In some cases, climate change may lead to conflict arising between countries that as a result of flooding or other conditions produce a large number of refugees, and bordering countries that build fences to keep out these refugees.


Question: Southern sea ice is increasing.

The mean extent of the ice has been decreasing since 1980 from the average winter value of 15,600,000 km2 (6,023,200 sq mi) at a rate of 3% per decade.


Question: Southern sea ice is increasing.

In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice, sea ice around Antarctica has been expanding as of 2013[update].


Question: Southern sea ice is increasing.

Increased sea ice extent does not indicate that the Southern Ocean is cooling, since the Southern Ocean is warming.


Question: Southern sea ice is increasing.

Sea ice extent expands annually in the Antarctic winter and most of this ice melts in the summer.


Question: Southern sea ice is increasing.

Furthermore, sea ice affects the movement of ocean waters.


Question: Southern sea ice is increasing.

Global sea levels have been rising as a consequence of thermal expansion and ice melt.


Question: Southern sea ice is increasing.

Antarctic sea ice extent gradually increased in the period of satellite observations, which began in 1979, until a rapid decline in southern hemisphere spring of 2016.


Question: Southern sea ice is increasing.

The net change is a slight increase in the area of sea ice in the Antarctic seas (unlike the Arctic Ocean, which is showing a much stronger decrease in the area of sea ice).


Question: Southern sea ice is increasing.

"Recently amplified arctic warming has contributed to a continual global warming trend".


Question: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) (or carbon capture and sequestration or carbon control and sequestration) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide (CO 2) usually from large point sources, such as a cement factory or biomass power plant, transporting it to a storage site, and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere, normally an underground geological formation.


Question: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

Also known as geo-sequestration, this method involves injecting carbon dioxide, generally in supercritical form, directly into underground geological formations.


Question: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a method to mitigate climate change by capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from large point sources such as power plants and subsequently storing it away safely instead of releasing it into the atmosphere.


Question: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

Coal pollution mitigation, often called clean coal, is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning (though not the mining or processing) of coal, which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation.


Question: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

It also promotes clean coal technologies.


Question: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

Coal pollution mitigation is a process whereby coal is chemically washed of minerals and impurities, sometimes gasified, burned and the resulting flue gases treated with steam, with the purpose of removing sulfur dioxide, and reburned so as to make the carbon dioxide in the flue gas economically recoverable, and storable underground (the latter of which is called "carbon capture and storage").


Question: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

The coal industry uses the term "clean coal" to describe technologies designed to enhance both the efficiency and the environmental acceptability of coal extraction, preparation and use, but has provided no specific quantitative limits on any emissions, particularly carbon dioxide.


Question: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

Clean" coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal.


Question: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

A coal-fired power station is a type of fossil fuel power station.


Question: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

A coal-fired power station or coal power plant is a thermal power station which burns coal to generate electricity.


Question: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

Refined coal is the product of a coal-upgrading technology that removes moisture and certain pollutants from lower-rank coals such as sub-bituminous and lignite (brown) coals.


Question: ‘Clean coal’ is an approach in which the emissions from coal-burning power plants would be captured and pumped underground.

In 2014, President Barack Obama proposed a series of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations, known as the Clean Power Plan that would reduce carbon pollution from coal-fired power plants.


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

"A 40-y record reveals gradual Antarctic sea ice increases followed by decreases at rates far exceeding the rates seen in the Arctic".


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

found instead that the net change in ice mass is slightly positive at approximately 82 gigatonnes per year (with significant regional variation) which would result in Antarctic activity reducing global sea-level rise by 0.23 mm per year.


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

A satellite record revealed that the overall increase in Antarctic sea ice extents reversed in 2014, with rapid rates of decrease in 2014–2017 reducing the Antarctic sea ice extents to their lowest values in the 40-y record.


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

More recently, new satellite imaging data led to calculations of Thwaites Glacier "ice shelf melt rate of 207 m/year in 2014–2017, which is the highest ice shelf melt rate on record in Antarctica."


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

All datasets generally show an acceleration of mass loss from the Antarctic ice-sheet, but with year-to-year variations.


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

As a consequence, glaciers worldwide have been found to be shrinking significantly Data from NASA's Grace satellites show that the land ice sheets in both Antarctica (upper chart) and Greenland (lower) have been losing mass since 2002.


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

A 2006 paper derived from satellite data, measuring changes in the gravity of the ice mass, suggests that the total amount of ice in Antarctica has begun decreasing in the past few years.


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

"Increasing rates of ice mass loss from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets revealed by GRACE".


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

Antarctic sea ice extent gradually increased in the period of satellite observations, which began in 1979, until a rapid decline in southern hemisphere spring of 2016.


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

"A method of combining ICESat and GRACE satellite data to constrain Antarctic mass balance".


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

"Ice melting across globe at accelerating rate, NASA says."


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

"Antarctica ice melt has accelerated by 280% in the last 4 decades".


Question: Satellites measure Antarctica losing land ice at an accelerating rate.

"Regional acceleration in ice mass loss from Greenland and Antarctica using GRACE time-variable gravity data".


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

Nearly all publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 3% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

76 out of 79 climatologists who "listed climate science as their area of expertise and who also have published more than 50% of their recent peer-reviewed papers on the subject of climate change" believed that mean global temperatures had risen compared to pre-1800s levels.


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

A 2010 paper in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States (PNAS) reviewed publication and citation data for 1,372 climate researchers and drew the following two conclusions: (i) 97–98% of the climate researchers most actively publishing in the field support the tenets of ACC (Anthropogenic Climate Change) outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and (ii) the relative climate expertise and scientific prominence of the researchers unconvinced of ACC are substantially below that of the convinced researchers.


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

Over 99.99% of climate scientists did not reject AGW in their peer-reviewed research.


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

(i) 97–98% of the climate researchers most actively publishing in the field support the tenets of ACC (Anthropogenic Climate Change) outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and (ii) the relative climate expertise and scientific prominence of the researchers unconvinced of ACC are substantially below that of the convinced researchers.


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

A scientific consensus on climate change exists, as recognized by national academies of science and other authoritative bodies.


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

The scientific consensus on climate change is "that climate is changing and that these changes are in large part caused by human activities", and it "is largely irreversible".


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science.


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

There is widespread support for the IPCC in the scientific community, which is reflected in publications by other scientific bodies and experts.


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

A number of scientific organizations have issued statements that support the consensus view.


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

A 2016 paper (which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes, Peter Doran, William Anderegg, Bart Verheggen, Ed Maibach, J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook, and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors) concluded that ``the finding of 97 % consensus [that humans are causing recent global warming] in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies.''


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

The IPCC's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community, and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide (see also: Scientific consensus on climate change).


Question: More specifically, around 95% of active climate researchers actively publishing climate papers endorse the consensus position.

"Climate Scientists Virtually Unanimous Anthropogenic Global Warming Is True".