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Nat Sustain . Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Mar 24. Published in final edited form as: Nat Sustain. 2019 Jul 1;2(7):551–559. doi: 10.1038/s41893-019-0308-0 Improving network approaches to the study of complex social-ecological interdependencies Ö Bodin Ö Bodin 1 Stockholm University, Stockholm Resilience Ce... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.618 | 0.846 | ["education", "networking", "philosophy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.008893 | [
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rsity of Maryland, Annapolis, MD 21401, USA Find articles by SM Alexander 2 , J Baggio J Baggio 3 Department of Political Science and Sustainable Coastal Systems Cluster, National Center for Integrated Coastal Research, University of Central Florida, Orlando, 32816, USA Find articles by J Baggio 3 , ML Barnes ML Barnes... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.531 | 0.718 | ["education"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009144 | [
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ML Barnes 4 , R Berardo R Berardo 5 School of Environment and Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA Find articles by R Berardo 5 , GS Cumming GS Cumming 4 Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia Find artic... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.523 | 0.698 | ["education"] | 445 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009299 | [
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onservation Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA Find articles by L Dee 6 , A P Fischer A P Fischer 7 School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA Find articles by A P Fischer 7 , M Fischer M Fischer 8 Department of Environmental Social Sciences, Eawag... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.549 | 0.72 | ["education"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009371 | [
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Mancilla-Garcia M Mancilla-Garcia 1 Stockholm University, Stockholm Resilience Centre, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden Find articles by M Mancilla-Garcia 1 , A Guerrero A Guerrero 10 School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4067, Australia 11 ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions, Th... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.54 | 0.694 | ["education", "decision_making"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009428 | [
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lm Resilience Centre, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden Find articles by J Hileman 1 , K Ingold K Ingold 8 Department of Environmental Social Sciences, Eawag, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland 9 Institute of Political Science, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland 12 Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.551 | 0.71 | ["education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009486 | [
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ation Technologies, 2006 New South Wales, Australia Find articles by P Matous 13 , TH Morrison TH Morrison 4 Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia Find articles by TH Morrison 4 , D Nohrstedt D Nohrstedt 14 Department of Government, an... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.514 | 0.714 | ["education", "strategy", "governance"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009544 | [
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n J Pittman 15 School of Planning, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada Find articles by J Pittman 15 , G Robins G Robins 16 Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Australia; Faculty of Business and Law, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia. ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.539 | 0.86 | ["education", "strategy", "governance"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009626 | [
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nd Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Atlantic Ecology Division, Narragansett, Rhode Island, USA Find articles by J Sayles 17 Author information Copyright and License information 1 Stockholm University, Stockholm Resilience Centre, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden 2 National Socio-Enviro... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.556 | 0.68 | ["education", "philosophy", "strategy", "economy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009684 | [
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luster, National Center for Integrated Coastal Research, University of Central Florida, Orlando, 32816, USA 4 Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia 5 School of Environment and Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.519 | 0.666 | ["education"] | 422 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009736 | [
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onservation Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA 7 School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA 8 Department of Environmental Social Sciences, Eawag, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland 9 Institute of Political Science, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerla... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.543 | 0.692 | ["education", "decision_making"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009805 | [
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sions, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4067, Australia 12 Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland 13 The University of Sydney, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technologies, 2006 New South Wales, Australia 14 Department of Government, and Center for Natural H... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.535 | 0.698 | ["education", "strategy", "governance", "philosophy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009861 | [
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e W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada 16 Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Australia; Faculty of Business and Law, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia. 17 ORISE Fellow Appointed with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Health a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.53 | 0.818 | ["education", "strategy", "governance", "economy"] | 450 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009933 | [
