diff --git "a/beir/arguana/ps256x256_dpi72/corpus.jsonl" "b/beir/arguana/ps256x256_dpi72/corpus.jsonl" new file mode 100644--- /dev/null +++ "b/beir/arguana/ps256x256_dpi72/corpus.jsonl" @@ -0,0 +1,8674 @@ +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsYou don’t haveto be vegetarian to be green. Many specialenvironments have been created by livestockfarming – for example chalk down land inEngland and mountain pastures in manycountries. Ending livestock farming would seethese areas go back to woodland with a loss ofmany unique plants and animals. Growing cropscan also be very bad for the planet, withfertilisers and pesticides polluting rivers, lakesand seas. Most tropical forests are now cut downfor timber, or to allow oil palm trees to be grownin plantations, not to create space for meatproduction. British farmer and former editorSimon Farrell also states: “Many vegans andvegetarians rely on one source from the U.N.calculation that livestock generates 18% ofglobal carbon emissions, but this figure containsbasic mistakes. It attributes all deforestationfrom ranching to cattle, rather than logging ordevelopment. It also muddles up one-off", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsBeingvegetarian helps the environment Becoming avegetarian is an environmentally friendly thing todo. Modern farming is one of the main sources ofpollution in our rivers. Beef farming is one of themain causes of deforestation, and as long aspeople continue to buy fast food in their billions,there will be a financial incentive to continuecutting down trees to make room for cattle.Because of our desire to eat fish, our rivers andseas are being emptied of fish and many speciesare facing extinction. Energy resources are usedup much more greedily by meat farming than myfarming cereals, pulses etc. Eating meat and fishnot only causes cruelty to animals, it causesserious harm to the environment and tobiodiversity. For example consider Meatproduction related pollution and deforestation AtToronto’s 1992 Royal Agricultural Winter Fair,Agriculture Canada displayed two contrastingstatistics: “it takes four football fields of land", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsThe key to goodhealth is a balanced diet, not a meat- andfish-free diet. Meat and fish are good sources ofprotein, iron, and other vitamins and minerals.Most of the health benefits of a vegetarian dietderive from its being high in fibre and low in fatand cholesterol. These can be achieved byavoiding fatty and fried foods, eating only leangrilled meat and fish, and including a largeamount of fruit and vegetables in your diet alongwith meat and fish. In general, raw, unprocessedmeat from the muscle is made up of thefollowing: protein 15 - 22 % Fat 3 - 15 %Minerals, carbohydrates 1 - 5 % Water 65 - 75%, all things that we need in moderation. [1] Ameat- and fish-free diet is unbalanced andmakes it more likely that you will go short ofprotein, iron and some minerals such as B12 forwhich we are primarily dependent on animalfoodstuffs. Also, a vegetarian diet, in the West, isa more expensive option - a luxury for the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsIt is immoral tokill animals As evolved human beings it is ourmoral duty to inflict as little pain as possible forour survival. So if we do not need to inflict painto animals in order to survive, we should not doit. Farm animals such as chickens, pigs, sheep,and cows are sentient living beings like us - theyare our evolutionary cousins and like us they canfeel pleasure and pain. The 18th centuryutilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham evenbelieved that animal suffering was just as seriousas human suffering and likened the idea ofhuman superiority to racism. It is wrong to farmand kill these animals for food when we do notneed to do so. The methods of farming andslaughter of these animals are often barbaric andcruel - even on supposedly 'free range' farms.[1] Ten billion animals were slaughtered forhuman consumption each year, stated PETA. Andunlike the farms long time ago, where animalsroamed freely, today, most animals are factory", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsThere is a greatmoral difference between humans and animals.Unlike animals, humans are capable of rationalthought and can alter the world around them.Other creatures were put on this earth formankind to use, and that includes eating meat.For all these reasons we say that men andwomen have rights and that animals don’t. Thismeans that eating meat is in no way like murder.It is natural for human beings to farm, kill, andeat other species. In the wild there is a brutalstruggle for existence. The fact that we humanshave succeeded in that struggle by exploiting ournatural environment means that we have anatural right over lower species. In fact farminganimals is much less brutal than the pain andhardship that animals inflict on each othernaturally in the wild. Eating meat does not needto mean cruelty to animals. There are a growingnumber of organic and free-range farms that canprovide meat without cruelty to animals.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsFood safety andhygiene are very important for everyone, andgovernments should act to ensure that highstandards are in place particularly in restaurantsand other places where people get their foodfrom. But food poisoning can occur anywhere“People don't like to admit that the germs mighthave come from their own home” [1] and whilemeat is particularly vulnerable to contaminationthere are bacteria that can be transmitted onvegetables, for example Listeria monocytogenescan be transmitted raw vegetables. [2] Almostthree-quarters of zoonotic transmissions arecaused by pathogens of wildlife origin; evensome that could have been caused by livestocksuch as avian flu could equally have come fromwild animals. There is little we can do about thetransmission of such diseases except by reducingclose contact. Thus changing to vegetarianismmay reduce such diseases by reducing contactbut would not eliminate them. [3] Just as meat", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsVegetarianism ishealthier There are significant health benefits to'going veggie'; a vegetarian diet contains highquantities of fibre, vitamins, and minerals, and islow in fat. (A vegan diet is even better since eggsand dairy products are high in cholesterol.) Therisk of contracting many forms of cancer isincreased by eating meat: in 1996 the AmericanCancer Society recommended that red meatshould be excluded from the diet entirely. Eatingmeat also increases the risk of heart disease -vegetables contain no cholesterol, which canbuild up to cause blocked arteries inmeat-eaters. An American study found out that:“that men in the highest quintile of red-meatconsumption — those who ate about 5 oz. of redmeat a day, roughly the equivalent of a smallsteak had a 31% higher risk of death over a10-year period than men in thelowest-consumption quintile, who ate less than 1oz. of red meat per day, or approximately three", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsBeingvegetarian reduces risks of foodpoisoning Almost all dangerous types of foodpoisoning are passed on through meat or eggs.So Campylobacter bacteria, the most commoncause of food poisoning in England, are usuallyfound in raw meat and poultry, unpasteurisedmilk and untreated water. Salmonella come fromraw meat, poultry and dairy products and mostcases of escherichia coli (E-Coli) food poisoningoccur after eating undercooked beef or drinkingunpasteurised milk. [1] Close contact betweenhumans and animals also leads to zoonosis –diseases such as bird ‘flu which can be passed onfrom animals to humans. Using animal brains inthe processed feed for livestock led to BSE incattle and to CJD in humans who ate beef frominfected cows. [1] Causes of food poisoning,nhs.co.uk, 23rd June 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsTo suggest thatbattery farms are in some way 'natural' is absurd- they are unnatural and cruel. To eat meat is toperpetuate animal suffering on a huge scale - alarger, crueler, and more systematic scale thananything found in the wild. Furthermore, thevery fact of humanity's 'superiority' over otheranimals means they have the reason and moralinstinct to stop exploiting other species. If analien species from another planet, much moreintelligent and powerful than humans, came andcolonized the earth and farmed (and force-fed)human beings in battery farm conditions wewould think it was morally abhorrent. If thiswould be wrong, then is it not wrong for we'superior' humans to farm 'lower' species onearth simply because of our ability to do so?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsHuman evolvedas omnivores over thousands of years. Yet sincethe invention of farming there is no longer aneed for us to be omnivores. Even if we wishedto we could no longer collect, hunt and eat ourfood in the same way as our ancestors as wecould not support the human population. Wehave outstripped the pace of our evolution and ifwe do not want to be turning ever more landover to farming we have get our food from themost efficient sources, which means beingvegetarian.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsThere areproblems with being vegetarian A vegetarian orvegan diet may result in a person not gettingenough iron. This is because, although you canget iron from foods such as pulses, green leafyvegetables and nuts, the iron in these foods isn'tabsorbed so easily. The symptoms of this feelingbreathless after little exercise, feeling tired and ashort attention span and poor concentration. [1]These symptoms could negatively affectproficiency in school and the ability to performwell at work ultimately leading to a loss ofproductivity which has both personal effects andbroader effects for the economy. Otherconditions include frequently becoming ill,frequently becoming depressed, andmalnourishment. [1] Bupa's Health InformationTeam, ‘Iron-deficiency anaemia’, bupa.co.uk,March 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsSurvival of thefittest It is natural for human beings to farm,kill, and eat other species. In the wild there is abrutal struggle for existence as is shown byDarwin’s On the Origin of the Species. [1] Thefact that we humans have succeeded in thatstruggle by exploiting our natural environmentmeans that we have a natural right over lowerspecies. The concept of survival of the fittestmay seem outdated but it is still the definingorder of nature. In fact farming animals is muchless brutal than the pain and hardship thatanimals inflict on each other naturally in thewild. [1] Darwin, Charles, On the Origin ofSpecies by Means of Natural Selection, or thePreservation of Favoured Races in the Strugglefor Life., Literature.org", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsHumans canchoose their own nutrition plan Humans areomnivores – we are meant to eat both meat andplants. Like our early ancestors we have sharpcanine teeth for tearing animal flesh anddigestive systems adapted to eating meat andfish as well as vegetables. Our stomachs are alsoadapted to eating both meat and vegetablematter. All of this means that eating meat is partof being human. Only in a few western countriesare people self-indulgent enough to deny theirnature and get upset about a normal human diet.We were made to eat both meat and vegetables- cutting out half of this diet will inevitably meanwe lose that natural balance. Eating meat isentirely natural. Like many other species, humanbeings were once hunters. In the wild animalskill and are killed, often very brutally and with noidea of “rights”. As mankind has progressed overthousands of years we have largely stoppedhunting wild animals. Instead we have found", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aeghhgwpe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "animals environment general health healthgeneral weight philosophy ethicsThe problemswith fatigue, apathetic behaviour andconcentration are mostly a result from a lack ofiron in the diet. However as with any diet this isonly a problem when not eating the right things,this regularly means that such iron deficiencycan be a problem in the developing world wherevegetarians have little choice – usually eatinglittle else except what they grow, normally justcereals. “Although the iron stores of vegetariansare sometimes reduced, the incidence ofiron-deficiency anaemia in vegetarians is notsignificantly different from that in the generalpopulation”, there are plenty of sources of ironthat can be eaten by vegetarians such aslegumes and whole grains that are a substantialpart of most western vegetarian’s diets meaningit is not a problem. [1] Research done inAustralia concludes that \"There was nosignificant difference between mean daily ironintakes of vegetarians and omnivores\". [2] [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorWhat then is the interest of theanimal? If releasing these animals into the wildwould kill them then surely it is humane to putthem down after the experiment. It must also beremembered that the interest of the animal isnot the main and is outweighed by the benefitsto humans. [5]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorAnimal research causes severeharm to the animals involved The point ofanimal research is that animals are harmed.Even if they don’t suffer in the experiment,almost all are killed afterwards. With 115 millionanimals used a year this is a big problem.Releasing medical research animals in to the wildwould be dangerous for them, and they wouldnot be usable as pets. [4]. The only solution isthat they are wild from birth. It is obvious thatit’s not in the interest of animals to be killed orharmed. Research should be banned in order toprevent the deaths of millions of animals.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorThe laws that restrict animal testingonly allow it where it’s needed. Animal testingisn’t cheap, meaning that if universities and thedrug industry have a good reason to end it ifthey can. If we ban animal testing we won’tknow what it would be able to do in the future.Animal research now has better results thanother ways of doing research. [8]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorIt would send out a consistentmessage Most countries have animal welfarelaws to prevent animal cruelty but have laws likethe UK’s Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act1986, [10] that stop animal testing being acrime. This makes means some people can dothings to animals, but not others. If thegovernment are serious about animal abuse, whyallow anyone to do it?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorAnimals shouldn’t be harmed Thedifference between us and other animals is amatter of degree rather than type [2]. Theirbodies resemble ours, as do their ways ofconveying meaning. They recoil from pain,appear to express fear of a tormentor, andappear to take pleasure in activities; a pointclear to anyone who has observed a pet dog onhearing the word “walk”. We believe otherpeople experience feelings like us because theyare like us in appearance and behaviour. Ananimal sharing our anatomical, physiological,and behavioural characteristics is surely likely tohave feelings like us. If people have a right tonot be harmed, we must ask ourselves whatmakes animals different? If animals feel what wefeel, and suffer like us, to condemn one totesting because of them being of a differentspecies is similar to racism or sexism.[3]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorThe right of a human not to beharmed is based not on appearance but on notharming others. Animals don’t participate inthis. Animals won’t stop hunting because of thepain and feelings of other animals. Even if animaltesting were to be abolished people would stilleat meat, and kill animals for other lessworthwhile reasons than animal testing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorThere is a moral difference betweenharm for the sake of harming an animal andharm in order to save lives. Lifesaving drugs is avery different purpose to betting or enjoymentthat animal welfare laws are aimed at.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorThe decision to test is not basedupon the capacity to suffer. But it should beremembered that the individual being testedwould not be the only one who suffers, for theintellectually disabled we must remember theirfamilies would suffer as well.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorIt isn’t necessary We don’t knowhow we will be able to develop new drugswithout animal testing until we end it. We nowknow how most chemicals work, and computersimulations of chemicals are very good.[6]Experimenting on tissue can show how drugswork, without the need for actual animals. Evenskin left over from surgery can be experimenton, and being human, is more useful. The factthat animal research was needed in the past isn’ta good excuse any more. We still have all theadvancements from animal testing in the past,but it’s no longer needed. [7]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorMost animals can suffer more thansome people It’s possible to think of people thatcan’t suffer, like those in a persistent vegetativestate, or with significant intellectualdisabilities. We could go for one of threeoptions. Either we could experiment on animals,but not such people, which is morally notconsistent. We could allow both, but do we wantto do painful medical research on the disabled?Or, we could do neither.[9]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorWhen a drug is first tested onhuman volunteers, they are only given a tinyfraction of the amount shown safe to give toprimates showing there is another way, to startwith very low doses. Animal research isn’t areliable indicator of how a drug will work inpeople – even with animal testing, some drugstrials go very wrong [15].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorTo argue that “the ends justify themeans” isn’t enough. We don’t know how muchanimals suffer, as they can’t talk to us. Wetherefore don’t know how aware they are ofthemselves. In order to stop a moral harm onanimals we don’t understand, we shouldn’t doanimal testing. Even if it were a “net gain”because of the results, by that logic humanexperimentation could be justified. Commonmorality says that isn’t OK, as people shouldn’tbe used to a means to an end. [12]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-con02a", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorPeople will die if we don’t do animaltesting Every year, 23 new drugs are introducedin the UK alone.[13] Almost all will be tested onanimals. A new drug will be used for a long time.Think of all the people saved by the use ofpenicillin. If drugs cost more to test, that meansdrug companies will develop less. This meansmore people suffering and dying", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-con05a", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorResearch animals are welltreated Animals used in research generally don’tsuffer. While they may be in pain, they aregenerally given pain killers, and when they areput down this is done humanely. [16] They arelooked after, as healthy animals mean betterexperimental results. These animals live betterlives than they would in the wild. As long asanimals are treated well there shouldn’t be amoral objection to animal research. This isexactly the same as with raising animals that willbe used for meat.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-con04a", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorAnimal research is only used whenit’s needed EU member states and the US havelaws to stop animals being used for research ifthere is any alternative. The 3Rs principles arecommonly used. Animal testing is being Refinedfor better results and less suffering, Replaced,and Reduced in terms of the number of animalsused. This means that less animals have tosuffer, and the research is better.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-con03a", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorTesting is needed for really newdrugs The real benefit of animal testing ismaking totally new drugs, which is about aquarter of them. After non-animal and thenanimal tests, it will be tested on humans. Thereason why the risk is low (but not non-existent)for these brave volunteers, is because of theanimal tests. These new chemicals are the onesmost likely to produce improvements to people’slives, because they are new. You couldn’t doresearch on these new drugs without eitheranimal testing or putting humans at a muchhigher risk.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-con05b", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorJust because an animal is treatedwell as it is brought up doesn’t stop the very realsuffering during testing. Stricter rules andpainkillers don’t help as the lack of sufferingcannot be guaranteed – if we knew what wouldhappen, we wouldn’t do the experiment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-con01a", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorAnimals don’t have humanrights Humans have large brains, form socialgroups, communicate and are generally worthyof moral consideration. We also are aware ofourselves and of the nature of death. Someanimals have some of these characteristics butnot all so should not have the same rights. Inharming animals to benefit humans, we enter into a good moral trade-off to create a greatergood. [11]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-con04b", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorNot every country has laws like theEU or the US. In countries with low welfarestandards animal testing is a more attractiveoption. Animal researchers tend to only doanimal research so don’t know about thealternatives. As a result they will use animaltesting unnecessarily not as just a last resort.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-assgbatj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorMany of these drugs are “me too”drugs – ones with a slight change that doesn’tmake much difference to an existing drug. [14]So often the benefits from animal testing aremarginal, and even if there was a slight increasein human suffering, it would be worth it based onthe animal suffering saved.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherTougherprotection of Africa’s nature reserves will onlyresult in more bloodshed. Every time the militaryupgrade their weaponry, tactics and logistic, thepoachers improve their own methods to counterthem. In the past decade, over 1,000 rangershave been killed whilst protecting Africa’sendangered wildlife. [1] Every time one sideadvances its position the other side matches it.When armed military patrols were sent out,poachers switched their tactics so every hunterhas several ‘guards’ to combat the military. Thelack of an advantageous position in the armsrace has ensured that the poaching war is yet tobe won. [2] [1] Smith, D. ‘Execute elephantpoachers on the spot, Tanzanian ministerurges’ [2] Welz, A. ‘The War on AfricanPoaching: Is Militarization Fated to Fail?’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherPoaching isbecoming more advanced A stronger, militarisedapproach is needed as poaching is becoming farmore advanced. Poachers now operate withhigh-calibre rifles, night vision scopes, silencersand use helicopters to hunt their prey. [1] Thesemethods are used particularly againstrhinoceroses in South Africa, whose horns havebecome extremely valuable on the Asian marketfor their supposed medical properties. [2] Inresponse to this, South African rangers are beinggiven specialised training and use their ownaerial surveillance to track poachers down withsuccess, [3] supporting the argument for amilitarised response to protect endangeredanimals. [1] WWF, ‘African rhino poachingcrisis’ [2] Zapwing, ‘The Rhino PoachingCrisis’ [3] ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherNot allendangered animals have such culturalsignificance within Africa. Pangolins arearmoured mammals which are native to Africaand Asia. Like rhinoceros, pangolins areendangered due to their demand in East Asia.They are relatively unknown however, andtherefore have little cultural significance. [1] Thisis the case for many of Africa’s lesser knownendangered species. Any extension of protectionfor endangered animals based on their culturalsignificance would be unlikely to save many ofthese species. [1] Conniff, R. ‘PoachingPangolins: An Obscure Creature Faces UncertainFuture’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherThe justicesystem does not currently work A major failingin current anti-poaching operations is that thepoachers are rarely prosecuted. African legalsystems rarely prioritise poaching as a seriouscrime, with offenders usually receiving trivialfines1. One of the major reasons for the Westernblack rhinoceros’ extinction in 2011 was thecomplete lack of sentencing for any of thepoachers who were captured. [1] The systemalso fails to prosecute the brains behind many ofthe operations due to poor investigativemethods. This creates an impression in theminds of the poachers that they can operate withimpunity. [2] [1] Mathur, A. ‘Western BlackRhino Poached Out of Existence; DeclaredExtinct, Slack Anti-Poaching EffortsResponsible’ [2] Welz, A. ‘The War on AfricanPoaching: Is Militarization Fated to Fail?’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherNatural habitatsbeing are destroyed A tougher approach to theprotection of animals is needed to prevent theirnatural habitats from being destroyed by locals.As humans expand their agricultural activity inAfrica they are destroying the environments ofendangered animals and pushing others towardsbeing endangered. Due to an increase in largescale cotton plantations and food crops, the WestAfrican lion has seen a marked decrease inpopulation; numbering less than 400 in early2014 [1] . Tougher protection, such as fencingoff areas from human activity, has beensuggested and has seen success in South Africa[2] . [1] BBC, “Lions ‘facing extinction in WestAfrica’” [2] Morelle,R. “Fencing off wild lionsfrom humans ‘could save them’”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherHumandevelopment is of great importance to theAfrican continent, arguably more so thanconserving endangered animals. In 2010 it wasestimated that there are 239 millionsub-Saharan Africans living in poverty. [1]Poverty can be the cause of a wide array ofpolitical, security and socio-economic issues.Possible sources of income, such as cottonplantations and food crops, should therefore beembraced as they will have a more positiveimpact on the region than the survival ofendangered species. [1] World Hunger, ‘AfricaHunger and Poverty Facts’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherDeterrents in thecriminal justice system have not worked insimilar cases. The US drug war, which identifieda specific activity and made it a matter ofnational security, has resulted in harshsentences for those who deal or smuggle illicitsubstances. Despite these harsh punishmentshowever, there has been little success indefeating the drug business as the profit marginfor the trade is too high. [1] With Ivory andother products for which poachers are huntingthe same will happen; if some poachers are putup the prices will simply go up encouragingothers. Tougher protection of animals throughincreased conviction rates and extended terms islikely to fail. [1] BBC, “Global war on drugs ‘hasfailed’ says former leaders’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherLinking animalendangerment and poaching to terrorism as ajustification for action unnecessarily securitisesthe issue. This will only serve to create asituation where state actors can use poaching asan excuse to exploit threats. As with the war ondrugs and the war on terror, this power isapportioned to actors who are then capable ofabusing it for the sake of national security.[1] [1] Crick,E. ‘Drugs as an existential threat:An analysis of the international securitization ofdrugs’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherEndangeredanimals are a source of pride for Africancountries Endangered animals warrant atougher degree of protection in Africa as theyhave notable cultural significance. Some groupsbelieve that African elephants have mysticpowers attached to them and have coveted themfor centuries. [1] African lions have beendepicted on the coat of arms for states andinstitutions both past and present. [2] They areintrinsically linked with Africa’s past and itsidentity. The extinction of these animals,therefore, would have a negative cultural impactand should be prevented. [1] University ofCalifornia, Los Angeles, ‘Elephant: The Animaland its Ivory in African Culture’ [2] Coleman, Q.‘The importance of African lions’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherPoaching islinked to terrorism Stronger protection ofanimals should be implemented to reduce thefunding for terrorist groups. Certain terroristorganisations use the illegal ivory and horn tradeas funding for their operations. Al-Shabaab, theLord’s Resistance Army (LRA), and the SudaneseJanjaweed all use the illicit trade as a source ofincome, with the former using the trade for 40%of its expenditure. [1] This enables them to carryout attacks such as the 2013 Westgate siege inKenya. [2] Tougher protection of endangeredanimals would reduce the ability of these groupsto fund themselves. In turn, this would decreasetheir operational capability, increasing stability inAfrica. [1] Stewart, C. ‘Illegal ivory trade fundsal-shabaab’s terrorist attacks’ [2] Tackett,C.‘How elephant poaching helped fund Kenyaterrorist attack’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-con03b", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherThere is noguarantee that legalising the trade would satisfydemand in East Asia. [1] Nor is there anysubstantial evidence to suggest that prices woulddrop to the point where hunters could no longersustain themselves. If neither of these factorstranspires then there is a strong likelihood thatendangered animals would be hunted toextinction. [1] Player, I. & Fourie, A. ‘Howto win the war against poachers’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-con01b", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherThere arenumerous sponsors who contribute towardsanimal protection schemes, reducing thegovernment’s burden. Private wildlife custodiansspend significant sums of money ensuring theyare fully equipped to deal with poachers. Thereare also private donors and interest groups suchas World Wildlife Federation (WWF) who supplyfunding for the governments’ conservationefforts. [1] This financial support has madeprojects such as the increased military presencein South Africa’s game parks possible. [1] Welz,A. ‘The War on African Poaching: Is MilitarizationFated to Fail?’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-con02a", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherFewer humandeaths Fewer large beasts will lead to fewerdeaths in Africa. Some endangered animals areaggressive and will attack humans.Hippopotamuses kill in excess of three hundredhumans a year in Africa, with other animals suchas the elephant and lion also causing manyfatalities. [1] Footage released in early 2014 of abull elephant attacking a tourist’s car in KrugerNational Park, South Africa demonstrated thecontinued threat these animals cause. [2]Tougher protection would result in highernumbers of these animals which increases therisk to human lives. [1] Animal Danger ‘MostDangerous Animals’ [2] Withnall, A. ‘Rampagingbull elephant flips over British tourist car inKruger Park’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-con04a", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherHeavy handedapproaches do not solve the motivations forpoaching Creating tougher responses topoaching will not deter poachers as they fail torecognise the motivations for illegal hunting.Many hunters, especially those who aren’t nativeto Africa, take part in poaching as there is a thrillin the illegal status. [1] The close calls,challenges and sense of independence will all bemultiplied by increased protection on the gamereserves. Then there are those who take partout of necessity. Poachers will often be able tomake $50-100 per kilogram for a rhinoceros’horn [2] and the bush meat from kills can be anecessary source of nutrition. [3] Poachingcreates opportunities for Africans which areusually unavailable in licit work. Tougherprotection of animals fails to provide analternative livelihood for these poachers. [1]Forsyth, C. & Marckese, T. ‘Thrills andskills: a sociological analysis of poaching’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-con03a", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherLegalising thetrade of horns, ivory, furs and pelts would bemore effective Making it legal for hunters to killthese endangered animals, rather thanprotecting them, could prevent extinction. Theprotected status of endangered animals hasmade their pelts, horns and tusks moreexpensive as they are harder to obtain. [1] Thecurrent illegality of trading rhino horns hasconstrained supply in comparison to demand inAsia. This has driven the price of the horn toaround £84,000. Softening protection forendangered animals could, in theory, reduce theprice to a point where it is no longer profitable tohunt these endangered animals. [2] This wouldpotentially increase supply by freeing up thatseized by governments which is currentlydestroyed, and could potentially involve farmingas South Africa is considering with Rhino horn.[3] [1] Welz, A. ‘The War on African Poaching:Is Militarization Fated to Fail?’ [2] Player, I.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-con01a", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherAfrican countrieshave little money to spare Africa has some ofthe least developed countries in the world,making extensive protection of endangeredanimals unviable. Many African countries areburdened by the more pressing issues of civilwar, large debts, poverty, and economicunderdevelopment. [1] These factors alreadydraw significant amounts of money from limitedbudgets. Tanzania, for example, has revenue of$5.571 billion and an expenditure of $6.706billion. [2] Increased expenditure on animalprotection projects would only serve to worsenthis budget deficit. [1] Simensen, J. ‘Africa: thecauses of under-development and the challengesof globalisation’ [2] The World Factbook‘Tanzania’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-con04b", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherIf toughapproaches to conservation did not exist thenthe situation would be far worse. [1] The lack oflegislation and an armed response to thepoaching threat has led to the extinction of manyspecies, such as the Western black rhinoceros.[2] Without the boots on the ground thenpoaching would most likely expand due to thelack of deterrent which armed guards cause. [1]Welz, A. ‘The War on African Poaching: IsMilitarization Fated to Fail?’ [2] Mathur, A.‘Western Black Rhino Poached Out of Existence;Declared Extinct, Slack Anti-Poaching EffortsResponsible’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-aiahwagit-con02b", "title": "", "text": "animals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherMost of thesehuman deaths are caused by humans invadingthe territory of the animals at hand. Evengiraffes, usually considered peaceful animals, willattack if they feel that humans are too close.Generally, it is the human’s responsibility ratherthan the animal’s. Increased protection may savemore lives as methods such as fencing willforcibly separate humans from animals anddecrease the chances of the two coming in tocontact. [1] [1] Morelle, R. “Fencing off wildlions from humans ‘could save them’”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-ehwsnwu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "energy house would store nuclear wasteundergroundJournalist Jeremy Shere describesthe problems with most methods of nuclearstorage: \"There have been a few otherinteresting ideas –such as burying nuclear wastebeneath the ocean floor. Scientists have alsothought about putting waste in really deep holes,burying it in polar ice sheets, and stashing itbeneath uninhabited islands. [...] But there areproblems with each of these ideas. For example,it would be difficult to monitor nuclear wasteunder the ocean floor. Waste buried deep in theearth, meanwhile, might contaminate groundwater. And as ice sheets continue to melt, it’shard to say how long nuclear waste wouldremain buried, or where it would end up if itfloated away. Plans to store waste produced inthe United States in Yucca Mountain, in Utah,have been put on hold. So for now almost allnuclear waste is kept above ground in specialcontainers at a few hundred different sitesaround the country.” [1] The point with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-ehwsnwu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "energy house would store nuclear wasteundergroundUnderground Nuclear Storage isSafe Underground nuclear waste storage meansthat nuclear waste is stored at least 300munderground. [I1] The harm of a leak 300munderground is significantly limited, if the areahas been chosen correctly then there should beno water sources nearby to contaminate. If thisis the case, then a leak’s harm would be limitedto the layers of sediment nearby which would beunaffected by radiation. By comparison a leakoutside might lead to animals nearby sufferingfrom contamination. Further nuclear waste mightreach water sources should there be a leakabove ground, if it is raining heavily when theleak happens for example. Further, the otheroptions available, such as above ground storagepresent a potentially greater danger, shouldsomething go wrong. This is because it is mucheasier for nuclear waste to leak radiation into theair. This is problematic because even a hint ofradiation may well cause people to panic owing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-ehwsnwu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "energy house would store nuclear wasteundergroundUnderground Nuclear Storage isNecessary Even states without nuclear wasteprograms tend to generate radioactive waste.For example, research and medicine both usenuclear material and nuclear technology.Technologies such as Medical imaging equipmentare dependent and the use of radioactiveelements. This means that all states producelevels of nuclear waste that need to be dealtwith. Moreover, many non-nuclear states areaccelerating their programmes of research andinvestment into nuclear technologies. With theexception of Germany, there is an increasingconsensus among developed nations that nuclearpower is the only viable method of meeting risingdomestic demand for energy in the absence ofreliable and efficient renewable forms of powergeneration. The alternatives to putting nuclearwaste in underground storage tend to be basedaround the reuse of nuclear waste in nuclearpower stations. Whilst this is viable in some", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-ehwsnwu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "energy house would store nuclear wasteundergroundUnderground nuclear storage is notthe only way to store nuclear material.Economically speaking, it is more expensive, butlikely much safer to store nuclear waste aboveground in facilities that can be easily monitoredand dealt with. Unlike in underground storagefacilities, should something go wrong aboveground, it can be responded to quickly andefficiently and it is likely that problems will bedetected earlier as well. Further, widelyimplementing underground nuclear storagewould also encourage states to be more cavalierwith their nuclear energy policies. Specifically,whilst nuclear energy generation may result inzero carbon emissions, the mining and milling ofuranium that initially starts the process isenvironmentally damaging. [1] [1] ISN SecurityWatch. “Europe’s Nuclear Waste StorageProblems.” Oilprice.com 01/06/2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-ehwsnwu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "energy house would store nuclear wasteundergroundIntegral Fast Reactors are not asolution for the short term. There are currentlyno Integral Fast Reactors in commercialoperation and the research reactor that was tobe constructed by the United States wascancelled in 1994. Any attempt to use IFRs torecycle all of the world’s nuclear waste would bevery expensive and would not be an immediatesolution – the waste would need to be storedsomewhere while it waits to be used by the newreactors.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-ehwsnwu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "energy house would store nuclear wasteundergroundThe economic costs of undergroundstorage are high. However, given that nuclearpower is necessary to avoid what would likely bea very significant amount of economic harm,specifically from global warming. For example, ithas been projected that not doing anything toaddress climate change would result in an overallincrease in temperate of 5 degrees Celsius whichwould lead to economic costs in the order of $74trillion. This means that the need for nuclearwaste storage is inevitable. [1] As such, whilstunderground storage does cost more thanalternate options, it is as mentioned within theproposition case the safest and most reliablemethod of nuclear waste storage. As such,proposition is willing to take the harm of extracost in order to prevent harm to people’s healthand well being. [1] Ackerman, Frank. Stanton,Elizabeth. “Climate Change –the Costs ofInaction.” Friend of the Earth. 11/10/2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-ehwsnwu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "energy house would store nuclear wasteundergroundThere Are Better Alternatives toUnderground Nuclear Waste Storage France isthe largest nuclear energy producer in the world.It generates 80% of its electricity from nuclearpower. [1] It is very important to note,therefore, that it does not rely on undergroundnuclear waste storage. Instead, it relies on aboveground, on-site storage. This kind of storagecombined with heavy reprocessing and recyclingof nuclear waste, makes underground storageunnecessary. [2] As such it seems logical that inmost western liberal democracies that are able toreach the same level of technological progress asFrance, it makes more sense to store nuclearwaste above ground. Above ground, checks andbalances can be put into place that allow themaintenance of these nuclear storage facilities tobe monitored more closely. Furthermore,reprocessing and recycling leads to less wastedUranium overall. This is important as Uranium,whilst being plentiful in the earth, is often", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-ehwsnwu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "energy house would store nuclear wasteundergroundNuclear waste should be reused tocreate more electricity. There are new kinds ofnuclear reactor such as ‘Integral Fast Reactors’,which can be powered by the waste from normalnuclear reactors (or from uranium the same asany other nuclear reactor). This means that thewaste from other reactors or dismantled nuclearweapons could be used to power these newreactors. The Integral Fast Reactor extends theability to produce energy roughly by a factor of100. This would therefore be a very long termenergy source. [1] The waste at the end of theprocess is not nearly as much of a problem, as itis from current reactors. Because the IFRrecycles the waste hundreds of times there isvery much less waste remaining and what thereis has a much shorter half-life, only tens of yearsrather than thousands. This makes storage forthe remainder much more feasible, as therewould be much less space required. [2] [1] Till,Charles, ‘Nuclear Reaction Why DO Americans", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-ehwsnwu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "energy house would store nuclear wasteundergroundUnderground Nuclear Storage isExpensive. Underground nuclear storage isexpensive. This is because the deep geologicalrepositories needed to deal with such waste aredifficult to construct. This is because saidrepositories need to be 300m underground andalso need failsafe systems so that they can besealed off should there be a leak. For smallercountries, implementing this idea is almostcompletely impossible. Further, themaintenance of the facilities also requires a lot oflong term investment as the structural integrityof the facilities must consistently be monitoredand maintained so that if there is a leak, therelevant authorities can be informed quickly andefficiently. This is seen with the Yucca mountainwaste repository site which has cost billions ofdollars since the 1990s and was eventuallyhalted due to public fears about nuclear safety.[1] [1] ISN Security Watch. “Europe’s NuclearWaste Storage Problems.” Oilprice.com", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-ehwsnwu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "energy house would store nuclear wasteundergroundSide proposition supports the reuseof nuclear waste; however, it also believes thatthe remaining nuclear waste left by the processshould be stored underground. This is because,the nuclear waste created from such a recyclingprocess ends up being more concentrated anddangerous radioactively than normal nuclearwaste. As such, storage above ground isincredibly dangerous if there is a leak. Bycomparison, storing the waste undergroundleaves 300m of sediment between the waste andthe air. As such, the chances of the wastereaching a water source or causing panic arereduced as detailed in the propositionsubstantive. Further, even if there is a leak, thefacilities can often be sealed off to prevent thisfrom happening.7", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeRising countries, such as India,China, and Brazil, are adopting more efficienttechnologies than are currently in use in much ofthe world. While the developing world iscontributing to net GHG emission growth, theirGHG per person is still far below that of adeveloped country. And, as a result of theadoption of newer technologies, it is unlikely thattheir GHG per person will ever equal that foundin the developed world. If reductions can bemade in the developed world, where it is a factthat the economic resources exist to do so, thennet emissions can be stabilized even whileemissions in the developing world continue togrow.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeDeveloping world Developingcountries such as China and India are growingrapidly and causing massive increases in globalGHG emissions through fossil fuel use anddeforestation. It took developed countries 100sof years to create a standard of living highenough for an environmental movement todevelop. It is more likely than not thatdeveloping countries will continue to increasetheir annual emissions for decades, greatlyeclipsing any potential reductions in thedeveloped world. According to Joseph Romm,former US assistant secretary for energyefficiency and renewable energy, \"China's growthin emissions could erode all other countries'efforts to stabilize the world's temperature\" 1. Asa result, atmospheric GHGs will continue toincrease, causing greater climate change. 1.Romm, Joseph, 'How Copenhagen can succeedwhere Kyoto failed', Foreign Policy, June 18,2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeDespite the failure of theCopenhagen Protocol, local, regional, national,and international organizations are all stillworking on solutions for climate change. TheKyoto Protocol was a failure by virtue of itsdesign (too many credits would have gone toformer Soviet countries whose GHG reductionswere entirely attributable to economic collapse,which would have resulted in a cash transfer butno real reductions). Discussions continue on howbest each country can reduce their GHGemissions while remaining economicallycompetitive. The EU ETS trading scheme is anexample of just such an endeavour. (See CarbonTrading Schemes)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate change450 PPM The IPCC's FourthAssessment Report determined that atmosphericGHG emissions needed to stabilize at 450ppm inorder to avoid a temperature rise of more than2-2.4C. Atmospheric ppm are currently at 393and are rising at a rate of about 2 ppm per year.In order to stabilize at 450 ppm, the developedworld would need to reduce its emissions by25-40% by 2020 and 80-90% by 2050 alongwith significant reductions in the emissionsgrowth rate of developing countries 1. Only ahandful of countries (all of them in Europe) haveachieved any reduction in annual GHG emissionsdespite promises to do so going back to the 1997Kyoto Protocol.2 As a result, there is no evidenceon which to reasonably conclude thatatmospheric GHGs will be stabilized at450ppm. 1. IPCC (2007). \"IPCC FourthAssessment Report: Climate Change 2007(AR4)\". Cambridge, United Kingdom and NewYork, NY, USA.: Cambridge University Press. 2", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeThe fossil fuels which account forthe majority of GHG emissions are finiteresources. As oil and coal becoming increasinglyscarce, markets will naturally switch to moreefficient or renewable resources thus stabilizingglobal GHG emissions. The growth of fuelefficient hybrid and fully electric automobiles area good example of the market responding tohigher fuel prices. (Also see New Technology)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeThese consequences are oftenspeculation. With such a large and complexsystem we have no way of knowing what theconsequences of climate change. There may wellbe some tipping points that will accelerateclimate change but we do not know when each ofthese will become a problem and there may alsobe tipping points that act in the otherdirection.(See Earth's Resiliency)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeFailure to reach globalaccord The Kyoto Protocol failed to reduceglobal GHG emissions and in the midst of aneconomic crisis, world leaders were unable toeven agree to a replacement treaty when itexpired. There is no meaningful global emissionsreduction treaty ready for ratification and noreason to be optimistic that one is forthcoming.The developing world believes it has a legitimateright to expand economically without emissionscaps because the rich world is responsible for thevast majority of emissions over the last 200years and per capita emissions in developingcountries are still far lower than in the developedworld. As such, developing countries will onlyagree to a global accord that pays for theiremissions reductions/abatement. However, thedeveloped world is unwilling to transfer wealth inexchange for a right to emit, particularly at atime when so many have large budget deficits 1.Given that the growth of annual emissions is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeConsequences of increasedGHGs Increased GHGs in the atmosphere havenumerous significant consequences: -glaciers,ice sheets, and perma frost will continue to melt.This will increase water levels, release moreGHGs (methane, which is twenty times morepowerful as a greenhouse gas than CO2 andCO2), and reflect less heat back into theatmosphere exacerbating climate change1. -theoceans (which are a natural carbon sink) arebecoming increasingly acidic which willsignificantly damage ecosystems such as coralreefs. Additionally, changes in the chemistry ofthe ocean could affect the amount of CO2 it canabsorb and process annually. -there will beincreasing incidents of extreme weather such ashurricanes, floods, and record high/lowtemperatures. Extreme weather can destroyecosystems that capture CO2 such as forests andpeat bogs leading to less natural CO2absorption. These events will accelerate climate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeTechnological improvements willalmost certainly be developed for those who canafford them (as most technology is). However,climate change will have the greatest effect onpoor countries that cannot afford mitigation.Potentially, being able to protect the wealthydoes not mean that we are not too late on globalclimate change.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeCarbon trading systems may havethe effect of slowing the rise in CO2 emissions,and possibly even creating a fall. However thiswill not solve the problem as changes are alreadyoccurring and there may be no way to stopfeedback that creates more emissions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeEarth's Resiliency All theconclusions about the effects of risingatmospheric GHGs are based on computerizedclimate models. Even those that develop and usethe models admit that the models are not nearlycomplex enough to be 100% accurate. Climatescience is incredibly complicated and differentmodels sometimes produce vastly differentresults 1.Increased carbon dioxide will increaseplant life which may mitigate other damages ofclimate change and protect species currentlyconsidered threatened by climate change.Therefore, it is far too early to conclude thathumanity is going to be destroyed. The earth'sclimate is continuously changing, with or withoutanthropogenic effects, and life has always founda way to continue. 1. Lemonick, Michael D.,'How much can we really trust climate models totell us about the future?', 18th january 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeNew Technology Humanity hasrevolutionized the world repeatedly through suchmonumental inventions as agriculture, steel,anti-biotics, and microchips. And as technologyhas improved, so too has the rate at whichtechnology improves. It is predicted that therewill be 32 times more change between 2000 and2050 than there was between 1950 and 2000. Inthe midst of this, many great minds will befocussed on emissions abatement and climatecontrol technologies. So, even if the most severeclimate predictions do come to pass, it isunimaginable that humanity will not find a wayto intervene. Even small changes will make adifference – more efficient coal power stationscan emit a third less emissions than less efficientones 1. Renewable energy will become morecompetitive and scalable and technologydevelops we may even be able to remove carbonfrom the atmosphere so undoing the damage.1 1. Bradsher, Keith. “China Outpaces U.S. in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeCarbon Trading Schemes The EUETS is an example of a viable carbon market, itcovers thirty countries from the EU as well asIceland, Liechtenstein and Norway. Countrieswithin the ETS are using market mechanisms toforce domestic emitters to meet national caps asthe amount of allowances reduces over timeemissions fall. In 2020 under the ETS emissionswill be 21% lower than in 2005 1. The IPCCreport contains recommendations for howemissions can be abated through thesimultaneous application of numerous smallreductions and the implementation of abatementtechnologies and this is exactly what schemeslike the ETS encourage. Part of the reason thatthe ETS is successful is that it is ensuring aneven playing field between countries by (more orless) applying its rules equally across bordersand industries.2 1. European Trading System,2010 2. European Commission Climate Action,'Emissions Trading System'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-chbwtlgcc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "climate house believes were too late globalclimate changeWhile climate models may beimperfect they are the best tool presentlyavailable to predict the future. Most predict direconsequences if GHGs continue to rise throughthe 21st century, which is what seems mostlikely.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldWhile it is clearthat such an immense project will have animpact we have little idea what that impactmight be. Will the builders be local? Will thesuppliers be local? It is likely that the benefit willgo elsewhere just as the electricity will go toSouth Africa rather than providing electricity tothe poverty stricken Congolese. [1] [1] Palitza,Kristin, ‘$80bn Grand Inga hydropower dam tolock out Africa’s poor’, Africa Review, 16November 2011, www.africareview.com/Business---Finance/80-billion-dollar-Grand-Inga-dam-to-lock-out-Africa-poor/-/979184/1274126/-/kkicv7/-/index.html", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldAn immenseboost to DRC’s economy The Grand Inga damwould be an immense boost to the DRC’seconomy. It would mean a huge amount ofinvestment coming into the country as almost allthe $80 billion construction cost would be comingfrom outside the country which would meanthousands of workers employed and spendingmoney in the DRC as well as boosting localsuppliers. Once the project is complete the damwill provide cheap electricity so making industrymore competitive and providing electricity tohomes. Even the initial stages through Inga IIIare expected to provide electricity for 25,000households in Kinshasa. [1] [1] ‘Movement onthe Grand Inga Hydropower Project’, ujuh, 20November 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldIn the short tomedium term during the decades the dam isbeing built investment will surely beconcentrated in one place in this vast country; inthe west where the dam is, not the east wherethe conflicts are. Later there is little guaranteethat the government will spend the proceedswisely to develop the country rather than itdisappearing through corruption. And thisassumes the money flows in from the export ofelectricity. To enable such exports 3000km ofhigh voltage cable will need to be laid whichwould be vulnerable to being cut by rebel groupsseeking to hurt the government through itswallet. [1] [1] ‘Explained: The $80 billion GrandInga Hydropower Project’, ujuh, 21 November2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldThe dam wouldpower Africa Only 29% of Sub Saharan Africa’spopulation has access to electricity. [1] This hasimmense consequences not just for the economyas production and investment is constrained butalso on society. The world bank says lack ofelectricity affects human rights “People cannotaccess modern hospital services withoutelectricity, or feel relief from sweltering heat.Food cannot be refrigerated and businessescannot function. Children cannot go to school…The list of deprivation goes on.” [2] Convenientlyit is suggested that the “Grand Inga will thusprovide more than half of the continent withrenewable energy at a low price,” [3] providingelectricity to half a billion people so eliminatingmuch of this electricity gap. [4] [1] World BankEnergy, ‘Addressing the Electricity Access Gap’,World Bank, June 2010, p.89 [2] The WorldBank, ‘Energy – The Facts’, worldbank.org,2013, [3] SAinfo reporter, ‘SA-DRC pact paves", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldIt is not the bestsolution to Africa’s energy crisis. According to areport by the International Energy Agency as animmense dam requires a power grid. Such a griddoes not exist and building such a grid is “notproving to be cost effective in more remote ruralareas”. In such low density areas local sources ofpower are best. [1] DRC is only 34% urban andhas a population density of only 30 people perkm2 [2] so the best option would be localrenewable power. [1] International EnergyAgency, ‘Energy for All Financing access for thepoor’, World Energy Outlook, 2011, p.21 [2]Central Intelligence Agency, ‘Congo, DemocraticRepublic of the’, The World Factbook, 12November 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldThere is currentlynot enough traffic to justify such a large additionto the project. If it were worthwhile then it couldbe done without the need for building animmense dam.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldWill enable therebuilding of DRC DR Congo has been one of themost war ravaged countries in the world over thelast two decades. The Grand Inga provides aproject that can potentially benefit everyone inthe country by providing cheap electricity and aneconomic boost. It will also provide large exportearnings; to take an comparatively local exampleEthiopia earns $1.5million per month exporting60MW to Djibouti at 7 cents per KwH [1]comparable to prices in South Africa [2] so ifCongo were to be exporting 500 times that (at30,000 MW only 3/4ths of the capacity) it wouldbe earning $9billion per year. This then willprovide more money to invest and to ameliorateproblems. The project can therefore be a projectfor the nation to rally around helping create andkeep stability after the surrender of the rebelgroup M23 in October 2013. [1] Woldegebriel,E.G., ‘Ethiopia plans to power East Africa withhydro’, trust.org, 29 January 2013, [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldA dam couldmake the Congo more usable While the Congo ismostly navigable it is only usable internally. Therapids cut the middle Congo off from the sea.The building of the dams could be combined withcanalisation and locks to enable internationalgoods to be easily transported to and from theinterior. This would help integrate central Africaeconomically into the global economy making theregion much more attractive for investment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldYes they are. Biginternational donors like the World Bank who aresupporting the project will ensure that there iscompensation for those displaced and that theyget good accommodation. In a budget of up to$80billion the cost of compensation andrelocation is tiny.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldThe World Bankwould be taking a lead role in the project and itproclaims “The World Bank has a zero-tolerancepolicy on corruption, and we have some of thetoughest fiduciary standards of any developmentagency, including a 24/7 fraud and corruptionhotline with appropriate whistle-blowerprotection.” All documentation would be in thepublic domain and online so ensuring completetransparency. [1] [1] Maake, Moyagabo,‘Concern over SA’s billions in DRC Inga project’,Business Day Live, 24 March 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldA dam woulddamage the environment Dams due to theirgeneration of renewable electricity are usuallyseen as environmentally friendly but such megaprojects are rarely without consequences. TheGrand Inga would lower the oxygen content ofthe lower course of the river which would mean aloss of species. This would not only affect theriver as the Congo’s delta is a submerged area of300,000km2 far out into the Atlantic. Thissystem is not yet understood but the plumetransmits sediment and organic matter into theAtlantic ocean encouraging plankton offshorecontributing to the Atlantic’s ability to be acarbon sink. [1] [1] Showers, Kate, ‘Will Africa’sMega Dam Have Mega Impacts?’, InternationalRivers, 5 March 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldThe cost is toohigh The Grand Inga is ‘pie in the sky’ as thecost is too immense. At more than $50-100billion it is more than twice the GDP of the wholecountry. [1] Even the much smaller Inga IIIproject has been plagued by funding problemswith Westcor pulling out of the project in 2009.