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sett, Rhode Island, USA Author contributions Ö.B. designed and performed the research, led the collaborative work and the writing of the paper. All other authors contributed to the research, the analyses and the writing based on their specific expertise. * corresponding author: orjan.bodin@su.se PMC Copyright notice PM... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.561 | 0.84 | ["economy", "philosophy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.009985 | [
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fective, sustainable environmental governance requires a better understanding of the causes and consequences of the complex patterns of interdependencies connecting people and ecosystems within and across scales. Network approaches for conceptualizing and analyzing these interdependencies offer one promising solution. ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.639 | 0.842 | ["networking", "education"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010035 | [
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l aims of any given network-centric study of social-ecological interdependencies; (ii) unifying research design considerations that facilitate conceptualizing exactly what is interdependent, through what types of relationships, and in relation to what kinds of environmental problems. The latter builds on the appreciati... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.596 | 0.814 | ["networking", "crisis", "education"] | 421 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010089 | [
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of core challenges that re-occur across contexts. We demonstrate how these advances combine into a comparative heuristic that facilitates leveraging case-specific findings of social-ecological interdependencies to generalizable, yet context-sensitive, theories based on explicit assumptions of causal relationships. Intr... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.417 | 0.808 | ["crisis", "networking"] | 451 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010160 | [
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patterns of social- ecological interdependencies. Social-ecological interdependencies are characterized by unidirectional or bidirectional relationships within and between people and nature. These relationships create mutual dependence, where actions and outcomes in one component of a social- ecological system can lead... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.389 | 0.83 | ["networking", "philosophy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010223 | [
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country can, through far-reaching social-ecological interdependencies, lead to deforestation in another country 2 . The ways in which people and ecosystems currently interact are many, including extraction and trade of natural resources, various land uses, and the maintenance and utilization of local to global ecosyste... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.437 | 0.836 | ["economy"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010278 | [
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ration ensure that social-ecological interdependencies will continue to increase at scales ranging from local to global 1 , 3 , 4 . The crucial importance of such interdependencies in understanding causes, consequences, and possible solutions to environmental problems has long been recognized within the interdisciplina... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.58 | 0.84 | [] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010322 | [
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complex patterns of social and ecological interdependencies has been limited. The boundaries of scientific disciplines often define which interdependencies are taken into account; hence, either social or ecological interdependencies tend to be over-simplified, or even disregarded 8 , 9 . Network approaches, i.e. a pers... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.453 | 0.856 | ["networking"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010375 | [
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and analyzed as links, offer one solution for conceptualizing and analyzing complex social-ecological interdependencies (this does not, however, imply other approaches are unfeasible). As early as the 1930s, Moreno and Jennings demonstrated how basic social preferences among individual people concerning who they intera... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.44 | 0.824 | ["networking", "philosophy"] | 458 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010426 | [
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s that exhibited strong, non-random patterns 10 . Within studies of ecology, antagonistic and mutualistic interactions among species, as well as species dispersal in landscapes, have long been analyzed as networks 11 – 13 . Recently, scholars have begun to conceptualize and analyze previously separated social- and ecol... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.586 | 0.824 | ["networking"] | 423 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010490 | [
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lex social-ecological interdependencies 14 – 16 . These ‘social-ecological networks’ explicitly represent social-ecological interdependencies; i.e., complex relationships within and between components of social-ecological systems ( Box 1 ). Hence, the precise pattern of interdependencies becomes the subject of empirica... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.527 | 0.826 | ["networking"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010549 | [
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rdependencies among local resource users seem to be associated with more sustainable resource uses 17 . This type of research implies a shift away from social-ecological models and frameworks solely based on relationships within a set of variables (cf. ref. 6 ) towards an approach strongly emphasizing interdependencies... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.581 | 0.838 | ["networking", "war_conflict"] | 484 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010604 | [
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ting rich social-ecological scholarship. BOX 1 -. A social-ecological network approach. As an integrative and interdisciplinary approach, a network representation of a social-ecological system incorporates a range of social and ecological/biophysical entities (nodes), as well as their interdependencies (links), in one ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.617 | 0.832 | ["networking", "communication", "decision_making", "education"] | 463 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010659 | [