[2] This much smaller project still does not haveall the financial backing it needs having failed toget firm commitments of investment fromanyone except the South Africans. [3] If privatecompanies won’t take the risk on a much smallerproject they won’t on the Grand Inga. [1]Central Intelligence Agency, ‘Congo, DemocraticRepublic of the’, The World Factbook, 12November 2013, [2] ‘Westcor Drops GrandInga III Project’, Alternative Energy Africa, 14August 2009, [3] ‘DRC still looking for Inga IIIfunding’, ESI-Africa.com, 13 September 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldDams displacecommunities Dams result in the filling of a largereservoir behind the dam because it has raisedthe level of the water in the case of the GrandInga it would create a reservoir 15km long. Thisis not particularly big but the construction wouldalso displace communities. The previous Ingadams also displaced people. Inga I and II werebuilt 30 and 40 years ago, yet the displaced arestill in a shabby prefabricated town called CampKinshasa awaiting compensation. [1] Are theylikely to do better this time around? [1]Sanyanga, Ruto, ‘Will Congo Benefit from GrandInga Dam’, International Policy Digest, 29 June2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldSuch a bigproject is beyond DRC’s capacity The GrandInga dam project is huge while it means hugepotential benefits it just makes it more difficultfor the country to manage. Transparencyinternational ranks DRC as 160th out of 176 interms of corruption [1] so it is no surprise thatprojects in the country are plagued by it. [2]Such a big project would inevitably mean billionssiphoned off. Even if it is built will the DRC beable to maintain it? This seems unlikely. TheInga I and II dams only operate at half theirpotential due to silting up and a lack ofmaintenance. [3] [1] ‘Corruption PerceptionsIndex 2012’, Transparency International,2012, [2] Bosshard, Peter, ‘Grand Inga -- TheWorld Bank's Latest Silver Bullet for Africa’,Huffington Post, 21 April 2013, [3] Vasagar,Jeevan, ‘Could a $50bn plan to tame this mightyriver bring electricity to all of Africa?’, TheGuardian, 25 February 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldThe difficulty ofconstructing something should not be considereda good argument not to do it. As one of thepoorest countries in the world construction willsurely have significant support from developeddonors and international institutions. Moreoverwith the energy cooperation treaty between DRCand South Africa there is a guaranteed partner tohelp in financing and eventually buying theelectricity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-environment-opecewiahw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "omic policy environment climate energy waterinternational africa house wouldHydroelectricpower is clean so would be beneficial in the fightagainst global warming. Providing such powerwould reduce the need to other forms ofelectricity and would help end the problem ofcooking fires which not only damage theenvironment but cause 1.9million lives to be lostglobally every year as a result of smokeinhalation. [1] Because the dam will be ‘run ofthe river’ there won’t be many of the usualproblems associated with dams; fish will still beable to move up and down the river and much ofthe sediment will still be transported over therapids. [1] Bunting, Madeleine, ‘How HillaryClinton’s clean stoves will help African women’,theguardian.com, 21 September 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsThere arealternatives which are far more palatable meansof increasing the rate of organ donation, sparingus the moral quandary associated with denyingorgans to patients and coercing the populace todonate. An easy example is the opt-out organdonation system, wherein all people are organdonors by default and need to actively removethemselves from the system in order to becomenon-donors. This alternative turns every personwho is indifferent to organ donation, currently anon-donor, into a donor, while preserving thepreferences of those with a strong commitmentnot to donate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsPrioritizingdonors creates an incentive to become adonor The greatest argument for this policy isalso the simplest: it will save thousands, perhapsmillions of lives. A policy of prioritizingtransplants for donors would massively increasethe proportion of donors from the status quo of(at best) just over 30% {Confirmed OrganDonors}. Given the number of people who dieunder circumstances that render many of theirorgans useless, the rate of donor registrationmust be as high as possible. The overwhelmingincentive that this policy would create to registermay well eliminate the scarcity for certain organsaltogether; a bonus benefit of this would meanthat for organs where the scarcity waseliminated, this policy would not even need tomake good on its threat of denial of organs tonon-donors (and even if this happened for everyorgan and thus reduced the incentive to registeras a donor, the number of donors could only fallas far as until there was a scarcity again, thus", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsThe principleof moral reciprocity does not require identicalacts. Potential organ recipients who do their partfor society in other ways ought to be rewarded.We do not require that citizens repay firefightersby carrying them out of burning buildings,because we recognize a certain division of theresponsibility for making the world better. Asystem that purports to evaluate people’s desertfor life is an affront to the inherent humandignity that entitles every human being to life.(see “The right to healthcare is absolute” pointbelow.) Reciprocity means treating others as wewould like to be treated even if they don’t dolikewise for us.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsA PracticalSolution There are many mechanisms by whichthis policy could be implemented. The onecommon thread is that those hoping to receiveorgans would be divided into those registered asdonors, and those who are non-donors. Potentialrecipients who are non-donors would onlyreceive an organ if all requests by donors forsuch an organ are filled. For example, if there isa scarcity of donated kidneys with the Bserotype, organ donors requiring a B kidneywould all receive kidneys before any non-donorsreceive them. The existing metrics for decidingpriority among recipients can still be appliedwithin these lists – among both donors andnon-donors, individuals could be ranked on whoreceives an organ first based on who has beenon the waiting list longer, or who has morepriority based on life expectancy; this policysimply adds the caveat that non-donors onlyaccess organs once all donors for their particularorgan are satisfied. What defines a “donor” could", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsThecontroversial part of this plan is how the statusof “donor” is determined. Each standard thatcould be used has massive, and sometimesmonstrous, negative ramifications. If therequirement is that recipients be donors for acertain number of years beforehand, then peoplewho have been donors for a substantial but stillinadequate time are being perversely punishedsimply for not having been doing their civic dutylong enough (see also “past decision they cannotnow undo” point below). If the standard is simplythat they must have been a donor for anyamount of time, however small, prior to needingthe organ, this perversely encourages patients tohide their need for an organ long enough forthem to register as donors and then collect theirorgan; any attempt to solve this would requiredoctors to report on their patients’ need fororgans, eroding patient privacy and turning thedoctor-patient relationship adversarial. The lastof the proposed standards, that the recipient", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsEven grantingthe premise that people ought to donate theirorgans anyway, the role of the state is not tocoerce people to do things they ought to do.People ought to be polite to strangers, exerciseregularly, and make good career choices, but thegovernment rightly leaves people free to do whatthey want because we recognize that you knowwhat’s good for you better than anyone else.Moreover, the premise that people simply oughtto donate their organs is highly contentious.Many people do care deeply about what happensto them after they die; even an enthusiasticorgan donor would probably prefer that theirbody be treated respectfully after death ratherthan thrown to dogs. This concern for how one’sbody is treated after death affects thepsychological wellbeing of the living. This isparticularly true for members of some religionswhich explicitly prohibit the donation of organs.Any government campaign that acts as if it isone’s duty to donate forces them to choose", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsOrgan donorsare more deserving of organs Reciprocity is abasic moral principle: afford others the goodtreatment you yourself would like to receive. Inmost cases, it is a hypothetical; one must placeoneself in the other person’s position eventhough one will never actually be in their place.However, how donor and non-donors are treatedwhen they themselves are in need is a situationin which reciprocity becomes a practical reality.This principle of reciprocity suggests that peoplewho are willing to donate their organs moredeserve to receive organs when they need them.And there is good reason to believe inreciprocity. Those who would flaunt this principleare basically stating that they expect somethingof other people that they themselves areunwilling to do; this is a position that is eitherincoherent, or based on the unjustified premisethat oneself is more objectively valuable thanother people. The concept of desert has afoundational role in our society. For example,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsPeople oughtto donate their organs anyway Organ donation,in all its forms, saves lives. More to the point, itsaves lives with almost no loss to the donor. Oneobviously has no material need for one’s organsafter death, and thus it does not meaningfullyinhibit bodily integrity to incentivize people togive up their organs at this time. If one isregistered as an organ donor, every attempt isstill made to save their life {Organ DonationFAQ}. The state is always more justified indemanding beneficial acts of citizens if the costto the citizen is minimal. This is why the statecan demand that people wear seatbelts, butcannot conscript citizens for use as researchsubjects. Because there is no good reason not tobecome an organ donor, the state ought to doeverything in its power to ensure that people doso.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-con03b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsEven if itwere terrible to coerce people into donating theirorgans, there is a difference between mandatinga behavior and creating strong incentives to doit. For instance, most governments do notmandate that people not smoke, but severedisincentives exist in the form of cigarette taxesand higher life insurance premiums.Furthermore, this argument is questionablypremised on the notion that laying claim to aperson’s organs after their death is a majorviolation (see “people ought to donate theirorgans anyway” point).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-con01b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsThegovernment already makes life or deathdecisions as to who receives organs; at the endof the day, the organ scarcity means someonehas to go without them. The state, inadministrating organ donor lists, must decide onsome basis who receives organs. The choice iswhether they ought to be allocated primarilybased on desert, or arbitrarily. Moreover, nomedical system actually treats access to it as aninviolate right. Many healthcare systemsworldwide are not universal, and even universalsystems broadly restrict access on the basis ofsome criteria, most notably citizenship.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-con02a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsThis systemwill punish people for a past decision they cannotnow undo Most formulations of this policyinvolve assessing donor status on the basis ofwhether the patient was a registered organdonor prior to needing an organ. Thus, a sickperson could find themselves in the tortuoussituation of sincerely regretting their pastdecision not to donate, but having no means toatone for their past act. To visit such a situationupon citizens not only meaningfully deprivesthem of the means to continue living, it subjectsthem to great psychological distress. Indeed,they are not only aware that their past passivedecision not to register as a donor has doomedthem, but they are constantly told by the statethat this is well and just.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-con04a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsPeople mayhave valid religious reasons not to donateorgans Many major religions, such as someforms of Orthodox Judaism {Haredim Issue},specifically mandate leaving the body intact afterdeath. To create a system that aims to stronglypressure people, with the threat of reducedpriority for life-saving treatment, to violate theirreligious beliefs violates religious freedom. Thispolicy would put individuals and families in theuntenable position of having to choose betweencontravene the edicts of their god and losing thelife of themselves or a loved one. While it couldbe said that any religion that bans organdonation would presumably ban receiving organsas transplants, this is not actually the case;some followers of Shintoism and Roma faithsprohibit removing organs from the body, butallow transplants to the body.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-con03a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsDenyingorgans to non-donors is unduly coercive. For thestate to make organ donation mandatory isrightly seen as beyond the pale of what societywould tolerate. This is because the right to theintegrity of one’s body, including what is donewith its component parts after death, must beheld in the highest respect {UNDHR – Article 3 resecurity of person}. One’s body is one’s mostfoundational possession. Creating a system thateffectively threatens death to anyone whorefuses to donate part of their body is onlymarginally different from making it outrightmandatory. The state’s goal is in effect thesame: to compel citizens to give up their organsfor a purpose the government has deemedsocially worthwhile. This is a gross violation ofbody rights.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-con01a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsThe right toaccess healthcare is absolute Healthcare is aprimary means by which individuals actualizetheir right to be protected against an untimelydeath. The ability to access healthcare, to nothave the government actively intervene againstone receiving it, is of fundamental importance forliving a long and worthwhile life, and is henceentrenched in the constitutions of many liberaldemocracies and much of international humanrights literature {WHO - Health and HumanRights}. While some rights, such as the right tomobility, can be taken away as a matter ofdesert in almost all societies, absolutelyfundamental rights, such as the right to a fairtrial, are actually inalienable and ought to neverbe violated. What this means in practice is thatone’s access to healthcare should not becontinent. The government should set nostandards on who deserves life-saving treatmentand who doesn’t. To do so would be to assign adangerous power of life and death over the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-con04b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsIn reality, themajority of faiths that ban organ donation, andall of the faiths that feel particularly stronglyabout it, such as certain branches of theJehovah’s Witness with regard to bloodtransfusions {Blood – Vital for Life}, also banaccepting foreign organs. In such cases,practitioners wouldn’t be receiving organsanyway, so the net effect is nil. Moreover, manyreligions mandate that followers do everything intheir power to save a life, and that this shouldtrump adherence to lesser dictates. Finally, toadhere to a religious ban on giving but notreceiving organs is disingenuous. It is theultimate hypocrisy: to rely on others to dosomeone one would not do oneself. In such asituation, the state is no longer obliged toguarantee a chance to adhere to one’s religion.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hdond-con02b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare deny organs non donorsThis is a harmthat the proponent of denying organs tonon-donors will gladly eat. The threat of beingleft high and dry without an organ is exactly theincentive that this policy aims to create. Themost unpalatable aspects of this process can bemitigated, such as making it clear that this issimply a loss of priority and not an active denialof any treatment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsThis ismisleading - in partial-birth abortion, as the termsuggests, the foetus is not fully born when it iskilled: the purpose of collapsing the skull is toallow the foetus’ head to pass more easilythrough the birth canal. At no point in theprocess is a live foetus entirely outside thewomb, so legal personhood is never an issue.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsIf personhoodaccrues at birth, then abortion after inducingbirth is wrong If birth is the crucial dividing-linewe use to decide when legal personhood begins,then we should not be allowed to induce birthand then deliberately kill a foetus during thatprocess - this is different from early abortion inwhich birth is induced and the foetus diesnaturally. Partial-birth abortion is murder, evenon the pro-choice understanding of personhood.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsArguing thatadoption is a good option shows a fundamentallack of awareness of what is involved in carryingan unwanted foetus to term. Pregnancy can bestressful at the best of times; being forced tocarry an unwanted child against your will isenormously traumatic, and can cause permanentpsychological harm, as can the knowledge thatyour own unwanted child is growing upelsewhere and may one day return to find you. Ifa mother chooses to carry a foetus to term andthen give it up for adoption, that’s fine, butnobody should force her to do so.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsThe foetus feelspain Partial-birth abortion is disgusting. Like allabortions, it involves the killing of an unbornchild, but unlike first trimester abortions there isno doubt that the foetus can feel pain by thethird trimester. [1] The procedure involvessticking a pair of scissors into a baby’s brain,enlarging the hole, sucking the brain out with acatheter and then crushing the skull. It is entirelyunacceptable to do this to a living human being.Psychological damage to the mother as a resultof rape or teenage pregnancy or depression is inthe end less significant than the physical damage- death - caused to the child. [1] Lee, Susan J.,et al., ‘Fetal Pain, A Systematic MultidisciplinaryReview of the Evidence’, Journal of the AmericanMedical Association, Vol 294 (8), 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsNobody wouldchoose to have a partial-birth abortion over amuch simpler abortion in the first trimester.Partial-birth abortions are either medically orpsychologically necessary. If a young mothereither does not find out she is pregnant or is tooscared to tell anyone, if a woman is raped anddecides at any stage that she does not want thebaby, if a woman is threatening suicide if she isforced to carry a baby to term, we should notmake her suffer further by forbidding her fromending the pregnancy. For all sorts of reasons,many women do not seek any kind of medicalhelp until late in their pregnancy - this should notmean they forfeit their right to an abortion. Inany case, if abortion is allowed at all, and giventhat the foetus is not recognised in law as ahuman being, it should be nobody’s business butthe mother’s whether and at what stage shechooses to have an abortion.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsThese opinionpolls are misleading, as they force respondentsto choose between an outright ban and nocontrol at all – it is impossible for them toregister support for partial-birth abortion incases where the mother’s physical orpsychological health is in danger. A majority ofAmericans are still in favour of the right toabortion. More importantly, this should not bethe business of the general public or oflegislators. Nobody who would prefer not to havea partial-birth abortion will be made to have one.Most people who want it banned will never face asituation where it directly affects them in anycase. We should leave decisions up to the peoplewho are directly affected by them - not tooutsiders, who are free to express their opinionbut not to impose it on everyone else. This is acampaign promise George Bush should not keep.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsAbortion iswrong per se when there are alternatives such asadoption Tragically, some babies are unwanted,but this does not mean that we should kill them.There are plenty of other options, notablyadoption. If anything, the case for adoption ismore compelling in the third trimester, becausethe pregnancy is nearer to its natural end andthere is less time, only about ten weeks, for themother to have to put up with it. [1] Unwantedpregnancy and adoption may be psychologicallyharmful, but in many cases so is abortion,particularly at a late stage of pregnancy whenthe mother can see that the dead foetus isrecognisably a baby - the guilt feelingsassociated with feeling that one is responsible formurdering a child can be unbearable. [1] Bupa,‘Stages of pregnancy’, April 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsBanning partialbirth abortions is in line with popular andaccepted moral standards here is a vast amountof support in the United States for a ban onpartial-birth abortion. Opinion polls have showna consistent increase in support for a ban: ashigh as 70% in favour to 25% against in January2003. [1] Furthermore, in 1997 the House ofRepresentatives voted 295-136, and the Senate64-36, in favour of a ban. For President Clintonto veto it was undemocratic; [2] for PresidentBush not to pass it would have been to break acampaign promise. [1] Gallup, ‘Abortion’, 30November 2011, [2] Craig, Larry E., ‘ClintonClaims on Partial-Birth Abortion Still Not True --Not Even 'Legally Accurate'’, United StatesSenate Republican Policy Committee, 15September 1998,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-con03b", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsThere is nomedical consensus on this issue. Where Dilationand Extraction is performed without inducingpartial birth then it has the potential to be just assafe for the mother.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-con01b", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsAllowingpartial-birth abortion is utterly inconsistent withthe growing, and legally recognised, respect forfoetal rights in the United States. If a man cansue the mother of his child for taking drugsduring pregnancy which discolour their child’steeth, if pregnant women can be banned fromthe smoking sections of restaurants, what sensedoes it make to allow exactly the same foetusesto have their skulls deliberately crushed?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-con02a", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsOpposition topartial birth abortion is part of a strategyintended to ban abortion in general Partial-birthabortions form a tiny proportion of all abortions,but from a medical and psychological point ofview they ought to be the least controversial.The reason for this focus is that late-termabortions are the most obviously distasteful,because late-term foetuses look more like babiesthan embryos or foetuses at an earlierdevelopmental stage. Late-term abortionstherefore make for the best pro-life campaigningmaterial. By attempting to focus the debatehere, campaigners are aiming to conflate allabortions with late-term abortions, and toincrease opposition to all abortion on that basis.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-con03a", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsPartial birthabortions are safer than any availablealternative The D&X abortion proceduregenerates the minimum of risk for the mother.Banning it means that the only alternatives arepremature labour induction for which mortalityrates are 2.5 times higher and is emotionallyvery difficult due to the length of time it takes[1] (it is also likely to be unacceptable to theproposition) and hysterotomy (which results inremoval of the womb). Finally as those who arehaving late partial birth abortions are likely to besuicidal, or at least will be very determined toget rid of their child they are the most likely toresort to back-street methods that causedamage to themselves. [1] The Harriet andRobert Heilbrunn Department of Population andFamily Health, ‘Abortion’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-con01a", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsThe concept of\"foetal rights\" is an attack on the autonomy ofwomen The culture of foetal rights reflects adangerous litigious trend in American society,and implies a view of pregnant women as beingnothing more than baby-carrying machineswhose independence and autonomy should berestricted and whose motivations should bequestioned at every turn. If this has implicationsfor the abortion debate, then those implicationsare profoundly damaging to women in general.In any case, the mother of a wanted baby hasentirely different responsibilities toward theunborn foetus from the mother of an unwantedbaby - that’s why our society allows bothabortions and antenatal classes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ppelfhwbpba-con02b", "title": "", "text": "pregnancy philosophy ethics life family housewould ban partial birth abortionsAlthough manypeople who are against partial-birth abortion areagainst abortion in general, there is no necessarylink, as partial-birth abortion is a particularlyhorrifying form of abortion. This is for thereasons already explained: it involves adeliberate, murderous physical assault on ahalf-born baby, whom we know for certain willfeel pain and suffer as a result. We accept thatthere is some legitimate medical debate aboutwhether embryos and earlier foetuses feel pain;there is no such debate in this case, and this iswhy partial-birth abortion is uniquely horrific,and uniquely unjustifiable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should be compelledIt’s notas if the employee can’t tell their employer atpresent – it’s that he or she could, but doesn’twant to. They get to decide what’s in their bestinterests (including what’s likely at trial) – andsadly, that will often be keeping quiet about hiscondition.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should be compelledIt’s inthe interests of employees It’s in the interests ofthe HIV positive employee. Right now, althoughin many countries it is illegal to fire someone forhaving HIV [1] prejudiced employers can claimthat they didn’t know their employer had HIVwhen they fired him, so they must have beenacting on other grounds. The employee then hasto try and prove that they did know, which canbe very hard. Furthermore, once informed theemployer can reasonably be expected to displaya minimum level of understanding andcompassion to the employee. [1] Civil RightsDivision, Ouestions and Answers: The Americanswith Disabilities Act and Persons with HIV/AIDS’,U.S. Department of Justice,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should be compelledWorkingwith someone with HIV does not put you at risk.Suggesting that it does serves to perpetuate themyths that do such harm to HIV-positive peoplewho already suffer too much. To clarify: AIDScannot be transmitted through external, intactskin. It cannot pass through the air like coldgerms. Sweat, urine, tears and saliva cannottransmit HIV. Whilst blood, seminal fluid, vaginalfluid and breast milk can, how often are suchfluids encountered at work? Even if they are, andsuch fluids are HIV positive, they must enteranother’s body through mucus membranes,directly into the bloodstream (e.g. via injection),or from mother to child via breastfeeding or inthe womb. What workplaces risk suchtransferral?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should be compelledIt’s inthe interests of employers It’s in the interests ofemployers. A long, incurable and debilitatingcondition has stricken one of their employees.They will have to make provision for possiblesickness cover and replacement workers,potentially for medical and/or retirement costs.HIV can make people tired and can lead to beingsick more often as it means the immune systemwill not be able to fight off infections as well as itnormally would. [1] The employee’s productivitymight be reduced to the point at which theircontinued employment is no longer viable. Ifthings are made difficult for employers with HIVpositive workers, then they are less likely in thefuture to employ people who (they suspect) areHIV positive. Employers must be listened to inthis debate – in many HIV-stricken countries,they’re the last thing between a semi-functioningsociety and complete economic and socialcollapse. Traditional rights ideas such as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should be compelledIt is inthe interests of employers not to have to paytheir employees. It is in the interests ofemployers not to offer vacation time. It is in theinterests of employers not to spend money onensuring health and safety measures arecomplied with. It is in the interests of employersto do many things that violate the rights of theiremployees and as a society we prevent themfrom doing these things because the benefit tothe business (and the economy as a whole) doesnot outweigh the harm caused by the violation ofthose rights. Most people who are being treatedfor HIV are no less productive than any otherworker – 58% of people with HIV believe it hasno impact on their working life. [1] [1] Pebody,Roger, ‘HIV health problems cause few problemsin employment, but discrimination still a realityin UK’, aidsmap, 27 August 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should be compelledAll theseworthwhile aims can be achieved withoutemployees having to tell their employers of theirHIV status on an involuntary basis. The scale ofthe problem can be easily inferred from nationaland regional medical statistics. For example,mining companies in South Africa have put inplace excellent programmes to combat prejudiceand treat sick employees without compulsorydisclosure.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should be compelledIt’s inthe interests of co-workers It’s in the interestsof other workers. The possibility of transmission,while very unlikely, is real and one they have aright to know about so as to be able to guardagainst it. While most of the time it will not beproblem as transmission requires a transfer ofbodily fluids this may occasionally happen in aworkplace. [1] This is particularly true ofhealthworkers (e.g. doctors, nurses, dentists,midwives, paramedics, etc) who should haveboth a moral and a legal obligation to disclose ifthey are HIV-positive. Even outside the medicalfield industrial accidents may expose employeesto risk. Employers have a duty to protect theirworkforce. [1] Centers for Disease Control andPrevention, ‘HIV Transmission’, Department ofHealth and Human Services,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should be compelledTacklingHIV requires a responsible and active position byeveryone Businesses ought to take a responsibleand active position on HIV. The issue isn’t goingto go away. Successful programs designed tohelp HIV-positive employees remain in theworkplace for as long as they want to do soshould be developed. Procedures for treatingpersonnel with fairness and dignity must be putin place. The potential fears and prejudices ofother employees must be combated. Thebeginning of that process is ensuring they knowabout the problem and, crucially, the scale of it.Without knowledge of the numbers involved,employers may put in place inadequate medicaland pensions arrangements that will ultimatelyprove inadequate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should be compelledSomevery few people may do this and it’s the job ofthe government to attempt to educate peopleabout the enormous dangers of doing so tominimise that. Nevertheless, most people willquite properly prioritise their lives and healthover their job, which in any case legislationshould safeguard by stopping unfair dismissal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should becompelledEmployers have a right to know aboutissue which will affect their business. Anemployee with a serious incurable illness whichrequires a large amount of medication to controlis inevitably going to affect the business in a waythat the employer will have to know about inorder to work around it. Aside from the fact thatHIV status need not be communicated toco-workers, managers and employers alreadyhave a duty to prevent harassment and prejudicein any circumstances and this would not change.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should be compelledTherisks of ignorance and prejudice are toohigh This measure could be actively dangerousfor HIV-positive workers. Ignorance causes somuch bad behaviour towards AIDS sufferers andHIV-positive men and women. A fifth of men inthe UK who disclose their HIV positive status atwork then experience HIV discrimination. [1] Theproposition seeks to institutionalise and widenthe shunning and ill-treatment of HIV-positiveworkers that already happens when people findout about their condition. Even if not motivatedby prejudice, co-workers will often takeexcessive precautions which are medicallyunnecessary and inflame unsubstantiated fearsof casual transmission. In addition, many peoplewho are HIV-positive choose not to reveal theircondition for fear of violent reactions to themfrom their families and the rest of society. Ifdisclosure to an employer is compulsory, thenthe news will inevitably leak out to the wider", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should be compelledIt is adisincentive to get tested in the first place Therequirement to disclose their condition if knownwould be a disincentive to get tested in the firstplace. This is especially the case for many peoplein places like sub-Saharan Africa, but alsoapplies widely elsewhere. Their job is soimportant to them (since there’s no safety net tospeak of if they lose it) that they’d prefer to go inignorance of their HIV status than find out andrisk being fired for it. The medical repercussionsof that are obvious.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should becompelledEmployers have no right to privatemedical information Employers have no right toknow. This is an arena into which the state hasno right to intrude, or to compel intrusion byothers. Employers will know if their employee’swork is satisfactory or unsatisfactory – whatmore do they need to know than that? Ifemployers find out, they might dismiss workers –which is exactly why many employees don’t wantto tell them. If workers are forced to disclosethe fact that they have HIV, the merit principlewill go out the window. Even if not dismissed,their prospects for promotion will be shattered –because of prejudice, or the perception that theircareer has in any meaningful sense been‘finished’ by their condition (which is often notthe case as sufferers can work and lead fulfillinglives after diagnosis; life expectancy afterdiagnosis in the US was 22.5 years in 2005 [1]). Even if not fired and career advancement", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhgsshbesbc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general sex sexuality housebelieves employees should becompelledEmployers can be trusted to use thisinformation responsibly. They are already usedto keeping sensitive information (e.g. aboutsalaries, annual reports, or employees' addressesand telephone numbers) confidential. Nor is it intheir interest to open themselves up to lawsuitsfor bullying and discrimination in the workplace.There is no reason to assume that businesseswill be more likely to leak information aboutsomeone's HIV status than doctors or hospitals,who already have such information.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highThe use of genericdrugs can sometimes fail to bring about areduced price. For the cost of drugs to decrease,there must be competition within the industry todrive prices down. The switch from patented togeneric drugs in Ireland failed to bring about anysignificant saving for this reason [1] . Africancountries must therefore ensure competition inorder for generic drugs to become trulyaffordable which could be problematic due tocontinued protectionism in some states. [1]Hogan,L. ‘Switch to generic drugs fails to bringexpected savings for HSE’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highSavings can be usedin other sections of medical care The decreasedcost of pharmaceuticals allows African states tofocus on other aspects of medical schemes.Pharmaceuticals are not the only aspect intreatment, there needs to be sufficient staff,medical equipment and infrastructure [1] . Theserequirements cost money, which the savingsmade on pharmaceuticals provide. In Europe,50% of dispensed medicines are generic yet theycost only 18% of pharmaceutical expenditure,with a similar model predicted for South Africa.This allows the state to focus on other aspects ofmedical schemes [2] . [1] Ibid [2] Health24,‘South Africans embrace generic meds’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highIt is nearlyimpossible to remove black markets; medicationis no exception. Attempts thus far to remove theAfrican counterfeit pharmaceuticals have beenunsuccessful. Corruption and a lack of manpowerhave ensured that counterfeits continue to reachAfrica, especially from India [1] . As long asthere is a profit to be made, fakes and bad drugswill be sold at a lower price than even genericdrugs on the African continent which have theaddition of importation and tax in their cost [2]. [1] Sambira,J. ‘Counterfeit drugs raise Africa’stemperature’ [2] Ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highEasily affordabledrugs will mean greater access Generic drugsare much cheaper to produce, which is ideal forAfrica’s struggling population. While there hasbeen significant gross domestic product (GDP)growth in Africa, the actual distribution of wealthis relatively unequal. According toAfrobarometer, 53% of Africans still feel thattheir economic condition is poor [1] . Thisrestricts their ability to purchase high cost drugs.Generic medication would reduce the price ofthese drugs, making them affordable to theaverage citizen. The patented drug Glivec, usedfor cancer treatment, costs £48.62 for 400 mg inSouth Africa while its generic equivalent(produced in India) costs £4.82 [2] . Increasedaccess will result in higher levels of treatment,which in turn will reduce death rates frompreventable diseases in Africa. [1] Hofmeyr,Jan, ‘Africa Rising? Popular Dissatisfaction withEconomic Management Despite a Decade of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highGreater access ofgeneric drugs can increase the chances ofoverexposure and misuse. This has a detrimentaleffect on fighting diseases. Greater access willlead to higher use rates which, in turn increasesthe chances of the disease developing animmunity to the drug [1] , as is alreadyhappening to antibiotics resulting in at least23,000 deaths in the United States. [2] Thisimmunity requires new pharmaceuticals tocounteract the disease which can take years toproduce. It is therefore, disadvantageous toproduce high quality generic drugs forAfrica. [1] Mercurio,B. ‘Resolving the PublicHealth Crisis in the Developing World: Problemsand Barriers of Access to Essential Medicines’pg.2 [2] National Center for Immunizations andRespiratory Diseases, ‘Antibiotics Aren’t Alwaysthe Answer’, Centers for Disease Control andPrevention, 16 December 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highPharmaceuticalcompanies investing in R&D deserve tomake a return on their investments. Researchand development can take a long time and willcost significant sums of money. The cost ofcreating many new drugs was estimated to be ashigh as $5 billion in 2013 [1] . There is also arisk that the drug may fail during the variousphases of production, which makes the $5 billionprice-tag even more daunting. It is thereforenecessary for these companies to continue tomake a profit, which they do through patenting.If they allow drugs to immediately becomegeneric or subsidise them to some of the biggestmarkets for some diseases then they shall makea significant financial loss. [1] Herper,M. ‘TheCost of Creating a New Drug Now $5 Billion,Pushing Big Pharma to Change’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highReduce theprominence of bad and fake drugs The increasedavailability of high quality generic drugs willreduce the numbers of bad and fakepharmaceuticals on the markets. The cost ofpatented drugs has forced many to search forother options. This is exploited by the billiondollar global counterfeit drug trade [1] . Fakedrugs are the cause of around 100,000 deaths inAfrica every year. Bad drugs, which aresubstandard, have also found their way in toAfrica; one in six tuberculosis pills have beenfound to be of a poor quality [2] . Thewidespread introduction of low cost, high qualitydrugs will hopefully ensure that consumers donot turn to sellers in market places. [1]Sambira,J. ‘Counterfeit drugs raise Africa’stemperature’ [2] Ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highUnfair to apply samepatent laws universally It is unrealistic to expectpoorer countries, such as those in Africa, to paythe same price as the developed world’smarkets. Current patent laws for many countriesdictate that prices for buying patented drugsshould be universally the same. This makes itextremely difficult for African countries topurchase pharmaceuticals set at the marketprice of developed countries. In the US there arenine patented drugs which cost in excess of$200,000 [1] . To expect developing Africanstates to afford this price is unfair and reinforcesthe exploitative relationship between thedeveloped and developing world. Generic drugsescape this problem due to their universally lowprices. [1] Herper,M. ‘The World’s MostExpensive Drugs’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-con03b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highThese vital drugswill become outdated. Diseases often have theability to build a resistance to treatment, makingmany of these currently generic drugs impotent.In Tanzania, 75% of health workers wereproviding lower than recommended levels ofanti-malaria drugs which resulted in a drugresistant form of the disease becomingprominent [1] . Giving recently developed drugsto Africa will have a greater impact againstdiseases such as HIV than giving them twentyyear old drugs to which a disease is alreadyimmune. [1] Mercurio,B. ‘Resolving the PublicHealth Crisis in the Developing World: Problemsand Barriers of Access to Essential Medicines’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-con01b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highSome countries,such as India and Thailand, have specialised inproducing generic drugs. These states providethe majority of generic drugs to Africa. Thisremoves the burden of other countries to supplyAfrica with their own drugs whilst potentiallydamaging their own research companies. Indiahas managed to create a very profitable industrybased around cheap generic drugs which itmainly exports to the African continent [1] ,decreasing the necessity of other states tocontribute vast resources. Providing generics toAfrica will not damage development by the bigpharmaceutical companies as at the momentthese countries cannot afford the drugs so arenot a market. The drugs are researched on theassumption that they will be sold in thedeveloped world. What matters therefore is toensure that generics for Africa don’t get soldback to the developed world undercuttingpatented drugs. [1] Kumar,S. ‘India, Africa’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-con02a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highCheaper drugsaren’t trusted by consumers The differences inprice between generic and patented drugs can bedisconcerting to those wishing to buypharmaceuticals. As with other product, logicgenerally follows the rule that the moreexpensive option is the most effective. There arereports from the USA of generic drugs causingsuicidal tendencies [1] . These factors, combinedwith the lower levels of screening for drugs inAfrica, mean that cheaper drugs are generallydistrusted [2] . [1] Childs,D. ‘Generic Drugs:Dangerous Differences?’ [2] Mercurio,B.‘Resolving the Public Health Crisis in theDeveloping World: Problems and Barriers ofAccess to Essential Medicines’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-con03a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highMost vital drugs arealready generic Many drugs which are used inthe treatment of HIV, malaria and cancer arealready generic drugs which are produced intheir millions [1] . This removes the necessity toprovide further high quality generic drugs asthere is already an easily accessible source ofpharmaceuticals. Effective treatments forMalaria, in conjunction with prevention methods,have resulted in a 33% decrease in Africandeaths from the disease since 2000 [2] . Thedrugs responsible for this have been readilyavailable to Africa, demonstrating a lack of anyfurther need to produce pharmaceuticals for thecontinent. [1] Taylor,D. ‘Generic-drug “solution”for Africa not needed’ [2] World HealthOrganisation ’10 facts on malaria’, March 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-con01a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highDominance ofgeneric drugs will reduce reinvestment andinnovation in donating countries The productionof high quality generic drugs endangerspharmaceutical progress. In order to export highquality generic drugs, some countries havesuggested allowing generic drug manufacturersaccess to patented drugs. In Canada,amendments to Canada’s Access to MedicineRegime (CAMR) would have forcedpharmaceutical research companies to give uptheir patents [1] . This is problematic however asresearch based companies invest a largeproportion of their profits back in to the industry.The requirements proposed for some Westerncountries for obligatory quantities of genericdrugs to be given to Africa have been accused toremoving any incentive to invest in research tocombat disease [2] . [1] Taylor,D. ‘Generic-drug“solution” for Africa not needed’ [2] ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhiacihwph-con02b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare international africa censorshipip house would produce highMedically there is nodifference between generic and patented drugs.They are both identical, with the exception ofaesthetic differences in some US drugs to avoidcopyright infringement. Generic drugs cost lessbecause they do not have to invest in R&D[1] . They focus on efficient methods ofproduction and ensure that their product can besold at a competitively low price. The lack of aneed for R&D is therefore more prominentthan quality in the pricing of generic drugs. [1]Stoppler,M. ‘Generic Drugs, Are They as Good asBrand Names?’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicWhat thosestatistics mean could be questionable – did theban make people stop, or only provide an extraincentive or assistance for those who alreadywant to stop to do so? It could be suggested thatthis would simply lead to increased smokingwithin the home. Even so, other measures couldbe more effective, if the goal is a simplereduction in smoking numbers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicReducesmoking A ban on smoking in public placeswould help reduce the rates of people smoking,by making it appear socially unusual – peoplewill have to leave enclosed public places tosmoke, each time they want to smoke. This isparticularly important in Africa which is at anearly stage of the tobacco epidemic where it canbe prevented from ever coming to be seen asbeing normal. The ban both through the newobstacle and the change in norms could reducesmoking rates. In England, nine months aftersuch a ban, the fall in smoking rates (such aswith much of the Global North) accelerated 1 - ithas been claimed by up to 400,000. 1 Daily MailReporter, “Smoking ban spurs 400,000 people toquit the habit”, Daily Mail, 4 July 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicIt wouldrequire a large amount of resources for lawenforcement to go in to such public placesoccasionally to see that the ban is beingenforced. It would be easier to enforceconditions relating to the packaging andproduction of tobacco, which occurs on fewersites, than ban an activity in certain places whichis not so enforceable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicNip theproblem in the bud Smoking rates in Africa arerelatively low; a range of 8%-27% with anaverage of only 18% of the population smoking 1(or, the tobacco epidemic is at an early stage 2 ).That’s good, but the challenge is to keep it thatway and reduce it. A ban on smoking in publicplaces at this stage would stop tobacco gainingthe widespread social acceptability that caused itto thrice in the 20th century in the Global North.The solution is to get the solutions in now, notlater. 1 Kaloko, Mustapha, 'The Impact ofTobacco Use on Health and Socio-EconomicDevelopment in Africa', African UnionCommission, 2013, , p.4 2 Bill and MelindaGates Foundation, “What we do: Tobacco controlstrategy overview”, Bill & Melinda GatesFoundation, no date,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicLowerhealthcare costs Smoking caused disease causeslarge expenses for healthcare systems,something which is particularly burdensome incountries without the rich well developedhealthcare systems of the developed world. Inthe UK lung cancer, one of the diseases causedby smoking, costs £90 per person or £9071 perpatient. 1 Even the cost per head of population ishigher than Ghana’s entire healthcare budget of$83.4 (about £50) per person. 2 The reductionin smoking, which would be triggered by the ban,would lead to a drop in smoking related illness. Astudy in the US state of Arizona showed thathospital admissions for smoking related diseasesdropped after a ban on smoking in public places3 . This would allow resources to be focused onthe big killers other than tobacco – including HIVAIDS. 1 The National Cancer Research Institute,‘Lung cancer UK price tag eclipses the cost of anyother cancer’, Cancer Research UK, 7 November", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicTheargument that states will save money due to lesspeople smoking based upon healthcare costsfrom treating smoking related diseases isover-simplistic. While smoking does causemedical costs, taxation can counterbalance this –in 2009, the South African government gained 9billion Rand (€620 million) from excise duties ontobacco 1 . Paradoxically, less people smokingcould lead to less money for other projects.Indeed, some countries in Europe raise theamount of health expenditure it causes fromtobacco taxation 2 . 1 American Cancer Society,“Tobacco tax success story: South Africa”,tobaccofreekids.org, October 2012, 2 BBCNews, “Smoking disease costs NHS £5Bn”, BBCNews, 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicIs it reallythe job of African states to stop smoking?Africans have the same amount of personalresponsibility to choose to smoke or not –policies should reflect that.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicYes, tobaccois harmful – but is it really a benefit to removeeconomic activity, which people choose to do?Labour abuses occur in other industries – butthat’s an argument for increased labourprotections and economic development, noteconomic self-inflicted wounds.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicEasy tointroduce A ban on smoking in public placeswould be simple to enforce – it is an obviousactivity, and does not require any form ofcomplex equipment or other special techniques .It would largely be enforced by other users ofpublic places and those working there. If itchanges attitudes enough, it could be largelyself-enforcing – by changing attitudes andcreating peer pressure 1 . 1 See Hartocollis,Anemona, “Why Citizens (gasp) are the smokingpolice), New York Times, 16 September 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicReducesgrowth of tobacco Less people smoking meansless tobacco being purchased – something thatwould contribute to the reduction in the tobaccoindustry. The industry is known for itsexploitative labour practices, from child labour(80,000 children in Malawi work in tobaccofarming, can result in nicotine poisoning – 90%of what is grown is sold to American Big Tobacco1 ) to extortionate loans. 2 Reducing the size ofsuch an industry can only be a good thing. 1Palitza, Kristin, “Child labour: tobacco’s smokinggun”, The Guardian, 14 September 2011, 2Action on Smoking and Health, p3", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicEven if sucha link were true – the campaign against the banon smoking in public places in the UK accept thatit’s unlikely that it is the primary cause ofclosures in the UK 1 – the public health benefitswould make it worth it. Reductions on spendingin some areas of the economy is likely to bebalanced by increases elsewhere; of course therewill be losses in some industries – particularlytabacco itself but those who stop smoking willhave the money to spend elsewhere. Moreoverthe economic effects are likely to be different inAfrica; smoking outside in the UK, bearing inmind the infamous British weather, is a far lessattractive proposition than smoking outdoors inmany African countries. 1 'Why we wantgovernment to amend the smoking ban', SaveOur Pubs & Clubs,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicPersonalautonomy arguments sound reasonable, butoften ignore the wider consequences. Publichealth is a key issue – the state has a role instopping people harming themselves – they maybe harming themselves but the cost often fallson government through public healthcare, andtherefore on all taxpayers. Moreover smokingalso harms others through passive smoking, thisis particularly true in public places that areenclosed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smokingpublicUnenforceable Smoking bans are oftenunenforceable in higher income countries. This isbecause they require expensive manpower orCCTV in order to stop those flouting the ban,with scarce resources a police force will almostalways have other more important crimes to dealwith. If Berlin 1 and New York City 2 cannotenforce them, most African cities won’t be ableto either. Ghana's advertising ban has beenflouted in the past. When asked in a surveyabout advertising 35% of Ghanaians recalledhearing a tobacco advert on radio or televisiondespite such ads being banned. 3 1 AFP,'Smoking Ban not Enforced in Parts of Germany',Spiegel Online, 2 July 2008, 2 Huff Post NewYork, 'NYC Smoking Ban In Parks Will Not BeEnforced By NYPD: Mayor', Huffington Post, 2November 2011, 3 Kaloko, Mustapha, 2013, ,p.18", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicPack labellingor taxation a better alternative If it’s notenforceable, enforceable solutions ought to beused instead. It would be easier to enforce packlabelling and branding requirements, from largerand clearer health warnings to even brand-freepacks. Of course, American-style lawsuits bygovernments against tobacco manufacturerscould be tried, as suggested in Nigeria 1 . 1IRIN, “NIGERIA: Govt hits tobacco companieswith whopping law suit”, irinnews.org, 9November 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicBan wouldharm the wider economy A ban could harm thewider economy – from bars to clubs, if smokersare unable to smoke inside, they may be morelikely to stay away. According to some critics,this lead to the closures of bars in the UK whensuch a ban was brought in 1 . Research in theUnited States has shown drops in employment inbars of between 4 and 16 percent. 2 1 BBCNews, “MPs campaign to relax smoking ban inpubs”, BBC News, 2011, 2 Pakko, Michael R.,'Clearing the Haze? New Evidence on theEconomic Impact of Smoking Bans', The RegionalEconomist, January 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smokingpublicPaternalistic Personal autonomy has to bethe key to this debate. If people want to smoke –and the owner of the public place has no issuewith that – it is not the role of the state to stepin. While smoking is dangerous, people should befree in a society to take their own risks, and livewith their decisions. All that is required isensuring that smokers are educated about therisks so that they can make an informeddecision.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicEach has itsown disadvantages. A growing form of tobaccosales in Africa – Nigeria in particular – is the“single stick” 1 . If retailers break packets ofcigarettes apart, customers won’t see thepackets containing health warnings orsimilar. Cost increases can lead to increased useof rollups 2 , or even counterfeit cigarettes, 3both of which have happened in South Africa as aresult of taxation. At any rate, it’s not a zero sumgame – more than one policy can be introducedat the same time. 1 Kluger, 2009, 2 Olitola,Bukola, “The use of roll-your-own cigarettes inSouth Africa”, Public Health Association of SouthAfrica, 26 February 2014, 3 Miti, Siya, “Tobaccotax hikes 'boost illegal traders'”, Dispatch Live,28 February 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-ahiahbgbsp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "addiction healthcare international africa housebelieves ghanas ban smoking publicIt oftendoesn’t require enforcement – it changesattitudes itself, making people not do so. InScotland, within three months 99% of locationsabided by the ban, without the need for excessheavy handed enforcement 1 . This is becausenon-smokers will ask a smoker to stub it out ifthey are smoking where they are not allowed to.There seems little reason why this wont happenin Ghana or elsewhere in Africa just as in thewest. Even so, a lot of laws are not enforceablein all cases – that doesn’t mean that they will becomplete failures. 1 The Scottish Government,'Smoking ban gets seal of public approval',scotland.gov.uk, 26 June 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsGiven all the responsibilities our societyhas transferred from parents onto schools andeducators in the 21st century, is it really sensibleto include caring for nutritional choices to thisalready bloated and unmanageable list? Weneed to ask ourselves, is it actually right thatkids turn to schools and peers about lifestyleadvice, when this is so clearly a domain ofparents and families and so obviously a burdenon an already taxed public school system.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsSchools are the best place to createlasting lifestyle changes. Schools are playing anincreasingly formative role, in the sense thatthey’re being tasked with not only knowledgetransfer, but also the creation of behaviors andplacing emphasis on teaching students how toapply their knowledge. [1] Given this expandedmandate, the schools are not only obliged totherefore offer choices that would go hand inhand with healthier behavior, but also the perfectpressure point for lawmakers to go aboutintroducing healthier lifestyles. The simplereason is that our kids are increasingly lookingnot to their parents, but schools and theenvironments they provide, for advice on how tolive their lives. They are also the traditionalenvironments for youth to continuously inventand reinvent themselves and therefore holdimmense potential for behavior modification. [1]Fitzgerald, E., 'Some insights on new role ofschools', New York Times, 21 January 2011, ,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsAgain, if this is in fact true, then theincentives are already in place for better choicesboth on the side of students as well asschools. What the government should do isthrough subsidizing healthier meals andeducational campaigns help both of them makethose choices on their own, and not force anunnecessary ban on them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsSchools need to practice what theypreach Under the pressure of increasing mediacoverage and civil society initiatives, schools arebeing called upon to “take up arms” againstchildhood obesity, both by introducing morenutritional and physical education classes, aswell as transforming the meals they are offeringin their cafeterias. [1] Never before has schoolbeen so central to a child’s personal and socialeducation. According to a study conducted by theUniversity of Michigan, American children andteenagers spend in school about 32.5 hours perweek homework a week – 7.5 hours more, than20 years ago [2] . School curricula now covertopics such as personal finance, sex andrelationships and citizenship. A precedent forteaching pupils about living well and livingresponsibly has already been established. Someschools, under national health programs, havegiven out free milk and fruit to try and makesure that children get enough calcium and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsMedia sensationalism is a poorjustification for any state intervention of anykind. What histrionic television documentariesusually provide nothing more than a warningthat our kids are in danger, along with a list of allthe diseases obesity might cause. But there isabsolutely nothing that would explain howexactly something as drastic as a ban would doanything to begin solving this problem. Theseobservations highlight a distressing truth aboutcontemporary western society – we are unable toaccept that the state is unable to solve problemswithout the assistance and support of civilsociety. We have a hard time accepting the factthat responsibility will have to fall on theshoulders of parents to enforce (or, more likely,to adopt in the first place) a healthy and activelifestyle in their families. Advice provided by theMayo Clinic explains that just talking isn’teffective. Kids and parents should go togetherfor a brisk walk, ride on the bike or any other", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsBetter nutrition leads to betterstudents. There is a growing body of evidencelinking a healthy lifestyle, comprising of bothadequate nutrition and physical exercise, withimproved memory, concentration and generalacademic performance. [1] A study has shownthat when primary school students consumethree or more junk food meals a week literacyand numeracy scores dropped by up to 16%compared to the average. [2] This is a clearincentive for governments to push forward forhealthier meals in schools for two reasons. Thefirst obvious benefit is to the student, whosebetter grades award her improved upwardmobility – especially important for ethnic groupsstuck worst by the obesity epidemic and a loweraverage socioeconomic status. The secondbenefit is to the schools, who benefit onstandardized testing scores and reducedabsenteeism, as well as reduced staff time andattention devoted to students with low academic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsThere is absolutely nothing stopping theschools from finding ventures that are just asprofitable with companies that offer healthydrinks and snacks. In fact, most of the existingcontracts could simply remain in place, sincemost of the firms are conglomerates that couldjust as easily offer healthy alternatives to sodapops and cookies. Where that would proveimpossible, it is simply a question of priorities:how many children afflicted by diabetes type 2are worth a field trip? How many a new sportsprogram or new equipment?