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e to case depending on the phenomena under study. This critical step in the research design will be further elaborated in subsequent sections. Social nodes could be, for example, individual resource extractors, governments, NGOs, or non-physical actors such as institutions. Ecological nodes could be specific components... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.482 | 0.844 | ["governance", "economy", "education", "philosophy"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010712 | [
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nd more aggregated biophysical forms or phenomena which do not necessarily exhibit a one-to-one mapping to a specific biophysical entity (e.g., eutrophication, climate change, etc.) 19 . If emphasizing the latter, the ecological network resembles a set of biophysically derived issues that could be more or less interdep... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.612 | 0.7 | ["networking", "communication", "economy", "philosophy", "rhetoric"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010777 | [
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., preying on the same species; between firms, e.g., competing on the same market), and resource extraction (actors harvesting ecological resources). Numerous types of links can be investigated, either selectively one-by-one, or in a more combined fashion (‘multiplexed’ in network terminology, see Supplementary Informa... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.612 | 0.814 | ["crisis", "networking", "philosophy"] | 420 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010830 | [
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ogical scholarship beyond its early achievements. To develop a causal and theoretically grounded understanding of how social-ecological interdependencies drive or mediate outcomes in social-ecological systems 21 , and/or how interdependencies derive from different social-ecological processes, we emphasize the need to m... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.44 | 0.828 | ["economy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.010908 | [
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causal assumptions, and to empirically test clear hypotheses about causality, with the aim to build and develop theory are, however, still rare 22 – 25 . Building generalizable theory involves, among other things, aggregating insights about causality across a large body of studies. This endeavor encompasses disentangli... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.351 | 0.826 | [] | 446 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011037 | [
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textual and research design factors into account. Thus, seeking an all-encompassing causal relationship between even two factors is a daunting task when investigating a series of cases in heterogeneous contexts at different scales. Inappropriate case comparisons can lead to misleading or irrelevant conclusions. Moreove... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.348 | 0.834 | ["leadership", "networking"] | 494 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011110 | [
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missed opportunities to develop broader insights. To address this gap, we provide two key advances: (i) a typology of causal assumptions explicating the causal aims of any given network-centric study of social-ecological interdependencies; and (ii) a set of unifying research design considerations applicable when concep... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.61 | 0.836 | ["networking", "communication", "economy", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011202 | [
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analytical approaches are suitable for what causal aims. The latter encompasses a set of considerations on how to best describe the study object as a network of nodes and links, and an analytical perspective that builds from a realization that there are certain core aspects of environmental problems that re-occur acros... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.394 | 0.848 | ["networking", "education"] | 499 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011278 | [
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generalizable, albeit only within certain bounds. We draw from previous studies to demonstrate how these advances combine into a comparative heuristic that facilitates leveraging case-specific findings of social-ecological interdependencies to generalizable, yet context-sensitive, theories based on explicit assumptions... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.394 | 0.822 | ["networking", "war_conflict", "education"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011338 | [
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rently across disciplines and research traditions. Here, we elaborate causality in a strict network context and in its simplest and broadest form, i.e., when A (the cause) gives rise to B (the effect). Social-ecological networks can be causally linked to social and ecological outcomes in both directions. For example, a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.415 | 0.858 | ["networking", "economy", "philosophy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011391 | [
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but not impossible) implies that their genetic composition tends to be more or less locally clustered 27 . The structural characteristics of a network representing such a landscape, where habitat patches are defined as nodes and where species’ abilities to disperse between pairs of patches are defined as links, thus ca... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.522 | 0.86 | ["networking"] | 506 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011448 | [
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interest, in other words, the dependent variable. Seeing the network itself as an outcome (the effect) implies a different directional assumption about causality. Here, the structural characteristics of the network – the patterns of nodes and links – are typically treated as the observable empirical fingerprint left by... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.405 | 0.846 | ["networking"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011524 | [