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsWe would be truly hard pressed to find astudent, who isn’t very well aware of all thereasons we call certain food “junk food” andwhat the consumption of those does to thehuman body. We already have fantasticmechanism of nutritional education in place andmany very publicized campaigns stressing theimportance of a healthy lifestyle. Yet what wedon’t have are the results – obviously educatingthe public is not enough. When we are facedwith an epidemic that has such an immensedestructive potential, we truly must face it headon and forget about well-intended yet extremelyimpractical principled arguments – such as theone proposed by the opposition. What we needis results, and armed with the knowledge wonfrom the war on tobacco, we now know thatlimiting access is a key mechanism of taking onchildhood obesity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsTargeting schools will be an ineffectivestrategy. Schools may seem like a perfect placeto effect behavioral change in youth, since 95%of young people are enrolled in schools. [1] Butwhat researchers find is that changing thechoices we have available does not necessarilylead to any behavioral change. PennyGordon-Larsen, one of the researchers, wrote:\"Our findings suggest that no single approach,such as just having access to fresh fruits andveggies, might be effective in changing the waypeople eat. We really need to look at numerousways of changing diet behaviors. There are likelymore effective ways to influence what peopleeat.” [2] In the case of school children is thispoint seems particularly salient. Given that highschool students in the US average only 6 hoursin school [3] and the widespread availability offast and other forms of “junk food”, we canhardly expect that impacting this singleenvironment of the school will lead to any lasting", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsPupils will bring unhealthy food with themto schools. Frequently, a ban- whether or food,alcohol or forms of media- serves only to buildinterest in the things that has been prohibited.When a ban affects something that is a familiarpart of everyday life that is generally regarded asbenign, there is a risk that individuals may try toacquire the banned thing through othermeans. Having had their perspective in junkfood defined partly by attractive, highlypersuasive advertising, children are likely toadopt an ambivalent perspective on any attemptto restrict their dietary choices. The extremecontrast between the former popularity ofvending machines in schools and the austereapproach required by new policies may hamperschools’ attempts to convince pupils of thenecessity and rationality of their decision. Eventhough schools may be able to coerce andcompel their pupils to comply with disciplinarymeasures, they cannot stop children buying", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschools“Junk food” sales are an important sourceof funding for schools. An important issue toconsider in this topic is the constellation ofincentives that actually got us to the place wherewe are at today. With the environment designedto incentivize improving schools’ performance onstandardized tests, there is absolutely nothingthat would motivate them to invest their verylimited resources into non-core programs orsubjects, such as PE and sports and otheractivities. [1] Ironically, schools turned to sodaand snack vending companies in order toincrease their discretionary funds. An examplecited in the paper is one high school in Beltsville,MD, which made $72,438.53 in the 1999-2000school year through a contract with a soft drinkcompany and another $26,227.49 through acontract with a snack vending company. Thealmost $100,000 obtained was used for a varietyof activities, including instructional uses such aspurchasing computers, as well as extracurricular", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsSchools should educate about healthychoices, not make them on the students’behalf. Although it might be very tempting forthe government to try and attack the problem ofchildhood obesity by attempting to change, inessence, the very choices our kids can make,this is the wrong way of going about doingit. The purpose of schools is education – thegenesis of active and useful members of society.A large extent of what schools do is imprintingthe ideas the society values. In most westerncountries those would be the ideas of fairness,democracy, freedom of expression, etc. Theother side of the coin is the transference ofknowledge, knowledge of mathematics, history,but also of biology, health and nutrition. We seethus that the proposed ban on specific choicesone makes in school, whether be it choicesregarding food or choices regarding the clothesone wears, the ideas one expresses, and so on,is truly meaningless in the existing concept of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsFirst of all, such loop holes can be fixedand are just a problem of practicalities, if it helpsto educate the pupils, we should do it. Forexample, there can be an agreement thatparents should not buy candy for children to taketo school or just restrict stores in theneighborhood to only selling junk food duringschool hours as they did in Tower Hamlets(UK). In one school surveyed, all 1,700 pupilswere obliged to follow strict rules stating 'nochips, fatty foods, sweets, fizzy drinks' can besold at the school. A nearby fast food shop wasinitially allowed to sell to pupils, but parents andteachers objected, fearing it would jeopardizethe school's healthy-eating policy. One resident,Edward Copeland, was so angry that he broughtthe case to the High Court, where the courtdecided, that junk food stores are not be openedduring school [1] hours to support the schoolsstrict rules. [1] Borland S., 'Judges declare fastfood takeaway near school is »unlawful«', The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hgwhwbjfs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "health general weight house would ban junk foodschoolsEven if students spend a small fraction oftheir time in schools – and 6 hours is by nomeans an insignificant amount of time – it is stillan incredible opportunity for intervention for avery important reason. The reason is theincredible potential for homogeneity ofexperience. at least in the aspect of food offered.We are able, to certain extent, control the schoolenvironment in such a way as to promotehealthy choices and eliminate bad ones. Whenstudents return to their homes, we have lost thatopportunity. In a nutshell, one healthy meal perday is much better than none. It can also becontended that children often share experiencesfrom school with their parents and siblings backhome. Thus a healthy environment in schoolcould, potentially, find its way into homes wecouldn’t otherwise reach by any other means.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseProvidingthe choice to donate at expense of one’s life willsimply increase the pressure on those who donot wish to donate as they now are presentedwith a much bigger burden when their loved onedies as they could lawfully have prevented it.Moreover the person who is receiving thedonation would also have that sense of guilt ofliving with the knowledge that someone activelychose to sacrifice their life for them. This guiltmay well be larger than having the possibility ofsaving someone but not acting. [1] [1]Monforte-Royo, C., et al. “The wish to hastendeath: a review of clinical studies.”Psycho-Oncology 20.8 (2011): 795-804.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseThe guiltmay be too heavy a burden for the relative whocould have saved a life It is not fair to ask of aparent to live with the guilt of having been ableto save their child and not doing so. Believingthat they are guilty of their child’s death cancause Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome, which inturn is a major cause of suicides. [1] [1]Monforte-Royo, C., et al. “The wish to hastendeath: a review of clinical studies.”Psycho-Oncology 20.8 (2011): 795-804.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseMan is also asocial being. While we have a right to our ownbody, we also have duties to those around us. Ifwe choose to terminate our lives, we mustconsider the consequences for those who dependon us, physically or emotionally. Can we reallyjudge whether our own life is less worth thanthat of the recipient? Human beings also oftenmake decisions without all the relevantinformation. The choices we make may very wellbe ill-informed even if we believe otherwise. Partof the problem here is that all the consequencesof our decisions can never be fully understood oranticipated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseGreaterawareness will increase donations There is aclear need around the world for more donors oforgans. In the UK there are about 4000transplants a year but there are always morewaiting, in November 2012 there were 7593people waiting so on average each will be waitingfor almost two years. [1] In Germany there areover 12,000 waiting but only 2777 donations in2012. [2] The sacrifice of individual relatives whowillingly choose death to save their loved onestherefore brings the need for donations intofocus. The media are likely to presentheart-breaking stories about loving people whomade the ultimate sacrifice. As a consequence,more people will be aware of the issue and wishto fill in donor cards so that they might be ableto minimise the number of voluntary donations inthe event of their death. Thus there will be morenaturally donated organs available and morelives will be saved. [1] NHS Choices,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseIt is anatural thing to do We are biologicallyprogrammed to want to preserve our species. Assuch, our offspring will often be more importantto ourselves than our own persons. Many doctorshear parents tell them how they wish that theycould “take over” their child’s terminal illnessrather than have the child suffer. [1] It istherefore natural and right for the oldergeneration to sacrifice itself where possible tosave the younger generation. As crass as thismight seem, they are statistically more likely todie earlier than their offspring in any event andstand to lose less. They have had the chance toexperience more of a life than their child. Theyare furthermore the cause of the child’sexistence, and owe it to the child to protect it atany cost. [1] Monforte-Royo, C. and M.V.Roqué. “The organ donation process: A humanistperspective based on the experience of nursingcare.” Nursing Philosophy 13.4 (2012): 295-301.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseBiology is abad way of deciding moral behaviour. If we wereto do what biology tells us to do, we would be nomore than animals. Every person has a right tolive their life and they do not lose it simplybecause they have family. In modern society wedo not cease to live meaningful lives at the pointwhen we have children, as Darwinians mighthave us believe, but many people have morethan half of their valuable lives ahead of them atthe point when their children are emancipated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseIt is cynicalto encourage people commit suicide to bring themedia’s attention to an issue. If there is too littleattention, the problem lies with the media andneeds to be solved by changing the media. It isnot the responsibility of vulnerable relatives tosacrifice their lives to redress thatissue. Moreover, if the proposal were to be putinto practise, the government would becommunicating that organ donations primarily isan issue for the family of the sick person. Thus,people will be less keen to donate their organs tosomeone that they do not know, as they believethat there will be a family member who will sortit for them. Sacrificial donations are alwaysinferior and the motion would make them thenorm rather than what is the case in the statusquo.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseThis will onlylead to family members pressuring terminally illpeople to commit suicide prematurely. Eventhose who are terminally ill, value life, possibleeven more than others. These people arevulnerable and bereft of hope they are prone tobe pressured into such action (Tremblay). [1]However, it is impossible to say whether sixmonths of life for one person is more or lessworth than six years for another. Furthermore,this assumes that we know that the recipient willindeed live that long, which we never can knowabout mortal beings. As to the second part ofthe point, it is impossible to quantify human life.If the value of human life is indeed infinite, it isnot as simple as to say that two lives are betterthan one. As long as we cannot say for sure, thisis a slippery slope of quantifying human livesthat we want to avoid at all costs. [1] Tremblay,Joe. “Organ Donation Euthanasia: A GrowingEpidemic.” Catholic News Agency, (2013).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseThe right toindividual self determination is a fundamentalhuman right, equal to that of life itself It is afundamental principle of the human being is thatevery human is born autonomous. Therefore, webelieve that every person has a right to his orher own body and is thus competent to makedecisions about it. This is because we recognisethat whatever decisions we might make aboutour bodies, stem from the knowledge that wehave about our own preferences. Nobody can tellus how to value different goods and thereforewhat matters to one person might matter less toanother. If we were to undermine this right,nobody would be able to live their life to itsfullest as they would be living their life tosomeone else’s fullest. The extension of this rightis that if someone values another person’s lifeover their own it is their informed decision tosacrifice themselves for that person. It is not forothers to decide, and in particular not for the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseWe shouldpreserve the person with greater quality oflife We have to be able to measure quality of liferelatively. There might be many cases where arelative is terminally ill, yet not dead yet. Thisperson, with a survival prospect of maybe half ayear of suffering and medication, might have aperfectly functional organ. [1] It is very rational,both for this person and for society as a whole toallow him or her to undergo euthanasia at anearly stage to save the other person.[2] Furthermore, a person might sacrifice his orher life to provide an organ for a specificindividual, yet their other organs can still beused to save others, of whom the donor mightnot have been aware. It is sad that a person hasto die, but as this is the only option [3] , it is agood thing that several people might live whenone sacrifices their life. [1] Monforte-Royo, C.and M.V. Roqué. “The organ donation process: Ahumanist perspective based on the experience of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-con03b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseThe risk ofcoercion might be true about voluntary donationsof organs and blood where the donor survives. Adonation is always a large decision and theauthorities must take measures to ensure thatthe donor is acting freely. However, the harm ofa person potentially being vulnerable issignificantly lesser than that of a person dyingbecause everyone who wanted to help thisperson had their hands tied. Modern medicinehas very powerful tools at their disposal to beable to know for a fact that a person is beyondsaving if not given an organ. [1] [1] Chkhotua,A. “Incentives for organ donation: pros andcons.” Transplantation proceedings [TransplantProc] 44 (2012): 1793-4.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-con01b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseThisargument is selfish and ignores how love mightpush a person to make great sacrifices. Wemight have imperfect information about ourimportance, but whatever information we have,gives us an idea of how to assess complicatedsituations. If we were to follow this logic,self-determination would be impossible", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-con02a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseThe recipientis forced to receive the sacrifice of another Inmany cases, the recipient is not in position toconsent to the donation. Thus, even if it saveshis or her life, it is comes with an intrusion on hisor her moral integrity that he or she might valuehigher than survival. If we are to receive such adrastic sacrifice from someone that we love –surely we must have a right to veto it? [1] Thismeans that to enable the choice of the donor thechoice of the receiver has been ignored, thereseems to be little reason to simply switch thosetwo positions around as is proposed. [1]Monforte-Royo, C., et al. “The wish to hastendeath: a review of clinical studies.”Psycho-Oncology 20.8 (2011): 795-804.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-con05a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseDoctorsshould not be asked to take the moral burden ofpeople who want to commit suicide It is not fairto ask doctors who have committed their lives topreserving health to act as an instrument ofkilling a person. The doctor will then have to livewith the doubt as to whether the act of assistingin the donation was just or not. In other words, ifthe person who wanted to die for another did notdo so voluntarily, the act of killing him or her ismorally wrong and the doctor becomes complicit.In order to carry out this scheme, the individualmoral autonomy of doctors will be violated.[1] [1] Tremblay, Joe. “Organ DonationEuthanasia: A Growing Epidemic.” Catholic NewsAgency, (2013).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-con04a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseThe role ofsociety is to save lives not to assist insuicide The purpose of society, the health sectorand more specifically the doctors is to preservehealth, not to be damaging health or evenassisting in the ending of a life even ifvoluntarily. As part of this, death is sometimessomething that must be affected. However, it isnot in line with the purpose of medicalprofessionals to kill a healthy person. Thesolution is to focus every possible effort oncuring the sick person, but society cannot becomplicit in killing a healthy person [1] . [1]Tremblay, Joe. “Organ Donation Euthanasia: AGrowing Epidemic.” Catholic News Agency,(2013).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-con03a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseThis wouldencourage coercion for some to die to saveothers By allowing sacrificial donations societybecomes vulnerable to abuse of this system. It ispossible that people are scared or coerced intosacrificing their lives for others. While societydoes all it can for those who are ill, it cannotstart moving the boundaries for when it activelytakes the lives of its citizens. Even when there isno coercion, we cannot even know when aperson is beyond all hope. Even in the direstsituations, there are exceptional cases whenpeople recover. However, if we take a person’svital organs, the process is irreversible.Therefore, it is always wrong to prematurely killanother person, while the recipient is still aliveand within the realm of luck and miracles. In thestatus quo the donor is already dead and thetrade-off is not a problem, but this cannot beextended to the living", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-con05b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseThis is easilysolved. Similarly to doctors who assist in cases ofabortion or even executions doctors must havethe option of opting out. However, once it isproven that this model is ethically good, it islikely that there are doctors who will realise thepotential of this method and who will want toparticipate. After all, this is a motion that relatesto the exceptional cases, so even if most doctorsopt out there will still be doctors who will bewilling to operate under this scheme.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-con01a", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs evenexpenseSelf-preservation is our primary moralduty Many people, especially those who belongto religious groups believe that we have a dutyto preserve our own lives. They would argue thatsuicide is never justified, even if the reasonsmight appear to be good. It is impossible tosacrifice your life for others, because you cannotknow how important your life is to others inrelation to how important other people’s livesare. Either life is invaluable and it is thusimpossible to value one life higher than others,or it can be valued, but it is impossible for us toassess our life’s value in relation to others.Therefore, while we accept that some might die,it is not for the individual to take matters into hisor her own hands and accelerate the process, asthis decision might be made on the wronggrounds, but cannot be reversed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-con04b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseIf thepurpose of society and the health sector isindeed to promote life and preserve health,surely it must be in that interest to find ways ofsaving people’s lives when possible. Whoeverdies and leaves an organ behind saves a life, andoften more than one life as shown by the UKhaving carried out 3960 transplants with 2143donors in 2011-12, [1] and there is thus no lossof life. A person only gives up their own life ifthey have a good reason to do so. Thus, it islikely that this model will promote thepreservation of younger and healthier lives overthose who have less to lose by sacrificingtheirs. [1] NHS Choices, “Introduction”, 19October 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-hpehwadvoee-con02b", "title": "", "text": "healthcare philosophy ethics house would allowdonations vital organs even expenseFirstly, thiscase is about emergencies. Consent is important,but it cannot be compared to the importance ofsaving a life. Secondly, the person whoseconsent matters is the donor who is making thesacrifice. The recipient can be expected to wantto live, even if he or she cannot communicatethis. [1] [1] Monforte-Royo, C., et al. “The wishto hasten death: a review of clinical studies.”Psycho-Oncology 20.8 (2011): 795-804.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsAllowing the sale ofgeneric drugs will not help the plight of thedeveloping world. Many drug companies investsubstantial amounts of money, gleaned from thesale of profitable dugs in the developed world,into researching treatments for the developingworld. Without the revenues available frompatent-protected drug sales, companies' profitswill fall, precipitating a reduction in pro bonogiving and research. Allowing the production ofgeneric drugs will thus in the long run hurt thedeveloping world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsAllowing production ofgeneric drugs saves lives, particularly in thedeveloping world Many developing countries arefraught with terrible disease. Much of Africa andAsia are devastated by malaria, and in manyparts of Africa AIDS is a horrendous scourge,infecting large percentages of many countriespopulations. For example, in Swaziland, 26% ofthe adult population is infected with the virus1.In light of these obscenely high infection rates,African governments have sought to find meansof acquiring enough drugs to treat their ailingpopulations. The producers of the major AIDSmedications do donate substantial amounts ofdrugs to stricken countries, yet at the same timethey charge ruinously high prices for that whichthey do sell, leading to serious shortages incountries that cannot afford them. The denial ofthe right to produce or acquire generic drugs iseffectively a death sentence to people in thesecountries. With generic drugs freely available on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsAllowing the productionof generic drugs will only increase production ofdrugs currently on the market. Without the profitincentive that patents provide, pharmaceuticalcompanies will not invest in the expensiveprocess of developing new drugs in the firstplace. It is a necessary trade-off, as patents areessential to incentivize innovation. Furthermore,many states have mandatory licensing laws instates requiring companies to license the rightsto the production of drugs so as not toprecipitate shortages.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsYou cannot own an idea,and thus cannot hold patents, especially to vitaldrugs An individual's idea, so long as it restssolely in his mind or is kept safely hidden,belongs to him. When he disseminates it toeveryone and makes it public, it becomes part ofthe public domain, and belongs to anyone whocan use it. If individuals or firms want to keepsomething a secret, like a production method,then they should keep it to themselves and becareful with how they disseminate their product.One should not, however, expect some sort ofownership to inhere in an idea one has, since nosuch ownership right exists1. No one can own anidea. Thus recognizing something like a propertyright over something like a drug formula iscontrary to reason, since doing so givesmonopoly power to individuals who may notmake efficient or equitable use of their asset.Physical property is a tangible asset, and thuscan be protected by tangible safeguards. Ideas", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsThe current patentsystem is unjust and creates perverse incentivesthat benefit large pharmaceutical companies atthe expense of ordinary citizens The currentdrug patent regime is largely designed to benefitand shield the profits of large pharmaceuticalcompanies. This is due to the fact that most ofthe laws on drug patents were written bylobbyists and voted upon by politicians in the payof those firms. The pharmaceutical industry issimply massive and has one of the most powerfullobbies in most democratic states, particularlythe United States. The laws are orchestrated tocontain special loopholes, which these firms canexploit in order to maximize profits at theexpense of the taxpayer and of justice. Forexample, through a process called\"evergreening\", drug firms essentially re-patentdrugs when they near expiration by patentingcertain compounds or variations of the drug1.This can extend the life of some patents", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsThere is nothing unjustabout the patent system. It protects everyoneequally. The nature of democracy is such thatpeople are allowed to express their opinions andto organize to further certain aims. Drugcompanies have a particular interest inprotecting their patent rights so it is only naturalthat they should involve themselves in theprocess of how those patents should be treatedlegally. They are not miscreants, but rather areparticipants in a system that is designed to be asfair as possible for everyone.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsIdeas can be owned, toa certain extent. The creative effort involved inthe production of a drug formula is every bit asgreat as the building of a new chair or othertangible asset. Nothing special separates themand law must reflect that. It is a fundamentalviolation of property rights to steal from drugcompanies the rights they own to drugs byallowing the production of generic knock-offs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsThe costs associatedwith the current patent regime are necessary tothe maintenance of innovation. It may be costly,and technically inefficient to police propertyrights, but that does not make them less of aright. If firms feel they can benefit from fightinginfringers of their patent rights, it is their right todo so. The state likewise, has an obligation toprotect the rights, physical and intangible, of itscitizens and cannot give up on them simplybecause they prove difficult and costly toenforce.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsProduction of genericdrugs reduce medical costs by allowing increasedproduction and the development of superiorproduction methods, increasing marketefficiency The sale of generic drugs invariablyreduces costs to consumers. This is due to tworeasons. It may be the case that an individual orfirm with a patent, essentially a monopoly rightto the production of something, may not havethe ability to efficiently go about meetingdemand for it. Patents slow, or even stop thedissemination of the production methods,especially when a patent-holder is unwilling tolicense production to others1. Such an outcomeis deleterious to society, as with no restrictionson drug production an efficient producer, orproducers, will emerge to meet the needs of thepublic, producing an amount of drugscommensurate with demand, and thusequilibrating market price with that demand2.This market equilibration is impossible under", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsWhen generic drugs arelegalized firms and individuals no longer feel theincentive to misallocate resources to the race topatent new drugs and to monitor existingpatents, or to spend resources stealing from oneanother Patent regimes cause firms toinefficiently allocate resources. One suchinefficiency arises from the duplication of effortby firms seeking to develop the same or verysimilar drugs, though only the first to do so mayprofit from it due to the winner-takes-all patentsystem. This leads to brutal races and excessiveexpenditure of resources to be first over the lineand to monopolize the production, at least for atime. These races can thus lead to efforts byfirms to steal research from one another, thusresulting in further wastes of resources inengaging and attempting to prevent corporateespionage. Another serious inefficiency arises inthe production of similar products to existingones, seeking to get around existing patents.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsNo one can own an idea.Thus creating something like a property rightover intangible assets is a meaninglessendeavor. Doing so gives monopoly power toindividuals who may not make efficient orequitable use of their inventions or products.Physical property is a tangible asset, and thuscan be protected by tangible safeguards. Ideasdo not share this right to protection, because anidea, once spoken, enters the public domain andbelongs to anyone who can use it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsDangerous genericdrugs are rare, and when they are found theyare quickly pulled from the market. Argumentsagainst generics on the grounds of safety are nomore than alarmist nonsense. When people go tothe drug store they have a choice betweenexpensive brand name drugs and cheapergenerics. It is their right to economize andchoose the less glossy alternative.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsPatent rights allow firmsto more readily release their products andmethods into the public domain, particularlythrough licensing Without patent protection,innovative and enterprising firms lacking thecapacity to market successfully or efficientlyproduce new drugs might develop new drugs andnever release them, since it would simply resultin others profiting from their efforts. After all, noone likes to see others profit by their hard work,and leaving them nothing; such is tantamount toslavery. Patent protection encourages therelease of new ideas and products to the public,which serves to benefit society generally1. Themain mechanism for this is the system oflicensing, by which firs can retain their right ofownership over a drug while essentially rentingthe ability to produce it to firms with productivecapacities that would better capitalize on the newproduct. Furthermore, the disclosure of ideas tothe public allows firms to try to make the product", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-con04a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsRobust drug patent lawsincentivize investment of time and money indeveloping new products When a real chance ofprofit exists in the development of a new productor drug, people and firms put the effort intodeveloping and creating them. The incentive toprofit drives a great deal of people's intellectualendeavors. Research and development, forexample, forms a major part of industries'investment, as they seek to create new productsand inventions that will benefit consumers, andthus society as a whole. Research anddevelopment is extremely costly, however. TheUS pharmaceutical industry alone spends tens ofbillions of dollars every year on researching newdrugs1. The fear of theft, or of lack of profitstemming from such research, will serve as apowerful disincentive to investment. Without theprotection of patents, new drugs lose much oftheir value, since a second-comer on the fieldcan simply take the formula and develop the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsThe product of a firm'sintellectual endeavor is the property of that firm,and it deserves to profit from it When a firmdirects individuals to mix their labor with itscapital or other resources, part of that firm'sidentity inheres in the product that arises fromthe effort. This is the origin of, and fundamentalphilosophical justification for, property rights.Property rights are an unquestioned mainstay oflife in all developed countries, and are anessential prerequisite for stable markets todevelop and function1. The law protects patentrights in much the same way as moreconventional physical property, as well it should.Individuals and firms generating ideas and usingtheir effort to produce an intangible good, suchas a new drug formula, have a property right onthose ideas and the products that arise fromthem. It is the effort to produce a real good,albeit an intangible one, that marks thedifference between an idea in someone's head", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsGeneric drugs oftenprove to be less effective than their brand namecounterparts, and can even bedangerous Generic drugs are meant to retain asubstantial degree of bioequivalence with theirbrand name predecessors. Yet, even under stricttesting laws in this regard, generic drugs have onseveral cases been shown to manifest sideeffects not present in their parent products. Forexample, a generic version of Wellbutrin XL, ananti-depressant, that was ostensibly chemicallyequivalent to the brand name drug, causedsuicidal episodes in several users1. Thisdemonstrates that no amount of chemical testingcan guarantee true bioequivalence, and thusgeneric drugs cannot be considered as identicalto brand name drugs in terms of safety. Whileimproving testing of generics would go some waytoward fixing this problem, it would not do soentirely, as the market for new drugs will be sogreatly widened with the approval of generic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-con04b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsResearch anddevelopment will continue, irrespective ofintellectual property rights. The desire of firms tostay ahead of the competition will drive them toinvest in research regardless. That their profitswill be diminished by the removal of intellectualproperty rights is only natural and due to the factthat they will no longer have monopoly controlover their intangible assets, and will thus not beable to engage in the rent-seeking behaviorinherent in monopoly control of products. Thecosts of commercialization, which includebuilding factories, developing markets, etc., areoften much higher than the costs of the initialconception of an idea1 these are areas wherecompetition will force down costs. Furthermore,there will always be demand for a brand nameover a generic product. In this way the initialproducer can still profit more than genericproducers, if not at monopolisticlevels. 1Markey, Justice Howard. 1975. Special", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghwapgd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general house would allowproduction generic drugsIf firms are afraid theirformulae will be stolen, then they should keepthem hidden. Otherwise, they should seek tomake their new drug public, benefiting everyoneso that the most people possible can have accessto them. The release of ideas is most bountifulwhen there is active and constant competition toproduce newer and better products and ideas.This is only possible in the absence ofconstricting patent protections. Furthermore,firms' attempts to \"invent around\" patents do notactually benefit anyone, as their aim is often notto improve upon existing models, but to designproducts that are as close to replicas as possiblewithout violating law. This is a grossmisallocation of resources created by the unjustpatents regime.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghhbampt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general healthcare house believesalternative medicine poses threatPartly theproblem here may well be that clinical researchis simply looking for the wrong things. There isenough anecdotal evidence of success to at leastsuggest further research – it is worth noting thatthere’s no money in many of these treatments sothey actually get relatively little academicdiscussion. A meta-study of the availablematerial on analyses of the effectiveness ofcomplementary medicine by the CochraneLibrary found positive or confirmatory outcomesin 34 percent of those papers it reviewed on thesubject. It is also worth reiterating that there isa massive financial interest in ignoring, sideliningor condemning therapies that pose a threat tothe medical establishment. It seems incrediblyunlikely that people would come back for morethan one dose of a treatment that was having noeffect, and yet they do.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghhbampt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general healthcare house believesalternative medicine poses threatAlthough thereare many accounts of the efficacy of alternativecancer treatments, not one has beendemonstrated to work in a clinical trial TheNational Centre for Conventional and AlternativeMedicines has spent over $2.5bn on researchsince 1992. The Dutch government fundedresearch between 1996 and 2003. Alternativetherapies have been tested in mainstreammedical journals and elsewhere. Not only havethousands of research exercises failed to provethe medical benefit ”alternative” treatments forsevere and terminal diseases, seriouspeer-reviewed studies have routinely disprovedthem. It’s all well and good to pick at mistakesin individual studies. Indeed, this tactic oftenforms the mainstay of pleas for legitimacy madeby members of the alternative medicalcommunity. However, the odds against suchconsistently negative results would beextraordinary. By contrast, conventional", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghhbampt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general healthcare house believesalternative medicine poses threatStatistics foralternatives are difficult to generate as patientswill often move between practitioners andfrequently self-medicate. Clearly there are alsoconditions that any responsible practitionerwould refer to a specialist in that particularfield. However, many people are mistrustful ofso-called conventional medicine and thealternative medicine sector has proven bothpopular and has often brought about changes inlifestyle as well as direct health benefits, ifanecdotal evidence is to bebelieved. Responsible practitioners havewelcomed the actions of those governments whohave licensed and regulated the Complementaryand Alternative sector. Although science maystruggle to explain the benefits of thesetherapeutic technics, as they do not lendthemselves to the tools of commercial medicine.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghhbampt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general healthcare house believesalternative medicine poses threatManyalternative remedies, such as homeopathy, offernothing but a false hope and can discouragepatients from consulting a doctor with what maybe serious symptoms There are good reasonswhy new therapies are tested in scientific trialsfirst, rather than just released on the public thatit might work. The first is to weed outside-effects but the other is that if you give mostpeople a medicine they will, not unreasonably,expect it to make them better. An entireindustry has grown out of alternative medicines.No doubt many alternative practitioners are wellmeaning, but this does not change the fact thatpeople are making money out of something that,as far as anyone can determine, is basicallysnake oil. Although many people take bothalternative and established treatments, there area growing number of patients who rejectconventional medical wisdom ( there’s anaccount of one such case here [i] ) in cases that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghhbampt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general healthcare house believesalternative medicine poses threatTheoverwhelming majority of practitioners ofalternative therapies recommend that they beused in conjunction with conventional medicine.However, the rights and opinions of the patientare foremost and should be respected. In thecase of cancer, since that is the study consideredby proposition, there are many sufferers whodecide that chemotherapy, a painful andprotracted treatment, which rarely yieldspromising or conclusive results, may well beworse than the disease. Of course there is a costassociated with alternative medicine, although itis as nothing compared with the cost of manymedical procedures, notably in the US but alsoelsewhere. There are plenty of conventionalpractitioners willing to prescribe medications thatmay not be necessary or, at the very least,select medications on the basis of financialinducements from pharmaceuticalcompanies. Despite legal rulings [i] , such", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghhbampt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general healthcare house believesalternative medicine poses threatOverwhelminglyalternative therapies are used in conjunction withestablished remedies - oddly the latter tends notto get the credit for the miracle cure Thankfullyonly 4.4% of the 60million or so Americans whosay they use alternative therapies rely on themexclusively. It is odd that in the cases ofanecdotal accounts of the success of alternativemedicines this statistic is rarely mentioned [i]. Equally, the impact of other treatment whichmay have been used by patients eager to creditcomplementary and alternative medicines withcuring their conditions, tend not to get a look in,neither do the relative successes of conventionalmedicine. This is probably why in every trialalternative medicine has a success rate ofbetween 0% and 0%. By contrast there needsonly be one instance of harm caused todemonstrate that this motion must stand.Interestingly, although conventional medicinepublishes its mistakes in an effort to correct", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghhbampt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general healthcare house believesalternative medicine poses threathis is of coursean excellent argument for more and betterfunded clinics, especially in parts of the world(including much of the West) where access tomedicine is difficult. It is also evidence thatwhen people are genuinely worried about theirhealth they tend to consult providers ofconventional medicine who are, as a result,extremely busy. It perhaps says more thananything else about many practitioners ofalternative medicines that they have time to sitaround bonding with their patients.Unsurprisingly, such a luxury is rare in an A andE ward or even in the average GP’s surgery.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghhbampt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general healthcare house believesalternative medicine poses threatThis comesdown to the ‘well it can’t hurt, can it’ approach toalternatives. There is simply no serious medic –or any other scientist for that matter who wouldsuggest that it’s a good idea to ingest productsthat are of dubious origin and purport medicalbenefits without having been tested. In manycases these have been shown to be at leastirrelevant and at worst actively harmful. Ofcourse it is painful to deny treatment to a patienton the basis that the medication has yet tocomplete its trial stage but there is a reason fordoing that in that it allows doctors to be 100percent sure of a product before they’represcribed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghhbampt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general healthcare house believesalternative medicine poses threatThepharmaceutical and medical industries are worthbillions of dollars annually. They have an interestin ignoring the efficacy of remedies that are, forthe most part, free or considerably cheaper It’sunderstandable that the medical establishmenthas an interest in ignoring treatments that arefreely available. Pharmaceutical companies makebillions each year selling drugs that cost penniesto manufacture. There is an enormous vestedinterest in insuring that the world in general- andthe West in particular-remain tied to the ideathat the only solution to disease is to swallow apill provided by a man in a white coat. There areother solutions that have been used forthousands of years before anybody worked outhow to make a buck out of it. For much of theworld these therapies continue to be the onespeople rely on and the rush of pharmaceuticalcompanies to issue patents on genes of some ofthese traditional remedies suggests that there", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghhbampt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general healthcare house believesalternative medicine poses threatAlternativemedical practitioners tend to spend more timewith their patients and get a betterunderstanding of them as a whole, as a resultthey are more likely to treat the person than thesymptom Modern medicine tends to treat anindividual symptom without putting it in thecontext of the whole person and so will often failto see it as part of a widerpathology. Alternative practitioners tend tospend more time with their patients and so arebetter placed to asses individual symptoms as apart of the person as a whole rather than justdealing with symptoms one as a time as the cropup.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghhbampt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "disease health general healthcare house believesalternative medicine poses threatA huge numberof fully accepted medical practices started beingseen as something a bit off the wall, it’s wrong todeny sick people access to a treatment that maybe mainstream in 20 years There is a fine linebetween what is considered alternative and whatis thought of as mainstream. Techniques domove across that line and when they do so, theyare seen as mainstream. However, this processof reform, refinement and acceptance takestime. In the meantime it is simply unfair to denytreatment to patients who want it because themedical establishment is beholden to aconservative academic orthodoxy and drug andtreatment providers with vested interests inensuring that particular cures and techniques willcontinue to be purchased and utilised.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhghhbampt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "disease health general healthcare house believesalternative medicine poses threatAbsolutelynobody questions that many remedies can bedrawn from nature- penicillin provides oneexample- but there is something of a jump thathappens between chewing on a piece of bark anda regulated dose of a chemical. Let’s dealquickly with the cost of medications – the secondpill may well ‘cost pennies’; the first one, bycontrast, costs hundreds of millions of dollars inresearch. On the basis that there is probablymore than one medicine in the world thatprocedure will need to be repeated. As for theidea that there are older or more traditionalremedies and that these are still frequently usedin much of the world, that is, indeed true. Theyare the same periods of history and parts of theplanet were the bulk of humankind died – orcontinues to die – agonizing deaths fromrelatively commonplace diseases that modernmedicine is able to cure with ‘a pill from a man ina white coat’. It is admittedly regrettable that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldModern palliativecare is immensely flexible and effective, andhelps to preserve quality of life as far as ispossible. There is no need for terminally illpatients ever to be in pain, even at the very endof the course of their illness. It is always wrongto give up on life. The future which lies ahead forthe terminally ill is of course terrifying, butsociety’s role is to help them live their lives aswell as they can. This can take place throughcounselling, helping patients to come to termswith their condition.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldThose who are inthe late stages of a terminal disease have ahorrific future agead of them The gradualdecline of their body, the failure of their organsand the need for artificial support. In somecases, the illness will slowly destroy their minds,the essence of themselves; even if this is not thecase, the huge amounts of medication requiredto ‘control’ their pain will often leave them in adelirious and incapable state. At least fivepercent of terminal pain cannot be controlled,even with the best care. Faced with this, it issurely more humane that those people beallowed to choose the manner of their own end,and have the assistance of a doctor to die withdignity. One particular account was of SueRodriguez who died slowly of Lou Gehrig'sdisease. She lived for several years with theknowledge that her muscles would, one by one,waste away until the day came when, fullyconscious, she would choke to death. She", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldDemanding thatfamily take part in such a decision can be anunbearable burden: many may resent a lovedone’s decision to die, and would be eitheremotionally scared or estranged by the prospectof being in any way involved with their death.Assisted suicide also introduces a new danger,that the terminally ill may be pressured intoending their lives by others who are not preparedto support them through their illness. Even themost well regulated system would have no realway to ensure that this did not happen.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldEvery humanbeing has a right to life Perhaps the most basicand fundamental of all our rights. However, withevery right comes a choice. The right to speechdoes not remove the option to remain silent; theright to vote brings with it the right to abstain. Inthe same way, the right to choose to die isimplicit in the right to life. The degree to whichphysical pain and psychological distress can betolerated is different in all humans. Quality of lifejudgements are private and personal, thus onlythe sufferer can make relevant decisions. [1]This was particularly evident in the case of DanielJames. [2] After suffering a spinal dislocation asthe result of a rugby accident he decided that hewould live a second-rate existence if hecontinued with life and that it was not somethinghe wanted to prolong. People are given a largedegree of autonomy within their lives and sincedeciding to end your life does not physicallyharm anyone else, it should be within your rights", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldThere is nocomparison between the right to life and otherrights. When you choose to remain silent, youmay change your mind at a later date; when youchoose to die, you have no such second chance.Arguments from pro-life groups suggest thatnearly ninety-five percent of those who killthemselves have been shown to have adiagnosable psychiatric illness in the monthspreceding suicide. The majority suffer fromdepression that can be treated. [1] If they hadbeen treated for depression as well as pain theymay not have wanted to commit suicide.Participating in someone’s death is also toparticipate in depriving them of all choices theymight make in the future, and is thereforeimmoral. [1] Herbert Hendin, M.D., Seduced byDeath: Doctors, Patients, and Assisted Suicide(New York: W.W. Norton, 1998):34-35. (accessed 4/6/2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldSuicide is alonely, desperate act, carried out in secrecy andoften as a cry for help The impact on the familywho remain can be catastrophic. Often becausethey were unaware of how their loved one wasfeeling. Suicide cases such as Megan Meier, anAmerican teenager who committed suicide byhanging herself in 2006, [1] as the parents haveto launch police investigations into why theirchild might have felt so desperate. By legalisingassisted suicide, the process can be brought outinto the open. In some cases, families mighthave been unaware of the true feelings of theirloved one; being forced to confront the issue oftheir illness may do great good, perhaps evenallowing them to persuade the patient not to endtheir life. In other cases, it makes them part ofthe process: they can understand the reasonsbehind their decision without feelings of guilt andrecrimination, and the terminally ill patient canspeak openly to them about their feelings before", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-con03b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldWere the disposalof human life so much reserved as the peculiarprovince of the almighty, that it were anencroachment on his right for men to dispose oftheir own life, it would be equally criminal to actfor the preservation of life as for its destruction'[1] . If we accept the proposition that only Godcan give and take away life then medicine shouldnot be used at all. If only God has the power togive life then medicines and surgeries to prolongpeople's life should also be considered wrong. Itseems hypocritical to suggest that medicine canbe used to prolong life but it cannot be used toend someone's life. [1] David Hume, Of Suicide,cited in Applied Ethics ed. Peter Singer (NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1986) p.23", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-con01b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldAt the moment,doctors are often put into an impossible position.A good doctor will form close bonds with theirpatients, and will want to give them the bestquality of life they can; however, when a patienthas lost or is losing their ability to live withdignity and expresses a strong desire to die, theyare legally unable to help. To say that modernmedicine can totally eradicate pain is a tragicover-simplification of suffering. While physicalpain may be alleviated, the emotional pain of aslow and lingering death, of the loss of the abilityto live a meaningful life, can be horrific. Adoctor’s duty is to address his or her patient’ssuffering, be it physical or emotional. As a result,doctors will in fact already help their patients todie – although it is not legal, assisted suicidedoes take place. Opinion polls suggest thatfifteen percent of physicians already practise iton justifiable occasions. Numerous opinion pollsindicate that half the the medical profession", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-con02a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldIf someone isthreatening to kill themselves it is your moralduty to try to stop them Those who commitsuicide are not evil, and those who attempt totake their own lives are not prosecuted.However, it is your moral duty to try and preventpeople from committing suicide. You would not,for example, simply ignore a man standing on aledge and threatening to jump simply because itis his choice; and you would definitely not assistin his suicide by pushing him. In the same way,you should try to help a person with a terminalillness, not help them to die. With the exceptionof the libertarian position that each person has aright against others that they not interfere withher suicidal intentions. Little justification isnecessary for actions that aim to preventanother's suicide but are non-coercive. Pleadingwith a suicidal individual, trying to convince herof the value of continued life, recommendingcounseling, etc. are morally unproblematic, since", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-con04a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldIt would have adamaging effect on society Some people who donot agree with voluntary euthanasia argue that ifit was legalised, it would damage the moral andsocial foundation of society by removing thetraditional principle that man should not kill, andreduce the respect for human life. It might alsobe the case that once voluntary euthanasia hasbeen legalised, this might lead to cases ofinvoluntary euthanasia being carried out. Withpeople deciding that someone else's life such asthe elderly or the terminally ill is not worth livingand therefore performing euthanasia withouttheir consent. [1] A recent study discovered thatsome sufferers of locked-in syndrome – as manyas three out of four of the main sample – werehappy and did not want to die. [2] [1] The caseagainst, religiouseducation.co.uik (accessed4/6/2011). [2] Barbara Ellen, Who is to judgewhich lives are worth living?, guardian.co.uk, 17April 2011 (accessed 6/6/2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-con03a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldOnly God cangive and take away life Life is Sacred so no onehas the right to take a life, this includes onesown. As a result both suicide and assisted suicideare wrong. There are many passages within thebible that speak of the idea that God hasappointed a time for all to die, 'Hebrews 9:27,“And as it is appointed unto men once to die, butafter this the judgement:” Ecclesiastes 3:1-2,“To every thing there is a season, and a time toevery purpose under the heaven: A time to beborn, and a time to die; a time to plant, and atime to pluck up that which is planted;”Ecclesiastes 7:17, “Be not over much wicked,neither be thou foolish: why shouldest thou diebefore thy time?” [1] In addition to this,physicians are nowhere in Scripture givenauthority to take someone's life. Apart from thegovernment in the case of capital punishment, allother human beings are given thecommandment “Thou shalt not kill,” Exodus", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-con01a", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldIt is vital that adoctor's role not be confused The guidingprinciple of medical ethics is to do no harm: aphysician must not be involved in deliberatelyharming their patient. Without this principle, themedical profession would lose a great deal oftrust; and admitting that killing is an acceptablepart of a doctor’s role would likely increase thedanger of involuntary euthanasia, not reduce it.Legalising assisted suicide also places anunreasonable burden on doctors. The dailydecisions made in order to preserve life can bedifficult enough; to require them to also carrythe immense moral responsibility of decidingwho can and cannot die, and the furtherresponsibility of actually killing patients, isunacceptable. This is why the vast majority ofmedical professionals oppose the legalisation ofassisted suicide: ending the life of a patient goesagainst all they stand for. The Hippocratic Oaththat doctors use as a guide states 'I will neither", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-con04b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldHowever, theidea that we should not kill is not absolute, evenfor those with religious beliefs — killing in war orself-defence is justified by most. We already letpeople die because they are allowed to refusetreatment which could save their life, and thishas not damaged anyone's respect for the worthof human life. Concerning the notion thatlegalised voluntary euthanasia might lead toinvoluntary euthanasia being carried out, there isno evidence to suggest this. As Ronald Dworkinstates, 'Of course doctors know the moraldifference between helping people who beg todie and killing those who want to live.' [1] [1]Ronald Dworkin, stated in The case against,available at (accessed 4/6/2011).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-health-dhpelhbass-con02b", "title": "", "text": "disease healthcare philosophy ethics life housebelieves assisted suicide shouldSocietyrecognises that suicide is unfortunate butacceptable in some circumstances – those whoend their own lives are not seen as evil. It seemsodd that it is a crime to assist a non-crime. Theillegality of assisted suicide is thereforeparticularly cruel for those who are disabled bytheir disease, and are unable to die withoutassistance. For example, in March 1993 AnthonyBland had lain in persistent vegetative state forthree years before a Court Order allowed hisdegradation and indignity to come to a mercifulclose. [1] It might cause unnecessary pain forpeople if they make an attempt at suicidethemselves and subsequently fail. Rather thanthe pain-free methods that could be availablethrough doctors and modern medicine. [1] ChrisDocker, Cases in history, euthanasia.cc,2000 (accessed 6/6/2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyChanging thedemographics on the field will not be likely tochange the demographics in the stands.Economic equality is still an issue – which meansthe change that is needed are changes inmatters such as ticket prices, in order to bring ina broader base of spectators. The way tobroaden the talent pool is through policies tomake it larger, not to distribute positions withinit. In other words, what’s needed is resources,and a commitment to take the game in tocommunities where it is not so popular currently– the best players will rise to the top no mattertheir ethnicity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyBroadeningparticipation The talent pool in South Africanrugby is not as racially diverse as one wouldexpect from the “Rainbow Nation” – somecommentators have argued that England andFrance produce more top level black players thanSouth Africa [1] . This is because top levelplayers are a result of development from thegrassroots up. Targets or quotas could not onlyimprove the talent pool of today, but couldbroaden it for the future. A new generation ofyouth across all races in South Africa would beable to see that rugby union is a sport thataccepts people from their backgrounds, makingthem more likely to participate in rugby union,either as players, coaches, referees or as ageneral part of the rugby fraternity. [1]Blackwell, James, ‘South African Rugby Quotas –Right or Wrong?’, Sporting Mad, 16 September2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugby2006 was awhile ago, at a time when quotas were in force.Even so, popular support does not mean thatsomething is a good idea. Sport should bedistanced from the popular will. Most rugby fansare white, a group that had in the survey only14% of people in favour of a quotas. Among thepeople that might be considered the electorate ofthe sport, the fans, quotas are not wanted", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyRadical actionneeded for racial equality in South Africa It isplain for all to see how unrepresentative rugbyunion in South Africa is. While there is notnecessarily a deliberate policy of racism, it isvery easy for biases to creep in. Across thedivision where the quotas will come in only about6% of players are black, a number that shouldincrease to 33%. [1] Quotas could helpconcentrate the mind to ensure that the bestteam is picked. At grass roots level, there havebeen some cases of flat-out racial abuse ofnon-white players, including using racial termsthat are particularly offensive in a South Africancontext. [1] Peacock, James, ‘Peter de Villierssays racial quotas are ‘waste of time’, BBC Sport,15 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyEven if action isneeded to create racial equality, are quotas thesolution? There is no doubt that rugby is a sportwhere South Africa could be stronger if it waspopular in all racial groups, but they are a bluntinstrument: the way to pick the best team is tosimply pick the best team. Racial equality comeswhen no one is picked as a result of race whetherthat is through negative or positivediscrimination.