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g the networks are preferable ( Supplementary Information ). To advance a network-centric causal understanding, we therefore argue that a network lens needs to involve more than measuring and describing patterns of social-ecological interdependencies. To this end, we clarify a typology of different causal relationships... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.45 | 0.838 | ["networking", "philosophy"] | 501 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011576 | [
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rly situate their causal assumptions ( Table 1 ). We argue that this typology represents a first important step to begin unlocking the potential of the network approach to link empirical investigations of social-ecological interdependencies with more fundamental theoretical understandings of how such patterns came abou... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.595 | 0.854 | ["networking"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011627 | [
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ts the cause or the effect (first four types of causality adapted from ref. 28 ) Type of causality Direction of causal influence Basic types of causality Influence/diffusion. Network ties influence how individual entities/nodes are influenced by other entities/nodes (e.g., diffusion of knowledge and norms, spread of di... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.572 | 0.668 | ["networking", "education"] | 420 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011680 | [
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twork->Individual node (Macro->micro) Selection . Individual entities/nodes choose network partners based on other individuals’ attributes (e.g., similarity in educational background, species abundance in food webs, etc.). Individual node->Network (Micro->Macro) Global network outcome . The structure of the network, an... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.613 | 0.692 | ["networking", "education"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011752 | [
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d able to engage in collective action, a food web composed of different clusters is more robust to perturbations) Network->System level social- ecological outcome (Macro->Macro) Compounded causalities Co-evolution . Network structures ( selection ) and individual attributes ( influence ) co-evolve over time (e.g., fish... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.597 | 0.824 | ["networking"] | 429 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011816 | [
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y are catchable given their current set of gears. The targeted fish stocks decline as a response to the fishing pressure, thereby influencing food web dynamics in the marine environment). Individual node<->Network (Micro<->Macro) Global outcomes derived from and mediated by individual choices and behaviors in networks.... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.617 | 0.842 | ["networking", "decision_making"] | 503 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011873 | [
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nterdependent ‘issues’ forming a ‘issue network’. A starting point is to define what kinds of human-nature relationships are in focus. These social-ecological links represent interactions between a social entity or issue (social node) and a biophysical entity or issue (ecological node). Thus, defining these interaction... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.423 | 0.836 | ["philosophy", "networking", "economy"] | 470 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011925 | [
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ndividual entities can accomplish by themselves). The specifics of these objectives partly explain choices of network partners ( selection ), but the aggregation of these choices influence network structures, thereby affecting both individuals’ behaviors ( influence/diffusion ), and collective outcomes a ( global netwo... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.49 | 0.842 | ["networking", "decision_making"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.011975 | [
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n is coordination, when actors perceive a need to connect socially to better synchronize their efforts to effectively solve a commonly agreed-upon collective problem. A coordination problem is distinct from a cooperation problem, where the collective problem is characterized by incentives to free-ride on others’ effort... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.411 | 0.85 | ["communication", "negotiation"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012037 | [
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they face will determine their preferences in how they choose to engage with other actors (‘Risk hypothesis’ 29 ). Thus, this type of causal assumption involves but extends beyond “selection” since it assumes that individual choices to form specific network ties is partly based on other factors that others’ attributes.... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.507 | 0.866 | ["decision_making", "networking", "philosophy", "communication"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012121 | [
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are able to address the coordination problem (“global network outcome”). It is important to note that real world phenomena are typically not explained through a single, clear, unidirectional path linking a cause to an effect. In any complex social-ecological system, there can be multiple causal processes operating simu... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.459 | 0.85 | ["leadership", "communication", "networking"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012187 | [
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lity (a causal pathway can, depending on the context, lead to different end states), intertwined causal pathways, and various feedback and co-evolution mechanisms can blur the distinction between causes and effects 2530 . Of course, it is desirable to simplify complex research problems to enable tractability and ease o... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.502 | 0.694 | [] | 483 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012239 | [