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyMost SouthAfricans support quotas In 2006, the SouthAfrican Social Attitudes Survey revealed thatmost South Africans (56%) support a quotasystem [1] . This support remained roughly thesame over a four year period. Sport shouldreflect the will of the population of the country, ifthe population wants quotas then there shouldbe quotas. There is particularly strong supportfrom quotas among black people (63%) implyingthey feel that something needs to be done inorder to let them into the sport. Doing nothingwill simply ensure the status quo with very fewnon-white rugby players remainsindefinitely. [1] Struwig, Jare, and Roberts, Ben,‘The numbers game Public support for sportsquotas’, South African Social Attitudes Survey,p.13,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyKevin Pietersenisn’t anything too unusual: English sportingteams have always had a number of SouthAfrican and New Zealand rejects. It is natural forplayers to move to where they think they will bemost likely to have the best prospects.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyIn a societywhere race affects everything, can there ever besuch a thing as a legitimate meritocracy? Noteveryone will get the same opportunities in life.You cannot pretend factors are not there whenthey are. Positive discrimination such as racialquotas helps to counter act some of these factorsthat are weighed heavily against non-whites inplaying rugby helping to create a much truermeritocracy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyIRB rules Racialquotas are a breach of the views of the worldgoverning body of Rugby Union, theInternational Rugby Board [1] . If this werefound to be the case then it would have a largenegative impact on South African rugby. An IRBintervention would lead to at least interferenceby the governing body, which would be highlyembarrassing for the SARU (as well as difficultfor a sport which has had major political rowsbefore), or even worse, some form of sanction orexpulsion – things that could lead to long terminstability in the sport, which should beavoided. [1] SARugbymag.co.za, ‘Saru quotas‘breach IRP rules’’, 3 December 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con04a", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyRacial quotasdon’t develop new players The quota systemcould lead to moving players from the regionalteams who generally have less non-white playerspilfering them from other unions, rather “Homegrowing” them [1] . Former Springboks coachPeter de Villiers, the first non-white person inthat role, has described quotas as a “waste oftime [2] ”. Depending on the exact phraseologyof the rules, this could even allow black playersfrom outside South Africa (from, for example,England) to be used to fill the quota. [1]McGregor, Liz, ‘New Year, new model for SARugby? Here’s hoping’, Books Live, 30 December2013, [2] Peacock, James, ‘Peter de Villierssays racial quotas are ‘waste of time’, BBC Sport,15 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyQuotas candrive players away. Policies of racial quotas canhave the effect of driving players abroad. Suchpolicies have had similar affects in cricket. KevinPietersen stated that racial quotas in domesticcompetition, requiring four non-white players perteam, were a key reason for his decision to leaveSouth Africa and move to England. Eligible dueto playing in England for four years and anEnglish parent, he successfully had an Englandcareer. In rugby union, Brian Mujati left SouthAfrica to play in England as he did not want to beselected to fill a racial quota [1] . [1] Foy, Chris,‘Last orders at the bar for master brewer – propMujati calls time on Saints career’, MailOnline, 19April 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyMeritocracy Itis a value of sport in general that it should beoutside the sphere of social ills like racial,religious and political tensions. Sport should bebased on merit only; those who play best getonto the team. Racial quotas will lead to anynon-white player in a team in a competitionwhere quotas are being employed to being undera suspicion that they are not good enough andwere only selected due to their race. As Peter deVilliers, the first black coach of the Springboks,says “Everybody will believe that these playerswill be picked because people are looking out forthem.” [1] The result could be more racial abuseof players, not less. [1] Peacock, James, ‘Peterde Villiers says racial quotas are ‘waste of time’,BBC Sport, 15 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con04b", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyEven if itdoesn’t increase the numbers at the grass rootsand youth levels, it will create more players whocan be selected by the provinces for Currie Cupcompetition. This, in turn, could give morenon-white players the development and theexperience they need to make it in to thenational team.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-aastshsrqsar-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ational africa sport team sports house supportsracial quotas south african rugbyThe IRB did nottake action against the previous system ofquotas: why would they be likely to take actionagainst a new system? Also, there is a cleardifference between the sort of racialdiscrimination that occurred in the sport duringthe apartheid era, and affirmative action policies.Positive discrimination does not prevent anyonefrom having a chance at playing; it simply givesthose who are less fortunate a leg up.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoBoycottingthe football will not highlight Ukraine’s humanrights abuses any more than they already havebeen by the international press as a result of thecalls to boycott. Whether leaders boycott or notthe human rights abuses have been highlighted.Choosing to attend will not show that leaders areunwilling to take action simply that this is not theway for them to take action. Leaders couldattend the matches and still diplomaticallyrebuke Ukraine’s leader.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoBoycottingEuro 2012 will highlight Ukraine’s backsliding onhuman rights European leaders must take astand on human rights in their own back yard ifthey are to be taken seriously on the issueanywhere in the world. There are numeroushuman rights abuses in Ukraine; migrants \"riskabusive treatment and arbitrary detention\",Roma and people with dark skin in particular facegovernmental and societal discrimination andsome xenophobic attacks and may be prosecutedfor acting in self defense. [1] AmnestyInternational has highlighted abuse of power bythe police “numerous cases in Euro 2012 hostcities in which police have tortured people in anattempt to extort money, extract a confession, orsimply because of the victims’ sexuality or ethnicorigin”. [2] If Europe turns a blind eye to thesekinds of abuses in neighbouring states withouteven a minor diplomatic snub it will not have themoral authority to confront worse abuses", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoA boycottcan’t be proportional because politics and sportcan’t be linked. A proportional response wouldinvolve some real action that would hurtUkrainian leaders such as freezing some of theircorruptly gained assets rather than a symbolicboycott.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoEuropemust not give approval to this regime. ViktorYanukovych fairly came to power in 2010however since then he has set about attackingthe country’s fragile democracy. There arenumerous cases showing this democratic decline.For example changes to the constitution thatoccurred after the Orange revolution have beenrolled back to give more power to thepresidency. [1] Most visibly opponents of theregime such as Yulia Timoshenko have beenjailed in politically motivated trials. At the sametime there have been attacks on the freedom ofthe media and Ukraine has fallen down rankingsof press freedom in 2010-11 with its score fromfreedom house falling from 56 to 59 with itsranking falling to 130th. [2] Ukraine, like itsneighbours Russia and Belarus, has become a‘virtual mafia state’ where the SBU (Ukraine’ssuccessor to the KGB) is all powerful and theelite are unaccountable. [3] It is becoming more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoAttendingfootball matches is not giving approval to acountry’s government. Leaders when attendinginternational football matches are simplysupporting their team and often hoping that theywill be seen as such giving them a good photo opfor the audience back home.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoBoycottingEuro 2012 is proportional Diplomacy isnecessary with any regime almost no matter howoppressive they are however that does not showapproval of a regime to the world in the way thathigh profile visits and events can. Just as theBeijing Olympics were the People’s Republic ofChina’s coming out party so Euro 2012 is anideal chance for Ukraine to show itself off toEurope and the rest of the world. If there wasnot a boycott this would implicitly show thatEurope approves of Ukraine and the actions of itsgovernment. In a list of possible diplomaticresponses that range from verbal diplomaticcomplaints right up to sanctions a boycottrepresents a mid-point. A boycott is perhaps thebest action that the European Union leaderscould take is it takes away the shine that theevent would otherwise give the Yanukovych. Itwill be denying him the political benefits of theEuros while highlighting rights concerns. A", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoA boycottof the events in Ukraine could even be good forthe events in Poland as more will go thereinstead. It is difficult to see how the Ukrainianpeople are negatively affected by foreign leadersnot attending matches in Ukraine. This is anaction that only affects the elite.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoSports andpolitics have always been intertwined and socan’t be separated. That political leaders werethinking of attending in anything beyond aprivate capacity proves the linking ofinternational football and politics. Yanukovychhimself no doubt hoped for a political payoff andhas opened the new stadia such as the OlympicStadium declaring “The successful reconstructionof the NSC Olympiyskiy has become the mosttelling project for Ukraine's image.” [1] [1]Buga, Bogdan, ‘Olympic Stadium opens in Kyiv’,uefa.com, 8 October 2011 .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoA boycottwon’t help resolve the issues atquestion European leaders need to considerwhether their methods are likely to achieve theresult they want. What Europe’s leaders want isfirst of all Yulia Timoshenko released andsecondly improvements in Ukrainian humanrights. Timoshenko is unlikely to be released asshe has been convicted on charges of abuse ofoffice and sentenced to seven years in prison;the best that could be hoped for is animprovement in her treatment. Similarly theresult is not likely to be positive for human rightsand democracy. There might be an improvementduring the games while the eyes of the world areon Ukraine but long term there will be no impactunless Yanukovych is persuaded thatimprovements are in his benefit. This wouldrequire more concrete and long term actionsthan one off boycotts. Past boycotts havedemonstrated a lack of success in changing the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con05a", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoEuropeneeds to prevent Russian influence in Ukraine IfEurope shuns Ukraine then Yanukovych has anobvious alternative he can turn to; Russia. Putin,the newly re-elected President of Russia, isholding out the option of a customs union withUkraine which Yanukovych despite initiallyrejecting [1] is now showing more interest injoining. [2] Only a few years ago Ukraine wasbeing touted for possible NATO membership andVice President Biden called Ukraine a “Europeancountry where democracy rules”. [3] A turntowards Russia therefore represents a failure ofthe European Union and NATO’s policy towardsits eastern neighbours where the aim is topromote democracy and human rights. [1]Interfax-Ukraine, ‘Putin: Yanukovych statementUkraine will not join Customs Union conveyspolitical emotions’, Kyiv Post, 16 September2011 . [2] Interfax-Ukraine, ‘Official: Ukraineshows keen interest in Customs Union’, Kyiv", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con04a", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoBoycottsdid not take place for the 2008 Olympics despitethe far worst human rights background It wouldbe hypocritical for European leaders to boycottthe Euro 2012 finals because of Ukraine’s recenthuman rights record. It an absurd overreactionwhen the focus is on the poor treatment of onewoman, Timoshenko. Countries with poor humanrights records have hosted major sporting eventsbefore without there being boycotts. PresidentBush was urged by some in the US such asformer president Clinton to boycott the BeijingOlympics and only a few countries boycotted onhuman rights grounds. This was despite Chinahaving a considerably worse human rights recordthan Ukraine and engaged in a violent crackdownin Tibet in the run up to the games. [1] SimilarlyRussia will be hosting the next Winter Olympicsin 2014 should leaders essentially commit toboycotting these games too? [1] ‘Bush willattend opening of Beijing Olympics’ CNN, 3 July", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoTheboycott would affect Poland and the Ukrainianpeople as well as Yanukovych A boycott of Euro2012 even if it was meant to be limited toUkraine would negatively impact on the wholetournament. Polish Prime Minister Donald Tustargued \"It is in Poland's undisputed interest tohold the games in Poland and Ukraine without ahitch and to prevent politics from ruining thegreat effort\", [1] any boycott wouldunnecessarily move the attention away from thegames itself towards politics. It should also beremembered that Viktor Yanukovych does notrepresent the whole of Ukraine and only won bya narrow margin with 48.95% of the votecompared to Yulia Timoshenko’s 45.47% in thesecond round. [2] Arseniy Yatsenyuk leader ofthe Front for Change has urged leaders not toboycott \"The best scenario would be if theEuropean leaders attended the championship,but did not meet President Yanukovych. It's", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con05b", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoRussianinfluence in Ukraine is not a real concern. Giventhe possibility of joining the European Union or aRussian lead customs union any Ukrainiangovernment even one lead by a pro-Russian suchas Yanukovych would choose Europe. TheUkrainians know that the Russian’s price is likelyto be high and so will continue to try to balancebetween their two larger neighbouring blocks. Asa result any boycott will not seriously affect longterm relations. [1] [1] ‘Call foul, ViktorYanukovych’s thuggish autocracy is heading in adangerous direction’, the Economist, 5 May 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoThis is asports event not a political event Sport andpolitics are separate and should be keptseparate. This is the position of the organisers“Uefa has no position and will not take anyregarding the political situation in Ukraine, andwill not interfere with internal governmentmatters.” [1] Euro 2012 is a football tournamentthat is about entertainment and bringing nationstogether in a common love of a game in anon-political sphere. Even pro-democracyactivists such as Vatali Klitschko are “against thepoliticization of sports”. [2] Politicization wouldbe exactly what politicians are doing by engagingin cheap political stunts, such as a boycott, topromote their own human rights agendas. [1]Scott, Matt, ‘Sports minister Hugh Robertsoncould boycott Ukraine during Euro 2012’, TheTelegraph, 2 May 2012. [2] Keating, Joshua,‘European leaders consider Euro Cup boycottover Tymoshenko’, Passport Foreignpolicy.com,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con04b", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoIn a globalevent such as the Beijing 2008 Olympics of the2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi many morenations would need to boycott to have an effect.In Euro 2012 by contrast liberal democracieswho claim to be concerned about human rightsmake up the majority of the participants makingtheir actions much more significant.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-otshwbe2uuyt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "olympics team sports house would boycott euro2012 ukraine unless yulia timoshenkoBecausethese issues are domestic to Ukraine Europeannations cannot directly resolve them howeveractions such as boycotting of the tournamentshow that the international community wantsthese problems resolved. Without any action atall how will the issues ever be resolved? Youdon’t prevent human rights abuses by brushingthem under the carpet.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodAny largeexpenditure in one area will stimulateregeneration. Considering that the cost ofhosting the London 2012 Olympics is predicted at£2.375 billion, expected to rise far higher,regeneration is the least that can be expected asa legacy (Carlin, 2006).1 Controversially, a largepart of this (£625 million) is being financed byLondon’s own citizens through a rise in counciltax bills (Buksh, 2007).2 Jobs are promised, butthere is no guarantee that these jobs will lastbeyond the Olympics itself. Furthermore, the £15billion Crossrail system planned for East Londonis money not spent on fixing the increasinglyfragile Underground lines currently servicingCentral London. Regeneration is also onlyavailable to those areas who are fortunateenough to be hosting Olympic events. Thistypically means a couple of areas of one city,using funds derived from a much largerpopulation spread over a far greater territory.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodHostingstimulates regeneration in local areas Hostingstimulates regeneration. The IOC is enthusiasticabout bids that will leave a lasting impact andhave looked favourably on cities that locate theirOlympic Villages and stadia in deprived areas inneed of regeneration. The 1992 BarcelonaOlympics were used as a means to completelyoverhaul the port and coast of the city creatingan artificial beach and waterside cultural areathat became a lasting tourist attraction. Alongwith cleaning up areas and new stadia, OlympicVillages release between 5,000 and 20,000 newhomes which governments can chose to handover as low-cost housing (as is proposed forLondon 2012). Whilst these projects could becompleted without the Olympics, the need toprovide an overall package (transport,accommodation, stadia, greenery etc.) for a setdeadline means that there is far more incentiveto get the projects done. An example of this in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodTheOlympic spotlight is not always a positiveexperience for the host nation and itsgovernment; for example, the run-up to theBeijing Games in 2008 was hijacked by the issueof Tibetan autonomy. The event designedostensibly to celebrate China's coming-of-agewas instead framed through their poor humanrights record. German Chancellor Angela Merkeland French President Nicolas Sarkozy weresufficiently concerned to boycott the openingceremony in protest, causing significantembarrassment for Olympic organisers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodHostingcreates a 'feel-good' factor Hosting creates a'feel-good factor'. It is hard to put a price on thebuzz that surrounds international sportingevents. Think of Paris during the World FootballCup in 1998 or Sydney during the 2002Olympics. Even sporting success abroad canunite a nation (for example the England RugbyUnion Team's victory in the 2003 Rugby WorldCup in Australia). Governments are aware of thehuge potential for boosting national pride andnational unity. The Paris 2012 bid has used awell-known footballer, Zinedine Zidane, who isthe son of an immigrant to stress how hostingthe Olympics would bring Parisians of allbackgrounds together. It is partly because of this'feel-good factor' that so many people want theircity to host the Olympics (97% of Parisians and87% of Londoners want the 2012 Olympics).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodThere is noguarantee that a city will experience a 'feel-goodfactor'. In Athens many of the events had emptyseats as the Greek team failed to do well enoughto capture the local imagination. Wheretournaments and games have successfullycreated a 'buzz' it has been because the hostnation has done well (England reached thesemi-final of Euro 96, France won the World Cupin 1998). The fact that this 'feel-good factor' canbe had even if the team is winning on the otherside of the world means that there is no need tohost the Olympics in order to get it.Furthermore, a study of British youth in 2011found that 70% were not inspired to take part inmore sport despite the media attention given toLondon 20121. In any case, any Olympicexcitement will be short-lived compared to theyears of disruption and congestion which a hostcity will suffer in the run-up to the games, due tothe massive building work and security worries", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodHostingdoes not leave a beneficial legacy. As a studyfound in 2010, 'there is insufficient evidence toshow that major multi-sport events benefit orharm the health and economy of the hostpopulation.'1 The demands of the Olympics arevery particular, an 80,000 all-seater stadium,pools, horse tracks, beach volleyball etc. Many ofthese stadia will never be used again after theend of the games. Even in Australia, which has avery strong sporting ethic, underused stadia inSydney are costing the taxpayer $32m a year inmaintenance1. In the long term, the moneyspent on these stadia would be much better offused to build affordable homes and transportinfrastructure which is designed with localresidents in mind rather than with the intentionof impressing IOC members. As far as tourismgoes, Greece may even have lost outeconomically in 2002-03 as potential visitorsstayed away, frightened off by stories of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympicsgoodCOUNTERPOINT Any large expenditure inone area will stimulate regeneration. Consideringthat the cost of hosting the London 2012Olympics is predicted at £2.375 billion, expectedto rise far higher, regeneration is the least thatcan be expected as a le The Olympics are ashowcase. Hosting the Olympics can be a way ofmaking a strong political point because of theintense media scrutiny that accompanies thegames. During the Cold War both Moscow 1980and Los Angeles 1984 were used by the USSRand USA to show their economic strength. Seoulin 1988 used the games to demonstrate SouthKorea's economic and political maturity. TheBeijing Olympics in 2008 are seen by many asevidence of China's acceptance into the globalcommunity and a way for her to showcase hereconomic growth and acceptance of the West.For New York, the 2012 bid is a way of showingthat the post-9/11 healing process has been", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodHosting haswide-reaching economic benefits Hostingcreates an economic boost. Whilst none of theOlympics of recent times have made animmediate profit, the cost of the regenerationand improved infrastructure means that this isnot a big problem as long as the losses are nothuge. The Olympics showcases the host nation tothe world and most hosts have seen a boost intourism in the years after the Olympics (Australiaestimates it gained£2bn extra tourist revenue inthe four years after Sydney 2000). During thegames between 60,000 (Paris 2012 estimate)and 135,000 (New York 2012 estimate) jobs arecreated providing skills and training to localpeople.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-con03b", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodTheeconomic benefit of the event is in its legacy.Regarding London specifically, a lot of the moneywill be spent on the regeneration of parts of EastLondon that are currently underdeveloped. Whenthe games are over the new facilities will stillbenefit the local communities and the prestige ofhosting the games should bring new life andinvestment to the area. Furthermore, London'sreputation as a tourist destination has taken aknock from the threat of terrorism since theunderground bombings of 7/7. The games will bea way of bringing international attention back tothe positive aspects of the UK's capital, bringingforeign visitors and their spending power back toBritain. London's population of 7.7m people isexpected to be temporarily expanded by 12%during the Olympics alone1. 1 Grobel, W. (2010,April 15). What are the London 2012 Olympics2012 worth? Retrieved May 13, 2011, fromIntangible Business:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-con01b", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodHosting hasan impact on the whole nation. The Olympicsinvolves hundreds of events and sports and soprovides an opportunity for the whole nation tofeel like they have taken part. Training campsare often located outside the host city, as areevents such as rowing, sailing, canoeing andshooting, so that the rest of the country benefitstoo. During Beijing 2008 for example, theequestrian events were held in Hong Kong,drawing both tourism and prestige away fromBeijing and towards other parts of the country.The lasting impact of this will be a generation ofyoung people who are excited about sport. Givenrising levels of childhood obesity and decliningamounts of sport in schools, this can only be agood thing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-con02a", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodThe biddingprocess is too long, tying up funds and land Thebidding process takes too long. Bidding officiallytakes only two years (unless a city fails to makethe shortlist), but most cities spend nearly adecade working on their bids. Obviously thebidding process costs money but it also ties upthe land needed for any future Olympic Village orstadia from being developed until the bidoutcome is known, as well as divertinggovernment funds away from other sportingevents and activities. Furthermore, the way theIOC works with each member deciding which citythey wish to vote for means that personalrelationships and international tension can countfor more than the quality of the bid. Forexample, American foreign policy is thought tobe disadvantaging New York in the 2012 biddingprocess. Given that the Olympics are 'rotated'between continents, if a city fails to be selected itwill be 12 years before it has another chance.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-con03a", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodHosting isvery expensive Hosting is very expensive. Inrecent times the Olympics have never made adirect profit. The bidding process alone for 2012will cost each bidding city around £20m andwhichever is selected will expect to pay at least£6.5bn (Paris). With increased security fearsAthens spent $1.5bn on security out of a total of$12bn on the 2004 games. The burden of thiscost falls on government (and therefore thetaxpayer), companies and individuals. Both Parisand London’s local governments have put asidearound £2.4bn which will mean £20 per yearextra in tax for every household in the cities. Bigprojects are notoriously hard to budget for (somuch so that London is estimating the total costmay go up by up to 50%) and residents in LosAngeles have only just stopped paying for theover-budget 1984 Olympics through their localtaxes. If cities want to regenerate or improvetheir infrastructure then they should use this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-con01a", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodHostingonly affects one city In large countries like theUnited States or China, the benefits of theOlympics are almost entirely focused on the hostcity. Even in smaller countries, the benefits of aevent played outside the host city or a trainingcamp are negligible. Capital cities are oftenchosen (after failed bids from Birmingham in1992 and Manchester in 1996 and 2000 the IOCtold the United Kingdom that only a bid fromLondon was likely to win), which concentratesgrowth and development where it is leastneeded. 90% of the economic impact of London2012 is expected to come to London1; notsurprising given that 'seventy-five pence in everypound on the Games is going towards theregeneration of East London.'2Furthermore,house prices have been seen to rise in host citieslike Barcelona and Sydney around the time oftheir Olympics, without comparable riseselsewhere in Spain and Australia respectively2.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-ybfgsohbhog-con02b", "title": "", "text": "y business finance government sport olympicshouse believes hosting olympics goodThe biddingprocess is not too long and does not tie up fundsor land that would otherwise be developed.Furthermore, the Olympic bidding process wouldnot be as difficult, expensive or long if thebenefits to the eventual victor were not deemedworth all the time and effort. The unsuccessfulbids are not wasted, the plans drawn up andexperience of the process can be utilized for laterbids. Moreover, the exposure granted to landearmarked for Olympic redevelopment can bothgenerate interest in the area and lead to furtherdevelopment in the area regardless of anunsuccessful Olympic bid. The bidding process isnow open and trustworthy. Whilst the 1998 SaltLake City scandal did reveal huge levels ofendemic corruption, IOC president JacquesRogge has taken significant steps to stamp itout. Cities can now be confident that the best bidwill win and that they should not be put ofbidding to host because they fear they will lose", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsCollisionsare much less a part of the game than peoplebelieve. The notion that collisions have been inthe game for ages is a widely heldmisconception. In fact, collisions were specificallybanned in baseball’s early history, and thecollisions we see today came about only sincearound the late 1960s. Bill James, one of thebest-respected authorities on baseball, wrote:“Basepath obstruction was a major problem inthe 1880s and nineties, when baseball was indanger of becoming a contact sport. In 1897 therules on obstruction were tightened up, and theprinciple of free access to the bases met withgeneral acceptance at the other three positions.There was always something of a problem withcatchers blocking the plate, but there werealways limits.... I think it has changed a lot justin the last fifteen or twenty years. . . . I don’tremember [well-respected catchers] ElstonHoward or Bill Freehan doing some of the things", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsCollisionsare a part of the game. First, collisions are partof the tradition of baseball. They have been partof the game for a very long time. Fans, players,and managers all expect home plate hits to occurfrom time to time. “Some things are part of thegame. There’s not a whole lot you can do,” saidRed Sox catcher Jason Varitek, who has been onthe receiving end of numerous crashes in hiscareer. [1] Varitek’s manager at the time, TerryFrancona, agreed: “Nobody wants to seeanybody get hurt, but you got to play the game.”[2] And former catcher Brad Ausmus, who hadalso been hit multiple times in his career, echoedthe sentiment: “[I]t's part of the game.… Whenyou put on the shin guards and chest protector,you know that if there’s a play at the plate andyou’re blocking the plate, you could take a hit atany moment.” [3] As the Associated Press put it,many people believe “home plate collisions areas much a part of baseball tradition as peanuts", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsCollisionsincrease the risk of injury dramatically. Thoughit’s true that most collisions do not result insignificant injury, they result in a higher rate ofinjury than almost any other baseball play. Andjust because a collision doesn’t necessarily resultin an injury that derails a player’s entire careerdoes not mean that it didn’t take a toll. This isespecially true now that we’re learning moreabout concussions, which might be sufferedwithout someone immediately realizing it. After acatcher on his team suffered a concussion in acollision, Yankees manager Joe Girardi referredto this type of injury as “so unpredictable. That’swhat’s so scary.... You just don’t know what’sgoing to happen” with a concussion. [1] Whencatchers are trained to block the plate, they’retaught how to reduce the risk of injury, not howto eliminate the risk of injury. No matter how acatcher positions himself, there will still be a riskof injury, and it will still be much higher than for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsCollisionsare exciting and fun to watch. Baseball is a formof entertainment, and few plays are asentertaining as bang-bang plays (a close call onwhether the runner is thrown out) at the plate.As a sport that’s often criticized for being tooslow and boring—“baseball has no clock,” thesaying goes [1] —it’s important that it hold ontoperhaps the most dramatic, vivid play it has tooffer. One columnist described it this way:“When [collisions] do occur, they’re exciting. Wewatch to see how well the catcher blocks theplate, how hard the runner slides, and whetherthe catcher can hold the ball. As dangerous asthat play may be, it’s exciting to watch.”[2] Other sports—like American football, icehockey, and rugby—feature plenty of violent hits.Baseball has so few of them that when they dohappen, they are doubly entertaining. It is justnot necessary for baseball to prohibit a smalldose of something that is extremely common in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsCollisionsare often not entertaining, and when they are,it’s for the wrong reasons. Most collisions do notshow two athletes engaged in a skilledshowdown; they feature athletes awkwardlytrying to achieve their goal (scoring or gettingthe out) without injuring themselves. It’s not funor exciting. Fans also tend to be horrified by theinjuries they witness in these crashes. WatchingBuster Posey’s leg snap at an odd angle washardly entertaining or amusing; it wasstomach-turning. And if fans do find this sort ofthing entertaining, they’re wrong to do so.Violence should not be glorified, at least not inthis sport. Nobody should delight in watchingbaseball players put their careers in jeopardy.Baseball is fundamentally different from othersports; if people want to see athletes imposeharmful blows on each other, they can watchboxing or ice hockey or ultimate fighting.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsIn thematch-up between catchers and runners, homeplate should be treated like the other bases. Atfirst base, second base, or third base, fieldersare expected not to block the base and runnersare expected not to collide with the fielder. Byimposing both of these requirements, neither thecatcher nor the runner would have an unfairadvantage. Each player would be required tocontribute to a situation that allows both of themto avoid a collision.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsCollisionsare not as dangerous as they’re feared tobe. Some hits lead to injury, but the vastmajority do not. One commentator challengedproponents of a rule change “to name as manyas five MLB catchers in the last 30 years whohave had their careers ended or shortened as aresult of a home plate collision. Personally, Ican’t think of one.” [1] In posing some—thoughnot a substantial—risk, home plate collisions arevery much like other aspects of the sport. Everytime a pitcher throws a pitch, the batter couldget struck and hurt. Every time two outfieldersconverge on a fly ball, there’s a risk of injury.Baseball, as with many other sports, inherentlyinvolves the risk of injury. It makes little senseto focus on this play, which doesn’t often resultin significant injury. Moreover, catchers aretrained to position their bodies in ways thatminimize the injury risk from crashes. [2] Ifcatchers do as they’re trained, they’re very", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsWithoutcollisions, either the catcher or the runner wouldhave an enormous and unfair advantage. Thereare two often-discussed ways to change therules: require the runner to slide, just as theymust do when attempting to reach other bases;or disallow catchers to block runners’ paths. Eachresults in an imbalance between the catcher andrunner. A commentator describes this dynamicvery well: “If Major League Baseball was toemploy a rule stating that runners must avoidcontact with the catcher—similar to the ‘slide oravoid’ rule employed in amateur baseball—itwould give the advantage to the catcher. Thecatcher would have the benefit of dictating thecourse of action that a baserunner must take,and would—perhaps more importantly—havepeace of mind knowing that there is no chance ofan ensuing collision. If Major League Baseballwas to make a rule stating that the catchercannot block the plate, the advantage would", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con03b", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsCollisionsare an occasionally necessary part of the game.When two professional athletes are involved in adramatic, exciting play that could change thedirection of a game (or decide the outcome ofthe entire season), they will do whatever theycan to ensure the play turns out favourably fortheir team. That means that collisions will occur.To try to remove this aspect of baseball is to askthe players to do something that is completely atodds with their objective: to score, or to preventthe run from scoring. Though home-platecollisions are prohibited in amateur leagues, thestakes are different. MLB players are paidmillions of dollars to score—or prevent—runs.They should be permitted to do what they’rehandsomely paid to do.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con01b", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsCollisionsare not as dangerous as they’re made out to be.(Proposition Argument #3 is directly relevanthere, though it’s not repeated in this cell.) Peopleremember vivid example of injuries inhome-plate crashes, but that does not mean thatthey happen as often as people believe. This is atextbook example of the availability heuristic:people believing that an event is much morelikely because they can think of an example of itvery easily. [1] Yes, those injuries were quitebad, but it was their very severity that leadspeople to overestimate the frequency andseverity of home-plate collisions in general. Anysimulation of a hit at home plate will beimperfect. In a game situation, a runner willhave to make a split-second decision of whetherto slide around the catcher or to barrel into him,and this will often reduce his speed or removethe decisiveness of his impact. The catcher isalso wearing protective pads. The crash-test", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con02a", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsCollisionsare an example of violence that has no place inbaseball. Baseball is not a contact sport. It isnot a sport that is supposed to rely on violence.This is one commentator’s point: “if you want towatch violent collisions, you can watch[American] football. Or hockey. Or MMA. There’sno reason baseball needs to have similar kinds ofplays; it’s an entirely different sport with adifferent premise and different rules.”[1] Baseball tries to make the game safe for itsplayers. That’s why beanballs—pitches thatendanger hitters—are disallowed. Baseballshould not promote violence, and it certainlyshouldn’t allow it when players’ careers hang inthe balance. [1] Dave Cameron, “It’s Time toEnd Home Plate Collisions,” FanGraphs, May 26,2011, .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con04a", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsCollisionsheighten antagonisms. When someone gets hurtin a collision at the plate, the injured player’steammates are more likely to hold agrudge—and to try to get even. There arenumerous opportunities to do that, whether byaiming a pitch at that player, or by seekinganother opportunity to hurt him. When Poseywas injured, the Giants’ General Manager BrianSabean said, “If I never hear from Cousins [whohit Posey] again or if he never plays anothergame in the big leagues, I think we’ll all behappy.... We’ll have a long memory.” [1] This isexactly the unsportsmanlike behaviourengendered by these dangerous andunnecessary plays. Former MLB catcher MikeMatheny noted that catchers don’t forget whenthey get hit, saying, “I think you just put a markin the column that that kid took a run at acatcher. To me as a catcher I know the next timeI get the ball I'm going to stick it to him. You", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con03a", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsCollisionsare unnecessary. Baseball doesn’t needcollisions. By requiring the runner to slide, justas they must do when attempting to reach otherbases, or disallowing catchers to block runners’paths, or—best of all—requiring both thosesteps, baseball can eliminate collisions. Unlike infootball or rugby, hits at the plate are not anecessary component of the sport. The game isplayed quite well at the amateur level withoutsuch brutal physical contact. [1] Collisions occurrelatively infrequently, and the complexion of thegame will not be dramatically different withoutthem. Yet the benefits of improved safety aredramatic. [1] See, for example, AmericanLegion Baseball Rules, Rule 1(E), .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con01a", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsCollisionsare dangerous and lead to injury. Ray Fosse andBuster Posey (mentioned above in theIntroduction) are just two examples of playerswho suffered major injuries in crashes at homeplate. Texas Rangers star Josh Hamilton,reigning Most Valuable Player of the AmericanLeague, broke his arm when he collided with acatcher in 2011. In August 2010, ClevelandIndians catcher Carlos Santana suffered aseason-ending knee injury when he was hit byRed Sox runner Ryan Kalish. To go back a fewmore seasons, Braves catcher Greg Olson washaving a career year in 1992 until Ken Caminitibroke his leg in a collision. There have beenliterally dozens of severe injuries suffered inbang-bang plays at the plate. This high rate ofinjury should come as no surprise, given thephysics involved in this type of play. A simulationwith a crash-test dummy wired with sensorsshowed that a catcher can get hit by a runner", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con04b", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsA cleanhit will not heighten tensions between teams.Players recognize when a collision is “dirty” andwhen it is entirely within the rules and spirit ofthe game. After the Posey hit, a baseballcolumnist summed up “the consensus viewpoint”of baseball professionals and journalists: “It wasa clean play.” [1] In the 2011 playoffs, TexasRangers Mike Napoli was barrelled over by SeanRodriguez of the Los Angeles Angels. Napoli saidafterward, “It was a fine, clean play. He wastrying to score. I’m going to try to do the samething if I’m trying to score and a guy is blockingthe plate in that moment.” [2] As long as aplayer is not intending to hurt another and doesnot use unnecessary force, players on bothteams are unlikely to hold grudges. The threatof retaliation for “dirty” hits is actually a usefuldeterrent to gratuitous force. Players are muchless likely to hurt each other if they know thatthere will be consequences for that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-sport-tshbmlbscac-con02b", "title": "", "text": "team sports house believes major leaguebaseball should continue allow collisionsSomelevel of violence is called for in baseball. Justbecause most plays in baseball do not involvecontact does not mean that no plays shouldinvolve contact. It has been a part of the gamefor decades, so it is false to argue that it is notpart of the game, or to assert that baseball is nota contact sport at all. There is also a cleardifference between violence that is intended toinjure an opponent—for example, in a boxingmatch or an ice hockey fight—and physicalcontact that is aimed at a valid objective, such asscoring a run. A beanball is not a way to achievea valid objective. In addition, a beanball is muchmore dangerous than a collision at home plate. Abeanball has resulted in a fatality at an MLBgame [1] ; no home-plate collision has evencome close. [1] “Beaned by a Pitch, RayChapman Dies,” New York Times, Aug. 17,1920, .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "media and good government house believescommunity radio goodWhile it is inexpensive toset up and run this is relatively expensive for thecommunity compared to commercial radio, whichis free to the user and perfectly capable ofpromoting the ideas of the free market whichhave had a proven benefit to democraticstructures the world over. In addition to which,realistically, democratic participation will end upinvolving larger national bodies such as tradesunion, political parties and civil societyorganisations who need to operate on anationwide basis but also have larger budgets.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "media and good government house believescommunity radio goodRadio is cheap to produceand easily accessible. Community radio relies onthe power of its ideas and the thirst for thoseideas among its audience. It accepts the notionthat it is the exchange of information and views,freely given and received, that is more importantthan the ideas themselves. It doesn’t requiremassive budgets and radio waves can bereceived on equipment that costs pennies; moreimportantly it can be shared. For all of itspretensions of accessibility the devices used toaccess the Internet tend to be expensive andthey also tend not to be shared – unlike radios[i] . To give some context to this, even payingWestern prices, a small radio station can bestarted for as little as $10,000 with monthlycosts of $1,000 [ii] . Some of that, of course,relates to government issued licences, clearlythis does not apply if the station is planning to beignored by the authorities. These costs can befurther reduced when the founders have a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "media and good government house believescommunity radio goodOnce again, Proposition isconflating things that tend to go along withcommunity development and those that cause it.The fact that vibrant and active communities,duly engaged in wider society, frequently set upinstitutions such as community radio in no waydemonstrates that it encourages civicparticipation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "media and good government house believescommunity radio goodCommunity radio givesvoices to the people rather than imposing thoseof the powerful. The events of the Arab Spring(and previous events such as the revolutions of1989) have shown that effective means ofcommunicating are vital. In a country wherepeople have heard only one perspective,anything that can break the monopoly is to bewelcomed. As Orwell put it, \u0000'In an age ofuniversal deceit, to tell the truth is a subversiveact'. Community radio can both encourage aninitial outpouring of democracy and, just asimportantly, ensure that a diversity of opinionsmeans that one autocratic regime is not justreplaced by another. In almost all other forms ofmass communication, genuinely democraticvoices are easily swamped by those with eitherthe power or the money to drown out thecompetition [i] . As the focus of community radiois public service, rather than profit, responsibleto – and frequently produced by – their listener", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "media and good government house believescommunity radio goodCommunity radio canindeed do the many wondrous things that Propseems to trust it to do. It can also do more orless anything else. If proposition is trying todemonstrate that community radio, per se,supports democracy, then it needs todemonstrate how it does so more than, say,libraries or coffee shop discussion groups. It maybe a public service that is responsible to thecommunity but that does not mean that it cannotbe infiltrated and controlled by the state like anyother service.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "media and good government house believescommunity radio goodCommunity radio evensthe playing field against state and corporatebroadcasters. Autocracy has, at its root, thepremise that only one perspective, or group ofperspectives is legitimate. Certain assumptionsare unquestionable, certain rules inviolable and,more often than not, certain voicesunchallengeable. It’s all too easy for that stateof affairs to be normalised. Community radiooffers another voice. More to the point it offersmany. As well as the value of the messagesthemselves, the very fact that they are there andbroadcast is a powerful statement againstautocratic assumptions. The process ofestablishing and running a community radiostation is, in and of itself, a powerful fillip forcommunity cohesion. Giving voices tocommunities supports them as groups in theirown right; cohesive, engaged and worthy ofrespect. In doing so it can provide a focus whichincreases the homogeneity of those communities", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "media and good government house believescommunity radio goodIt is a platform, but it’s aplatform with history – one that has allowedsmall or marginalised groups to have a voice. Ofcourse a radio station won’t build democraticstrength on its own but it is an important tool innormalising the concept that the voices of thosecommunities have both worth and power.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "media and good government house believescommunity radio goodOpposition is lettingstate-sanctioned media off the hook fantasticallylightly. Just staying within the Arab world, thenumber of broadcasters that sully the name ofjournalism by acting as apologists for butchersand torturers is astonishing. One example of this– selected utterly at random from anembarrassment of riches – was the state media’sdeclaration of historic victories by bothMilosovich and Saddam Hussein after both hadreceived drubbings from Western allies [i] .There is at least a chance that a broadcasterwon’t be just a voice for the state if it isn’tfunded or run by the president or one of hisclosest allies or appointees. [i] Ash, TimothyGarton, Facts are Subversive. The StrangeToppling of Slobodan Milošević. Atlantic Books.2009. This account is one of many, many othersthat highlight the importance of the control ofmedia centres in democratic shift. However, ithighlights the Serbian state media’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "media and good government house believescommunity radio goodRadio is yesterday’stechnology. Proposition is right to point out therole that has traditionally been filled by relativelysmall scale radio – providing a relatively cheapmethod of getting in touch with anybody willingto listen. However, that has, effectively, beenrendered redundant by Internet technology. Thepower of Facebook, Youtube and other sites todisseminate ideas and information as well asphone texting has not only matched that role butsurpassed it. With no capital costs in an era ofinternet cafes and omnipresent cell phones, thefree exchange of information through digital andportable technology has met exactly the needsand concerns Proposition highlights.[i] Suggesting that community radio willsomehow supplement or enhance that process ittaking a step backwards; support for therelatively monolithic radio model runs all of therisks of empowering extremists alreadymentioned without even equalling the benefits of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "media and good government house believescommunity radio goodCommunity radio is just aplatform, there is nothing innately democraticabout it. To associate a medium with aparticular virtue is missing the point. Radio hasbeen used for atrocity and tyranny (Rwandawould be an obvious example) just as much asthe promotion and development of democracy.Equally the suggestion that community radio hasa more significant role to play in this regard asopposed to, say, the BBC world Service, isignoring the facts. Particular media cannot besaid to support democratic renewal any morethan particular languages can. Equally, therevolutions of 1989 demonstrated the reality thattaking control of the national radio station is, insome situations, more important than seizing thePresidential Palace. Neither the ‘community’element nor the ‘radio’ aspect are innatelydemocratic. Different media have, undeniably,produced different types of social change – butthey all have possibilities for democratic progress", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "media and good government house believescommunity radio goodCommunity radio justgives a megaphone to extremists. Experiencesuggests that the airwaves, unregulated, tend toattract pedagogues seeking followers more thandemocrats seeking the views of others.Particularly in areas of high sectarian divisions,technologies that propagate the views of everymullah with a mic are unlikely to help democracyin the middle east. Indeed the experience withthe nearest equivalent in the US, talk radio,shows how fantastically divisive it can be.[i] Community radio in areas that do not have ahistory of plurality and diversity of opinion wouldbe likely to see the spread of radio stationspandering to the specific views of every shardand splinter of opinion, reinforcing that particularset of beliefs while ignoring all others – it isdifficult to imagine a more toxic – and lessdemocratic – option to encourage in the Arabworld [ii] . The difficulty, as shown in thereference given in the previous paragraph, is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-magghbcrg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "media and good government house believescommunity radio goodFor all of its potential, theidea that the Internet is a worldwide force issomething of a Western conceit. That fact isdoubly the case when discussing the social mediasites that Op seems to think are such a panacea.These sites – and the Internet in general – areoverwhelmingly white, Western and wealthy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeProposition are obfuscating attacks onthe right to a free expression of religious faith,free of ridicule or threat for doing so behind theBBCs obligation to be fair. This right isestablished in national and international lawwhere it is not treated as comparable to whatsomeone might find interesting as part of thenights viewing. The latter is clearly trivial bycomparison to the former. Those leading theprotests have been quite clear that they have noobjection to free speech and discussing, anddisagreeing with, various religious themes – solong as that is done in a respectful manner. Itwas offensive that it had been shown at theNational Theatre and then in Cambridge; for it tobe broadcast on the de facto ‘flag carrier’ ofBritish broadcasting is simply unfair to the manyChristian licence fee payers who help fund theBBC’s output [i] . [i] The Christian Voice.Statement from their website in 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeMany people find the views expressedby much of the church offensive, those views aregiven airtime, a public service broadcastershould provide a level playing field forideas. The role of a public service broadcaster,especially one of the stature of the BBC, is toprovide a portal for ideas from all perspectives.There are many who take either irritation oroffence at the idea that the Corporation devotesa disproportionate time and resources to what, inmodern Britain, is a strictly minority interest [i]with fewer than seven per cent of peopleregularly attending religious worship. Manyperceive commonly held positions in themainstream churches – let alone more extremesects – to be offensive or reactionary and, insome cases, a cover for homophobic, illiberal orsexist opinions. If religious opinion is to begranted this airtime for the benefit of a small, ifvocal, minority then it seems both unfair andunprofessional for that broadcaster to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeIt is wrong to suggest that the BBChas any duty on account of its relative fundingfreedom to give a platform to controversial worksof art. On the contrary the BBC has a higherobligation to viewers not to offend them becausethey are also licence payers. Highlighting theBBC’s global audience also has little meaning asthe global audience did not all have theopportunity to watch the programme – thenumbers are global and include radio. The 1,500protesters outside BBC studios was a small sliceof the tens of thousands who voiced their protestin one form or another. These protests tookplace outside productions around the worldinvolving Christians from many walks of life aswell as the numerous complaints. However theBBC, dominated by an out of touch urban elite,clearly had little interest in the huge amount ofoffence that it had caused.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeThis was a piece of art, advertised anddescribed as such, those likely to be offendedwere quite welcome not to watch it. Theallegation made by those who objected to theairing of this show was that it was blasphemous.There were also objections to the graphic natureof the language and sexual reference. It seemsstaggeringly unlikely that 55,000 [i] people hadaccidently been watching opera on BBC 2 havingfailed to watch any of the warnings in advance orthe fairly extensive media discussion in advanceof the broadcast. Therefore, those who watchedit made a choice to do so – and it seemsreasonable to consider that an informed choice.A free society is predicated on the fact thatadults have the right to make choices. In turnthat is based on the shared understanding thatthose choices have consequences; which may,potentially, cause some degree of harm to theperson making that choice. Having been warnedthat watching the broadcast may cause them", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeAs Proposition suggest, the broadcasthad been widely discussed in the media beforethe event and there had been reviews of thestage performance as well as coverage of thesubsequent awards. It cannot have come as ahuge surprise that this would attract attentionfrom, and cause great offence to, many peoplewith an interest in the popular portrayal ofreligion. The trick of deliberately stokingallegations of blasphemy and obscenity toimprove the ratings of a fairly obscure art form isas old as it is contemptible. Equally there is asecondary level of impact in terms of how thedeep beliefs of people of faith will be representedto those who choose to watch and are notoffended. They are hardly likely to have theirperceptions of those beliefs enhanced by seeingmatters portrayed in this way. There is,therefore, the risk that the interaction betweenthose two groups will be effected in a deleteriousway.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeThere is clearly a different thresholdbetween the questions “do I like soap operas?”and “do I appreciate having my beliefsexcoriated on national TV?” The difficulty here isthat many who took offence saw the programmeas a direct attack on themselves personally, theirbeliefs and the others who shared their faith.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeThere is a duty for a broadcaster thatis not dependent on either commercial or statefunding to give a platform to controversial worksof art. The BBC is in an unusual position, simplybecause of its funding structure, to promote newor challenging works of art. The licence feemeans that it is freed of many of the pressuresbrought to bear by either commercial or politicalmasters. Although it has never taken that tomean it has a carte blanche, it does allow foropportunities simply not available to manybroadcasters in terms showcasing new works ofart and encouraging creative development. TheBBC’s global audience in 2007 was 233 million [i]. That audience provides some context for the1,500 who actively protested this particularbroadcast. It seems reasonable to suggest thatmany of those millions follow the BBC becausethey trust the Corporation’s approach ofproviding the widest possible range of output andopinion. For such an organisation to capitulate to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeIt is simply impractical for a majorinternational broadcaster to hand out powers ofveto to small sectional interests. The BBC wouldquickly be left with a content either devoid ofinterest or of content were it to allow such a vetoto become normative. Especially were it, asappears to be the case here, to offer such a vetoto people who didn’t watch the programme. As aresult, although some of the responsibility foravoiding offence lies with the broadcaster atleast an equal share must lie with the viewer.Even at the more basic level of ‘will I like this’,responsibility lies with both parties. The BBCundertakes to provide a diverse range ofprogramming so that there is a reasonablechance that the overwhelming majority shouldbe able to find something of interest but does soon the assumption that people will watch whatthey find interesting. Likewise, it is reasonableto assume that people will not go out of theirway to watch things that they already expect to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeThe BBC may be unusual but it isdesigned to fulfill particular functions. The veryreason for its existence is to provide a platformfor the free expression of a wide range of views,tailored to a wide range of viewers. Within thatcontext, it cannot be expected that everyone willfeel equally comfortable with every programme –indeed if that were the case, they would bebreaching their own commitments to reflectdiverse, often special, interests. There are otherservices and broadcasters who receive supportfrom the licence fee, so those who wish to viewelsewhere are not throwing away theirinvestment. [i] [i] Holmwood, Leigh et al.,‘Digital Britain: BBC licence fee to help fundbroadband and ITV local news’, the Guardian, 16June 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeBBC Director General, MarkThompson, who is himself a practising Christian,said that he found ‘nothing blasphemous’ aboutthe programme [i] . The protests were small andoverwhelmingly organised by one group. There issimply no case for a right not to be offended bysomething you’ve seen; far less for somethingyou haven’t. This would equally apply if theprogramme had been offensive to some Muslimsas it does to a programme that is offensive tosome Christians. [i] BBC News Website.“Protests as BBC Screens Springer”. 