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ication that hides deeper underlying conclusions. For this reason, we think it is essential to theorize carefully about basic causal processes, in order to ensure that their combinations in any particular social-ecological system may be better understood and parsed out empirically. We argue that the use of our typology... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.396 | 0.826 | ["networking", "philosophy"] | 428 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012292 | [
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kes assumptions about causality more transparent. Any full consideration of causality will require longitudinal data, and thus it is desirable for researchers to collect such data to the extent it is possible. There are a variety of analytical methods available from different scientific disciplines studying networks th... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.507 | 0.842 | ["networking", "education"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012350 | [
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tangle network selection and influence causal effects ( Table 1 , Supplementary Information ). However, we also acknowledge the many practical difficulties and the high costs associated with gathering longitudinal social and ecological network data. Consequently, assessing causality and developing generalizable theorie... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.487 | 0.824 | ["networking", "crisis", "education", "philosophy"] | 445 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012416 | [
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g insights drawn from different methods 31 , 32 . Small-scale experiments, either in a laboratory environment or in the field, are very useful in testing detailed causal assumptions empirically, such as human behaviors in relation to environmental issues 33 . Although experiments are the “gold standard” in science, the... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.412 | 0.854 | ["economy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012469 | [
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effects is simulation studies, where the potential implications of various assumptions about causal relationships can be formally modelled and explored in a virtual testbed 25 , 34 . Finally, in some cases it might be possible to conduct large-scale experiments through on-the-ground interventions (or via ‘natural exper... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.451 | 0.85 | ["networking", "philosophy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012520 | [
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directly observe the social-ecological outcomes these ties are responsible for with data collected both before and after the change was induced 35 . Unifying research design considerations While clearly acknowledging the value of all efforts made to collect longitudinal data and in applying methodological triangulation... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.382 | 0.824 | [] | 443 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012565 | [
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ross-sectional real-world empirical case studies. Albeit burdened with difficulties in quantitatively assessing causality, case studies will nonetheless remain of crucial importance in moving this research forward. One key reason is that case studies allow the researcher to gather complementing quantitative data and ri... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.532 | 0.816 | ["crisis", "war_conflict", "education", "philosophy"] | 416 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012620 | [
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extualize the study, but also to infer causality. For example, isolating network effects will require additional information on potentially competing explanations for observed outcomes. Similarly, when the network itself is the object of study (i.e., the dependent variable), information on contextual factors contributi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.467 | 0.844 | ["networking", "philosophy", "education", "economy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012685 | [
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ions and analytical perspectives that, if followed, would not only help individual researchers interested in conducting case studies using a social-ecological network approach to overcome initial barriers, but also build towards a common heuristic facilitating cross-case comparisons in a post-hoc manner. Aggregation – ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.453 | 0.832 | ["networking", "war_conflict", "education"] | 466 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012738 | [
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nomena under study as nodes and links ( Fig. 1 ). Obviously, the ways in which this description is done must be driven by the underlying assumptions and theories associated with the research objectives. Thus, every study needs to carefully consider its own empirical and theoretical specifications and act accordingly. N... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.432 | 0.856 | ["education"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012787 | [
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a research protocol providing guidance on how to define nodes and links in a context-sensitive and flexible way, while paving the way for social-ecological network research to provide insights that reach beyond the idiosyncrasies of single case studies (cf. ref. 37 ). Fig. 1. Describing social-ecological systems as soc... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.454 | 0.854 | ["networking"] | 510 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012837 | [
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s (green nodes) represent the forest patches that the actors are set to manage/utilize 16 . The links represent social ties based on e.g., kinship (red), ecological interdependency through species dispersal across the landscape (green), and social-ecological ties based on ownership or management authority of certain fo... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.591 | 0.836 | ["management"] | 480 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012885 | [
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fornia, Oregon, and Washington, adapted from ref. 20 ) where social nodes (red- white triangles) are defined as an institution/policy devised to address certain problems, and ecological nodes (blue circles and green hexagons) are defined as key components of the ecological system entangled with other key components. Th... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.533 | 0.838 | ["communication", "management", "networking", "philosophy"] | 472 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.012958 | [
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her elaborated in the Supplemental Information ). Prototypical examples of environmental problems often arise when human users (over)harvest units of common-pool or open-access resources, e.g., timber, fish species, or large mammals. In such cases, it is often pragmatic to define these natural resources as ecological n... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.577 | 0.842 | ["economy", "philosophy"] | 481 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013014 | [
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cting social and ecological nodes (cf. Fig. 1a ). However, social-ecological interactions are often tied to specific functions that are produced by assemblages of biophysical entities and processes. In these cases, a more inclusive or aggregated approach in defining ecological nodes may be more appropriate 15 ( Fig. 1b... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.434 | 0.842 | ["management"] | 470 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013063 | [
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used in environmental management and governance. Other examples of when a higher-order aggregation may be more appropriate are, for example, when more systemic biophysical phenomena typically being addressed (and possibly also defined) at higher societal and administrative levels are the focus of the investigation (e.g... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.397 | 0.822 | ["communication", "management"] | 423 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013114 | [
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, eutrophication, see Fig. 1b and ref. 20 , 38 ). Often, the most appropriate level of aggregation of ecological/biophysical entities will coincide with geographic scale, yet it can also be related to the degree of complexity of underlying ecosystems. In particular, the relevance of specific individual biophysical enti... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.449 | 0.862 | [] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013166 | [
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to define ecological nodes at an aggregated level (analogous to not being able to see the forest for the trees). Similar reasoning is applicable to what constitutes a relevant definition of a social node. It could range from the conceptualization of a node being an individual farmer, to various forms and sizes of aggre... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.407 | 0.862 | ["philosophy"] | 499 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013234 | [
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nstitutions ( Fig. 1B , Supplementary Table S1 ). Naturally, everything that humans derive from nature is produced by ecosystems, and not by one specific type of biophysical entity in isolation. Thus, even if single biophysical entities are defined as ecological nodes by themselves, these nodes are dependent on other e... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.511 | 0.854 | ["networking", "philosophy"] | 493 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013286 | [
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links connecting ecological nodes (see Fig. 1 ). This of course also applies in cases with ecological nodes being defined as aggregates (for example, ecosystem services result from numerous types of interactions across many different ecological entities, and therefore ecosystem services are themselves interdependent to... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.513 | 0.824 | [] | 421 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013332 | [
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links also affects issues of case comparability. This involves an informed understanding of the type of relations (or interdependencies) that are important to consider for a given case ( Supplementary Table S1 ). In much of the existing network-centric research on governance and management, various types of collaborati... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.435 | 0.834 | ["networking", "management", "economy", "philosophy"] | 450 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013381 | [
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however, do not always lead to desired outcomes. Instead, less ‘pro-social’ relationships between actors building on power asymmetries and various conflicts of interest may sometimes be more important to consider 40 , 41 . This unifying logic (i.e. the conceptualization of social-ecological interdependencies as the sta... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.446 | 0.846 | ["networking", "war_conflict"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013430 | [
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l scales and levels of social and ecological aggregation. Even more importantly, it promotes comparability, although it does not imply that the same results are to be expected despite the type(s) and level(s) of aggregation. Rather, it reduces the possibility that any revealed substantive differences between cases are ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.446 | 0.842 | [] | 495 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013483 | [
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t similar and/or different levels of aggregation. For example, are individuals’ behaviors comparable with the behaviors of nation states? Perhaps in some specific cases; yet certainly not in all cases. A benefit from being clear on the issue of aggregation when defining nodes and links is that it makes it possible to a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.454 | 0.864 | [] | 510 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013576 | [
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why scale invariability might indeed be in place. Disentangling recurring sets of core governance challenges Every environmental problem has its own history, and is situated in its own specific social- and ecological context. Despite this, we argue that the nature of an environmental problem in any given case is not in... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.401 | 0.848 | ["crisis", "philosophy"] | 475 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013641 | [