10 January2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeTens of thousands of licence feepayers objected to this, ultimately they are theBBC’s key stakeholder and that view is worthy ofrespect. As an institution, the BBC may like toposition itself as a global media brand but thatdoesn’t alter the fact that it is funded by, andchartered to serve, the British population. Thewhole British population. That combination –paying the pipers and calling the tune – wouldsuggest that the corporation might be sensitiveto that group. If 50,000 to 60,000 users of anyother brand registered their protest or objectionto a product put forward by that brand, it wouldcause chaos, resignations, sackings and a rethinkof whatever strategy had caused the problem inthe first place. In the case of the BBC, it causeda few slightly dismissive comments from seniormanagers, one editor resigned because he feltthat the protesters comments were not beingtaken seriously and the organisation continuedas though nothing had happened. The sheer", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeWhy should those who foot the billhave chunks of airtime from which they are,effectively, excluded. How can it be okay for abroadcaster, funded by a compulsory levy onanyone who owns a television, to willinglyproduce programmes they know will causeoffence to that consumer? The charge ofblasphemy is far more than saying ‘I didn’t enjoythis’ or ‘not my kind of show’, it is a deeply heldbelief that what has been said is a deliberate andwillful attack on values and beliefs that theviewer holds sacred and fundamental to whothey are. All major broadcasters, including theBBC, routinely test shows and monitor audienceresponse and yet, in this particular regard, feelrelaxed about producing material that certainviewers would consider it not only uncomfortablebut sinful to watch. By definition, those viewerscannot watch those shows or, quite probably,that station and yet they are still expected to payfor it. Even if a British viewer were to choose", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeIf this work had been an attack onMohammed it would never have been broadcast,the BBC is applying double standards. A weekbefore the broadcast of the opera, protest bySikhs in Birmingham about the play Bezthi bythe Birmingham Rep, brought the show to aclose. Like many organisations, the BBC panicswhen it believes it has caused offence to somereligions and yet Christianity – by far the world’smost populous and diverse creed [i] - is routinelyignored or expected to ‘take it on thechin. Christian symbols and imagery areroutinely profaned by major broadcasters,publishers and others in a way that would simplynot be tolerated if they were directed at‘minority’ faiths in the UK. Article Four (4) of theBBC’s charter [ii] stipulates quite clearly that allof the UK’s communities should be reflected in allof its activities. Despite this the interests of thecommunity that is represented by theestablished church of the country, headed by the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbbsbfb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes bbc should be freeblasphemeIn the same way that the BBC isroutinely criticised from the political Right for itsLeft-wing bias and from the Left for a supposedfavouritism to the Right, maintaining balance inany sphere of life is difficult. Freedom of speechdemands that such a balance is maintained,however hard to do. That balance can mean thatlast week’s bosom buddies may be this week’sfiercest foes. The reality of both free expressionand a public service ethos mean that one cannot,constantly yield to the cry of ‘more of what Ilike’. Any broadcaster could not show a greaterdisrespect to its viewers than by assuming theycould not be capable of dealing with new ideas.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsThe media alwayswant a good story; they are interested in thehealth of celebrities when there is no clearreason why they should have any right to thisprivate information. The health of the leader isnot something that the press or public needs toknow about unless it is an illness that is likely toaffect the president’s capacity to make decisions.A government’s decision should not be basedupon the possibility that information on theleader’s health will leak and should take aconsistent line that it is a private matter orprovide a bare minimum of information.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsThe people areinterested in the health of their leader Thehealth of the leader of the state is an issue thatthe people and the media inevitably want toknow about. There will always be a lot of interestin it. Occasionally this can be played by theadministration as with Kissinger saying he was illand using time to fly to Beijing to arrange forNixon’s visit without press attention. But most ofthe time keeping things from the press is purelynegative; it drives rumors. This was the case ofJohn Atta Mills, people were not allowed to knowabout his health. The presidential staff andcommunication members constantly lied abouthis health but there were two reports that he haddied. Mills spent time in a US hospital, onreturning to Ghana, he was made to jog aroundthe airport to show the media that he washealthy. 1 1 Committee for Social Advocacy,'Who and what killed President John Evans AttaMills?', Modern Ghana, 13 August 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsAdministrativecapabilities should not be compared to health.Unhealthy leaders may perform better than thehealthy ones, people could be misled to chooseinappropriate leaders while taking health as ablack spot while the leader could actually have abetter potential than the rest. If the electoratehad just elected on the basis of health, or hadbeen fully informed about presidents health thenit is plausible that neither FD Roosevelt of JFKennedy would have been elected. Neithercompletely hid their illnesses but they were notdiscussed and did not become election issues asthey would have in a modern election. 1 1Berish, Amy, ‘FDR and Polio’, Franklin D.Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsThe head ofstate/government must be accountable to thepeople Secrecy in relation to the leader’s healthshows a distrust or distain of the electorate. Notbeing open about health issues almost invariablymeans that the administration is lying to thosewho elected them, those who they areaccountable to. A couple of days before John AttaMills died Nii Lantey Vanderpuye a candidate forMills’ party stated “He [Mills] is stronger andhealthier than any presidential candidate”,information that in retrospect was clearly untrue.1 1 Takyi-Boadu, Charles, ‘Confusion Hits Mills’,Modern Ghana, 21 July 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsIf a candidate has acondition during an election campaign then thereis a clear right to know when the electorate ismaking the decision. But does such a right toknow apply at other times when it will make nodifference to the people? There can only be aright to know if it is going to affect the people,something that many illnesses won’t do.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsAll of these procedurescould be put in place even if there is secrecy.Doctors are already committed to patient-doctorconfidentiality so are unlikely to tell the press ifthey are told beforehand to be ready to receivethe President.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsTransparency allowscitizens to choose for a healthy leader as toensure proper functioning The health and fitnessof a leader is a vital issue when choosing aleader; the electorate deserves to know if theyare likely to serve out their term. When healthconditions are hidden from the people they maymistakenly elect a leader who is unable to servea full term or is at times not in control of thecountry. There would be little point in voting fora leader who will often not truely be in charge ofthe country, if voters are told it becomes theirchoice whether this is a problem. Transparencyin terms of clear, accurate and up-to-dateinformation is necessary for the electorate tojudge the fitness of a leader which is a necessaryprecondition for election. In a democracy aleader needs to be accountable, he can only beaccountable if the elctorate knows such vitalinformation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsA lack of transparencycan endanger the leader A person is most likelyto survive when they have an accident, a heartattack, or some other condition if they getprompt treatment and doctors are aware of anyunderlying conditions. Mills may well have lived,or lived longer if there had been moretransparency about his death. There had been noprior warning that the president might be rushedto hospital despite the doctors having beencalled in the previous day. For the same reasonhis outriders were not available leading toindecision over whether to send off theambulance. And finally he was initially turnedaway from the emergency ward because they didnot know it was the President they were beingasked to treat. 1 Transparency would allowprocedures to be in place and advance noticegiven possibly gaining a few minutes andenabling survival. 1 Daily Guide, ‘How Mills died:Sister tells it all’, My Joy Online, 31 August 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con03b", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsDeputy leaders areappointed and they are well versed with how theleader is managing issues and are capable oftaking up the role immediately after the leaderresigns or dies. Being open and transparentabout a leader being ill simply creates the lack ofstability. If he lives it is best if the illness is notrevealed as everything will carry on as before. Ifthe leader dies then it is best nothing is knownuntil his successor is announced so reducing theperiod of uncertainty.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con01b", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsWhen leaders chooseto serve the country they should be ready tosacrifice their privacy for the country. There isclearly a different standard for those who are ingovernment and should be publicly accountableto those who are not. Even more minor illnessescan damage the running of the country througheither affecting the judgment of the leader orlimiting the amount of time he can work. Thepeople have the right to demand their leader hashis full attention of the issues affecting thenation. If he can't do that then he should resign.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con02a", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsRivals could misusethe opportunity While the leader suffers from anillness, rivals can use the opportunity to ease theleader out of office. A period of illness is a periodof vulnerability in which the government is lessable to respond to external and internal threats.Not telling the public about the leader's healthduring an illness helps prevent such attempts.The same is the case with a leader's death; a fewdays of secrecy allows for smooth succession asthe appointed successor has the time to ensurethe loyalty of the government, army and othervital institutions. In 2008 when General LansanaConte of Guinea died power should have beentransferred to the president of the NationalAssembly Aboubacar Sompare with an electionwithin 90 days. Instead a group of junior militaryofficers took advantage of the quickannouncement to launch a coup. 1 1 Yusuf,Huma, ‘Military coup follows death of Guinea’sPresident’, The Christian Science Monitor, 23", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con04a", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsDamages diplomacy tobe too open Diplomacy can be very personal;diplomatic initiatives are often the result of asingle person, and the individual leader isnecessary to conclude negotiations.Transparency about a leader's health maytherefore prevent deals being done; Nixon wentto China despite Mao's ill heath meaning thesupreme Chinese leader contributed little to thehistoric change in diplomatic alinements. 1Would such a momentous change in alignmenthave been possible if both the Chinese andAmerican public knew about Mao's ill health? TheAmericans would have considered any dealunreliable as they could not be sure it was Maowho made the decision, while opponents in Chinacould have argued that it was advisers like ZhouEnlai who made the deal not Mao himselfpotentially enabling them to repudiate orundermine the deal. 1 Macmillan, Margaret,Seize the Hour When Nixon met Mao, John", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con03a", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsMarkets likestability Business and the markets prize politicalstability. Clearly when the leader of a country isill this stability is damaged but the damage canbe mitigated by being transparent. The marketswill want to know how ill the leader is, and thatthe succession is secure so that they know whatthe future holds. Secrecy and the consequentspread of rumour is the worst option asbusinesses can have no idea what the futureholds so cant make investment decisions that willbe influenced by the politicalenvironment. Leaders do matter to theeconomy; they set the parameters of thebusiness environment, the taxes, subsidies, howmuch bureaucracy. They also influence otherareas like the price of energy, the availability oftransport links etc. It has been estimated that “aone standard deviation change in leader qualityleads to a growth change of 1.5 percentagepoints”. 1 The leader who follows may be of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con01a", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsDenial of privacy tothe leaders The leaders of states deserveprivacy in exactly the same way as anyone else.Just like their citizens leaders want and deserveprivacy and it would be unfair for everyone toknow about their health. Leaders may sufferfrom diseases such AIDS/HIV or embarrassingillnesses which could damage a leader. Thepeople only a need for the people to know whenthe illness significantly damages the running ofthe government. The government can functionon its own without its leader for several days;only if the illness incapacitates the leader for along period is there any need to tell the people.Clearly if the President is working from his bedhe is still doing the job and his government isfunctioning. William Pitt the Younger, PrimeMinister of Great Britain was toasted as 'theSaviour of Europe' while he was seriously ill butstill running the country during the height of theNapoleonic Wars. 1 1 Bloy, Marjie, 'William Pitt", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con04b", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsIf the leader in-chargeis in illness, to avoid any repudiation, therepresentative from the other side could meetthe leader in order to confirm or even have avideo conference with the leader in charge. Theleader only needs to set the overall policy, notnegotiate the fine details. When Nixon went toChina the Americans knew Mao was ill butrealised that he still set the overall direction ofpolicy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fsaphgiap-con02b", "title": "", "text": "free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsTransparency is stillbetter than secrecy. There are several reasonswhy the opportunity of instability is as presentwhen keeping the leader's health a secret. Thefirst is that it is likely that at least some of theleader's rivals are in government so are likely tobe in the loop on any illness. In this case secrecysimply gives these individuals more opportunityto do as they wish. Secondly a lack oftransparency creates uncertainty which can befilled by a rival wanting to seize power; if theleader is just ill and there is a void of informationit is simply for rivals to seize the narrative andclaim he is dead enabling their takeover.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "y free speech debate free know house believeswestern universitiesA bargaining chip, bydefinition needs to be part of a bargain. Using itto demand a change in the structure of the stateas a whole is hardly reaching a bargain – it’sdictating a fiat. An invitation from a country to auniversity is a big step in expressing an interestin how that institution works and the values itpromotes. Using that as an opening todemonstrate the strength of those ideas is anopportunity that should not be dismissed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "y free speech debate free know house believeswestern universitiesA bargaining chip In muchthe same way that material investment incountries can be used as a bargaining chip tosecure improvements in areas of legislation, socultural investment can be used to secure rightsassociated with related fields of endeavour. Freespeech is merely the most obvious. It isreasonable for a western university to insist thatits graduates will need to have access to thefruits of a free press and democratic speculationof experts and the wider public [i] . The cases ofthe lecturer, Chia Thye Poh who is arguably theworld’s longest serving prisoner of conscience orthe political opposition leader, Vincent Chengwho was barred from addressing a talk organisedthe History Society of NUS at the national library[ii] both give examples of how Singaporeangovernment actions impact directly on universitylife and academic freedoms. In the light of this, itseems the height of reasonableness for Westernuniversities to say that they will only operate in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "y free speech debate free know house believeswestern universitiesEmployers measure degreesby the academic results they indicate. The levelof political engagement of the individuals is notcritical – or even relevant – to that measure. In aglobal market of tens of millions of studentsgraduating every year [i] an increase of a fewthousand in those graduating from topuniversities will do little to dilute their iconicbrands while taking advantage ofcommunications technologies to justify theirglobal reputation. University Senates determinewhether degrees can be awarded in their nameand it is scarcely in their interest to damage theirown reputation. [ii] [i] There are approximately150 million students in the world and for thepurposes of this debate, that number has simplybeen divided by three. Source material can befound here . [ii] Jones et al., ‘The AcademicSenate and University Governance in Canada’,The Canadian Journal of Higher Education,Vol.XXXIV, No.2, 2004, pp.35-68, p.50, 57", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "y free speech debate free know house believeswestern universitiesThe academic tradition of theWest The growth of universities as beacons offree speech has been a fundamental part of theirhistory in the West; notably during therenaissance, reformation and enlightenment. Thedemocratisation of that process with theexpansion of the university sector in recentdecades is merely the latest stage in an ongoingprocess. However, that entire process has beendriven (along with the artistic, cultural andscientific changes they have inculcated) on thebasis that universities allow for the freeexchange of ideas and flourish in environmentswhere that approach is standardised throughoutsociety [i] . Marxist scholars have gone further incalling for a critical pedagogy in whichperspectives other than academic orthodoxy arenormalised within universities. Such institutionsproduce the best graduates because they havethe best academics and the best academics willstay where they are free to publish whatever", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "y free speech debate free know house believeswestern universitiesUniversities also survived theinquisition, the French revolutionary terror andthe tyrannies of twentieth century Europe. Theissue being discussed here is not in the sameleague as any of those. There is, as a result,clearly nothing innate that requires anappreciation of free speech for universities tooperate. Furthermore universities do not locateor relocate en masse depending on the directionof the political wind.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "y free speech debate free know house believeswestern universitiesMaintaining the value of thedegree Employers and others expect certaindegrees to mean certain things; they are morethan just an expensive badge. In the case of elitewestern universities part of what that means is acritical approach to the world and the willingnessto challenge ideas, regardless of the authoritythat holds them. Part of their exclusivity derivesfrom their admission standards, partly from theacademic rigour of their scholars and partly fromthe simple fact that there are only a relativelysmall number of graduates. In other areasuniversities are all too aware of selling theirreputation – impartiality, avoiding plagiarism andso forth – the same should be true here. If adegree from a western university does not meanthat it recognises issues such as creativity andfree thinking then it devalues the degreeitself. As a result the very governments that areso keen to acquire the creative, critical skillsoffered by graduates of western-style education", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "y free speech debate free know house believeswestern universitiesThere is gradualism and thenthere is inertia. Refusing to cooperate withgovernments where individuals can be bannedfrom addressing a group of students would seemto be setting the bar relatively low. In thisparticular instance, the bar doesn’t appear tohave been set anywhere. The example given byopposition is of one between states, this isbetween state actors and organisations who relyon the free expression of ideas as part of theirraison d’etre.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "y free speech debate free know house believeswestern universities‘Separation of town andgown’ There are two parties involved in thisinteraction, the state and the university. Topretend that is an entirely one way process is toignore reality. Contrary to the belief of manySenior Common Rooms, states do not exist forthe convenience of universities. Indeeduniversities quite happily accept the political andeconomic stability provided by states at exactlythe same time as criticising the methods theyneed to use to maintain it. However, ultimatelyuniversities are service providers from the pointof view of the state, training and skilling theworkforce. The university provides its expertisein exchange for funding and student fees. Where,exactly, the opinions of the faculty enter intosuch an equation is not clear and appears tohave been assumed by proposition. Of courseindividual academics and students have the rightto their own political views but the idea that auniversity as an institution has rights distinct", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "y free speech debate free know house believeswestern universitiesUniversities should exchangeideas not impose them Of all possibleinstitutions, for a university to suggest that it isnot open to defending its ideas rather thaninsisting that they be artificially imported seemscounter-intuitive. As Asian and Europeanintellectual traditions increasingly interact as aresult of economic interaction there are going tobe clashes between and attempts to integratethe Confucian and Socratic approaches [i] . Partof that is the relationship between academia andthe state. Western institutions seeking toestablish themselves as a presence in Asiashould at least be open to the idea that adifferent approach may have something to offer.After all a willingness to accept new ideas andattitudes is key to the ethic of any university –the assumption that such an exchange wouldonly flow in one direction is astonishinglyarrogant. [i] This is true at every level, includingsimple things such as the approach taken by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "y free speech debate free know house believeswestern universitiesArgument One: Contactleads to the dissemination of values There iscertainly some evidence to suggest the view thattrade with a country can benefit human rights asincreased wealth provides many with morechoice and better standards of living. [i]Certainly that argument has been made bygovernments and multi-nationals based in theWest. It is not unreasonable to suspect that thismay relate to academic cooperation as well, asRichard Levin suggests in the introduction.However it seems likely that in this latter case,as in the former, that a gradualist approach isthe sensible one to take. We build on existingstrengths while agreeing to differ in certainareas. To extend the trade example, China, theUS and the EU all manage to trade with eachother despite differing approaches to the deathpenalty. They trust that through cooperationover time, changes can be achieved. This willhappen slowly in some instances – as with the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-yfsdfkhbwu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "y free speech debate free know house believeswestern universitiesSingapore in this particularinstance is securing far more than a ‘serviceprovider’ from a university whose foundationprecedes that of the state by over a century.Yale is an internationally identifiable brand, aswould any other major university be, andSingapore and NUS benefit from that association.Yale is in a strong position here to argue forthings that stretch well beyond the lecturetheatre.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would ban musiccontaining lyrics glorifyIt is usually the task ofmovie classification organisations such as theMPAA and the British Board of Film Certificationto judge whether the content of a film should becut or altered. In most cases these groups will bepolitically independent, but may be politicallyappointed. They will make the decision to cutcontent based partly on the criteria describedabove. A movie will only be censored if itcontains shocking or offensive images used in away that suggests that violence is glamorous,entertaining or without consequences. There is abroad consensus in western liberal democracieson what constitutes a highly shocking oroffensive image. For example, in even the mostpermissive societies, open and public images ofsexual intercourse would be consideredproblematic. Similarly, graphic depictions ofviolence against vulnerable individuals would beopen to wide condemnation. The thing thatunifies each of these categories of image is that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would ban musiccontaining lyrics glorifyHate speech Theenforcement of the laws proposed in this articlewill be fraught, complex and difficult. However,the difficulty of administering a law is never agood argument for refusing to enforce it. Thecensorship of the written word ended in Englandwith the Lady Chatterley and Oz obscenity trials,but this liberalisation of publication standardshas not prevented the state from prosecutinghate speech when it appears in print. It is clearthat, although we have more latitude than everto say or write what we want (no matter howobjectionable), standards and taboos continue toexist. We can take it that these taboos areespecially important and valuable to the runningof a stable society, as they have persisteddespite the legal and cultural changes that havetaken place over the last fifty years. Hatespeech is prosecuted and censored because of itspower to intrude into the lives of individuals whohave not consented to receive it. As pointed out", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would ban musiccontaining lyrics glorifyBanning one type of hiphop is not an effective way to intervene in amarket that is in danger of dismantlingitself. Governments are not record companies.They are not in a position to make nuancedjudgements about the content, meaning andthemes of singles and albums. In short, the statecannot be relied on to understand when amusician has produced a work of violent fantasy,or a piece of social commentary with broadappeal. The state can perform a positivecorrection for inequalities and failures in the hiphop market by subsidising niche or experimentalperformers, in the same way that is providesfinancial support to opera, theatre and the finearts. The policy that proposition side seem to beadvocating, however, would only do further harmthe reputation of hip hop. Once officiallycensured by the state- which is still seen as asignificant moral authority- it is likely that thepublic profile and popularity of hip hop will be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would ban musiccontaining lyrics glorifyClassification, notcensorship We should expect fans of an art formthat is subjected to public criticism andvilification to leap to its defence. Some of theseaficionados- whether the medium in question iscinema, fine art or pop music- make the case forthe value of their favourite mode of expressionby overstating its positive effects. Hip hop haslong been the focus of controversies surroundingviolent music. Hip hop is closely associated withlow-level criminality, as noted above. A numberof highly successful hip hop artists have beenattacked or killed as a result of feuds within theindustry and links between managers, promotersand criminal gangs. As the academic JohnMcWhorter has pointed out in numerous [1]publications [2] , the positive political and socialimpact of rap music has been massivelyoverstated, as a result of highly charged mediacoverage of hip hop-linked violence. As a result,attempts to address some of the hips hops most", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would ban musiccontaining lyrics glorifyCrime and devianceexisted in marginalised communities long beforethe creation of pop music or hip hop. Sideproposition is attempting to claim that aparticular genre of hip hop is harming efforts toimprove living standards and social cohesionwithin these communities. Many of the problemsassociated with poor socialisation and a lack ofsocial mobility in inner city areas can be linked tothe closed, isolated nature of these communities– as the proposition comments correctly observe.However, these problems can be traced to a lackof positive engagement between these youngpeople and wider society [1] . Violence may bediscussed or depicted in popular culture for anumber of reasons, but it is still comparativelyrare- especially in mainstream music- tocelebrate violence for violence’s sake. Violence isdiscussed in hip hop in a number of contexts.Frequently, as in British rapper Plan B’s single IllManors, or Cypress Hill’s How I Could Just Kill A", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would ban musiccontaining lyrics glorifyDefending hip hop artists’right to free speech The intervention of the stateis necessary in order to ensure that aggressiveforms of hip hop remain accessible only toadults, especially in neighbourhoods and homeenvironments that are not part of a cohesive,caring community. Some degree of public controlover the content of hip hop will also help topreserve the diversity, accessibility of the genrein the face of commercial dominance by violentforms of rap. Mainstream success in hip hop hasbecome synonymous with gangsta rap, and withartists who have backgrounds that lend veracityto their lurid verses. However, many of thesesupposedly “authentic” experiences consist oflittle more than exaggeration and inventedpersonas. When being interviewed about thecontroversial content of her son’s single “Fucktha’ police”, the mother of rapper Ice Cubecommented that “I don’t see [him] saying thosecurse words. I see him like an actor.” The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would ban musiccontaining lyrics glorifyThis argument makes aclaim of bias against academics andcommentators who portray the audiences thathip hop music is targeted at as vulnerable.Unfortunately, this is a viewpoint that is closer tothe truth than the aspirational narrative providedin the opposition side’s case. Hip hop emergedfrom environments that were extremely poor andthat had been pushed to the margins of society.This situation has persisted until well into thiscentury. The cyclical effects of racism anddiscrimination continue to be felt in minoritycommunities. Although anti-discrimination lawsnow protect access to employment andgovernment services, inequalities in culturalcapital and high-impact policing have led to theexclusion of large numbers of young men fromthe social economic opportunities that are madeavailable to middle class society. Under thesecircumstances, it is entirely appropriate todescribe the adolescent inhabitants of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would ban musiccontaining lyrics glorifyHip hop is a diversegenre. The quote that opened this discussion istaken from a song by the English surrealistrapper Scroobius Pip. His albums cover themesentirely different from those found in “gangsta”rap. Similarly, artists such as MIA, OptimusRhyme and the Wilcania Mob have used hip hopto discuss the conflict in Sri Lanka, computergames and life as a member of the aboriginalcommunity in Australia. Each of these artistsshare a single common link. They all cater to arelatively niche market and have encounteredlittle in the way of mainstream success. Rapperswho write lyrics about cynicism and aggression-from Slim Shady to JayZ- have recordednumerous number one tracks and attracted awide range of industry accolades. In 2006 thefounder of Death Row records, a major gangstarap label, was found to have assets valued at $7million. It is clear that rap discussing crime andviolence is the dominant genre within hip hop. It", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would ban musiccontaining lyrics glorifyA ban will beineffective A new legal prohibition on any typeof behaviour or conduct can only be set up byinvesting large amounts of political capital inorder to transform vague proposals into alegislative document and then into a fully-fledgedlaw. This expense can only be justified if the banis effective – if it is seen as a legitimate use of astate’s power; is enforceable; and if it bringsabout some form of beneficial social change. Thechange being sought in this instance is areduction in the violence, criminality and socialdisaffection that some people associate with hiphop music and its fans. Laws do not createchanges in behaviour simply because they arelaws. It is unlikely that the consumers of hip hopwill refrain from listening to it. The ease withwhich music can be distributed and performedmeans that any ban on violent songs will,inevitably, be ineffective. File sharing networksand cross border online stores such as eBay and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would ban musiccontaining lyrics glorifyA ban will furthermarginalise young members of impoverishedcommunities Hip hop is an extremely diversemusical genre. Surprisingly, this diversity hasevolved from highly minimal series of musicalprinciples. At its most basic, raping consists ofnothing more than rhyming verses that aredelivered to a beat. This simplicity reflects theeconomically marginalised communities that hiphop emerged from. All that anyone requires inorder to learn how to rap, or to participate in hiphop culture, is a pen, some paper and possibly adisc of breaks – the looped drum and bass linesthat are used to time rap verses. Thanks to itshighly social aspect, hip hop continues tofunction as an accessible form of creativeexpression for members of some of impoverishedcommunities in both the west and elsewhere inthe world. Point 7 suggests that free speechflourishes when we respect believers but are notforced to respect their beliefs. Free Speech", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would ban musiccontaining lyrics glorifyViolent imagery can servedifferent purposes. Calls for a ban on music thatreferences or glorifies violence are frequentlybased on an overly simplistic understanding ofcontemporary and popular musical genres. It isinstructive that the loudest voices of protestraised against violent content in hip hop and rockmusic are, overwhelmingly, white, middle class,middle-aged newspaper columnists. Any bancreated under these circumstances would reducethe diversity and depth of popular musicalgenres, by preventing musicians fromcommenting- in any way- on violentevents. Banning particular musical tracks dueonly to the fact that they discuss violent actswould be damaging to the creative industries andwould not reflect methods currently used toclassify and restrict content appearing in othermedia. Criminal acts are punished when an actresults in a damaging outcome and because thatact is performed with a particular dishonest or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwbmclg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would ban musiccontaining lyrics glorifyModern policy makingdoes not rely on the force of law to bring aboutsocial change. This is an archaic approach toaddressing the harms and deficiencies that mightappear in communities. We can reasonablyassume that any ban on violent lyrics will belinked to wider reaching education andinformation campaigns that attempt to addressmisogynist attitudes and violent crime. Concernsexpressed above that other hip hop genres, andmusical innovation in general, might suffer couldbe adequately countered by offering subsidiesand support to non-confrontational forms of hiphop. In this way legal regulation and policyinterventions could help the music industry toaddress the more pernicious aspects of hip hop,while promoting its more innovative side. Thisreflects the state’s role in promoting andsafeguarding free speech, by giving those whodo not have access to public forums the meansto have their voice heard, while ensuring that the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would penalise religioushate speechNobody is being forced to performacts of violence by the words of another; it istheir choice to do so. Equally, there are plenty ofpeople who would hold views that could beconsidered homophobic but would be appalled byacts of violence. It is fundamental to theprinciples of respect for the individual that Icannot be held liable for the actions of others.There is no dividing line between the incitementProposition claims exists and my jokinglysuggesting to a broke friend that they rob abank. Ironically, perhaps, the defence of “TheDevil made me do it” is not one that is takenseriously by any credible framework of laws.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would penalise religioushate speechBecause religion promotes certaintyof belief, divinely inspired hatred is easy to useto justify and promote violent actions anddiscriminatory practices. Free speech mustcome second when there is the potential for thatspeech to cause harm. The mantra of “With Godon our side” has been used, and continues to beused, to justify massacre and barbaritythroughout history. Although it is rarely theprelates and preachers who do the killing thecertainty they promote gives surety to those whodo. The purpose of the Act [1] used in thisparticular case was an entirely practical one. It’smain role was to tidy up existing legislation onrioting and public disorder but one sectionrecognised that homophobic and racist languagedo lead to violence. It is all well and good to talkof freedom of speech but the reality is thathomophobic speeches, particularly those of areligious nature, may well lead to violence. Forexample in New York there were a series of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would penalise religioushate speechHomophobia should indeed beconfronted but penalising it is not the solution –just as it wasn’t for racism and sexism. Theseviews should be confronted and challenged,which doesn’t happen by banning theirexpression. Indeed using legislation in this way ismore likely to make the homophobe feeljustified. Freedom of speech and equality havegenerally worked hand in hand and will do so inthe case of homophobia as well. Banning ideasdoesn’t threaten bigotry; indeed historically ithas tended to be the tool of the bigot, not theliberal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would penalise religioushate speechReligion simply justifies reactionaryviews which many find offensive. There is noreason for vitriol to be tolerated just because itpresents a mask of religion. Views on issuessuch as abortion, women, and what constitutesan acceptable family expressed by those who areextremely religious are simply bigoted viewswhich are given credibility by being wrapped in acassock. It is in the nature of religious beliefthat any set of views can adopt a religiousjustification and there is no objective measureagainst which to hold the views. For example thehomophobic views which have common currencyin many churches can be contrasted with a gayliberation trend discernible in others. In the lightof this, it makes sense to judge the views ontheir own basis, regardless of the religiositysurrounding them. The views expressed byHarry Hammond, and others [1] , need to bestripped of their religious veneer and shown thatat their heart they are simply offensive. There is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would penalise religioushate speechReligious belief is the most widelyused and historically enduring framework fordiscussion of the universe around us and ourplace and role within it. Pretending that it notpart of civic discourse is simply living in a fantasyworld. The views expressed by Hammond arewidely and genuinely held and deserve to beheard. Those who oppose them should, ofcourse, be free to do so. Simply banning theirexpression doesn’t make the views go away.However impossible opposing sides in thisargument may believe it to be, the other sidecould be right, that gives them the right to beheard [1] . [1] Tatchell, Peter, ‘Lords are rightto limit homophobic hatred law’, 10 July 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would penalise religioushate speechIll-informed prejudice has no place insociety. The veneer of religion has been used tojustify hatred, prejudice and division and shouldbe confronted. Homophobia is the lastrespectable prejudice [1] and should be tackledwith the same passion and force that others havebeen, and continue to be, confronted. If thespeaker had been condemning black people orwomen they would have been arrested for publicdisorder if they represented an organisation thatwas overtly racist, it would be quite likely to bebanned. For some reason Churches that holdviews on homosexuality that are comparable intheir vitriol to those on race held by neo-Nazigroups are not only tolerated but frequentlysupported by the state. Hatred is hatred andthere is no reason why homophobia should begiven a free pass that would not be given toracism or sexism. All of the Abrahamic faithshave, at their core, an authority focussed onmaintaining ‘the natural order’. From the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would penalise religioushate speechIssues of sexuality tend to raisegreat passion but to accept that people should beharangued, threatened or intimidated for justgetting on with their lives, quite legally andposing no threat to others is absurd. A liberalsociety should be free to defend that liberalism,if people wish to change that reality then thereare democratic ways of doing so that do notincite hatred on the streets. Homosexuality hasbeen legal in the UK for over forty years; it isabsurd that gay people should still have to facethis kind of barracking on a regular basis.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would penalise religioushate speechIt is simply unfair to ask people to bethe victims in a societal experiment on the basisthat it will all be okay in the end. In a contextlike this the language used is not only offensivebut also threatening. This legislation may not begreat constitutional theory but provides very realprotection of people’s safety and quality oflife. In addition to which, homophobia longenjoyed the sanction and protection of the stateit is interesting that when that is reversed just alittle it becomes an assault on free speech.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would penalise religioushate speechThere is no right not to be offended,enforcing what is acceptable to be thought orsaid places far too much power in the hands ofthe state. It is impossible to ensure that nobodyis ever offended and it is questionable as towhether it is even desirable [1] . There is simplyno way of protecting against offence. The stateclearly has a role in protecting the physicalsafety of citizens and in other relevant areassuch as preventing dismissal from employmenton the grounds of sexuality but this is not thecase with speech that may causeoffense. Governments that attempt to lead,ahead of public opinion, on matters such as thisdo little to resolve the problem. In doing so inthis manner, they may well pour fuel on the fireof the very prejudice they are aiming to combatas well as creating additional problems byjustifying the idea that it is okay to silence viewssimply because you happen to disagree withthem. Banning the expression of ideas has,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would penalise religioushate speechSilencing views that are consideredoffensive is self-defeating and would bedetrimental to those attempting to advance gayrights. If freedom of speech is to mean anythingthen it needs to be a principle that is universallyapplied. Unless speech represents a direct andimmediate threat to public safety then it shouldnot be curtailed. The overwhelming majority ofthe world would agree with Hammond. Globallythis is a significant, possibly a majority, view.Certainly the 24% of people in the UK whobelieve that homosexual sex should be illegal [1]could be assumed to be sympathetic. Thesepeople might well consider gay pride marches tobe offensive and a threat to public order butthese are allowed to go ahead and so shouldHammond’s protest and those like it. Thefreedom of expression must be allowed equallyin both cases. [1] The Guardian. “Sex uncoveredpoll: Homosexuality”. 28 August 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would penalise religioushate speechRegardless of the views expressed,freedom of speech means that all opinionsshould be heard. Allowing politicians to regulatewhat it is acceptable to say – or think – is notsomething that has a happy history. This isn’tthe result of a purely intellectual construct butone of altruistic self-interest; once people startbanning ideas, they tend not to stop atone. Voltaire’s comment that “I may not agreewith what you say but I will defend to the deathyour right to say it” is a statement of the verysame principle that that demands equality for allgroups in society. In exactly the same way thatall views are, at the very least, worthy of ahearing, so are all lifestyles acceptable. Lockingpeople up in the name of liberty makes no senseat all. Equally, banning statements on the basisthat it might be offensive to some people hasbeen used as an excuse to prevent social andcultural developments, the process of beingoffended usually made society and culture", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-ldhwprhs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "living difference house would penalise religioushate speechThis is simply a myth. Societyroutinely legislates to prevent offence withrestrictions on what can be said or done within abroadcast or in print. This particular case doesnot relate to a private conversation betweenfriends but to a public address. As such theresponse of the police officers was not someOrwellian nightmare but a responsible protectionof public order and a show of respect for thosewho, quite rightly, had taken offence at theremarks. We are rightly cautious of the stateintervening too far into the private sphere butthis was a public event – by the speakers ownchoice.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedJust because groups andindividuals have a Freedom of Expression, doesnot mean it can be used without properconsideration of whom maybe hurt and offendedby connotations implied in the image. A Whiteartist portraying the Black leader of the countryand the ANC as someone who leads with theirgenitals goes someway to dehumanising him,launching into character assassination that failsto actually examine policy. Pluralism can existwithout needlessly causing offence in the wayMurray has done in this painting. TheConstitution protects Freedom of Expression;however the grave offence causedto manypeople by dehumanising President Zuma in thisway can justify the protests against the artworksinstallation and replication in the news media. Noconstructive criticism is meted out in thepainting, thus justifying counter-protests againstit. While there were supporters of the ANC andCOSATU, who are allied with the government,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedPluralism and PoliticalInterference The removal of ‘The Spear’ fromthe Goodman Gallery and the City Press alsohints at a threat to pluralism, especially whenone considers the political nature of thecampaign to have such images removed. WhileJacob Zuma attempted to have the imagebanned in a personal capacity, the intensivecampaigning by both the ANC and the Congressof South African Trade Unions (COSATU) againstboth the Goodman Gallery and City Press [1]hints at a dangerously political action taken bythose with close access to power over the SouthAfrican state. This should be cause to worry.Chapter Two of the Constitution of South Africa,in place since 1997, protects freedoms such asFreedom of Speech and Freedom of Association.[2] The intimidation of Art Galleries andNewspapers threatens the free exchange of ideasthat occurs in these areas, as well sending animplicit image by its supports that criticism of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedTo somehow state thatracism is the motivation to criticisms of ‘TheSpear’ is fanciful and far-fetched. People weremassively offended by the piece and as suchused their right to protest to demonstrate thefact. The artwork itself was vulgar, displayingimages that would be offensive to anyone,regardless of race. No-one is accusing Murray ofbeing in favour of restoring Apartheid; indeed hisearly works in the 1980’s attacked thegovernment of the day, highlighting their crimes.But when a public gallery and a newspaperreleases an image that is seen as offensive tomany people on many levels, provoking angryresponses in the process, then it is only rightthat such images are removed to prevent furtherprotest and controversy for those involved. It isalso erroneous to accuse the ANC of race-baiting.It is a multi-racial organisation and has hadprominent non-Black members leading theorganisation during the struggle. If any criticism", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedArtistic Freedom A coreprinciple of art is that it should be free from anyform of inhibition, as the particular artwork is anexpression of the particular views and ideals ofthe artist. The subject matter in many instancesis their own choice; therefore they have the rightto say what they want about the subject matter,safe in the knowledge that is their opinion alonebeing portrayed. The artist that painted ‘TheSpear’, Brett Murray, created the piece as part ofan exhibition that reflected his own discontent atthe lack of major progress since the rulingAfrican National Congress took power in SouthAfrica after the end of Apartheid in 1994. Murrayused his work to promulgate an idea that he has,allowing for others to see the art work forthemselves and make up their own minds aboutPresident Zuma and the ANC. [1] Art Gallerieshave a right to display any artist they feel willattract visitors as well showcase the forms of artthat they believe is suitable. The Goodman", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedWhile public art isvaluable, it can serve a purpose to educate andsend a message, influencing discourse. Criticismof a political figure, when expressed via an artform, can change perceptions of that figure,particularly when their policy is under scrutiny.However, the image portrayed in ‘The Spear’does not do these things. It does not focus onthe policies of President Zuma, but rather relieson innuendo surrounding the President’spersonal life, graphically represented by Zuma’sexposed penis, which is a prominent feature ofthe painting. While artists have a right tocriticise those in authority and galleries have aright to display any art it wants, such rights arebalanced by responsibilities over how such artistsconduct themselves when they choose to enterpolitical discourse. A provocative image such as‘The Spear’ flouts those responsibilities byrelying upon graphic innuendo instead of policycriticism to get the point across. This is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedRacialisedOpposition Some critics of ‘The Spear’ havecriticised the artwork on the grounds that it‘dehumanises’ black people in general [1] andPresident Zuma in particular and criticises himbased upon his personal life rather than policy,using vulgar means to do it. This line ofopposition is part of a dog-whistle tactic that theANC has consistently used against white critics ofits government in the past. [2] ANC criticisms ofits white critics, including the oppositionDemocratic Alliance have made discreetreference to the injustices of the past as a meansof creating distrust in the minds of poor, blackvoters who maintain ANC support as a result.Some politicians within the ANC, most notablythe former President of its youth wing JuliusMalema, have made incendiary statements thatcould be seen to stoke up hatred againstwhites. It is against this back drop that thedouble standards over criticism of Murray should", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedWhat is termed a decent orotherwise is largely subjective and depends onan individual’s viewpoint. Those who use thecause of ‘public decency’ to call for ‘The Spear’sremoval fail to understand the point of theartwork. Murray created such a visceral image inorder to trigger debate and cause South Africansto look at the political class and their antics.Such a debate over Zuma’s fitness for officewould not have been possible without an imagethat brought home the seriousness of thepersonal accusations against him and whethersuch allegations make him incompatible with theoffice of President. Murray was free to depict animage that at best a plurality of people woulddisagree with, and given the subject matter, thatimage was appropriate to use.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedJacob Zuma had a right tosue, which he made use of before dropping hisclaim for defamation. However, for hissupporters inside and outside the ANC to attackThe Goodman Gallery, City Press and BrettMurray personally is irresponsible and stiflesdebate over the credibility of Jacob Zuma for theoffice of President. Zuma has done controversialthings before and during his time in office thatare worthy of criticism and ‘The Spear’ amongstthe rest of the exhibition reflects this. No oneshould be above criticism, especially if theiractions will have an impact upon many people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedInfantilisation andPrejudice Those who dismiss the reaction to ‘TheSpear’ forget the historical context which maytrigger the sorts of responses seen to theartwork. [1] South Africa’s past problems can beseen to derive from the gross caricaturing ofBlack people and Black Men in particular aslascivious, overtly sexual and threatening,playing into a narrative of Blacks as ‘inferiorbeings’ justifying inhumane treatment over anumber of centuries. Portraying the Presidentwith his genitals exposed could also be seen topass negative comment upon his polygamy,which is permitted in his Zulu culture. Suchcomment upon something which can determinesocial standing can also be viewed as offensiveby many, triggering such reactions. [2] With thisin mind then the right action for both TheGoodman Gallery and City Press to take would beto remove such offensive art to avoid any hurtcaused and to quell the protest which were borne", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedMasculinity The problemwith leaving the painting, the spear, up is that tomany young men President Zuma symboliseswhat excessive wealth can ‘buy’ you. He is thefigure head of the nation, the pinnacle ofcapitalism and masculinity, of which the penisand sex are instrumental in this image. Byleaving the painting up, it encourageshyper-masculinity (which is inherently violent),[1] because it assumes there is an inherent linkbetween power and the penis. This is unhelpful,both for women and men who are trying to livein equity. [1] Scheff, Thomas J.,‘Hypermasculinity and Violence as a SocialSystem’, Universitas, Vol.2, Issue 2, Fall 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedPublic Decency Freedomof Speech is something that is highly valued,particularly in a country such as South Africa,where it was in short supply for a large part of itshistory, but surely for such speech to beworthwhile, it has to be able to convey amessage that actually enriches the publicdomain. Such messages can be critical ofgovernment, but it must be best if they do notcause widespread offence in the process. Theproblem with ‘The Spear’ is that is causeswidespread offence with the graphic depiction ofthe male genitalia. As a result, the underlyingmessage that Brett Murray is trying to convey islost in the offence image of the exposed penis,causing needless controversy in the process.[1] The utilisation of an exposed penis in ‘TheSpear’ breaches all notions of public decency, notonly causing offence in the public domain, butalso personal offence, by depicting PresidentZuma in such a lewd manner. As such, it is right", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedDefamation While SouthAfrican Law does allow for freedom of speech,and the constitution is one of the most liberal inthe world for protecting such freedoms, it mustbe measured against the need for responsibilityin the use of such freedoms to preventoffence. Whatever one believes about ‘TheSpear’ it is clear that Murray attacked PresidentZuma based upon his personal life rather thanany critique of policy. The depiction of thePresident with his penis exposed is a reminder ofthe accusations of rape against him, of which hewas acquitted in 2007. To remind those whoview the painting of the accusation is to hint atZuma’s guilt in the case despite it being provedotherwise in a court of law. This is effectivelylibel and as such defames Zuma’s character. Assuch, Zuma was right to sue for defamation andit was right for the artwork to be removed as itimplied and spread a falsehood in the publicdomain that is damaging to Zuma.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedThe painting should remainhanging as a reminder to young men that societyis noting the particularly high prevalence ofcases of rape, that are committed by all peopleswithin society, from the bottom to the top. Thisis not to argue that the President has evernecessarily raped anyone, although his defencein his rape-trial in 2005 was flimsy and withoutdoubt he abused his power, as the girl he issupposed to have had consensual sex with waslike a daughter to him. It is to critique hisinfidelity, and his lack of support in the AIDSpandemic. Just because he is the president doesnot mean he should be above being publicallyridiculed for putting his own sexual desires abovethe safety of others.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-radhbsshr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "reputation and defamation house believes spearshould have remainedTo attach historical abusesto the symbolism of ‘The Spear’ is outlandish,irresponsible and fully indicates the way in whichthe ANC and its supporters use the past toexcuse its poor record in government. ‘TheSpear’ followed a theme criticising Zuma and hisactions as a public figure. Criticism of the piece iswelcome as part of debate based on facts, notemotion like what was seen during thecontroversy. Maintaining ‘The Spear’s display ispart of this, triggering a debate over ANC policiesin the here and now, as opposed to referring topast injustices. Removing ‘The Spear’ preventsthat rational debate and instead sends amessage that merely shouting down opponentsis a suitable solution to an argument, harmingSouth African political discourse in the long term.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "free challenge house believes julian assangejournalistA free press can only function if it isalso a responsible press. Journalists are alloweda leeway not enjoyed by most because they actresponsibly and within boundaries. Realistically,the test of whether the risk posed to third partiesis balanced by the public interest is a difficultone. Although much has been made of the risksto Assange himself – at least he has made a lotof it – he has less to say on the dangers posedby the impact of his actions on military and,especially, diplomatic operations. EndangeringU.S. relations with other nations by makingpublic the opinions of Western diplomats abouttheir hosts may be good copy but scarcely servesthe cause of peace or the national interest.Mexico’s President Felipe Calderon for examplesaid he had lost confidence in the U.S.ambassador to the country as a result. [1]Equally, the information disclosed onGuantanamo or in the Iraq and Afghanistandiaries of soldiers revealed little that wasn’t", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "free challenge house believes julian assangejournalistGovernments have always struggledwith the idea of press investigation and freedomof information, claiming Assange is not ajournalist is simply a stunt. We know that mostgovernments struggle with the idea of not havingcontrol over information and are suspicious ofthe media. In a pre-Internet age working with ahandful of proprietors made controllinginformation far easier. Since the creation of theInternet, the idea of controlling the media hasbecome harder, now there are those who canbroadcast themselves directly; a mass ofinformation and opinion that doesn’t rely on thepatronage of publishers or politicalfavour. Assange has simply taken a journalisticposition that makes sense for the new mediaage. In contrast to the opinion drivenmainstream press and much of the blogosphere,Wikileaks actually breaks new stories [1] . Newmedia requires new skills and attitudes of itsjournalists because the relationship with their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "free challenge house believes julian assangejournalistHistorically, journalists have beenprotected from prosecution for espionage(Assange is threatened with prosecution underthe Espionage Act) whereas their sources werenot. Assange is providing the information whichhe has acquired illegally. The fact that he, inturn, had a source does not qualify him as ajournalist. Surely it makes more sense to viewhim as a source, someone simply providinginformation to the journalist of the Guardian,Times and elsewhere, who subsequently usedthe data in actual journalism. Assange doesn’tseem interested in Freedom of information asmuch as he is in simply causing trouble.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "free challenge house believes julian assangejournalistThe concept of what is a journalistneeds to be clarified to deal with the reality ofnew forms of mass communication. Assangegathers, collates and disseminates information,ergo, he is a journalist. Few industries havebeen changed more radically by the advent ofthe Internet than journalism. The traditional roleof the journalist, disseminating information towhich they had special or privileged access, haschanged beyond recognition. Now readers andviewers have direct access to much of thatinformation and can access it at their ownconvenience and through their own choice ofmedia. Sales of newspapers are in freefall andthe stranglehold of a handful of broadcasters onpolitical access has been lost forever. There arestill extraordinary journalists finding news andgenuinely affecting the society around them. Forthe most part, however, journalists increasinglycomment on the news rather than directlycollecting it. In many ways, Assange has taken", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "free challenge house believes julian assangejournalistJournalists fulfill a multitude of roles. Ofcourse revealing information is part of that butonly one part. Further, journalists do not revealinformation, as Assange does, purely because it’ssecret but within a wider narrative. It is howeverdifficult to see what wider narrative Assange ispursuing. Realistically, there are some thingsthat need to be confidential; diplomatic andmilitary communications would come high upthat list. Assange seems primarily interested inreveling things purely because they are secret.One of the curious things about Wikileaks is that,while some of it has been embarrassing, it hasbeen published indiscriminately. The USDiplomatic Cables, the most famous of the leaksand the ones that caused the most debate, havemostly been described as embarrassing ratherthan reveling corruption or illegality. It’s difficultto see what journalistic goal such voyeurismcould fulfill.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "free challenge house believes julian assangejournalistThere is a difference between actualjournalists and those who like having theirnames published in newspapers. Assange has farmore claim to the description than many ofthem. One of the things that the LevesonInquiry [1] has made all too apparent is thatsimply working for a newspaper or broadcaster isnot a satisfactory definition of journalist. Interms of maintaining a professional ethic, thedifference between those who hacked intophones – including that of murdered schoolgirlMillie Dowler – and the journalists who broke thestory, Nick Davies and Amelia Hill [2] could notbe starker. Equally many popular blogs thatfocus exclusively on opinion or areas of news farmore specialist than has traditionally beenconsidered the role of the daily media. A moreuseful definition, it would seem, relates more tothe ethics and aims of the individual ororganisation involved. This has the advantage ofruling out those organisations devoted to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "free challenge house believes julian assangejournalistThe fact that Wikileaks specialises inone form of news gathering is hardlyrevolutionary – a little like saying magazinesspecialise in features or blogs tend to bedominated by opinion pieces. The idea, however,that journalists should provide their sourcematerial so that readers can make a decision forthemselves is one that constantly finds praisefrom audiences and many journalists regret theycannot provide because of the pressures ofprintable space or broadcast schedules. At thetime of writing, the lead item on Wikileaks’s frontpage read; WikiLeaks: 542 days of bankingblockade - no process Assange: 539 daysdetainment - no charge Manning: 737 days injail - no trial Grand Jury: 622 days US secretGrand Jury into WikiLeaks - no transparency Ifthe purpose of a news organisation is to holdaccount the powerful and act as an independentcheck on the use of that power then Assangewould certainly seem to be having an impact. By", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "free challenge house believes julian assangejournalistIt is worth noting the people who arehappy to say that he is a journalist – in additionto many other journalists around the world. Hehas received the 2008 Economist Freedom ofExpression award, the 2009 AmnestyInternational Media Award, La Monde Person ofthe Year (2010) [1] and the Martha Gelhorn Prizefor Journalism in 2011. [2] Wikipedia’s mediapartners include Der Spiegel, The New YorkTimes, Le Monde, The Guardian and El Pais. Ifwe accept the idea that ‘by his works shall youknow a man’ then the fact that Wikileaks hasproduced game changing information – andstories that have changed policy - onextra-judicial killings in Kenya, the dumping oftoxic waste in Cote d’Ivoire, the Church ofScientology, procedures at Guantanamo bay [3]and the financial dealings at Kaupthing and JuliusBaer [4] – all before the revelations about theState Department imbroglio that is suddenly ofinterest to … well, to the State", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-con02a", "title": "", "text": "free challenge house believes julian assangejournalistIt is a basic principle of journalism thatsources should be checked and verified byanother, independent, source. British ForeignSecretary William Hague has pointed out that theactions of Wikileaks put British lives at risk. [1]Congressman Peter King described the massleaking of documents as “Worse even than aphysical attack” on America and Assange as “anenemy combatant”. [2] Vice-President Joe Bidenrefers to him as a “High-tech terrorist.” [3] Hehas condemned governments, endangeredoperations and undermined diplomatic activities,all without knowing the identity or motives of hissources. For all we know the information couldbe quite false or released only in part bysomeone with an axe to grind. Those parties whoare damned by the revelations are hardly in aposition to say, “No that isn’t one of our cablesand here’s the real one to proveit.\" Furthermore, as the site itself proudlyproclaims, it has no way of knowing who the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-con03a", "title": "", "text": "free challenge house believes julian assangejournalistWikileaks is not a news organisation, itexists exclusively to disseminate classifiedinformation, no genuine news organisation hassuch an agenda. News organisations provide avariety of functions, from reporting the weatherto breaking news. Even the most hardenedinvestigative outlet does not dedicate itselfexclusively to revealing classified information. Itappears to have no interest in what thatinformation is or whether its disclosure causesmore harm than good, the sole interest is that itis classified. That isn’t journalism, at best it’sprurience and, at worst, egocentricity – ‘I knowsomething you don’t know’. The fallout forpeople’s jobs, liberty and safety appears not tointerest those involved. Their own ‘About Us’section makes a point of stating that “We accept(but do not solicit) anonymous sources ofinformation [1] .” Interestingly, the whole of therest of the page talks about maintaininganonymity for both readers and sources and little", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-con01a", "title": "", "text": "free challenge house believes julian assangejournalistAssange is mostly interested inself-promotion, not being a seriousjournalist. Journalists are judged by far morethan their ability to acquire and disseminateknowledge or information. The quality of theirwriting, the skills and contacts developed toacquire it, the training used to enter the trade(which incidentally would have included thedifference between the legitimate use ofprivileged information and espionage) and manyother characteristics. Assange doesn’t seem tohave taken any interest in any of this. Heundertook no formal training – he studied but didnot graduate in Physics – and worked as acomputer programmer and hacker beforefounding Wikileaks. His interest in data seems todo with the technological side of the processrather than the ideas. Were a printer in thesame situation to attempt the same defence, itwould be ignored. Assange is an irresponsiblegeek, self-proclaimed hacker and someone who", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-fchbjaj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "free challenge house believes julian assangejournalistThe source material is at least open toscrutiny, and anyone can decide if it appears tobe genuine. Equally many serious journaliststake Assange and the rest of the Wikileaks teamseriously enough and have no difficulty withtrusting the stories put forward. If he is really apatsy of agents unknown then governments,notably the US, seem to be going toextraordinary lengths to silence him and the restof the organisation. Presumably the banksblockading his site have reason to believe that heis a threat to their commercial interests,otherwise it would be a bit of a waste of time togive him the added credibility. The very fact thatthe people he attacks take him sufficientlyseriously to have taken the actions they havewould seem to add a lot of weight to hisargument and suggest strongly that the sourcesare quite genuine. The more likely explanation isthat the political classes of many nations simplydo not know how to respond to this new kind of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossLegislation takes accountof particularities. Christianity does not, andnever has, required the wearing of the cross as ademonstration of faith and few representationsare found before the fifth century [i] – indeed inearly Church history it was discouraged. In muchof the West, the cross has become simplyanother piece of jewellery and legislation shouldreflect that reality. To allow a Christian to wearsuch an adornment but not to allow anon-Christian to wear exactly the same thingwould be unworkable. That is the consistentposition. [i] Maurice Dilasser, The Symbols ofthe Church, 1999, P.21,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossOther religions have theright to wear prescribed clothing enshrined inBritish law, it is hypocritical not to offerChristianity the same protection. Legislationshould be consistent; otherwise it is, bydefinition, discriminatory. [i] If some faiths areallowed to show outward demonstrations of theirfaith in the workplace, then that should applyacross the board. Christianity is an establishedpart of the state, as shown by the monarch beinghead of the Church of England. So it is perversefor two national brands to accept attire thatdemonstrates an employee’s profession of otherfaiths but to reject one that is universallyrecognised as a symbol of Christianity. The veryfact that both women were willing to risk, andlose, their jobs over the issue shows that theyconsidered wearing the cross to be an importantpart of their faith. That should be enough todemonstrate that it is a matter of conscience. Itis demonstrably true that allowing other religious", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossVirtually every employeedresses differently for work than they do outside.We accept the fact that there are behaviours andattitudes that must be left at the door when weenter the workplace. Those unwilling to makesuch an accommodation simply don’t work fororganisations with those requirements. If thewomen concerned had such a great commitmentto their faith, then they should find a differentjob.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossDeclaration of the faith is akey part of Christianity and that should berespected. The UK is a nation that claims to betolerant of all faiths and to respect religiousbeliefs. If that is the case then it must beaccepted that the law should respect actions inaccordance with those beliefs insofar as they donot harm or infringe on the rights of others.Demonstrating one’s commitment to the cross ispart of that faith [i] and should, therefore beshown some respect in a religiously diverse andtolerant society. There may be more militantforms of religious profession that would beinappropriate in a workplace but wearing asimple piece of jewellery causes no harm oroffence to others. Both women have stated thatthey felt that wearing the cross was an importantpart of their faith [ii] and respect for thosebeliefs should be shown if society’s claims oftolerance and diversity are to havecredibility. As with the demonstration of any", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossThere is no requirementwithin Christianity that the cross should be worn.This makes it quite different from other items ofreligious clothing – specifically required asarticles of faith - that are accepted in theworkplace. It is an entirely reasonable distinctionto draw a line between iconography that theemployee believes it would be a sin to go withoutand that which is an active choice.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossProposition is completelyover-reacting. Nobody is stopping the womeninvolved from practising their faith but there isnothing within mainstream Christianity thatrequires the wearing of a cross as a publicstatement. Furthermore, a tolerant society canonly function if it works within a framework ofrules that are evenly applied. This casedemonstrates that as even the establishedreligion is expected to confine to that framework.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossThe confession of religiousfaith is far more important than the rather pettyrules that banned the wearing of thecross. People of faith attest that those beliefsdetermine the nature of their own identity andtheir place in the Universe. In the case of NadiaEweida, at least, the employer’s case was basedon the idea that wearing a symbol of that faithmight not enhance their uniform. The differencebetween the significance of the claims could notbe greater. Indeed, British Airways, Eweida’semployer, has since changed their policy topermit staff to wear religious or charitableimagery [i] in large part because of the absurdityof the position. The case against Chaplin wasbased on health and safety legislation - but notbecause the cross and chain posed a risk toothers but to herself [ii] ; a risk she was,presumably, prepared to accept. On one handthere are individuals protecting their sincerebeliefs in the most profound of issues and, on the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossFreedom of expression,like any right is fairly meaningless if it’s onlyrespected when it’s convenient. Recognisingrights when there is no inconvenience toanybody involved is verging on the irrelevant.This is, perhaps, especially true, with freedom ofexpression. If I recognise your right to expressyourself freely - so long as I never have to see,hear or be aware of you doing – rather missesthe point. Likewise if the individual is free onlyso long as there aren’t any rules saying theyshouldn’t be, goes somewhat against the grain ofdefending liberties. Indeed the history of the ideathat people can exercise all the freedom they likeas long as it’s out of sight, out of mind anddoesn’t break any rules is not a noble one;among other absurd forms of “freedom”, it wasused to justify both segregation andapartheid. Although the effect and extent of theprejudice is clearly different here, the logic is thesame: you are completely free to do whatever I", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossRecognizing that peoplehave different views is a fairly fundamental partof maintaining societal cohesion. Freedom ofexpression requires the corollary that there is noright not to be offended – it is hard to see howsuch a right would be manifest in practical terms.It is also worth reiterating that there were nocomplaints from customers or patients in eithercase.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossBoth women werelong-standing employees. The rules changedaround them, it is, however, difficult to see hownot wearing a cross was innate or fundamentalto the job they were doing. Employers hire aworker’s labour, not their soul.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossBoth employers acted outof concern for the interests of their clients,employees should respect that. Employers don’tintroduce rules because it’s fun but, rather,because they serve a purpose. Ms. Chaplin hasexpressed concern about the legal costs incurredby the NHS Trust which employed her in fightingthe action she initiated. Health and safety rulesexist, in part, to avoid the possibility ofsubsequent legal action; it might be reasonablefor her to support such rules given her concern[i] . Likewise, airlines have uniform policies tomake their services, well, uniform. It’s what theircustomers expect. In much the same way asmany Christians refuse to receive communionfrom a woman or a homosexual, it simply goeswith the job. For any workplace to function, thelifestyles of the employees need to accommodatethe needs of the customers or users of theservice provided by the employer. Clearly thereis a degree of balance involved and the values of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossIf this were about wearinga badge with a political slogan or somethingsimilar, everyone would agree that it wasinappropriate. The same principle should apply toiconography. If the image they were wearingendorsed a political candidate or anothercompany, the issue would never have got tocourt. Neither complainant was employed in acapacity where their religious conviction wasrelevant to the job. If the situation were reversedand they were compelled to profess a religiousfaith in such a situation there would, rightly, bean outcry. In neither situation would theconsumer of the service being provided expect tobe confronted with endorsements for whichcandidate to vote for or which soda to drink. Thequestion then arises, if political and corporatebranding is out, why should suggestions aboutwhich god to pray to be okay? The very fact thatthey were willing to pursue this actiondemonstrates that images and symbols carry", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossEmployers impose rulesrelating to conduct in the workplace, it’s one ofthe things that everyone accepts when they takeand continue in a job. Put simply, if you don’tlike the rules, don’t do the job. The fact that theworld of work and the life of faith can come intoconflict should hardly have come as a surprise tothe women concerned. From Biblical timesonward, that has been a reality. However, theychose these particular jobs and that choicecomes with consequences. Their actions wouldseem to suggest that they prize their faith morehighly than their jobs, the solution seems fairlystraightforward – get another job. Religiousbelief is also a choice. Nobody is compelling thetwo women into one particular faith and nobody,including the Church, is compelling them to weara cross as a demonstration of that decision. Theproblem seems to have arisen because one thingthey chose to do was in conflict with anotherthing they chose to do. It is difficult to see how", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-free-speech-debate-nshbcsbawc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "nothing sacred house believes christians shouldbe allowed wear crossNo customer or patientcomplained in either case. Neither employerdemonstrated that wearing the cross preventedeither employee from performing their dutiesefficiently. Indeed, given the size and diversity ofboth organisations’ client base, a demonstrationthat they support free expression might bewelcomed. The key point here is that both of theemployees concerned did believe that the rightto not only hold, but proclaim, their beliefs wascore to their faith. By denying them the right toexpress that impeded not just their actions buttheir beliefs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egecegphw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "economy general environment climateenvironment general pollution house wouldThebusiness community is far from united in itssupposed support of a third run-way. Surveyssuggest that many influential businesses in factdo not support expansion. A letter expressingconcern was signed by Justin King the ChiefExecutive of J Sainsbury and BskyB’s JamesMurdoch. [1] Therefore to conflate the businesscommunity as one voice calling for expansion ismisguided. We should also remember, whenconsidering the alternatives to Heathrow’s newrun-way such as a new runway at anotherLondon airport or a completely new airport, thatthese would likely have a similar economicimpact as the Heathrow expansion would. If it isthe connections that matter to bring in businessand tourists then so long as the connection iswith London it does not matter which airport theconnection is from. There may even be less needfor the airport to be a hub airport if we arefocused on benefits to London as Bob Ayling,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egecegphw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "economy general environment climateenvironment general pollution house wouldTheexpansion of Heathrow is vital for theeconomy Expanding Heathrow would ensuremany current jobs as well as creating new ones.Currently, Heathrow supports around 250,000jobs. [1] Added to this many hundreds ofthousands more are dependent upon the touristtrade in London which relies on good transportlinks like Heathrow. Loosing competitiveness infront of other European airports not only couldimply wasting the possibility to create new jobs,but lose some of those that already exist.Expansion of Heathrow would also be building avital part of infrastructure at a time when Britishinfrastructure spending is very low as a result ofthe recession so helping to boost growth. Goodflight connections are critical for attracting newbusiness and maintaining current business. Thisis because aviation infrastructure is important foridentifying new business opportunities. The UK’seconomic future depends on trading not just with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egecegphw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "economy general environment climateenvironment general pollution housewouldLocation is a relatively unimportant issuewhen talking about ‘hubs’. In hub airports animportant proportion of passengers and cargo isonly passing through; it arrives to the airport byplane only to leave it again by plane withouteven reaching the city. As a result for thesepassengers the links to the city do not matter.Even for those going into London the location ofthe airport itself is not an issue per se, rather thelength of time to get into the center of the city is.In which case wherever becomes the new hubshould have new transport links built or it shouldbe built at a location that has, or will have, goodtransport connections such as to the North Westof London where the High Speed 2 railway willrun. [1] [1] Leftly, Mark, and Chorley, Matt,“IoS exclusive: Secret plan for four-runwayairport west of Heathrow”, The Independent, 2September 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egecegphw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "economy general environment climateenvironment general pollution housewouldHeathrow is full; it must expand Putsimply Heathrow is at the limits of its capacity sothere needs to be expansion. Heathrow isalready at 99% capacity and running so close tomaximum capacity means that any minorproblem can result in large delays forpassengers. London’s major rivals havefour-runway hub airports Paris, Frankfurt, evenMadrid [1] this means these cities have muchgreater capacity as they can take up to 700,000flights a year compared to Heathrow’s 480,000.[2] Britain does not want to be left behind,crumbling in the dust. These airports thereforeclearly have the capacity to take flights thatwould otherwise be going to Heathrow. Heathrowneeds to expand to maintain its competitivenessso that the airport retains its position the mostpopular place to stop-over in before catching aconnecting flight. Colin Matthews, the chiefexecutive of Heathrow (formerly BAA) has", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egecegphw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "economy general environment climateenvironment general pollution house wouldIt isnot as simple as considering that Heathrow is atcapacity so everything will go to competitorairports. So far it is simple alarmism to warn oftraffic going to European competitors, JohnStewart (chairman of HACAN, HeathrowAssociation for the Control of Aircraft Noise)points out that the airport already has moredeparture flights each week to key globalbusiness centres than its two closest rivals inParis and Frankfurt combined. [1] Heathrowbeing at capacity may encourage other forms oftransport, for example encouraging passengersto take the train rather than the plane toEdinburgh, Paris, or Brussels. Secondly it is notalways simple just to change hub. As a transferpoint if moving airport it would be necessary tochange dozens of flights to enable the sametransfers not just one or two. And finally ofcourse Heathrow’s expansion is not the only wayto deal with excess demand at Heathrow,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egecegphw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "economy general environment climateenvironment general pollution housewouldHeathrow is in the best location forLondon Flying is critical for business. Heathrowis well located for the people that will pick up thebill funding its expansion. People need to be ableto get to their homes and work easily from theairport otherwise it is impractical. According tothe Civil Aviation Authority 25% of businesspassengers start their journey within 30 minutesof Heathrow, far more than any other airport. [1]This demonstrates that the demand forHeathrow’s services from the local area is realand pronounced. Heathrow is closer to Londonthan its rivals Gatwick and Stansted and hasbetter transport links through the Piccadilly lineand Heathrow Express. A new airport couldpotentially be closer, but finding space within theM25 for a large airport without attracting thesame kind of opposition that expandingHeathrow has would be next to impossible [1]Leunig, Tim, ‘A bigger and quieter Heathrow is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egecegphw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "economy general environment climateenvironment general pollution housewouldLondon has a lot of runways in totalbecause it has a lot of airports howeverHeathrow is the only one that has the benefit ofbeing a hub airport as each of these existingairports only have one or two runways.Suggestions that short haul flights should go toother London airports misses the point of a hubairport which is that there should be quicktransfers – something that would not be possibleif the passengers from the feeder services haveto cross London from one airport to another andthere is not the demand to use larger planes onthese routes. [1] Of course we cannot be certainthat passenger numbers will keep going up inline with predictions and long term trends.However we can be certain that the numbersusing UK airports won’t go up if we don’t providethe capacity to enable them to come. [1]Thomas, Nathalie, ‘Heathrow rejects Gatwick raillink plan’, The Telegrapoh, 29 October 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egecegphw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "economy general environment climateenvironment general pollution house wouldAnadditional run-way would not necessarily resultin a large increase in noise pollution as thiswould depend on where the runways are located.If the runway was established to the West of itscurrent location incoming planes would crossover areas not occupied by as planes would flyover the M25, the Poyle industrial estate, theWraysbury reservoir and part of Stanwell Moor.On the other hand all the runways could bemoved to the other side of the M25 and closelyspaced potentially reducing the noise level overwhat it is at the moment even with three or fourrunways. [1] Therefore the noise complaintsargument is overstated. No airport will ever besilent but with proposals to increase the numberof airbus A380s, which are half as noisy as the747 when taking off and only produce a quarterof the noise when landing, the noise argumentreally does lose a lot of credit. [2] We shouldalso remember that a third runway will ease", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egecegphw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "economy general environment climateenvironment general pollution housewouldExpanding Heathrow would be at theexpense of the environment ExpandingHeathrow will directly contribute to climatechange and make it impossible for the UK to staywithin the EU legal limits. The EU has establishedlimits on the levels of harmful pollution and theUK has signed a commitment to reduce GreenHouse Gases by 80% by 2050 and also to emitno more CO2 in 2050 than it did in 2005.However, building a third runway would beenabling and encouraging greater number offlights which would result in Heathrow becomingthe biggest emitter of carbon dioxide (CO2) inthe country. [1] Attempts by the government toweaken pollution laws by lobbying Brusselswould enable the third runway but at a deeplynefarious price, that of human health, currentlyfifty deaths a year are linked to Heathrow butwith expansion this would go up to 150. [2] [1]Stewart, John, ‘A briefing on Heathrow from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egecegphw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "economy general environment climateenvironment general pollution house wouldTheeconomic case for expansion does not add up Astudy conducted by the NEF revealed that thecost of expansion will outweigh the benefits by atleast £5billion. [1] London has six airports andseven runways meaning that London already hasthe best connections globally. Together, Londonairports have a greater number of flights to theworld’s main business destinations than otherEuropean cities, despite serving less ‘leisure’destinations than Paris’s airports. [2] Thesolution to making air travel efficient lies inincreasing the size of planes and filling them uprather than running half empty flights on smallplanes, something which is particularly prevalenton short haul flights. Short haul flights could alsobe re-directed to alternative airports such asGatwick, City airport, Luton and Stansted so asto free up more space at Heathrow. Theexpansion case also assumes ever increasingnumbers flying, yet passenger numbers dropped", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egecegphw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "economy general environment climateenvironment general pollution house wouldThethird run-way would cause noise and pollutionproblems The high population density of thearea around Heathrow means it is not an ideallocation for a bigger airport. It makes sense toincrease capacity in an area with lowerpopulation density instead of trying to do sowithin a location that is constrained by adjacenturbanized areas. Expanding Heathrow airportwould mean increasing the problem of noise forthe about 700,000 people living under the flightpath. According to the HACAN report theDepartment for Transport only accepts that noiseis a problem if a community is subjected to over57 decibels of noise over the course of a yearaccording to a 1985 Government study. In whichcase only the boroughs of Richmond andHounslow would be affected. However this doesnot tie in with Londoner’s experiences. BAA saysthat 258,000 people are currently affected byhigh noise levels but the local community", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egecegphw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "economy general environment climateenvironment general pollution house wouldTheformer Labour government when consideringexpansion made it clear that environment wouldbe taken into account when considering theconstruction of a third run-way so there would beenvironmental restrictions to make sure that thisis not an issue. [1] However not expandingHeathrow also contributes to CO2 emissions;with so little spare capacity flights are oftendelayed due to any small disruption on theground leaving planes circling above Londonincreasing their emissions. Building morerunways anywhere else would have a similarenvironmental impact to the expansionplans. [1] The Labour Party, ‘A future fair for all;The Labour Party Manifesto 2010’. 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionThere is noevidence that gambling prevents people fromcaring for their family. The vast majority whogamble do so responsibly. It isn’t right to bansomething that millions of people enjoy justbecause a few cause problems. And banninggambling, whether online or in the real world willnot stop these problems. Sadly, even if it isillegal, people with problems will still find a wayto hurt those around them – just look at drugs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionOnlinegambling affects families A parent who gamblescan quickly lose the money their family dependson for food and rent. It is a common cause offamily break-up and homelessness, sogovernments should get involved to protectinnocent children from getting hurt [5]. Eachproblem gambler harmfully impacts 10-15 otherpeople [6]. The internet makes it easy forgamblers to bet secretly, without even leavingthe house, so people become addicted togambling without their families realising what isgoing on until too late.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionUnlikedrugs, gambling is not physically or metabolicallyaddictive. Most gamblers are not addicts, simplyordinary people who enjoy the excitement of abet on a sporting event or card game. The largemajority of people who gamble online keep toclear limits and stop when they reach them. Thefew people with a problem with being addictedwill still find ways to gamble if gambling is illegaleither through a casino, or else still online but ina black market that offers no help and that mayuse criminal violence to enforce payment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionGambling isbad for you. Gamblers may win money fromtime to time, but in the long run, the Housealways wins. Why should governments allow anactivity that helps their citizens lose the moneythey have worked so hard to earn? The harm isnot just the loss of money and possiblebankruptcy; it causes depression, insomnia, andother stress related disorders [4]. The internethas made gambling so much easier to do andencouraged lots of new people to place bets sodramatically multiplying the harm.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionEvery leisureindustry attracts a few troubled individuals whotake the activity to harmful extremes. For everythousand drinkers there are a few alcoholics.Similarly some sports fans are hooligans. Thosewho gamble enough to harm themselves wouldbe those who would gamble in casinos if theinternet option was not available.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionCriminalswill always try to exploit any system, but ifgovernments allow legal online gambling theycan regulate it. It is in the interest of gamblingcompanies to build trustworthy brands andcooperate with the authorities on stopping anycrime. Cheats in several sports have been caughtbecause legal websites reported strange bettingpatterns. Betfair for example provides theauthorities with an early warning system‘BetMon’ to watch betting patterns.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionGambling isaddictive. Humans get a buzz from taking a riskand the hope that this time their luck will be in,this is similar to drug addicts [7]. The morepeople bet, the more they want to bet, so theybecome hooked on gambling which can wrecktheir lives. Internet gambling is worse because itis not a social activity. Unlike a casino or racetrack, you don’t have to go anywhere to do it,which can put a brake on the activity. Thewebsites never shut. There won’t be peoplearound you to talk you out of risky bets. There isnothing to stop you gambling your savings awaywhile drunk.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionOnlinegambling encourages crime Human trafficking,forced prostitution and drugs provide $2.1 billiona year for the Mafia but they need some waythrough which to put this money into circulation.Online gambling is that way in. They put dirtymoney in and win clean money back [8].Because it is so international and outside normallaws, it makes criminal cash hard to track. Thereis a whole array of other crime associated withonline gambling; hacking, phishing, extortion,and identity fraud, all of which can occur on alarge scale unconstrained by physical proximity[9]. Online gambling also encourages corruptionin sport. By allowing huge sums of money to bebet internationally on the outcome of a game orrace, it draws in criminals who can try to bribe orthreaten sportsmen.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionIt is only inthe interests of big gambling sites that aim tocreate a long term business to go along withtough regulation. Online gambling sites can getaround government regulations that limit thedangers of betting. Because they can be legallysited anywhere in the world, they can pickcountries with no rules to protect customers. Inthe real world governments can ban bets beingtaken from children and drunks. They can makesure that the odds are not changed to suit theHouse. And they can check that people runningbetting operations don’t have criminal records. Inonline gambling on the other hand 50% ofplayers believe that internet casino’s cheat [14].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionPeople arenot free to do whatever they want wheneverthey want. When their activities harm society itis the government’s role to step in to preventthat harm. Online gambling simply provides thefreedom for more people to get into debt, not afreedom that should be encouraged.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionCant enforcean online gambling ban Governments can’tactually do anything to enforce a ban on theworld wide web. Domestic laws can only stopinternet companies using servers and offices intheir own country. They cannot stop theircitizens going online to gamble using sites basedelsewhere. Governments can try to block sitesthey disapprove of, but new ones will keepspringing up and their citizens will find waysaround the ban. So practically there is little thegovernment can do to stop people gamblingonline. Despite it being illegal the AmericanGambling Association has found that 4% ofAmericans already engage in online gambling[11].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-con05a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionGovernmentonly objects to online gambling because theydont benefit Governments are hypocritical aboutgambling. They say they don’t like it but theyoften use it for their own purposes. Sometimesthey only allow gambling in certain places inorder to boost a local economy. Sometimes theyprofit themselves by running the only legalgambling business, such as a National Lottery[15] or public racecourse betting. This is bad forthe public who want to gamble. Online gamblingfirms can break through government control byoffering better odds and attractive new games.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-con04a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionOther formsof online gambling What is the differencebetween gambling and playing the stock market?In each case people are putting money at risk inthe hope of a particular outcome. Gambling onhorse-racing or games involves knowledge andexpertise that can improve your chances ofsuccess. In the same way, trading in bonds,shares, currency or derivatives is a bet that yourunderstanding of the economy is better than thatof other investors. Why should one kind of onlinerisk-taking be legal and the other not?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionOnlyregulation can mitigate harms It is where thesites operate, not where they are set up thatmatters for regulation. It is in gambling sitesinterest to run a trustworthy, responsiblebusiness. Whatever they are looking for online,internet users choose trusted brands that havebeen around for a while. If a gambling site actsbadly, for example by changing its odds unfairly,word will soon get around and no one will wantto use it. Regulation will mean that sites willhave to verify the age of their users and preventproblem gamblers from accessing their site.When there is regulation consumers will go tothe sites that are verified by their governmentand are providing a legal, safe service [13].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-con05b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionBecausepeople will gamble anyway, the best thatgovernments can do is make sure that theirpeople gamble in safe circumstances. This meansreal world that casinos and other betting placesthat can easily be monitored. The examples ofgovernment using gambling for their ownpurposes are really the government turninggambling into a benefit for the country. Physicalcasinos benefit the economy and encourageinvestment, and lotteries can be used to raisemoney for good causes. Online gamblingundermines all this, as it can be sited anywherein the world but can still compete with, andundercut organised national betting operations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionPersonalfreedom Gambling is a leisure activity enjoyedby many millions of people. Governments shouldnot tell people what they can do with their ownmoney. Those who don’t like gambling should befree to buy adverts warning people against it,but they should not be able to use the law toimpose their own beliefs. Online gambling hasgot rid of the rules that in the past made it hardto gamble for pleasure and allowed many moreordinary people to enjoy a bet from time to time.It provides the freedom to gamble, wheneverand wherever and with whatever method theindividual prefers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-con04b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedom expressionGambling isquite different from buying stocks and shares.With the stock market investors are buying astake in an actual company. This share may riseor fall in value, but so can a house or artwork. Ineach case there is a real asset that is likely tohold its value in the long term, which isn’t thecase with gambling. Company shares and bondscan even produce a regular income throughdividend and interest payments. It is true thatsome forms of financial speculation are more likegambling – for example the derivatives marketor short-selling, where the investor does notactually own the asset being traded. But theseare not types of investment that ordinary peoplehave much to do with. They are also the kinds offinancial activity most to blame for the financialcrisis, which suggests we need more governmentcontrol, not less.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beplcpdffe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy law crime policingdigital freedoms freedomexpressionGovernments have the power to banonline gambling in their own country. Even ifcitizens could use foreign websites, most will notchoose to break the law. When the United Statesintroduced its Unlawful Internet GamblingEnforcement Act in 2006 gambling among thoseof college-age fell from 5.8% to 1.5% [12].Blocking the leading websites will also beeffective, as it makes it very hard for them tobuild a trusted brand. And governments can stoptheir banks handling payments to foreigngambling companies, cutting off their business.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive taxratePossessing greater wealth does not obligatean individual to contribute more to the state byany moral precept. All people’s property rightsshould be protected equally. Citizens whosucceed by their own industry and accrue wealthshould not be punished for their success, or beexpected to contribute more to a state thatprovided the same basic framework of law andrights to all citizens, rich and poor.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateThosewho have more owe more to the state Wealthierpeople benefit from the state more than do thosewho are worse off for two reasons. First, theyhave more to lose in the absence of the state.Without the rule of law, people would no longerbe bound by any power to respect one another’sproperty rights. A rich person has much more tolose should there be a reversion to the state ofnature; nothing would shield him from the mob.For this reason it is in the interest of the wealthyto preserve the just rule of law in the state andto uphold its institutions. It does so by funding itthrough taxation, and those who have more tolose have a greater interest in paying more toensure its continuity. The second benefit the richhave is that they have gained more from thestate than have the poor and less well off. It isonly within a state system that maintains orderand provides vital services that markets can formand be maintained. [1] Warren Buffett, forexample, has argued that he could never have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateIt is notthe state’s role to efficiently distribute economicresources; the market does a much better job ofthat. When the state seeks to distribute income,there is substantial efficiency loss. This is due tothe so-called “leaky bucket” of distribution, asmoney is lost or wasted through the bureaucraticprocesses necessary to redistribute income andwealth. Progressive taxation only serves toexacerbate these inefficiencies by breeding moreand more complex structures for theirimplementation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateAwell-implemented progressive taxation schemeserve to promote economic growth Progressivetaxation can serve very effectively to increasethe economic welfare and development ofsocieties. It does so in three ways. First, it liftsthe poor out of poverty by redistributing the taxburden from them onto the wealthy who aremore able to pay, and gives them moredisposable income to put back into the economy,which increases the velocity of money in thesystem, increasing growth. [1] Second, workerswill be more likely to work harder since they willfeel the system is more equitable; perceptions offairness are very important to individuals. Peoplewill still work and save since they will want thegoods and services they always did in thepresence of progressive taxation, and will thusnot be less motivated as detractors ofprogressive systems suggest. Third, progressivetaxes serve as an automatic stabilizer in theevent of recessions and temporary downturns in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateThoseable to pay more should pay more into the taxsystem The wealthy have more disposableincome and are more financially secure than arethe poor and economically tenuous. For thisreason, a progressive system of taxation putsthe tax burden more heavily on the wealthywhich has the wherewithal to pay. Progressivetaxes make everyone sacrifice equally, since trueequality of taxation means equality of sacrifice.[1] It is ludicrous to expect the poor and lesswell-off to pay the same proportional amount intaxes as the wealthy since they have to spendmost of their income on essential goods like foodand shelter; it is unjust to gain all state revenuesfrom regressive taxes like VAT, since the wealthyhave excess resources they can do without whilenot overly influencing their standard of living. [2]Progressive taxation serves to help the poor andworst off while not leaving the wealthier worseoff, since they still have more money. Clearly,progressive taxation is just in terms of burdens", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateSimplybecause someone can feasibly pay more doesnot mean he should be obligated to do so.Everyone’s property rights should be consideredequal; the property rights of the wealthy shouldnot be trodden upon by the state while leavingthat of the less well-off alone. Fundamentally,any amount of appropriation of what belongs toan individual for the benefit of others is a kind oftheft, and if the state is going to tax people,morally it can only do so if it treats everyoneequally, which progressive taxation certainlydoes not do.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive taxrateProgressive taxation does not improveeconomic growth. This is because, when the richare heavily taxed, they have less likely to investin new enterprises. Higher taxes serve as adisincentive to investment, both domestic andforeign. As to economic growth in the UnitedStates, statistics can also be misleading. Thehigh growth of the 1950s was due to the factthat the United States was essentially the onlyindustrial power whose infrastructure was notdevastated by World War II. A better data setcan be seen between the stagflation of the 1970swith its high taxes, and the relative increase ineconomic growth that followed with the tax cutsof the 1980s. Soaking the rich only serves toreduce the economic success of a country.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateA moreequal society is not necessarily a moreharmonious society, and is certainly not a morejust one if it was created through the process ofprogressive taxation. Social harmony relies ontrust between all citizens, rich and poor.Progressive taxes only serve to divide society, asthe rich become resentful of the poor and thepoor feel more and more entitled to thepossessions of the wealthy cash cow. In terms ofjustice, equality is not an end in itself.Opportunities can be afforded withoutcompromising the rights of citizens by enacting adraconian scheme of leveling.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateThe stateshould promote the efficient distribution ofincome in order to maximize the utility derivedby society from its economic resources All goodssuffer from diminishing marginal utility, and thisincludes money. The more money someone, theless happy they are made from each successiveaddition of wealth after a certain point. Onemight be able to buy a second car or a secondhouse with extra money, but eventually one runsout of things one particularly wants to buy orown. [1] When wealth is unevenly distributed insociety, the wealth of society is inefficientlydistributed. The aim of the state must be toattempt to maximize the aggregate utility of itscitizens insofar as it is able without damaging theeconomy. With progressive taxation, wealth iseffectively reallocated to poorer people, who gainmore utility than the wealthy lose in the process.The state has a right to do this not only becauseit generates a more efficient distribution ofincome than the market does, but also because", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive taxrateProgressive taxation promotes a more equal,more harmonious society Progressive taxationprovides real equality of opportunity, and servesto level the playing field so that social classes arenot fixed. Everyone deserves a chance to climbthe economic ladder, but without a regime ofprogressive taxation this is nearly impossible. [1]If tax revenues are generated by flat orregressive taxes the poor will necessarily have tocontribute substantial portions of their ownincome to the state, cutting into their ability toconsume and save. Social services must still befinanced, and the best way to do that is througha progressive tax regime that makes those mostable to pay more pay more; if more of theburden is placed on the poor and disadvantaged,as it must in a flat-rate system, fewer people willbe able to climb out from the social strata inwhich they are born. [2] The more equal societycreated by these taxes is thus more equitable,since it affords people greater opportunities. It is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateA statewith the ability to levy taxes will not necessarilybe evil and dominating of the wealthy. Peoplecan always leave a country, so governmentsmust always be accommodating of wealthycitizens, and can be so even within a progressivetax system. The tyranny of the majority can onlypersist when there are no legal protections forindividual citizens and minorities, but these existalmost universally in Western states; there is noreason to think this would somehow change inthe presence of progressive taxation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateIncomealone is not a sufficient measure of anindividual’s contribution to society. Much income,and proportionally more so among wealthypeople, is not the product of effort, but rather isunearned. The state is not punishing people fortheir contributions to society when it taxes themin a progressive manner, but rather simplyacknowledges that some people are more able topay greater amounts, namely the wealthy, andcan thus be levied from accordingly.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive taxrateProgressive taxes place an unfair anddisproportionate burden on the wealthy Therevenues the state acquires through taxation areused to pay for various services and benefices.Lower income individuals consume these servicesto a disproportionate degree. It is they whorequire income supplements and child benefitswhen they lack the wherewithal to provide forthemselves, and they avail more readily than thewealthy of such things as public healthcare andtransport services. There is thus clearly nocorrelation between the amount people pays intaxes and amount of benefits they receive fromthem. [1] The rich make less use of suchservices, often preferring to use of privatelyprovided services, yet they are expected to pay agreater proportion of their wealth to the publicservices they do not use under a progressivesystem of taxation. As a matter of fairness it isonly just that everyone contribute to theprovision of public services equally, in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-con05a", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateThe aimof taxation should be to provide equality ofopportunity, not of outcom Taxation should notbe about trying to engineer a more equal society.The purpose of taxes is to furnish necessaryservices people need to become competitive freeagents in the economy. Progressive taxes takeunduly from some to give to others in the hopeof fostering social equality. Yet such efforts canonly be harmful, as they breed resentment fromrich toward the poor for taking undue amounts oftheir wealth for their consumption, and feelingsof entitlement from poor who feel the wealthyowe them the money they pay, and thus feelhappy to levy ever more odious taxes fromthem. [1] Society is best served by promoting asystem of taxation that fosters equality ofopportunity, by providing essential services towhich everyone contributes in accordance withtheir ability to pay. This is better servicedthrough a system of flat-taxes, such as in Russiawhere there is a flat tax of 13%, [2] that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive taxrateProgressive systems are invariably highlycomplex and inefficient in implementation,breeding the knock-on inefficiencies of evasionand avoidance The modern progressive taxsystem has created whole industries of firms andspecialists geared toward helping people file theirtaxes and to ensure the system runs smoothly. Ithas also bred armies of officials who oversee andaudit tax issues, costing the United States forexample more than $11 billion a year to operateits tax collection and verification systems. [1]People are forced under the progressive systemto waste hours filling out returns, to hoard andsift through receipts to be accurate and tomaximize their rebates. There is thus a hugeefficiency loss in terms of people’s time as theyare forced to dedicate effort and resources to theoften arduous task of filing taxes in an ever morecomplicated system, arising from a progressiveregime. The extreme complexity of the systemhas generated further negative incentives,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateTheability to orchestrate a progressive taxationregime gives undue and dangerous power to thestate The power to tax is power to destroy. Astate with power over a progressive taxationsystem can put the wealthy in effective thrall,and use them to benefit its own ends. This isexacerbated by such phenomena as the tyrannyof the majority which can lead the majority ofless wealthy and have-nots to demand more andmore services and paying for them by inflictingever more onerous taxes on the wealthy whilediminishing their own burdens. Furthermore, solong as the tax burden is disproportionatelyleveled on the few, no one can see the growingsize of the state. [1] With flat or regressiveconsumption tax everyone can feel the growth ofthe state. They can also understand the costsassociated with it, driving them to have morerealistic preferences and to make more rationaldemands of the state rather than treating therich as a perpetual piggy bank. [1] Dorn, James.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-con05b", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateThestate’s sole role in taxation is not merely toprovide equality of opportunity, but also to fostersocial justice through the promotion of greatersocial equality. This does not mean that thereshould not be any inequalities between citizens,but rather it means that by limiting incomedisparities individuals in society have more incommon and are thus more able to interact in apeaceful societal framework. Progressive taxespromote this end by reducing the incomes of thevery top and using the tax revenues to improvethe situation of the worst off, closing the gapbetween the two groups and fostering broadersocial interaction and cooperation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive taxrateIndividuals’ property and income are anindex of deserving achievement, and of valuecontributed in the market place to society Aprogressive taxation system essentially assumesthat the property rights of the poor are moresacred than those of the wealthy. Somehow thewealthy have a less proportionate ownershipright than do the less well-off simply by dint oftheir greater wealth. [1] This is the height ofinjustice. An individual’s income is a measure ofhis overarching societal worth, by reflecting hisability to produce goods and services people findsocially desirable and to signify his level ofcompetence and desirability by his employer.The state should not punish people for thisgreater social worth by taxing themdisproportionally to others. When it does so itexpects people to work for the sake of others toan extent that is not fair, effectively consigningthem to a kind of forced labor, by which parts ofthe wealth they work to acquire is appropriated", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateWhile taxcodes are complicated, their sophistication is notjustification for their abolition. Rather,progressive systems can be more streamlined.New Zealand can be used as an example where aprogressive taxation system is also simple, it hasbeen praised by the OSCE; [1] in 1958 itintroduced the PAYE, pay as you earn system.Where employees were taxed from their salaryrather than paying their taxes in full at the endof the financial year. [2] As Complex systemsand loopholes do arise due to the piecemealdevelopment of such taxation systems, byorganizing it properly a progressive system oftaxation can be every bit as easily regulated andnavigated as a flat-rate system. [1] Dalsgaard,Thomas, ‘The tax system in new Zealand: Anappraisal and options for change’, OECDEconomics Department Working Papers, No.281,31 January 2001, [2] Goldsmith, Paul, ‘Taxes’,Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand,updated 5 March 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thsptr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "tax house supports progressive tax rateTaxationneed not be proportional to be fair; individualsearning significantly higher income than othershave benefited from many societal factors thatallowed them to accumulate wealth in peace andsafety. Such people thus owe a greater burden tothe state for the greater benefits theopportunities it bestowed upon them allowed. Ajust system of taxation should reflect this, and aprogressive system does so by levying frompeople in accordance with their wealth thatwithout the state could not have existed. A studyof 54 nations shows that the public preserveflattening the tax adds to the risk of wellbeingand thus prefer progressive tax as a way in orderto for a better over quality of life. [1] [1] Hyde,Lucy, ‘A More Progressive Tax System MakesPeople Happier’, Association for PsychologicalScience, 6 September 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationAgainemployment needs to be contextualised withwhat type of jobs are provided and entered into.It remains questionable as to whether the mentalhealth of women improves if women areemployed to work within hazardous workenvironments, or where there is no jobsecurity. For example domestic workers remainvulnerable to different abuses - such as nonpayment, excessive work hours, abuse, andforced labour. Women may be vulnerable togender based violence on their way to work.Furthermore, street traders are placed in avulnerable position where the right to work is notrespected. The forced eviction and harassment offemale street-traders is a common story,underlined by political motivations. A recentexample includes the eviction of street hawkersin Johannesburg [1] . [1] See further readings:WIEGO, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationThe effects ofunemployment Unemployment has been linkedto several health and wellbeing effects. Firstly,the psychological impact of unemploymentinvolve a range of issues - from confidence tomental well-being. Issues of mental healthproblems - such as depression, suicide, anxiety,and substance abuse, need recognition in Africa.The impact of mental health may not only be onthe individual, but dispersed within families andacross generations. Secondly, unemploymentmay result in a loss of social networks andnetworking skills. The power of social capital, ornetworks, in reducing vulnerability has beenwidely noted. Therefore encouraging women toparticipate within the labour market ensures newnetworks are built and retained through the vitalcommunication skills used. Finally.unemployment may affect physical healthstatus. Unemployment may place individuals ina downward spiral, making it harder to re-enter", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationFor rights tobe granted women need to be able to have aposition within trade unions, and policy change isrequired. A recent study shows fewer womenthan men are found in trade unions across eightAfrican countries looked at in a study(DailyGuide, 2011). The greatest degree of women’sinvolvement was from teacher and nursesunions, however, there remains a lack ofrepresentation at leadership levels. The lack of aunited, or recognised, women’s voice in tradeunions undermines aims for gender equality andmainstreaming for those women who areworking. Additionally, at a larger scale, policychange is required. Empowerment cannot occurwhere unequal structures remain - therefore thesystem needs to be changed. Governments needto engender social policy and support women -providing protection, maternity cover, pensionschemes, and security, which discriminateagainst women and informal workers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationTheimportance of jobs in livelihoods - money Jobsare empowerment. Building sustainablelivelihoods, and tackling poverty in the longterm, requires enabling access to capital assets.A key asset is financial capital. Jobs, andemployment, provide a means to access andbuild financial capital required, whether throughloans or wages. When a woman is able to workshe is therefore able to take control of her ownlife. Additionally she may provide a second wagemeaning the burden of poverty on households iscumulatively reduced. Having a job and thefinancial security it brings means that otherbenefits can be realised such as investing in goodhealthcare and education. [1] . Women workingfrom home in Kenya, designing jewellery, showsthe link between employment and earning anincome [2] . The women have been empoweredto improve their way of life. [1] See furtherreadings: Ellis et al, 2010. [2] See further", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationThe relationbetween employment, money, and householdpoverty is not a simple correlation when weconsider the type of jobs women are entering. Indeveloping countries work in the informaleconomy is a large source of women’semployment (Chen et al, 2004). In the case ofSub-Saharan Africa, 84% of women innon-agricultural work are in the informaleconomy (ILO, 2002). Only 63% of men work inthe informal economy. Women represent a largeproportion of individuals working in informalemployment and within the informal sector.Informal employment means employment lacksprotection and/or benefits, and the informalsector involves unregistered or unincorporatedprivate enterprises. Such a reality limits thecapability to use employment to escape poverty(see Chant, 2010). With wages low, jobs casualand insecure, and limited access to socialprotection schemes or rights-based labour", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationLabourparticipation and rights Labour participationenables an awareness, and acquirement, ofequal gender rights. Firstly, labour participationis challenging cultural ideologies and norms ofwhich see the woman’s responsibility as limitedto the reproductive sphere. Entering theproductive sphere brings women equal workrights and the right to enter public space. Bysuch a change gender norms of the malebreadwinner are challenged. Secondly, labourforce participation by women has resulted in theemergence of community lawyers andorganisations to represent them. The Declarationof the African Regional Domestic WorkersNetwork is a case in point. [1] With the risingnumber of female domestic workers, the networkis working to change conditions - upholdingConferences, sharing information, and takingaction. [1] See", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationYes educationmay help to determine the extent to whichlabour participation empowers women but it isthe participation itself that is the actual tool thatempowers. A well-educated woman who is keptat home doing nothing is not empowered nomatter how good her education might havebeen. In Saudi Arabia there are more women inuniversity than men yet there is 36%unemployment for women against only 6% formen (Aluwaisheg, 2013). The women areeducated, not empowered.