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many different cases and contexts (cf. ref. 38 ). For example, it has been demonstrated over the last several decades that common-pool or open access natural resources (e.g., local or migrant fish stocks, clean water or air, etc.) present what we here define as a core governance challenge that occurs across many places... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.457 | 0.866 | ["crisis", "philosophy"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013690 | [
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ltaneously, although the relative intensity of individual challenges may differ. For example, even if a specific case partly suffers from unresolved common-pool resource dilemmas, the potentially most devastating environmental threat (and therefore most pressing and dominating governance challenge) might be the possibl... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.576 | 0.852 | ["crisis"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013749 | [
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ore of these core governance challenges 18 , 38 , 44 – 47 . Furthermore, our previous arguments on equifinality, multifinality, and complex causalities also apply here. For example, different cases facing similar environmental problems can nonetheless experience substantial differences in terms of what specific core go... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.492 | 0.84 | ["crisis", "rhetoric"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013815 | [
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e-specific environmental problems in order to place them into sets of comparable core governance challenges. This applies irrespectively of the specific reasons why a given case experiences a certain set of core governance challenges. Hence, this approach would not only help to avoid inappropriate and potentially misle... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.496 | 0.822 | ["crisis", "leadership", "education", "philosophy"] | 454 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013866 | [
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ogeneous social-ecological systems to accumulate. In that way, it facilitates the development of middle-range theories (e.g. ref. 26 , 48 ). Middle-range theories are applicable and generalizable only within certain bounds, defined by contextual differences 49 . In other words, focusing on specific sets of core governa... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.422 | 0.84 | ["crisis", "networking"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013916 | [
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generalizability of insights across contexts, but without compromising the validity of such generalizations. Here, we elaborate three different core governance challenges that have been the focus of many existing network-centric studies in the environmental domain. First, we emphasize “scale sensitivity/fit,” a core ch... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.633 | 0.836 | ["crisis", "networking", "economy"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.013968 | [
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social-ecological systems are characterized by different social and ecological processes operating at different temporal and spatial scales (often referred to as social-ecological, or scale, mismatch 50 ). Importantly, if these processes are not reasonably aligned – implying a lack of social-ecological fit – attempts t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.444 | 0.832 | ["communication", "management", "philosophy"] | 482 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014023 | [
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ess environmental problems at appropriate scales. Often, ecological structures and processes operates at scales beyond the reach or jurisdiction of managing actors, thereby limiting their abilities to apply measures at scales where they would be most effective 51 . “Resource competition” represents the second core gove... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.597 | 0.836 | ["management", "crisis"] | 480 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014089 | [
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mited and shared/common ecological resources 42 . Lastly, the third core governance challenge is that of “sequential sensitivity,” which describes cases where the order in which different management activities are executed is important for effectively addressing a specific environmental problem. An example of this coul... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.464 | 0.852 | ["crisis", "communication", "management"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014176 | [
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crucial for success and therefore poses challenges regarding coordination among managers 52 – 54 . A comparative heuristic By combining these considerations of recurring core governance challenges with our research design considerations related to levels of aggregation, we arrive at a two-dimensional structure suitable... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.454 | 0.848 | ["crisis", "management", "networking"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014228 | [
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he network-centric literature of environmental governance to date. Yet, what is considered a suitable categorization of core challenges should evolve as more studies are conducted and new insights made; as should a more precise definition of aggregation levels. Therefore, we expect this structure to be refined over tim... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.512 | 0.842 | ["networking", "crisis"] | 486 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014295 | [
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ing comparable social-ecological network studies. Open in a new tab The matrix serves as an initial foundation, together with the typology of causal relationships in Table 1 , for gathering and synthesizing studies across contexts in an effort to develop empirically informed insights regarding the causal relationships ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.597 | 0.834 | ["networking", "crisis", "philosophy"] | 486 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014355 | [
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es, and the rows different levels of aggregation. Comparisons within a matrix element (i.e., a row and a column) can reveal insights across different contexts for a given level of aggregation and core governance challenge. Comparisons across core governance challenges for a given level of aggregation (an entire row, or... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.543 | 0.832 | ["crisis"] | 443 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014416 | [