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationWith the rightto work within the productive sphere, theresponsibility of care becomes shared. This maytake some time but eventually equality will bethe result. If you consider the changes occurringwithin the developed world - such as improvedaccess to child-care facilities and the rise of stayat home dads, the integration of women intopaid employment shows changes in gender roles.The double burden may occur temporarily, but inthe long-run it will fade.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationWomen needalternatives for empowerment Empowermentcannot be gained for women throughemployment, alternatives are required. A genderlens needs to be applied to women’s life coursefrom the start. To tackle the discriminatorycauses of gender inequality access to sexual andreproductive health rights is required for women.Access to such rights ensures women in Africawill be able to control their body, go to school,and choose the type of employment they wish toenter into. The importance of enabling sexualand reproductive health rights for women isbeing put on the agenda for Africa [1] . There isa lot to be done beyond workforce participation -ending violence against women, promoting equalaccess to resources, opportunities andparticipation. Such features will reinforcewomen’s labour market participation, but in thejobs they want. [1] See further readings:Chissano, 2013; Puri, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-con04a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationWhere are themen? Is the feminisation of labour emergingwith a de-masculinisation of jobs? If so, how dowomen cope in the work environment? Aremethods being integrated to ensure a just workenvironment is maintained? Overa’s (2007)study on gender relations within the informaleconomy indicates how tensions emerge withwomen and men being forced into similaroccupations. The informal economy of retailtrade in Ghana is becoming overcrowded as menenter into female jobs; competition is causingreductions in returns, and further, frustrationsare rising against the state. Therefore if morewomen are entering male jobs, what are thereactions?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationWho are thewomen? Women are a diverse group, and thefeminisation of labour has incorporated a rangeof women of different ages, race, socioeconomicbackgrounds and education. Suchintersectionalities are important to recognise, asnot all women are empowered and theempowerment is not equal. For example, astudy by Atieno (2006) revealed femaleparticipation in the labour market was influencedby education. Human capital influenced thetransition into work: who was able to accesslabour opportunities, and which ones. Thereforeinequalities among women determine thedegrees, and capability, of empowerment it istherefore not labour force participation thatempowers but education.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationThe doubleburden Despite a feminising labour market therehas been no convergence, or equalisation, inunpaid domestic and care work. Women still playkey roles in working the reproductive sphere andfamily care; therefore labour-force participationincreases the overall burden placed on women.The burden is placed on time, physical, andmental demands. We need to recognise theanxieties and burdens women face of being thebread-winner, as survival is becoming ‘feminised’(Sassen, 2002). Additionally, women havealways accounted for a significant proportion ofthe labour market - although their work has notbeen recognised. Therefore to what extent canwe claim increased labour force participation isempowering when it is only just beingrecognised?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-con04b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationWithin Genderand Development the importance of bringingmen into the picture of gender discrimination hasbeen recognised. Therefore working with menwill change enable gender roles to be changed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epiasghbf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationHow wedefine empowerment is broad - encompassing allchanges that women are able to make, throughagency, to tackle their subordinate position.Therefore labour force participation does provideempowerment. Labour participation provides anopportunity for women to control householdresources, demand rights, and organise for equaljustice. There is no silver bullet, or objective, toachieve women’s empowerment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationLatin Americancountries do not have the same interests toprotect. There are high disparities within theregion itself. It would be naïve to believe thatBrazil, a country of nearly 200 million peoplewho recently overtook the UK as the world’s 6thlargest economy, and Haiti, that has 10 millionpeople and one of the lowest GDPs in the world,have the same national interest to protect. Evenamong richer South American nations, there aredifferences. Brazil tries to protect its industryfrom American competition while Argentina isstrongly against farming subsidies. A country likeBrazil will not necessarily stand up for thosemost vulnerable in the region at the negotiatingtable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationMultilateralismis preferable to bilateralism. It is preferable forLatin American countries to band together whennegotiating trade deals with the US and Canada,to better protect their interests. After FTAAnegotiations failed, the US focused on bilateralstrategies and trade deals where the imbalanceof power was much greater in favour of the US,and it therefore could more easily dictate termsof the agreement that were detrimental to theinterests of the developing country. For example,El Salvador, who is a member of CAFTA (CentralAmerica Free Trade Agreement), together withonly five other Central American countries, hasfound itself under legal attacks by foreigninvestors when it refused to lower itsenvironmental standards in the gold miningindustry [1] . Having an emerging global power,like Brazil, be part of the agreement, wouldcounterbalance US influence over the terms. [1]Gallager, Kevin. “Stop private firms exploiting", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationThe US has along history of toppling unfriendly regimes inLatin America and propping up dictators whowere agreeable to the US, from Panama toNicaragua. This has made the people of LatinAmerica very mistrustful of any Americanintervention in their politics and economy. Infact, many South American leaders see the FTAAas another attempt by the US at imperialistexpansions in their continent. This would givethem more reasons to rally around Chavez ratherthan isolate him.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationFree trade isgood for development and growth. Free tradeessentially removes barriers for companies to dobusiness across countries and regions. This leadsto competition between countries in thoseregions, and between companies and industriesin those countries. It leads to the sharing ofinnovation, drives down the cost of production,and allows workers to move freely where theirlabour and skills are needed. This is good for allthose involved in the transaction. It is good forcompanies, because they have more resourcesand markets at their disposal, good forconsumers, because competition betweencompanies drives down prices and drives theinnovation that improves products, and it is goodfor workers, because they have greateropportunities to find employment for their labourand skills [1] . [1] DanBen-David, HåkanNordström, LAlanWinters. “Trade, IncomeDisparity and Poverty”. World Trade", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationFree trade doesnot benefit everyone equally. Rich corporationsfrom developed countries are not interested ingrowth in developing nations; they are interestedin making profits. They just view developingnations as sources for cheap labour andmaterials, that can be harnessed more easily,due to low levels of environmental and labourregulation. For example, the so-calledMaquiladoras in Mexico, which were put in placeby NAFTA were rife with labour andenvironmental violations [1] . Therefore, freetrade agreements between rich and poorcountries can trap developing nations in theeconomic cycle as raw material providers, thuspreventing them from developing their ownnational industries. [1] Human Rights Watch.”Mexico’s Maquiladoras. Abuses Against WomenWorkers.” 16 August 1996.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationTrade is goodfor democracy. Venezuela’s Hugo Chavez hasbeen making sustained efforts to boost hisinfluence in Latin America, with regional toursand substantial investments in neighbouringeconomies, fuelled by Venezuela’s oil money [1]. He is staunchly anti-American and a supporterof Iran. Meanwhile, he has been restrictingfreedom of speech in his own country, has doneaway with presidential term limits, and hasessentially proven himself as yet another LatinAmerican dictator in the making. If the US hopesto counterbalance his influence, it needs tobecome more economically connected to LatinAmerica. Showing that the United States iswilling to trade fairly with Latin America wouldundermine his message. This would not only bethe case for the United States as it would alsoallow Brazil and other successful democraticLatin American states to boost theirinfluence. [1] Carroll, Rory. “Chavez Opens His", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationA multinationaltrade agreement could equally raiseenvironmental standards across the region.Under the status quo, nothing stops companiesfrom moving to countries that have lowenvironmental standards and few regulations.But if governments agreed, the US could pushfor higher standards across the entire continent.That way, it would ensure its businessenvironment remained competitive in theAmerican region.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationProtectionismcannot create a healthy national industry. Onlyby competing openly against each other on theglobal market, companies become truly efficientand effective. And small, local companies andindustries can often have the advantage in sucha confrontation. They can be more flexible andinnovative than large multinational corporations,and they are better adapted to the local climateand culture.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationThe FTAA isbad for South American Agriculture. During theFTAA negotiations, the US has consistentlyrefused to eliminate subsidies for Americanfarmers [1] . Because of subsidies, greatagricultural surpluses are produced that are thensold on developing markets at prices lower thanthe cost of production. Farmers in places likeBrazil or Argentina, who are much more efficientin their process of production but do not benefitfrom subsidies, could not compete with these lowpriced imports, either locally or on the Americanmarket. Farmers would soon go out ofbusiness. [1] Marquis, Christopher. “PanamaChallenges Miami as Free Trade Headquarters.”New York Times. 11 November 2003. www.nytimes.com/2003/11/11/world/panama-challenges-miami-as-free-trade-h...", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationFTAA is bad forlabour in developed countries. Liberalizing thelabour market across the entirety of theAmericas would be a severe blow to workers inthe US and Canada. It would put them in directcompetition with workers from countries wherethe average salary is much lower than in the US,who would be willing to work for a fraction ofwhat a US or Canadian worker currently makes.In order to stay competitive in such a market,they would have to accept lower salaries and acut in benefits. This would reverse decades ofprogress in the direction of better protections forworkers and workers’ rights, as well as lead tohigher unemployment levels in developedcountries [1] . This has occurred as a result ofprevious free trade agreements in the Americasfor example the North American Free Trade Area(NAFTA) after it was implemented resulted in thedisplacement of 682,000 US jobs [2] this thengives employers a chance to reduce working", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationFTAA is bad forthe environment. Free trade creates a \"race tothe bottom\", whereby developing countries lowertheir labor and environmental standards in aneffort to attract foreign investment. Developedcountries, which may have higher standards, arethen forced to lower them as well in order tomake sure companies don’t relocate or outsourcetheir jobs abroad [1] . [1] Hassoun, Nicole.“Free Trade and the Environment”.Environmental Ethics, Vol. 31.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationThe FTAA isbad for industries in developing nations. Thisagreement would put farmers and workers insome of the world’s most impoverished nationsin direct competition with some of the richestcompanies in the developed world. FTAA wouldhave small, domestic industries in countries likeBolivia or Haiti compete with massive Americancorporations, and prevent their governmentsfrom aiding them in any way. The disparity ofpower and resources would be so great in thecase of such a collision, that it would mean thesesmall industries could easily be wiped out andnever develop to a level where they can sustaina healthy national economy and becomecompetitive against giant multinationalcorporations. This would be disastrous fordevelopment and poverty reduction in SouthAmerica [1] . [1] Robinson, Mary. “Free TradeArea of the Americas: Latin America DeservesBetter.” New York Times. 18 November 2003. w", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationEmployers willalways pay a premium for workers who have thenecessary education, technical and languageskills that are needed to do the jobs that insurethe companies’ financial success. Such workerswould be primarily sourced from developedcountries, which have the education systemsrequired to educate them. Meanwhile, there arenumerous low skill, menial jobs that find notakers, even during high unemployment.Bringing in workers from abroad that would bewilling to do those jobs and pay taxes would bemutually beneficial for everyone involved in theexchange.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epegiahsc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy economy general internationalamericas house supports creationSubsidies forfarming and agriculture mean cheaper food. IfAmericans were forced to pay the price ofproduction for the food they consume, povertyrates in the US would be much higher.Conversely, in developing South Americancountries, which have high levels of poverty andwealth disparity, driving down the price of foodwould actually be of great benefit to those wholive below the poverty line.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egiahbwaka-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "economy general international africa housebelieves women are key africasWhile it is truethat the quota of women in African politics isgrowing, it is still a far stretch from the controlneeded to have a credible influence on theeconomy. It is true; they have highrepresentation in Rwanda, in South Africa, inLiberia and Malawi [1] . But the rest of thecontinent is lacking in womenrepresentation. Africans appear to not be readyto empower their women; the overallrepresentation of women in the continent islower than in Europe or North America. Politicsis also not always central to running theeconomy. There may be women in parliamentbut do they have an influence on the economy asministers? In South Africa only 19% of boardmembers are women and they make up less than20% of top management positions. [2] Thefuture for Africa’s economy hinges not on therepresentation of women in politics but ininvestments, good resource managements,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egiahbwaka-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "economy general international africa housebelieves women are key africasWomen provide aplatform for economic development Wherewomen in Africa are treated more as equals andare being given political power there are benefitsfor the economy. Africa is already surgingeconomically with 6 out of the world’s ten fastestgrowing economies in the past decade being apart of sub-Saharan Africa [1] . While some ofthe fastest growing economies are simply as aresult of natural resource exploitation some arealso countries that have given much moreinfluence to women. 56% of Rwanda’sparliamentarians are women. The country’seconomy is growing; its poverty rate hasdropped from 59% to 45% in 2011 and economicgrowth is expected to reach up to 10% by 2018.Women become the driving force of thesocio-economic development after the 1994genocide with many taking on leadership roles intheir communities. [2] In Liberia, since EllenJohnson Sirleaf took the presidency seat on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egiahbwaka-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "economy general international africa housebelieves women are key africasAn increase inliteracy does not necessarily translate intogreater economic participation by women in thefuture. Yes more women are being educated butit is not just a lack of education that hindersthem. It also requires infrastructure and facilitiesthat are missing in almost every African country,especially in the rural areas. For all of these tohappen, first there needs to be political stability[1] . Discrimination against women also needs togo, as proposition has already pointed out inagriculture where women provide the workforcethey don’t keep the benefits of their labour; thesame could happen in other sectors too. [1]Shepherd, Ben, ‘Political Stability: Crucial forGrowth?’, LSE.ac.uk,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egiahbwaka-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "economy general international africa housebelieves women are key africasWomen are thebackbone of Africa’s agriculture It soundsdramatic, but when more than 70% percent ofthe agricultural labor force of Africa isrepresented by women, and that sector is a thirdof GDP, one can say that women really are thebackbone of Africa’s economy. But the sectordoes not reach its full potential. Women do mostof the work but hold none of the profit; theycannot innovate and receive salaries up to 50%less than men. This is because they cannot ownland [1] , they cannot take loans, and thereforecannot invest to increase profits. [2] The way tomake women key to Africa’s future therefore isto provide them with rights to their land. This willprovide women with an asset that can be used toobtain loans to increase productivity. The Foodand Agriculture organisation argues “if womenhad the same access to productive resources asmen, they could increase yields on their farms by20–30 percent. This could raise total agricultural", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egiahbwaka-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "economy general international africa housebelieves women are key africasWomen do indeedwork on small farms, but it is this very size thatmeans they will not be key to the future. A2.5-4% increase in agricultural production is notmuch. Even with agriculture as a third of theeconomy this is only a one off 1% increase inGDP. This small size is also the reason they donot get loans and the opportunity to develop theland or business; they are not profitable over thelong term. Subsistence farming is necessary andinvesting to create some surplus is beneficial butit will not have sufficient impact. Instead womenneed to be taken out of their traditional rolewhere they are the caretakers of the family.They are not the future for Africa’s economy justbecause they are fulfilling their traditional role,quite the opposite. The fact that women stillcontinue to work in agriculture and they have yetto stand out in the more competitive areas of theeconomy shows that they are not ready yet tohave an impact over the economy, and that this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egiahbwaka-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "economy general international africa housebelieves women are key africasThere is greaterpotential for African women There is greatpotential in educating African women. Two out ofthree illiterate Africans are women. In 1996 thecountries with the highest illiteracy rates inwomen are Burkina Faso with a staggering91.1%, Sierra Leone with 88.7%, Guinea with86.6% and Chad with 82.1% of women illiterate[1] . The situation is however improving. Womenare starting to reach their educational potential:by 2011 the illiteracy rate among female youth(15-24) had dropped to 52% in Sierra Leone,22% in Guinea and 42% in Chad. [2] Women inAfrica are becoming much better educated. Thismeans they are much more likely to be able toreach their full potential in the economy.Education provides opportunities as educatedwomen will be better able to work in themanufacturing or services sectors. They will alsobe much more capable of setting up and runningtheir own businesses or organisations. As a more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egiahbwaka-con03b", "title": "", "text": "economy general international africa housebelieves women are key africasNeither educationnot infrastructure can discount the possibility ofwomen being key to the economic future. Yesinfrastructure is needed before many businessescan reach their full potential. But the same limitsare on men and women. The lack ofinfrastructure does not necessarily mean thatmen will be the ones who benefit. Nor can we becertain that Africa will develop through buildinginfrastructure in the manner than China has.Some infrastructure may become unnecessary;for example there is now no need to buildextensive systems of landlines as a result of theuse of mobile phones. Other technologies in thefuture may make other large scale infrastructureprojects less necessary – for example communitybased renewable energy. Similarly education isnot destiny; those who do not go to universitymay well contribute as much as those who do.Moreover this education gap simply shows thatwhen it is closed the impact from women will be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egiahbwaka-con01b", "title": "", "text": "economy general international africa housebelieves women are key africasWhile Africa hashuge reserves of natural resources they are notits economic future. Mining employs few peopleand provides little value added to the economy.Also not every African country has naturalresources to exploit while all have people,including the currently underutilised women, whocould with better education bring about amanufacturing or services economy. Such aneconomy would be much more sustainable ratherthan relying on resource booms that have in thepast turned to bust.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egiahbwaka-con02a", "title": "", "text": "economy general international africa housebelieves women are key africasWomen are notthe future for Africa’s economy In the short tomedium term women are unlikely to be the keyto Africa’s economic future. Even in westerneconomies, there is still a gap between gendersat the workplace. Women are still paid less thanmen, there are more men CEO’s than womenand so forth. This is likely to remain replicated inAfrica for decades after there has been fullacceptance that women should be treatedequally as has happened in the west. In someparts of Africa there are cultural reasons whywomen are unlikely to obtain a key role in thenear future. In Egypt for example, where 90% ofthe populations is Muslim, women account for24% of the labour force, even though they havethe right to education. This is true across NorthAfrica where women amount for less than 25%of the work force. [1] Just because there isclearly a large amount of potential being wastedhere does not mean that is going to change.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egiahbwaka-con03a", "title": "", "text": "economy general international africa housebelieves women are key africasAfrica's greatestneeds are for infrastructure andeducation Africa’s greatest needs fordevelopment are infrastructure and education.Neither of these needs implies that women areabout to become key to the Africaneconomy. Africa is severely deficient ininfrastructure; Sub Saharan Africa generates thesame amount of electricity as Spain, a countrywith one seventeenth the population. The WorldBank suggests “if all African countries were tocatch up with Mauritius in infrastructure, percapita economic growth in the region couldincrease by 2.2 percentage points. Catching upwith Korea’s level would increase economicgrowth per capita by up to 2.6 percent per year.”[1] There are numerous projects to alleviate thisdeficit such as immense projects like the GrandInga Dam in the Democratic Republic of Congowhich could power not just the country but itsneighbours too. [2] However if construction is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egiahbwaka-con01a", "title": "", "text": "economy general international africa housebelieves women are key africasNatural resourcesare key Africa has a very significant amount ofresources that have not yet been exploited andput to good use. The continent has 12% of theworld's oil reserves, 40% of its gold, and 80% to90% of its chromium and platinum. Moreover, itis home to 60% of the world’s underutilizedarable land and has vast timber resources.[1] Given the economic changes, and the recentcontinent’s economical upraise, Africa has now areal opportunity to capitalize on their resourceendowments and high international commodityprices. [2] The major point is that Africa’sresources fuel the world. Commodities fromlaptops to cell phones, cars or airplanes, all aremade from using minerals that come from Africa.For example, catalytic converters are fitted tocars in order to reduce air pollution. Platinumand rhodium are the key components, bothresources found in abundance in Africa. Cellphones or laptops use parts made out of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egiahbwaka-con02b", "title": "", "text": "economy general international africa housebelieves women are key africasThere is littlereason to believe Africa will follow the path thatwestern countries have when it comes to the roleof women. Change could come much morequickly than expected. Already there are Africancountries that have most women in Parliament;Rwanda has by far the highest percentage in theworld with 63.8% of seats in the lower housetaken by women with three other Africancountries (South Africa, Seychelles, and Senegal)in the top 10. [1] If Africa, with the exception ofthe North, has accepted women in politics muchfaster than the west there is little reason toassume the same won’t happen withbusiness. [1] ‘Women in national Parliaments’,Inter-Parliamentary Union, 1 February 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterUnder capitalismproperty is privatised under the presumption thatit will not harm anyone or even that it will benefiteveryone. This is not the case and what actuallytakes place is that property becomesconcentrated into the hands of a relatively fewwell-off people leaving the rest more or lesswithout property. The capitalist's bargainingposition is far superior in comparison to theworker's (since he is a capitalist) and he can useit as an advantage in order to concentrate wealthfor himself. If the capitalist has everything andthe worker nothing it leaves the worker withnothing more than the mercy of the rich forwork, charity, etc. Even if the capitalist offers theworker a salary on which he can survive (incomparison to unemployment a salary on whichhe can survive \"makes him better off') it is aforced contract out of necessity from theworker's part1/2. Consequently privateownership is by no means on par with the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterEach man has aright to private property The right to ownproperty is central to man's existence since itensures him of his independence of survival. Itprovides a means to sustain himself withoutrelying on others inasmuch as he has controlover a property and can make a living from it.However in order to acquire property the personmust gain it from his own labour, if he takes thefruit of someone else's labour without consentthat would be plain stealth. However, this is notthe only requirement which must be fulfilled inorder to gain property: imagine a scenario whereI pour out tomato juice into the ocean, I havemixed my own labour with nature and made an\"own\" creation, but could it be said that theocean is my property? Most people wouldcertainly say no and therefore one of thefollowing two provisos must also be met beforeone can fully acquire property: 1. It does notimpact on others chance of survival/ comfort of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterCapitalists oftendisregard the fact that people, although beingindividuals, also are formed by their socialcircumstances 1/2. People's class belonging,sexuality, sex, nationality, education etc. have amajor impact on people's opportunities; theremight be cases of individuals achieving theAmerican dream like Barack Obama despite theirsocial background, however this is not applicableto the majority of people. In capitalism thepeople with the most opportunities are usuallythe people who have the most capital, take theexample of university students: universities inmany countries such as the United States andUnited Kingdom charge students high tuitionfees, if one is not wealthy enough to pay forthese fees the likelihood to continue into furthereducation is much lower (if a loan is providedone would have to risk to be indebted for a longperiod of one's life, or not have the opportunityto study at university at all)3. This can by no", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterThe marketshould determine the price of products andservices A free market gives the power to thepeople to choose and decide what products andservices should be offered to them. If manypeople want the same thing the demand will behigher and it will be profitable to offer them onthe market since it will sell, therefore the peopleare in command of what products are beingoffered to them through their own want. Themarket is thus decided upon what people needand therefore there will be no excess products orservices offered e.g. let us presume that manypeople want to see high quality basketball, aperson like Michael Jordan who has a talent forbasketball and has honed his basketball skillswould in this case be much in demand. Peopleare ready to pay for the service he offers(excellent basketball) and consequently his highwage will be justified. On the other hand amediocre basketball player would not be paid at", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterOften whenconsumers buy things they might ostensiblybelieve that they have a choice, when in realitythey do not, since they are presented withseveral options; I could e.g. either watch thisblockbuster movie or that blockbuster movie onthe cinema. However, there is no option to watchanything else than a blockbuster movie andconsequently there is no real choice offered.Capitalism has already decided what is going tobe produced and the consumer is left withnothing else than purchasing whatever isprovided. Another example could be that theremight be a whole range of food options in thesupermarket, but the good food is expensive andtherefore the people with less income end upeating unhealthy food since they cannot affordthe good food, therefore in practice there is noreal choice since one of the options is notavailable for the people with less income becauseit is too expensive1. An additional", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterAccording to KarlMarx work should not be regarded as just ameans to achieve a reward in the form of profit,work should (i) be directed to the need of theirfellows, (ii) be an enjoyable, meaningful activitywhich develop human capabilities. In thecapitalist system labour becomes distorted e.g.industrial work tends to be monotonous anddulling without any enjoyment at all. People aremore or less coerced to work for their survivaland accept even the most horrific workconditions; work is only performed on thecapitalist's terms1/2. If workers did not have tofight for their survival and labour was directed tothe meaningful activity of helping others insteadof profit making for capitalists, incentives in theform of profit would be without value. The wantto share wealth and material amongst thecommunity is inscribed in the human essenceand constitutes meaningful activity. It is notmerely possible", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterThe capitalistsociety enhances personal freedom The Westerndemocratic capitalist system protects individual'srights and liberties through freedom from ofinterference by other people. Mature adultcitizens are believed to have the capacity tochoose what kind of life they want to lead andcreate their own future without paternalisticcoercion from the state (Berlin, 1958). Thecapitalist society's ideals could perhaps be bestexemplified with the American dream whereeveryone has an initial equal opportunity toreach their full potential, each individual beingchoosing their own path free from externalcoercion,. James Truslow Adams defines theAmerican Dream as the following in 1931 \"lifeshould be better and richer and fuller foreveryone, with opportunity for each according toability or achievement\"1. The current Presidentof United Stated Barack Obama is a typicalexample of a person who has achieved the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterIncentive in formof profit benefits society as a whole Thestrongest motivational force a human being canfeel towards work is a potential reward for theireffort, therefore those who work hard andcontribute most to society should justly also gainthe most in form of increased wealth (e.g.private property). When work is uncoupled fromreward or when an artificial safety net provides ahigh standard of living for those who do notwork, society as a whole suffers. If those whowork will benefit equally as the ones who do notthere will be no reason to work and the overallproductivity will be lowered, which is bad forsociety. Incentives are therefore necessary sinceit increases the overall standard for the wholesociety in form of material wealth, the fact thatindividuals are driven to succeed and earns whatis rightfully theirs is thus in all our interest. Withan overall higher productivity even the worst offmay benefit more than they would have if the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterIn order to avoideconomic crisis there is a need to return to aseparation of commercial banking frominvestment banking which was e.g. implementedas legislation in the U.S.A. under the 1933Glass-Steagall Act (scrapped under PresidentClinton in the 1990s). It is dangerous to allowbanks to get into a position where they can beshut down by pursuing exciting, but high riskinvestment banking activities such as real estatespeculations. The rationale for this separation isthat it was a commercial banking crisis whichposed the systemic risk, investment banksshould be left alone from state interference andleft to the influence of the market. \"This leaves amuch more limited, and practicable, but stillabsolutely essential, role for bank supervisionand regulation: namely, to ensure that the corecommercial banking system is thoroughly soundand adequately capitalised at all times. The crisiscan thus be resolved through a separation of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterThe reasonsbehind the poverty gap are not purely because ofa capitalist expansion; a clear example may beseen at the development of the African regionbetween the 1960. Free market economics alsoprovides the solution to such inequality; laborwill gravitate towards companies which providethe best working conditions and wages. Forexample, while most automobile companiesoffered two dollars per day as wages, Henry fordoffered five, guaranteeing him the best of thebest by way of labor. The important point is thatthe employers do not enslave the workers, theworkers are more than free to try to find betteremployment, be it in better pay, betterconditions, easier work, better benefits or moresatisfaction.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterSocialismprovides a more sustainable way ofliving Capitalism always acts on the cost ofnature and its ecological balance. With itsimperative to constantly expand profitability, itexposes ecosystems to destabilizing pollutants,fragments habitats that have evolved over timeto allow the flourishing of organisms, squandersresources, and reduces nature to theexchangeability required for the accumulation ofcapital. Socialism requires self-determination,community, and a meaningful existence. Capitalreduces the majority of the world's people to amere reservoir of labor power while discardingmuch of the remainder as useless. The presentcapitalist system cannot regulate, much lessovercome, the crises it has set going. It cannotsolve the ecological crisis (e.g. global warming)because to do so requires setting limits uponaccumulation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterSocialism is amore secure system than the free market inCapitalism 'Credit bubbles' and resultant creditcrunches (financial crisis) are inherent in thecapitalist system. The economy undergoes acrisis whenever productive economic sectorsbegin to undergo a slowdown resulting in falls inprofits. The recent crisis was caused due to thefact that there was an inflated investment in realestates. It was invested in with the purpose ofkeeping up profits which lead to a rise in theprice of properties. Because of the increasedprice in property many people took out loans ontheir house and bought goods for the credit,thinking they could easily pay back their loanssince their house would be more valuable at sale.However, since the rise of price was fabricatedand not corresponding to an actual need (it wasa bubble), house prices had to invariably godown at some point. When the prices eventuallywent down people could no longer afford to pay", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterSocialism leadsto a more humane equal society The gapbetween poor and rich countries has never beenas great as it is today, Warren Buffet's wealthwas estimated to be a net worth ofapproximately US$62 billion in 20081, this whileone in seven people on earth goes to bed hungryevery night and 6.54 million children die ofstarvation and malnutrition every year2. Theabsurd inequality between people's wages isbecause of the capitalist system, since thecapitalist's only aim is to generate profit there isno reason to keep anything other than aminimum wage for the workers. In a globalizedworld, rich countries can outsource industries topoorer countries where workers will not expectso high a wage. The lower the wages a capitalistcan pay to the labourers, the more profit he cangenerate. A capitalist does not care whether hislabourers' living standards are good, acceptableor bad (although he does want to maintain a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-egppphbcb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "economy general philosophy political philosophyhouse believes capitalism betterIn practicecapitalism and environmentalism do notnecessarily have to clash with each other as canbeen proved by small enterprises that candirectly implement green criteria by, forexample, using renewable energy sources,avoiding toxic chemicals, repairing or recyclingused products, and minimizing reliance onlong-distance shipment for either supplies orsales. Because the free market is directedultimately by its consumers if the consumersdemand more eco-friendly products the supplierswill also increase its efforts to be eco-friendly,thus the two of them don't have to beincompatible. Here are a few suggestions of howcapitalism and environmentalism could go handin hand: (i) energy-saving and other cost-cuttingmeasures are advantageous to companies; (ii)maintaining good public relations with consumersinvolves having an eco-friendly policy1. 1 Wallis,V. (2010). Beyond \"Green Capitalism.\" The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesf the government wants tosave money, they should not be trying to reducesmoking levels, since smokers are the source ofa great deal of tax income. While the NHS mightspend some of their money on smokers (whosehealth issues may or may not be directly to theirsmoking habit), the government receives muchmore money from the taxes paid on cigarettes.For example, smoking was estimated byresearchers at Oxford University to cost the NHS(in the UK) £5bn (5 billion pounds) a year [1] ,but the tax revenue from cigarette sales is twiceas much – about £10bn (10 billion pounds) ayear [2] . So governments which implementsmoking bans actually lose money. [1] BBCNews. “Smoking disease costs NHS £5bn.” BBCNews. 8 June 2009. [2] Tobacco Manufacturers’Association. “Tax revenue from tobacco.”Tobacco Manufacturers’ Association. 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesThis ban would lowerhealthcare costs. The health problems thatsmokers experience cost taxpayers (wherehealthcare is provided by the government) or theindividual (for private healthcare) a lot of money.Decreasing the number of smokers – as a resultof a reduction in both “social smokers” (thosewho smoke when out with friends) and “passivesmokers” (those who do not smoke themselvesbut are exposed to the second-hand smoke ofothers) – will lead to a decrease in thesehealthcare costs. This has been reported – forexample – in Arizona, where a study found thathospital admissions due to diagnoses for whichthere is evidence for a cause by smoking havedecreased since the statewide smoking ban, andthat costs have thus decreased [1] . [1]Herman, Patricia M., and Walsh, Michele E.“Hospital Admissions for Acute MyocardialInfarction, Angina, Stroke, and Asthma AfterImplementation of Arizona’s Comprehensive", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesWhile some studies haveshown that numbers of smokers in countries inwhich a smoking ban has been introduced havefallen, it seems that these results only representthose people who were trying to quit smokinganyway, with the smoking ban acting as anadded incentive. Studies in England have shownthat while there was a rise in the number ofsmokers trying to quit soon after the ban in2007, that rise has fallen again since1. So, whilethere was an initial fall in the number ofsmokers, the smoking ban in England is nothaving a continuing effect on whether morepeople are giving up the habit.Additionally, it canbe argued that since people are continuing tosmoke in countries with a smoking ban, but notdoing so in public, there must be more smokinggoing on within the home. If there are anydangers of second-hand smoke, then a smokingban moves those dangers from responsibleadults who can choose whether to go somewhere", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesExposing non-smokers tosecond-hand smoke goes against theirrights. The Universal Declaration of HumanRights (a list of rights to which the UnitedNations has declared that all human beingsshould be entitled) states that \"Everyone has theright to a standard of living adequate for thehealth and well-being of himself and of hisfamily\"1. More than 50 studies carried outworldwide have found that people are at anincreased risk of lung cancer if they work or livewith somebody who smokes2. Given these veryserious health risks, it goes against people'shuman rights to be exposed to second-handsmoke when they have not chosen to breathe itin. To avoid this happening, smoking should bebanned in public places, so that non-smokers canbe sure that they will not have to breathe insecond-hand smoke. 1 The UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights', General Assemblyof the United Nations, 2 'Tobacco Smoke and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesIt is very difficult toproperly scientifically measure the risk fornon-smokers of being exposed to second-handsmoke. To do a proper experiment, scientistswould need to find a large group of people whohad never been exposed to cigarette smokebefore, split them into two groups, and thensystematically expose one group to second-handsmoke for a period of time while the other groupstayed smoke-free. They would then have towait and see if more of the group exposed tosecond-hand smoke developed lung cancer thanthe other group over their lives. This would be avery expensive and time-consuming experiment.Besides this, it would be very difficult to findpeople who had never breathed in cigarettesmoke and keep half of them that way for theirwhole lives for comparison. Because of thesedifficulties in the ideal experiment, scientistsoften just use questionnaires, asking people totry and remember how many cigarettes the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesThis ban would not be soeasy to introduce. A ban on smoking in all publicplaces would not be easily accepted by all. Forexample, there are groups in England seeking tochange the existing ban there so that moreplaces are exempt; the Save Our Pubs &Clubs campaign wants to change the smokingban so that large venues can have a designatedsmoking area which can be avoided bynon-smokers1. 1 'Why we want government toamend the smoking ban', Save Our Pubs &Clubs,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesThis ban would encouragesmokers to smoke less or give up smokingaltogether. Not being able to smoke in publicwill make it more difficult for smokers to keep upwith their habit. For example, if they are nolonger able to smoke in the pub, smokers wouldhave to go outside – possibly in the rain or otheruncomfortable weather – and be away from theirnon-smoking friends every time they wanted tohave a cigarette. So, a smoking ban wouldencourage smokers to smoke less frequently andmaybe even give up. This can be seen incountries already with smoking bans. Forexample, a study in England found that in thenine months after the smoking ban wasintroduced, there was a 5.5% fall in the numberof smokers in the country, compared to themuch lower fall of 1.6 % in the nine monthsbefore the ban [1] . This can only be a goodthing, since giving up smoking decreases the riskof death, even for those suffering from early", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesThis ban would be easy tointroduce. A ban in all public places would be nomore difficult to introduce than existing banspreventing smoking in only some public places.As long as people are given plenty of notice ofchanges, as was done in airports in Saudi Arabia,and the rules are made clear and readilyavailable1 there should be few difficulties inintroducing this ban. 1 Smith, Louise. “Smokingin public places: the ban in force – CommonsLibrary Standard Note.” Parliament. 20 May2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-con03b", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesWhile pubs andrestaurants might lose money from somesmokers initially, they will gain money fromthose who are more likely to eat/drinksomewhere if they know they will not have tobreathe in second-hand smoke. Even the SaveOur Pubs & Clubs campaign admits that pubbusiness is on a decline in the UK anyway, andthat the current economic environment in thecountry is probably partly to blame1. Some pubshave actually seen improved business since theintroduction of a smoking ban, like the VillagePub and Grill in Wisconsin, who say that they getmore families coming to eat during the day, andhave non-smokers staying longer in their bar 2The lack of smoke indoors also makes pubs abetter environment in which to work. 1 'Why wewant government to amend the smoking ban',Save Our Pubs & Clubs, 2 Linnane, Rory etal., 'One Year After State Smoking Ban, VillagePub Sees Better Business, Health',", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-con01b", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesIn some countries,compliance rates have actually been high,proving that it is not a problem with the idea ofhaving a ban but with the authorities themselvesin different countries. In Scotland, for example,reports from 3 months after their smoking banwas introduced showed that about 99% ofpremises were following the law properly1. Thisshows that the opposition should not use the factthat a smoking ban might be difficult to enforcein some places in the initial stages of the lawchange as a reason not to introduce such a banin the first place. Lots of laws are difficult toenforce, but still necessary in order to protectpeople. 1 'Smoking ban gets seal of publicapproval', The Scottish Government, 26 June2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-con02a", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesSmokers have a right toenjoy themselves. Article 1 of the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights states that \"Allhuman beings are born free and equal in dignityand rights. They are endowed with reason andconscience and should act towards one anotherin a spirit of brotherhood\"1. So, smokers havethe same rights as non-smokers and should notbe targeted because of how they choose to livetheir lives. Article 24 of the Universal Declarationof Human Rights states that \"Everyone has theright to rest and leisure, including reasonablelimitation of working hours and periodic holidayswith pay\" 1.If some people get their rest andleisure by smoking with friends in a pub, itseems that governments should make itpossible, by at least having smoking areas inpubs, restaurants, etc. A ban on smoking in allpublic places would mean smokers could neverenjoy themselves like they want to, at least notlegally. There are many groups which feel that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-con03a", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesThis ban would put manypubs, clubs, etc. out of business. If smokers arenot allowed to smoke in pubs, they will not spendas much time in them, preferring to stay at homewhere they can smoke with their friends. Thiswill put many pubs out of business. In fact, sincethe smoking ban was introduced in the UK, manypubs have closed and blamed their loss ofbusiness on the smoking ban1. The Save OurPubs & Clubs campaign estimates that thesmoking ban in the UK is responsible for 20 pubclosures a week2. This is an unfair consequencefor the many pub-owners across the world. 1'MPs campaign to relax smoking ban in pubs',BBC News, 29 June 2011, 2 'Why we wantgovernment to amend the smoking ban', SaveOur Pubs & Clubs,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-con01a", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesThis ban would be difficultto enforce. Given the popularity of smoking, aban on smoking in all enclosed public placeswould be difficult to enforce, requiring constantvigilance by many police officers or securitycameras. It has been reported that smoking bansare not being enforced in Yakima, Washington 1,Atlantic City2, Berlin 3and other places. In NewYork City, the major has said that the New YorkPolice Department (NYPD) are too busy toenforce the ban on smoking in their parks and ontheir beaches, and that the job will be left tocitizens4. 1. Guenthner, Hayley, 'Smoking BanDifficult to Enforce in Yakima', KIMA TV, 1 April2011, 2. Sajor, Stephanie, 'Smoking Ban NotEnforced at Atlantic City Casinos', ThirdAge.com,25 April 2011, 3. AFP, 'Smoking Ban notEnforced in Parts of Germany', Spiegel Online, 2July 2008, 4. 'NYC Smoking Ban In Parks WillNot Be Enforced By NYPD: Mayor', HuffingtonPost, 2 November 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bhahwbsps-con02b", "title": "", "text": "business health addiction house would bansmoking public spacesWhile all humans do havethe right to rest and leisure, they should not beallowed to do so at the expense of the health andsafety of other human beings. Serial killers enjoykilling people1, but it is against the law tocommit murder. Smoking in public places shouldbe banned despite the fact that smokers enjoydoing it, because it endangers the health ofothers. 1 Blackwelder, Edward, 'Serial Killers:Defining Serial Murder', Criminology ResearchProject Inc.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonThe costs ofstarting and maintaining business in agriculturevary among European countries as well – thecosts of additional materials can be muchcheaper in for example Poland than in France.The costs of life vary among European countriesas well. Subsidies which are sufficient for Polishfarmers to live a decent life are simply notenough for French one. If one of the reasonsbehind this policy is to preserve traditional waysof life, then part of the role is to keep farmersout of relative poverty as well. Also the currentreform of CAP address these issues – theconditions for all countries should converge inthe next years as there is a change replacing theSingle Payment Scheme with a basic paymentscheme. [1] It is a matter of setting the systemright – not giving up on it altogether. Even forfarmers in discriminated countries, it is far betterthat they receive some benefits than no benefitsat all. [1] European Commission, ‘establishing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonIt is unfair tonew members of EU Not only are the largestrecipients of CAP western countries – France,Spain and Germany - also the payments perhectare of arable lands differ significantlybetween new and old members of EU. The newmembers of EU with their economies oftenstruggling and more dependent on agriculture(as is the case of Poland, Bulgaria or Romania)need more monetary support compared to theirwestern counterparts to produce food of samequality and be competitive in EU market.However, the payments for hectare of land varyfrom 500€ in Greece to less than 100 € in Latvia.[1] These different conditions undermine theEU’s ethos of fairness and equality ofcountries. [1] EurActive, ‘Eastern EU states callfor ‘bolder, speedier’ farm reforms’, 14 July2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonDevelopingcountries often face a problem when the localpeople simply cannot afford food (for example asa result of drought or floods destroying localcrops) – thus giving them food for greatlyreduced price helps a lot of people to survive atday to day basis. Even for farmers they areunlikely to grow the full range of crops so benefitfrom being able to obtain cheap foodstuffs.These countries can also if they wish control theirimport tariffs to ensure that the price ofEuropean food is comparable to local one – it isnot that they are entirely helpless. The localproducers have other benefits given by EuropeanUnion – reduced taxation on exportedagricultural products and development help –which help to compensate for these possibledetrimental effects. Even without theseprograms, EU is still the biggest importer offoodstuff from the developing world by a bigmargin – therefore in balance the developing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonCAP is costlyand unfair to other industries Currently CAPcosts the European Union approx. 40% of itswhole budget. However, this money is used toprovide subsidies for industry that only employsless than 5 % of workforce and creates less than2 % of GDP. [1] We can easily assume thatnearly half of EU’s budget can be used moreeffectively and can, instead, be used to supportother, more potential industries which can boostthe currently sluggish economic growth.Moreover, the subsidies for European farmersare so high they can contribute up to 90 % offarmers’ pre-tax income. [2] No other industryhas such privileges – when European coal andiron industry became uncompetitive and neededto be slimmed down, the European union did notsubsidise the industry to such degree eventhough such action could have saved thousandsof jobs. [1] Charlemagne, ‘Milking the budget’,The Economist, 22 November 2012, [2] The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonTheimportance of agricultural industry cannot bevalued on the merit of how much percent of GDPit creates. It is one of the industries that are vitalfor the society as whole – without food thesociety cannot properly function. In the case ofcomplicated world we are now living in foodsecurity – the ability to be self-sufficient inproducing food at least to some degree – isimportant. Also agriculture is not the onlyindustry which is subsidised – the subsidies toother industries such as coal and steel comedirectly from member states’ budget and notEU’s. Thus for example Germany subsidizes carproduction by about $1300 per vehicle. [1] The40% figure is therefore deceptively high as it isthe only industry through which subsidies gothrough the EU budget rather than individualmember states. [1] Davison, Remy, ‘Far frompole on car subsidy grid’, Business Spectator, 26July 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonEven thelarger companies can have difficulties in amarket in which their consumers, thesupermarkets, have so much power over prices.The result is often that supermarkets buy theirproduce at below the cost of production – as ishappening with milk in the UK where it costs 30pper litre to produce but they are only being paid25p per litre. [1] The costs of producing food inEurope even with mechanisation can be highbecause of the expensive workforce, and smallerfarms on average than in the US. Thereforesubsidies to larger companies are needed tokeep even larger farmers in business. Often thelarger companies involve smaller producers whoproduce the original, unique specialties andenjoy the stability of larger firm. It is hard to saythat support of these companies is notuseful. [1] BBC News, ‘Q&A: Milk pricesrow and how the system works’, 23 July 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonIt harms theeconomies of developing world The currentmodel of CAP results in major oversupply of foodand beverages. In 2008 the stockpiles of cerealsrising to 717 810 tons while the surplus of winewas about 2.3 million hectolitres. [1] This excessof supply is then often sold to developingcountries for prices so low that the localproducers cannot cope with them. The low pricesof European food can be attributed to the higherefficiency of producing food because of use ofadvanced technologies as well as the CAP.Agriculture makes a small fraction of GDP inEurope, but in developing countries of Africa orAsia it is entirely different with large numbersdependent on much smaller plots of land. Hence,the consequences of CAP and high production inthe EU can be the rise of unemployment anddecline of self-sufficiency of these affectedcountries. [1] Castle, Stephen, ‘EU’s buttermountain is back’, The New York Times, 2", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonIt doesn’tserve its purpose (subsidies to largerfarmers) The CAP as originally proposed wasaimed to support small, local, family farmerswhich have difficulties with sustaining theirbusiness in competitive environment. Theconference in Stresa in 1958 that helped defineCAP’s objectives stated “Given the importance offamily structures in European agriculture… allmeans should be taken in order to strengthenthe economic and competitive capacity of thefamily enterprise.” [1] However, the currentmodel of CAP gives direct payments to farmersaccording to area of their farms. That means thatthe major recipients of CAP are actually thebiggest players in agricultural industry.According to Economist, 80 % of the subsidies goto 20 % of the richest farmers. [2] Therefore,the money is spent to support large companiesand wealthy landowners who could easilycompete in EU market even without such", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonThe standardsof quality can and are checked for imports. Onlyfood, produced without potentially harmfulagents and in a certain way, can be sold onEuropean market. The fact that food was notproduced in EU does not mean that food is oflower quality, or that there are fewer checks toensure their quality. In a recent years there weremany cases when the food produced in EU wasnot what it should be – horse meat scandal in2013 [1] or scandals in Poland with rotten meat.