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alid across different core governance challenges. Comparison across levels of aggregation for a given type of core governance challenge can provide insights both within and across aggregation levels, and also get at cross-level interdependencies (or identify possible “scale breaks” where e.g. insights applicable at a c... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.566 | 0.85 | ["crisis"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014471 | [
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e research might described/categorized them in other ways. Further, any given case often experiences more than one core governance challenge; thus some cases will apply to (and thus appear in) more than one column (observe that a case might appear in two core challenges not next to each other as they are visually prese... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.471 | 0.844 | ["crisis", "philosophy"] | 486 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014520 | [
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ure characteristics of social-ecological systems. Other types of governance challenges that derive from, for example, the socioeconomic domain are also important (e.g., asymmetric power relations, exclusion of user groups, lack of adequate institutions, etc.). These other challenges are to be seen as either contributin... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.395 | 0.688 | ["crisis"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014568 | [
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of social- ecological interdependencies, and/or social-ecological outcomes. An example on how other factors can be associated with certain network patterns derives from current research on conflicting coalitions. Conflicting coalitions can be described, understood and analyzed in a social network context as subgroups o... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.446 | 0.846 | ["networking", "war_conflict", "crisis"] | 511 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014621 | [
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r core governance challenges significantly reduces the chance of cross-case comparisons not taking key contextual and research design differences into account. However, it will not necessarily enhance an elaborated causal understanding when conducting social-ecological network research. Our typology of causal assumptio... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.485 | 0.83 | ["economy", "leadership", "crisis", "networking"] | 505 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014701 | [
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o-dimension structure for case comparisons ( Fig. 2 ) with our typology of causal assumptions ( Table 1 ), we arrive at a comparative heuristic . This heuristic can significantly further our causal understanding of the role and impact of complex patterns of social-ecological interdependencies in understanding causes, c... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.554 | 0.852 | [] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014749 | [
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ic, we used it to retrofit a series of previous network-centric case studies and investigate the core challenge of ‘scale sensitivity/fit’ ( Fig. 2 ). We investigated (i) if these studies explicitly tried to understand why and how different social and ecological nodes aligned (or not) in certain ways (“Selection”, Tabl... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.612 | 0.834 | ["crisis", "networking"] | 422 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014824 | [
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cological outcomes (“Global outcomes”, Table 1 ). The issue of scale sensitivity/fit has been a key focus for numerous studies over the last couple of decades 51 . In spite of this, we still lack a commonly agreed upon definition of what exactly constitutes a good fit, and how it could be measured. Accordingly, it rema... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.385 | 0.842 | [] | 417 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014891 | [
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ant in explaining social-ecological outcomes 61 . Our comparative analysis, encompassing different levels of aggregation and contexts, thus also provides an indicative synthesis of studies addressing social-ecological mismatches. A set of seven studies using explicit social-ecological network models was identified thro... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.434 | 0.844 | ["networking", "communication", "economy", "education"] | 512 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.014942 | [
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tly elaborate integrated social-ecological networks 14 . Secondly, we relied on web searches using keywords such as “social-ecological networks”, “social-ecological”, and “institutional fit”. Finally, all authors did their own inventories of their personal libraries of published studies. Given that this type of network... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.435 | 0.834 | ["networking", "economy"] | 486 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.015010 | [
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se searches capture the bulk of relevant studies. Table 2 – The studied cases and (statistical) propensities for social-ecological alignment a Case locality Propensity for closed four cycles b Propensity for closed triangles c Highest level of aggregation Pacific Northwest region of the USA 20 Not tested statistically,... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.365 | 0.826 | [] | 454 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.015066 | [
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fforts to increasing social-ecological alignment. Not tested nor elaborated Middle level of aggregation Indo West Pacific 55 Not tested statistically, however some variation observed. A qualitative assessment suggest mostly fairly good alignment. Not tested nor elaborated Lesser Antilles 56 Overall neither positive or ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8943905/ | Improving network approaches to the study of complex social ... - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.351 | 0.82 | ["economy", "philosophy"] | 430 | Building External Networks Ecosystems | topic | 2026-04-15T08:09:29.015116 | [
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