[2] The CAP and EU are not enough to ascertainthe quality of produced food and therefore it isunreasonable to follow this argument. [1]Meikle, James, and McDonald, Henry, ‘Camerontells supermarkets: horsemeat burger scandalunacceptable’, theguardian.com, 16 January2013, [2] UPI, ‘Europe’s food scandalsmultiply’, 8 March 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonIn the currentinterconnected world it is hard to imagine asituation when the EU will be unable to buyenough food for its citizens on the global market.Countries of the EU are among the richest in theworld and have enough soft power to negotiatefavourable terms of trade from developingcountries in nearly any situation. [1] Even if thesubsidies created by CAP were abandoned, theagricultural industry will hardly be decimated.The numbers of farmers may decline, therewould be consolidation into bigger farms,however there always will be markets whereEuropean food will be sold – due its regionalspecifics, high quality or simply patriotism, whenpeople buy food produced in their own country tosupport it. [1] Zahrnt, Valentin, ‘Food Securityand the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy: Factsagainst fears’, Ecipe Working paper, No. 1, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonIt protectsrural communities People in EU are hard toconvince that staying in rural areas and workingas a farmer is a viable life choice. The profit isoften low, the starting costs are high and work ishard. The income of a farmer is usually aroundhalf of the average wage in a given country andthe number of these farmers fell by 20% in thelast decade. [1] By having CAP we have anadditional incentive for the people to stay invillages. The direct payments help the peoplewith the starting of business, subsidies helpsthem to sell their goods at reasonable prices. Theprocess of urbanisation is at least slowed andthat, by extend, helps to preserve traditionalculture of such communities and thus diversity ofEuropean culture itself. [1] Murphy, Caitriona,‘Number of EU farms drops 20pc’, Independent,29 November 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonCAP protectsthe quality of the food in EU The role of CAP isto produce food at affordable prices whilemaintaining its quality. By having policies whichfavour agriculture in Europe it is easier to controlthe quality of the food, maintain it and alsosupport the diversity of the food produced in EU.[1] The goods imported from developingcountries are often not produced under suchscrutiny as are those in EU. In EU the qualitystandards of production are one of the highest –the hygiene, the amount of additives in products– all these are set and controlled by the EU. Theresult of it is that European citizens eat healthyfood of high quality which is still affordable –mainly due to subsidies and payments obtainedvia CAP. [1] European Commission, ‘TheCommon Agricultural Policy A partnershipbetween Europe and Farmers’, 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonCAP maintainsEuropean food security The subsidies toagriculture are important for maintainingself-sufficiency to enable Europe to feed its owncitizens. In the world of fluctuating markets,global climate change, commodity crisis such in2008, the state intervention is even moreimportant because that means that the neededgoods can become unavailable. Without EU’shelp the prices can fluctuate wildly which can beof concern mainly for poorer parts of EU, wherethe major part of household spending is still foodand non-alcoholic beverages. To prevent thiskind of situations only the continent-wide policycan be an effective measure. The markets ofother countries can compensate losses fromothers and vice versa. The result of a securesupply of affordable food has been that theamount an average EU household devotes tofood has halved since 1960. [1] [1] EuropeanCommission, ‘CAP – how much does it cons’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepiehbesa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international europehouse believes eu should abandonWe can seefrom continuous decline of farms in Europe thatthe CAP has been ineffective in creating enoughincentive for people to stay in villages and farms.And it is doubtful if even the reform of CAP canchange this situation. In the last 40 years CAPwas reformed in one way or another however thedeclining trend has still continued. It isreasonable to assume that leaving theagricultural sector without state interventions(which are basically CAP) will eventually result insome sort of stable equilibrium emerging withfarmers who can make money from farming, orother activities remaining without subsidy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thhghwhwift-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "tax health health general healthcare weighthouse would implement fat taxChoosing tointroduce a new policy based on experience witha different, seemingly similar case, is not a goodidea. Tobacco and fatty food are vastly differentthings for a couple of reasons. An obvious one isthe fact that fat is in fact necessary nourishment,even the trans-fat kind. Cigarettes on the otherhand have absolutely no value to a persons’health – their detrimental impact is quiteinfamous. A different one is the importance ofdosage. While smoking is harmful in all doses,indulging in larger amounts of fatty food isn’t.Consuming what we consider “junk food” inmoderation has no ill effect on health. [1] Thisresults in legislating for any kind of fat tax muchmore difficult as the tax needs to allowconsuming fat in moderation while preventingexcess. [1] Roberts A., Let Them Eat Cake (WhyJunk Food Is OK For Kids, In Moderation),published 5/9/2011, , accessed 9/12/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thhghwhwift-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "tax health health general healthcare weighthouse would implement fat taxThere is ampleprecedent in the form of other “sin” taxes A sintax is a term often used for fees tacked on topopular vices like drinking, gambling andsmoking. Its roots have been traced back to the16th century Vatican, where Pope Leo X taxedlicensed prostitutes. [1] More recently, and withgreater success, US federal cigarette taxes wereshown to have reduced consumption by 4% forevery 10% increase in the price of cigarettes.[2] Given the success achieved with uprootingthis societal vice, which on a number of counts issimilar to the unhealthy food one - immensehealth costs linked to a choice to consume aproduct – we should employ this tried and truestrategy to combat the obesity epidemic. Infact, a recent study published in the Archives ofInternal Medicine followed 5000 people for 20years, tracking food consumption and variousbiological metrics. The report states that“Researchers found that, incremental increases", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thhghwhwift-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "tax health health general healthcare weighthouse would implement fat taxWhile the taxmight level out the playing field, it does so to thedetriment of those that would need ourprotection the most. Instead of making healthyfood more accessible, we would make all foodsless accessible – a truly nonsensical and harmfulsituation that we should do our utmost to avoid.Moreover, given that many individuals in lowersocio-economic groups will have become used toeating “junk” food, when prices rise they will notnecessarily move to the healthier alternative. Itis likely that they will stick to what they know,and end up paying more from their limitedbudgets for it. The end result is likely to be thatthese people will still buy junk food first but willpay more and thus will not be able to afford anyhealthier foods.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thhghwhwift-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "tax health health general healthcare weighthouse would implement fat taxAn individual'sBMI is no longer a purely personal matter Theobesity epidemic is taking an enormous toll onglobal medical costs. In the US alone the healthcare costs attributable to either direct or indirectconsequences of obesity have been estimated at$147bn. [1] Put into context, this amounts toroughly 9% of the health spending in the US.[2] The figure might seem excessive, but weneed to remember that obesity is linked to Type2 Diabetes, several kinds of cancer, coronaryartery disease, stroke, congestive heart failure,asthma, chronic back pain and hypertension, toname just a few. We also need to realize thatmany of the diseases on this list are chronic innature, requiring lifelong pharmacologicaltherapy, which often follows complex andexpensive diagnostic procedures, frequentmedical specialist consultations, and notinfrequent emergency interventions. [3] Addingto the list is the value of income lost due to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thhghwhwift-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "tax health health general healthcare weighthouse would implement fat taxAn importantsource of extravagant medical spending aroundthe world, especially in the US, can be traced toinherent inefficiencies of current medical caresystems. [1] And the current trends show thesituation to be worsening. It is thus impossiblefor anyone to really say whether the rising costof the medical care system can really beattributed to obesity related diseases, especiallysince those are some of the most commonailments of the modern age. It is also unfair tosingle out obesity as the single cause that shouldget such intense scrutiny and attention. Whatabout the connection between consumption ofmeat and colorectal cancer? [2] Should weintroduce an additional levy in that case aswell? [1] Connolly, C., U.S. ‘Not Getting WhatWe Pay For’, published 11/30/2008, , accessed9/12/2011 [2] The HMS Family health guide,Red meat and colon cancer, published in March2008, , accessed 9/12/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thhghwhwift-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "tax health health general healthcare weighthouse would implement fat taxA fat tax levelsout the playing field for healthier food Animportant reason why people continuously turnto unhealthy, fat, sugar and salt laden food, isthe simple fact that it’s often cheaper than amore wholesome meal comprised at least in partof fresh produce. A study done at the Universityof Washington found that “when they comparedthe prices of 370 foods… junk foods not only costless… but junk food prices are also less likely torise as a result of inflation.” [1] A similarconclusion was reached by a group of Australianresearchers, who found that the prices of healthyfood have risen 20 per cent above inflation, whilethe harmful counterpart have actually droppedbelow inflation – as much as 20 per cent below.[2] Noting that obesity is more prevalent ingroups of lower socioeconomic status, we findthat the price of food is a substantial incentivefor consumption. Thus it is only reasonable tolevy a tax against unhealthy, fatty food in order", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thhghwhwift-con03b", "title": "", "text": "tax health health general healthcare weighthouse would implement fat taxEven if this policymight cause some families to spend more ontheir food – even more than they feel like theycan afford – it still is more important to startsignificantly dealing with the obesity epidemic.We feel that nothing short of forcing these lowincome families – which are also the ones whereobesity is most prevalent – to finally change theireating habits will make a dent in the currenttrend. But there is a silver lining here. These arealso the families that are afflicted most byobesity related diseases. Thus spending a coupledollars more on food now will – necessarily –save them tens of thousands in the form ofmedical bills. Reducing obesity will also makethem more productive at work and reduce theirabsenteeism, again offsetting the costs of thistax. [1] We should look at this tax as a form ofpaying it forward – spending a little time andeffort now and reap the benefits for theindividual and the society in the future. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thhghwhwift-con01b", "title": "", "text": "tax health health general healthcare weighthouse would implement fat taxSuch a limitedview of the role of government may besomething we have seen in the past, but evenconservative governments today are warming tothe ideas of social support, progressive taxation,etc. This shows a clear trend that the perceptionof government is changing – and rightly so. Thechallenges of the 21st century are vastlydifferent from those of a hundred or more yearsago, when that idea of government was popularor mainstream. Given the very recent and verycataclysmic events involving the world’seconomy, that were arguably sparked by somevery bad financial choices made by consumers,one could think that societies around the globewould be more than ever inclined to answer yesto those questions. In fact, what thegovernment is doing in this case is respecting itsboundaries – it cannot ban certain choices offood outright, although this might be the fastestsolution. What it’s doing instead is providing a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thhghwhwift-con02a", "title": "", "text": "tax health health general healthcare weighthouse would implement fat taxA tax is not aneffective instrument to fight obesity There arevery legitimate concerns whether artificiallyincreasing the cost of fatty food by specificallytargeting it with a tax would have a significanteffect on the obesity trend. In fact, researchshows that a fat tax would produce only amarginal change in consumption – not thedramatic shift in public awareness theproponents of the fat tax are hoping for. Thereason, LSE researchers believe, is simple:“those on the very poorest diets will continue toeat badly.” [1] Other than the economic reasonsfor such behavior, it could be argued that is alsoa thing of habit and culture: fast fatty food isquick, accessible and tasty. [2] Thus while a taxmight be useful in reducing things such as theuse of cigarettes – which are at heart anunnecessary “luxury” and thus more easilyaffected by the price – eating food, whether junkor not, is necessary. It also seems that the fast", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thhghwhwift-con03a", "title": "", "text": "tax health health general healthcare weighthouse would implement fat taxIt hits the mostvulnerable part of society hardest The practicalconsequence of an additional tax on what thegovernment considers fatty unhealthy food willdisproportionately affect the poorest part of thepopulation, who often turn to such food due toeconomic constraints. These were the concernsthat stopped the Romanian government fromintroducing a fat tax in 2010. Experts thereargued, that the countries people keep turning tojunk food simply because they are poor andcannot afford the more expensive fresh produce.What such a fat tax would do is eliminate a veryimportant source of calories from the society’seconomic reach and replace the current diet withan even more nutritionally unbalanced one. Eventhe WHO described such policies as “regressivefrom an equity perspective.” [1] Clearly, thegovernment should be focusing its efforts onmaking healthy fresh produce more accessibleand not on making food in general, regardless if", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thhghwhwift-con01a", "title": "", "text": "tax health health general healthcare weighthouse would implement fat taxA fat tax infringeson individual choice Introducing such a taxwould constitute an overstepping of thegovernment’s authority. The role of governmentin a society should not expand further thanproviding basic services such as education, legalprotection, i.e. only the services necessary for asociety to function and for the individual’s rightsto be protected. Such a specific tax iscompletely uncalled for and very unreasonable inthe context of a fair society with a governmentthat knows its place in it. Protecting theindividual should go no further than theprotection against the actions of a third person.For instance: we can all agree that governmentsshould put measures in place to protect us fromthieves, scammers, etc. But should it alsoprotect us from frivolous spending? Limit us inthe number of credit cards we can own? Tell ushow we can invest our money? Of course not.But what this tax does is exactly that – it is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-thhghwhwift-con02b", "title": "", "text": "tax health health general healthcare weighthouse would implement fat taxThough one mightbe inclined to agree with the statement, that afat tax on its own would be insufficient to solvethe problem of rising obesity, it is also simply notthe case. There are numerous educationalcampaigns underway, from celebrity chef JamieOliver’s school dinners to the first ladies ‘Let’smove’ that are effectively targeting that aspectof the fight against obesity. What is needed tobalance these is tangible action by thegovernment that is able to underwrite andsolidify what these campaigns are saying. Inshort, to help our society practice what wepreach.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedOne of the keybenefits highlighted about Oxfam’s Saving forChange Initiative is the empowerment providedfor women. Women are argued to be moreindependent, able to organise withincommunities, and provided with a voice ofpower. However, are women empowered? In thecases of microfinance in Cameroon, Mayoux(2001) highlights the inequalities operatingwithin community groups. The message is wecannot rely on communities, and social capital,for empowerment as women within suchcommunities have different relations to power.The ability for women to use savings and creditfor self-empowerment is limited by wider,traditional, gender inequalities. Microfinance mayact to reinforce unequal power relations andpositions within society. Furthermore, women’sempowerment needs to be understood ascomplex. [1] Real, and strategic, empowermentfor women goes beyond increased access to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedSmall is beautiful:community empowerment Microfinance isempowering the communities that are using it -showing in development, small is beautiful.Communities are empowered to change theirconditions. For example taking the case ofsavings - microfinance allows for savings. Half ofthe adults that saved in Sub-Saharan Africa,during 2013, used an informal,community-based approach (CARE, 2014). First,having savings reduces household risk. CARE isone of many organisations working ininnovations for microfinance. At CARE savingshave been mobilised across Africa by workingwith Village Savings and Loans Associations.Overtime, CARE has targeted over 30,000,000poor people in Africa, to provide necessaryfinance. Savings ensures households havefinancial capital, can invest resources ineducation, health, and the future. Savings issecurity in livelihoods. Second, microfinance is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedCan we rely onbusiness to solve social problems? Ultimately themodel proposed through microfinance schemes isthe creation of a consumer market where risksare already high. This has shown to be one of thekey factors of microfinance failing in South Africa(Bateman, 2013). The microcredit providedacross South Africa, post-apartheid, aimed tosolve social problems - however, it has acted tosupport risky consumption not investment. Witha lack of secure incomes, due to high levels ofunemployment, underemployment, and informalemployment, the rate of repayment is low.Households have been forced into severe povertyby being provided with credit which they can’tpay back. Even among those who do invest howmany of their business ideas will succeed?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedMicrofinance andprotection Access to a small loan providesbenefits for the poor’s ability to access highquality health care. A lack of access to bankingfacilities - loans and credit - may mean the poorare left excluded from health care services asthese are usually not free. Microfinanceinstitutions accept the irregularities of the poor’sincome, so enabling health care to be affordableto the poor by providing access to finance. AsOfori-Adjei (2007) shows the integration ofmicrofinance institutions within healthcaresystems in Ghana is required to resolve the issueof inaccessibility. Ill health should not put ahousehold into a state of poverty - microfinanceprovides this protection. Microfinance schemesnot only provide loans to access health care butare now integrating non-financial services, suchas health education, within their financeschemes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedA livelihoodsapproach The livelihoods approach provides auseful model to understand how poor people live[1] ; and remains important to recognising thebenefits of microfinance. The provision ofmicrofinance reduces vulnerability to shocks andchanges such as losing a job; enhances people’saccess to assets that they use and need (such asfinance, friend networks, and land); and thisfundamentally acts to change the lives of thepoor. Microfinance provides social protectionthrough tapping into social capital. Further,microfinance means aid is not simply provided,but the individual is taught valuable financialskills and given the means to sustain themselvesfor their lifetime. [1] See further readings:IFAD, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedThe provision ofmicrofinance within livelihoods is based on apositive view of social capital [1] and cohesion.The idea relies upon a perception whereby socialnetworks within the community are able topositively organise funds and remain democraticin how they manage poverty. It fails toacknowledge negative aspects of social capital -such as how networks can act to exclude andrestrict who becomes a part of the scheme. Civilsociety is not without internal politics, withcompeting interests, and can beuncooperative. [1] Social capital represents therelationships and linkages between peopleand/or groups, of which are formulated withrules and norms. See further readings:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedLoans provided areembedded with conditions, which can constrainwhat an individual can do with the money. Amicrofinance loan is still a loan, it needs to bepaid back, if someone is in poor health for a longperiod they will run into difficulty. Can savingschemes enable social protection in the longterm when the amount saved is just enough tocover one sick person? We need to realisticallyevaluate what the loan enables, provides, andhow long for. To provide real health security amuch more comprehensive finance system isneeded, such as insurance", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedThere is a need toreinvigorate Africa’s agricultural system;however, the ability for microfinance to do this isdebatable. The distribution of loans is notnecessarily adequate or responsive to the need.The loans provided need to be able to providesecurity and protection in the face ofenvironmental crisis. There are some thingsmicrofinance can’t solve; more variable rains anddesertification for example. Loans can only beprovided if the risks are known and the risks aregetting higher so too will be the costs ofloans. Additionally, multiple factors areresponsible for Africa’s agrarian crisis. The lackof an agriculture marketing board for farmers tocontrol price, insufficient infrastructure, and thelegacies of structural adjustment, all act toconstrain the agricultural system.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedEnding povertythrough entrepreneurialism Introducing financeprovides communities with access to startupcapital. Access to financial capital is vital inseveral respects for initiating capitalism. Firstly,access to capital enables entrepreneurialism. Thepoor have business ideas that would benefit boththemselves and their community they justrequire access to capital to invest in such ideas.The Initiative ‘Lend with Care’ is providing accessto capital to empower entrepreneurs [1]. Secondly, the cumulative effect of small-scalesavings and borrowing, enabled throughmicrofinance enables individuals, families andcommunities, to enter markets - of land andproperty. Being able to buy property and landcan enable personal security, dignity, andincreasing returns. [1] See further readings:Lend with Care, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedRebuildingagricultural systems Africa is faced with anagrarian crisis. Microfinance is providing ruralcommunities a chance to gain food security andreduce vulnerability to risks such as climatechange, unstable demand, and political tensions.Microfinance supports small scale agriculture –which is more sustainable, effective for growth,and beneficial for communities than larger scaleagriculture. In Zimbabwe, small scale farminghas the capability to improve production,benefiting households, communities, and theNation (IRIN, 2013; Morrison, 2012). Kiva, amicrofinance NGO, is providing affordable capitalto remote communities. Loans have beenprovided to small-scale farmers and a rentalsystem has been set-up enabling farmers toborrow tools and resources needed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedAfrica’smicrofinance schemes can be different, and arefundamentally different. Across Africa there is ahistory of informal lending. Microfinance is notnew, but rather embedded in traditionalpractices. This means communities are aware ofthe obligations, rules, and practice ofmicrofinance. Additionally, the path taken bymicrofinance lenders shows stricter controls arebeing taken to ensure that the loans are notsubprime. In a bid to ensure the safety of thepoor the Bank of Ghana has set up minimumcapital requirements for the borrower and newregulations to ensure money-lent is repayable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedAll policies havebarriers and potential disadvantages and for ascheme to be rolled out the advantages mustoutweigh the costs. In the case of microfinanceadvantages are higher. Microfinance has a lowcost for implementation, and can therefore bedistributed nationwide. Rolling out microfinanceschemes means a majority of the population willbecome able to access vital services through aflexible loan. Microfinance not being able toreach everyone is not a reason to enable it forthose it can reach. If bad governance preventssustainability then something needs to be doneabout governance – it does not invalidatemicrofinance as a concept. And all those involvedin supply do have close enough objectives to runthe scheme there simply needs to becompromises to ensure they remain the same.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedDeeper issuesunresolved Microfinance provides a quick-fixsolution for the poor. The individual, orcommunity, is provided with a loan to invest intheir future. However, although access to capitalis a key concern for enabling entrepreneurialismit is not the silver bullet. Microfinance schemeswill fail without providing a stable political andeconomic environment that makes a goodclimate to invest in. Microfinance is essentiallyshort-termist. It encourages investment but onlyin things that will bring a quick return. Withinterest rates as high as 30% the person takingthe loan needs to pay it back as quickly aspossible. This can sometimes be against anindividual’s long term interests, for exampleaccess to microfinance often reduces primaryschool attendance as this is a long terminvestment that will not pay back the loan money(IOE, 2011).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedDebt cycles andthe curse of microfinance Microfinance isincorporating free market ideologies andsubprime (lending to those who may not be ableto repay) lending at a smaller scale. Unstablecrises’ form as a result, and debt is intensified forthe poorest - of which are given access to creditthey are not able to repay. This is a problem withall lending, microfinance is no exception. InIndia the pressures of microfinance repaymenthas become linked to suicide and early mortality(Biswas, 2010). The stress of looking formicrocredit, and then how to pay it back, hascreated a crisis within the microfinance industry.Regulation is required on the microfinanceorganisation: controlling the distribution of creditand the use of threats if the individual defaults.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedRealisticbarriers There are significant barriers tointroducing microfinance. Microfinance can’treach everywhere; a lack of infrastructure, orpoor infrastructure, can mean that microfinanceinitiatives often can’t reach where need isgreatest. Those who are poorest most needmoney just to get buy, not to invest. They wouldbe unable to repay even tiny loans. It returns tothe question of who is the poorest, and what dowe know about them - where they are, whatthey need, and why are they poor? Secondly,structural constraints limit the ability formicrofinance to be sustainable and provide along term solution. Bad governance, inadequatestructures to regulate microfinance, and politicalinstability, mean the theoretical benefits ofmicrofinance may not become a livedreality. Thirdly, who is involved in the supply?The involvement of multiple actors - NGOs,communities, the state, and private sector,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-fiahwpamu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "finance international africa house would provideaccess microfinance unbankedMicrofinance doesnot have to be short term financing. Because it isa community based loan that is based on trust ifthose wanting the loan can explain why theywant a loan over the longer term then it ispossible to get longer loans. Moreover long terminvestment should not be something those whoare struggling day to day have to think about;such investments as education should be madeby the government not relying on individuals torealise their long term interests. No one wouldargue that microfinance is the solution to a pooreducation system.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyThe reason forthe apparent superiority of Democratadministrations is that they use government as ajob creation service; using taxpayers’ money tocreate jobs in a bloated federal administration [i]. Ultimately, these are not real jobs as they arenot actually producing wealth, merely circulatingwhat already exists. Real growth and realeconomic health comes from unleashing theinnovativeness and industry of the Americanpeople to create new businesses and expandexisting ones. The Democrat approach leads totaxes rising The Republicans can reduce taxesbecause they leave the creation of jobs where itbelongs – in the private sector. [i] “HistoricalU.S. Job Creation – Under Democratic andRepublican Presidents and President Obama”Democraticunderground.com. 2 September2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyHistoricallyDemocrats have presided over more economicstability whereas the GOP is the party of boomand Bust During the past 60 years Democratshave been considerably more likely to presideover a balanced budget than their Republicanrivals. Since the OPEC shocks of the mid-70s theaverage unemployment rate under RepublicanPresidents has been 6.7 % as opposed to 5.5%under democrats. Even expanding that periodout to the whole of the post-war period,unemployment has averaged 4.8% underdemocrats and 6.3% under democrats [i]. Republican presidencies have been marked byhigher unemployment, bigger deficits and lowerwages. [i] Larry Bartels. “Why the economyfares much better under Democrats.” ChristianScience Monitor. October 21st, 2010 .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyIt is really notup to the Government to decide when a job is“good enough”, frankly when the alternative iswelfare any job looks fairly attractive. It is alsomuch easier to find new work when you arealready in the job market. As well as providingan income, jobs also give the worker pride andself-respect. It is in the interests of employersto pay as much as the market can bear – thisway they get the best person for the job,however, it is not the role of government to tellthem how much they should be paying as thisremoves the incentive to work hard.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyBushsquandered an extraordinary economic legacy ontax cuts for the wealthy and too expensive andunnecessary wars. The Clinton legacy was oneof extraordinary economic health including anenormous $4,000 billion surplus. This could havebeen used to improve services and create jobs.Instead the Bush administration squandered this,mostly on tax cuts for the wealthy and twoexpensive wars. He turned the surplus on itshead, leaving a budget deficit of $482 billion in2009 with, frankly, not a lot to show for it [i]. [i] Andrew Taylor. “Bush Leaving NextPresident Record Federal Deficit”. HuffingtonPost. 28 July 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyThe logicbehind tax cuts is two-fold. The first is that itisn’t the government’s money, it belongs to thepeople who worked hard to earn it. The second isthat cash in people’s pockets acts as a stimulusto the economy which it doesn’t sitting in thegovernment’s vaults. In terms of who benefitedfrom the cuts, a single person earning $30,000 ayear was paying $4,500 by the end of Bush’spresidency as opposed to $8,400 at the end ofClinton’s. It’s easy to create a surplus if yousimply take people’s money away from them [i]. [i] “Taxes: Clinton vs Bush”. Snopes.com 22April 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyThe events oflate 2008 had a variety of complex causes. To tryand blame them on one thing alone is not tounderstand the problem. What is clear howeveris that an active financial sector creates jobs andwealth for the American people providing themwith the security of a job, a pension and a homein a way that government can only dreamof. There is also no doubt that light regulationallows business to grow and create jobs, the onlyway out of recession is to allow business to dowhat it does best; grow America for all ourfutures. As Ronald Reagan put it “Government isnot the solution to our problems. Government isthe problem”.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyDemocratsfocus on increasing wages, creating betterconsumers. Quality customers can only becreated by paying people enough to allow themto purchase goods and services. You can createas many jobs as you like but if they’re created ata level where consumers can’t even afford tosurvive it does absolutely nothing to stimulatethe economy. Instead Democrats believe inworking with labour to ensure that wages are setat levels that both respect the worker and have apositive effect on the economy. [i] [i] MarkPash, CFP_ wi8th Brad Parker. “ProgressiveEconomic Principles: Creating a QualityEconomy.”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyDeregulationcontributed to the banking crises and, thereforethe 2009 economic crash It is clear that theeconomic meltdown was, in large part, caused byderegulation of the banking and financial sectors.The Republican obsession causes not onlyenvironmental damage and low wages but itdoesn’t even succeed in its avowed aim ofleaving the market free to generate wealth. Injust a way of letting the parties friends in theboardrooms of corporate America to get evenricher by gambling with the homes and pensionsof ordinary, hard-working Americans [i] . TheCongressional Republican response to the 2008crash was to pass a bill that curtailed 38environmental regulations, blaming the EPA forthe stalled economy. Why is anyone’s guess. [i]“Why Government Becomes the Scapegoat”.Governemtnisgood.com", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-con03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyThe Obamaadministration received one of the worst politicallegacies in US history. A broken economy, half atrillion dollars’ worth of debt, two expensivewars, a sick healthcare system and much morebesides. In just three short years he has stoppedthe country haemorrhaging Money in Iraq andAfghanistan, introduced a healthcare systembased on medical need rather than the ability topay and has made progress in improving theeconomy. Although things are still difficult formany Americans and there are not enough jobs,the idea that having the Republicans back in theWhitehouse is clearly untrue. They were in largepart responsible for creating the economic messin the first place with reckless over-spending andunjustified tax hikes. They turned one of the besteconomic inheritances in history on its head,leaving the country broke, in debt and withnowhere to go.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-con01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyGeorge Bushannounced that cutting government was one ofhis greatest priorities, his actions could not havebeen further from this ambition. As with mostRepublican presidents, government spendinggrew considerably on his watch. Indeed nopresident since FDR presided over a larger rateof growth in the federal budget. The largestrecipient has been the military with over $5tndollars spent on defence during his two terms. Totake one example, when the TransportationSecurity Administration took a guess at the costof a national computer system in 2002, it peggedthe price at $1bn. A few years later the price wasrunning at five times that [i] . [i] Jon Ward. “BigGovernment Gets Bigger”. The WashingtonTimes. 19 October 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-con02a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyRepublicansmore enthusiastically support marketcapitalism A free market is at the core of manyof the other freedoms we enjoy. Whengovernment gets too involved in the running ofcommerce – whether through taxation,regulation or the state ownership of companies,history has shown us that they start controllingother aspects of citizens lives in an effort to getthe economic outcomes that they want.Corporations – along with organised religion –provide useful counter-balance to too muchgovernment power. As nice as it sounds that weshould divert the wages of the rich to bring thepoor up to middle class standards of living, it justdoesn’t work [i] . [i] “Why am I a Republican?”Early Riser. 7 February 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-con03a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economy“After threeyears, it is clear that President Obama’sbudget-busting policies have not created jobsand have only added to our debt,” The Obamaadministration has been profligate withtaxpayers’ money, has failed to deal with theeconomic crisis and has increased the debt. Hispolicies on health care show that he is moreinterested in controlling people’s lives than he isin encouraging enterprise and industry. It’s thesame story that is always heard fromDemocrats; they say that they’re interested inencouraging business but instead all they reallywant to focus on is getting the governmentinvolved in as many areas of life as possible –especially in the running of the market. Afterthree years in office Obama has done nothing toimprove the life chances of the American people,growth and employment have stagnated, GDPgrowth has been under 1% per year whileunemployment is up to 9.1% from 7.8%, [i]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-con01a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyRepublicansare the best at stimulating economic growth Thetax cuts proposed by President Bush and passedby a Republican Congress ensured that real,after-tax income was up 15% by 2006. The DowJones hit record Highs during his time inoffice. These tax cuts were responsible for thecreation of 6.6 million jobs, primarily in theprivate sector – real jobs producing real goodsand providing real services not tax-payer fundedsinecures to mask the reality of the economicsituation. [i] [i] The White House, “Fact Sheet:Job Creation Continues – More than 6.6 MillionJobs Created Since August 2003”, 6 October2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-eptpghdtre-con02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy tax politics government housedoesnt trust republicans economyThe idea thatfree markets are innately linked to democracy insome way is simply untrue. Equally there is adifference between markets that are free andthose that are unfettered. Free markets aregood to the extent that they create jobs andgenerate wealth. They cease to be good whenthey become an end in themselves, indeed whenthat happens, it very rarely encouragesdemocracy. In a situation where corporationsare, by law, required to maximise profits nomatter what there is clearly a role forgovernment in setting some parameters in termsof what terms of what can be consideredacceptable behaviour for corporate citizenswithin a civilized society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsDevelopingnations are plagued with corruption as well asdesperate economic situations and are often incompetition with each other in exporting whetherthat is manufacturing for slightly richer countriesof South East Asia or natural resources inAfrica. In the context of such an economic ratrace, it would be unfair to impose a westernstandard on these countries. An increase instandard is not a cheap process as it increasesthe costs of labour and will stretch resourcesresulting in cutting back the number of jobs andhence will increase unemployment and povertyjust as happened in many Latin Americancountries [1] . It is better to employ many andprovide some means of sustenance to all, as willhappen with very low wages and standards,rather than employ less and give (relative)luxury to a few. Developing nations that havelower labour standards can gain a comparativeadvantage in trade: the lower the cost of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labourstandardsInternational labour and businessstandards go hand in hand with developmentstandards and will de facto increaseimplementation levels What are internationallabour and business standards? They are globallyacceptable methods of doing business andemploying labour. These include ConventionsAgainst Forced Labour [1] , Discrimination [2]and Child Labour [3] . These also form guidelinestructures for social policy such as labour disputeresolution bodies, employment services and goodindustrial relations. Therefore, this goes hand inhand with reducing poverty and increasing thestandard of living of the employees, and hencethe standard is a facet of development in itself.This helps in achieving the goals of a stable longterm plan for economic growth as well paidworkers are necessary for consumer spending.Employing higher standards would be a way totackle the problems with distribution of aid at the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsThis is acommon logical fallacy. With limited resources,there is a limited bandwidth within which one canstretch the standard above the capable standard.It is not favourable to increase this gap too muchfor then it is not realistic. Many countries haveratified ILO Conventions but not implementedany of it. [1] For example India has ratified bothILO core conventions on discrimination butdomestic laws have not managed to curtail thewidespread discrimination on the basis of caste,particularly for being a Dalit, gender, andethnicity. [2] It is important that the standardsnot only need to be raised, but rather the currentstandards need to be implemented better –which means a stricter hand to the currentregulations. [1] Salem, Samira and Rozental,Faina. “Labour Standards and Trade: A Review ofRecent Empirical Evidence” Journaln ofInternational Commerce and Economics. WebVersion August 2012. [2] ‘India Hidden", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsWhendeveloping countries employ poor labourstandards, other countries follow the example inorder to be competitive As long as developingnations constantly keep employing poor labourstandards, it will keep putting a strain on theglobal economy. This is because other countrieswill be pressured to do the same just to remaincompetitive. This creates a race to the bottomeffect and would create “poor conditions and lossof freedom in the global South, and causesworkers in the global North to lose their jobs tocheap outsourced labour”. [1] Higher labourstandards in developing countries therefore alsobenefits developed countries. However theconverse is also true; labels like ‘fair trade’provide a guarantee of ethical quality and showthat consumers are willing to pay more to ensuregood labour standards. [1] ‘Changing GlobalTrade Rules’, International Labor Rights Forum,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsLabourstandards are necessary to protect basic humanrights Labour and business standards are acornerstone of agreement on universal humanrights between various international actors andso it is right that they should be linked to aid. In1998 the ILO Declaration on FundamentalPrinciples and Rights at Work were adopted andare considered binding on all membersregardless of whether they have ratified theconventions. [1] The business and labourregulations protect the basic worker rights andimprove job security through demanding theelimination of discrimination and empowerworkers through the recognition of “freedom ofassociation and the effective recognition of theright to collective bargaining” [2] like in those indeveloped western countries. This then providesa minimum standard and aid should only begiven to those that ensure those minimumstandards they have signed up. It would also", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsNot allstandards benefit human rights and some couldeven undermine individual’s most basic humanrights such as that to sustenance and shelter.Standards combating child labour, for example,could be misguided. In many developingcountries, child labour is an important source ofincome for children’s food andeducation. Holding to the ILO’s convention onchild labour would therefore affect families’ andchildren’s income and developmentopportunities. Since child labour is dependent onlevel of economic development, developingcountries should work on combating povertybefore reducing child labour. India implementedmost international standards, including theconvention for child labour. However, researchhas found that children working full time havebetter chances of making it to adulthood thanthose who work less, because they’re better fed[1] . Children’s physical wellbeing will often", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsThis issimilar to the debate of imposing uniform carbonemission caps on all nations. This would beunfair as the developing world would be at adisadvantage as it takes away one of the ways inwhich poorer countries compete effectively in theglobal market; through having lower prices as aresult of those lower standards. That is whykeeping lower standards that are more easilymet is better than having an unachievable andunfair standard.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsStrategicinterests can be put to risk by suchpre-requisites. Donor nations have strategicinterests when awarding aid, which ensure thatfuture trade relations are well secured (such asUnited States and the Middle Eastern oil states).This is why aid goes to countries that often havelinks with the donor. If there are too manyconditions attached and when the developingcountries cannot meet them these countries willgo elsewhere. China is increasingly a competitorin giving aid and overtly at least ties in far fewerconditions into the aid they give. Sudan was cutoff from aid programmes due to its internalconflict, but China invested in developmentprojects without asking for any conditions [1]. [1] Zafar, A. \"The Growing RelationshipBetween China and Sub-Saharan Africa:Macroeconomic, Trade, Investment, and AidLinks.\" The World Bank Research Observer 22.1(2007): 103-30.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsIncreasinga standard, even if not as high as the donorwould want, increases the standard of thepresent situation Increasing the requiredstandard of business and labour will result inincreases to the current standard labour andbusiness standards even before aid is entirelytied as countries implement changes to ensurethey get the most possible aid. Simply setting anexpected level of labour and business standardswill therefore create improvement in thosestandards. In the case of the Decent WorkCountry Programme for Bangladesh 2006-2009Bangladesh has been implementing the programdue to its positive benefit towards achieving themillennium development goals. This is despitechallenges such as the lack of employmentopportunities in the country. The programme hasbeen successful in improving social protection,working conditions and rights for female, male,and children workers in a few sectors and areas", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsHistoricallythe donor of Foreign Aid has always set downpre-requisites When a donor nation parts withforeign aid for development to a nation, it mustalways choose who it prefers to give it to asthere is a limited pot of money to donate thereneeds to be a way of allocating it. It is notsurprising therefore that countries with sharedcolonial histories tend to dominate aid flows,thus Britain has historically given most aid tocountries that were its colonies; in 1960 Maltaand Cyprus received most, while India was thebiggest recipient for much of the rest of the 20thCentury. [1] Further, often countries offering aid,such as the US, the UK, and the EU, require thepre-requisite of democracy or the start of ademocratisation process. Therefore, it is justifiedto add a pre-requisite for better standards ofbusiness and labour as it helps implementation,and principally meets the goals of thedevelopmental aid itself. [2] [1] Provost, Claire,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-con03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsTheconcept of a nation’s sovereignty is losing weightagainst the rights of a global citizen. Citizenseverywhere in the world should be able to enjoyequal standards of employment and not suffer atthe hands of a nation’s neglect. The rights of anebulous entity such as the state should not beequated with the much more vital rights ofindividual workers to humane standards oftreatment and good working conditions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-con01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsAchievingdevelopment at the cost of principles ofdevelopment is not acceptable. The means bywhich you achieve development is equallyimportant, and will remain integral in theprinciples and priorities of a nation once itachieves developed status. The road is asimportant as the destination! Building theeconomy on poor labour standards is building onunstable ground as those jobs will simply moveas soon as costs rise in any way.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-con02a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsThere isnothing wrong with individualised standards. It isthe question on implementing them better andnot raising standards The chances that theseinternational labour standards are even relevantto these developing nations are low. Forexample, India need not ratify the two coreconventions on protecting trade union rightsbecause these are rights that pertain to workersin formal employment. A majority of India’sworkforce is not in formal employment, andhence not covered by any legal provisions.Similarly in many developing economies a largeportion of the workforce is engaged insubsistence farming, something that labourstandards are never going to apply to as thoseinvolved will do whatever they need to in orderto get by. Therefore, there needs to be adifferent standard applied to the situationspecific problems. What needs to be recognisedis how no to low labour standards in developing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-con04a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsThere isuneven implementation of labour standards evenin western countries Western countries often doembrace high levels of labour standards or donot follow their labour regulations. Germany forexample has no minimum wage [1] while theUSA has no legal or contractual requirement toprovide minimum amounts of leave. [2]Moreover it is the demand for the cheapestpossible products that drives down labourstandards worldwide. If western nations trulywant to change labour standards then the way todo it is with the consumer’s wallet not the aidchequebook. British clothing retailers such asPrimark are often shown to be buying theirproducts from sweatshops that use illegalworkers, and exploit their labour [3] . If there isto be real lasting change in labour standardswestern firms need to be the ones pushing highlabour standards and consumers would need tonot automatically go for the cheapest product", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-con03a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labourstandardsDevelopment has many facets of whichpure economic growth is a priority, especially inthe context of a developing nation It is anation’s own sovereign decision to decide its ownstandards and pace itself. It is a sovereign rightof self-determination of a nation to freely complyor refuse to comply with international standards.It is unfair to back a developing nation upagainst a wall and force them to ratify higherstandards in return for aid. It is notable that thecountries that have developed fastest have oftenbeen those that have ignored the whims of theaid donors. The Asian tigers (Singapore, HongKong, South Korea, Taiwan, later followed bySouth East Asia and China) did not receive aid,but preserved authority over their developmentalpolicies. Their success story does not involve theinternational labour standards and goes againstmany of the policy prescriptions, such as freetrade, of international institutions, such as the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-con01a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsUniversalstandards of labour and business are not suitedto the race for development Developingcountries are in a race to develop theireconomies. The prioritisation of countries thatare not currently developed is different to thepriorities of developed countries as a result oftheir circumstances and they must be allowed totemporarily push back standards of labour andbusiness until they achieve a level playing fieldwith the rest of the world. This is becauseeconomic development is a necessaryprecondition for many of the kinds of labourstandards enjoyed in the west. For there to behigh labour standards there clearly needs to beemployment to have those standards.Undeveloped countries are reliant upon cheap,flexible, labour to work in factories to createeconomic growth as happened in China. In suchcases the comparative advantage is throughtheir cheap labour. If there had been high levels", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-con04b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labour standardsIt isirrelevant that some western countries do notalways meet the highest labour standards; doesit matter that Germany does not have a nationalminimum wage when there are minimum wagesfor each sector? These are countries where onelabour standard can be sacrificed because thepay and standards elsewhere are muchhigher. Of course consumers should besupporting attempts to increase labour andbusiness standards but this is hardly exclusive;there is little reason for aid donors not to bedemanding high standards at the same time asconsumers are.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epehwmrbals-con02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy employment house would makeraising business and labourstandardsIndividualised standards can bedangerous. International standards could be setat a minimum level on which every country couldadd measures tailored to its needs as is the casewith the Declaration on Fundamental Principlesand Rights at Work. Countries tend to ignore theimportance on long term development andconcentrate on plans for relatively short termsuccess. By neglecting important issuescountries suffer because they wake up when theissue at hand is too large to handle. Forexample, China’s economy has grown tenfoldsince 1978 but at the cost of greatenvironmental damage. China now hosts 16 ofthe 20 most polluted cities of the world. Thecountry has also landed itself with over 70% ofits natural water sources polluted and is now thelargest emitter of greenhouse gases. [1]Encouraging greener development earlier wouldhave helped prevent this problem. [1] Bajoria,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopLess than $6billion seems to besuspiciously low. Some land would undoubtedlyneed to be purchased if only to allow for lesstight corners. Added to this there would still bedelays due to the need for permits for noise,light and vibration which will mean rising costs.[1] A study of 250 major transport infrastructureprojects has found that 90% of come in overbudget and this escalation is 45% on railprojects. [2] And it should be remembered thatthis is dealing with systems were we know thecosts not something that is completely new.Additionally there would be costs associated withthe closures of the main road routes between LosAngeles and San Francisco – though these mightbe moved to the people of California the costwould still be there. [1] Fernholz, Tim, ‘Does theHyperloop even make sense for California?’,Quartz, 12 August 2013, [2] Flyvbjerg, Bent etal., ‘How common and how large are costoverruns in transport infrastructure projects?’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopThe Hyperloop is comparativelycheap The Hyperloop would be cheap to build.The pods themselves would only cost$1.35million each, the pressurised tube just$650million (or double if wanting vehicles), withonly two stations their cost would only be$250million. The biggest cost would be theconstruction of the pylons carrying the tubewhich is estimated at $2.55 or $3.15billion.There is an estimated total cost of $4.06billionfor the passenger only version or $5.31billion forthe vehicle version. [1] This should be comparedto the current cost for California’s high speed railproject which is estimated to be $68billion whilecovering much the same ground. [2] [1] Musk,Elon, ‘Hyperloop Alpha’, SpaceX, 12 August2013, pp.23, 27, 32, 28, 32 [2] Slosson, Mary,‘California moves forward on $68 billionhigh-speed rail project’, Reuters, 18 July 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopWhile it seems reasonable that the costwill be low it is questionable that it will be quiteas low as suggested. If the cost of constructionrises – as it inevitably does – then because thisis the basis for the pricing calculation the priceswill surely go up. Musk is also forgetting all theextra costs that would be incurred such as thecost of airline style security measures. [1] [1]Fernholz, Tim, ‘Does the Hyperloop even makesense for California?’, Quartz, 12 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopFastest possible transportation over ashort distance Public transportation has notbeen getting much faster over the last fewdecades. The fastest method of transport,supersonic jets in the form of Concorde ceasedoperation in October 2003. [1] Even if at somepoint a new generation of supersonic planes arebuilt these will not be ideal for travelling betweencities that are comparatively close together. Thetime spent getting the plane up and down fromcruising altitude means they would take longerover these short distances than a slower optionat ground level. The Hyperloop at more than700mph will be twice as fast as high speed rail.To take the different options on the SanFrancisco-Los Angeles route cars take 5hours30minutes, the proposed high speed train wouldtake 2hours 38minutes, by plane takes 1hour15minutes whereas the Hyperloop would onlytake 35minutes. [2] [1] ‘End of an era forConcorde’, BBC News, 24 October 2003, [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopPeople are not always interested in thefastest possible option; they often want comfortas well. Trains allow riders to work or relax aswell as travel the Hyperloop has little space forpassengers to move around in. This means thatpassengers may actually be more productive ona train on which they can move around and workas they travel than they would be in a confinedspace on the Hyperloop.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopThe Hyperloop will be a low costsystem for the user The Hyperloop would be thecheapest mode of intercity transport possible.“Transporting 7.4million people each way andamortizing the cost of $6 billion over 20 yearsgives a ticket price of $20 for a one-way trip forthe passenger version of Hyperloop.” [1] Thereare very few additional costs. Usually the maincost for transportation beyond the infrastructureis the energy but the Hyperloop produces moreenergy than it uses so would make a profit here.There would be additional maintenance costs andsome minor staff costs but this is unlikely to addtoo much to the ticket price. The Hyperloopwould therefore be very price competitivecompared to the $100 and up for flights. [1]Musk, Elon, ‘Hyperloop Alpha’, SpaceX, 12August 2013, p.56", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-con03b", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopThat there have been similarsuggestions before does not mean they are notcommercialisable today. The very high speedtrains are an inspiration for the Hyperloop buthave serious disadvantages by comparison.Because of their vacuum tube the system wouldbe stopped at the slightest leak. [1] They arealso astonishingly expensive with the costassociated with construction estimated at as highas $1trillion, the hyperloop is much moreeconomic and therefore practical. [1] Musk,Elon, ‘Hyperloop Alpha’, SpaceX, 12 August2013, p.3", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-con01b", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopThat there will be some opposition tosuch a construction is inevitable. This howeverdoes not matter in a rational look at theadvantages and disadvantages of such atransportation system. The politicians willultimately decide on the same calculus aseveryone else. That the Hyperloop does notconnect into infrastructure in the same way thatthe maglevs fail to is not a relevant argument tothe United States where there are few railservices to connect into. Instead the possibilityof having a Hyperloop that transport vehiclesinvites the prospect of connecting into the roadnetwork. A much more useful alternative inCalifornia.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-con02a", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopLack of capacity or room forexpansion The plans for the Hyperloop providethat “The capacity would be 840 passengers perhour which more than sufficient to transport allof the 6 million passengers traveling between LosAngeles and San Francisco areas per year.” Withonly 28 people per capsule and a maximum ofone capsule every 30 seconds there is not muchroom for expansion. It would seem surprising ifthis service only carried 6million passengers ayear. The Taiwan High Speed Rail runningbetween Taipei and Zuoying carried 41.6 millionpassengers in 2011 [1] considering that Taiwanhas a population of 23 million compared to thecombined population of the San Francisco Bayand Los Angeles metropolitan areas of 26millionthis does not seem an unreasonable comparison.[2] Even if we assume it will not be used at allfor commuting and take the Eurostar as the pointof comparison the Hyperloop still has only twothirds of the capacity it would need as Eurostar’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-con04a", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopIf Musk won’t build it who will? ElonMusk himself is unwilling to build his Hyperloop.He has stated “Maybe I would just do thebeginning bit, create a subscale version that isoperating and then hand it over to someone else.Ironing out the details at a subscale level is atricky thing. I think I would probably end updoing that. It just won’t be immediate in theshort term because I have to focus on Tesla andSpaceX execution.” [1] If the visionary for theproject is having little to do with the project itselfit seems unlikely that the proposal will come toanything. The Hyperloop being such a lowpriority for Musk is also likely to put off anyoneelse who might be interested in beinginvolved. [1] Elliott, Hannah, ‘HyperloopUpdate: Elon Musk Will Start Developing ItHimself’, Forbes, 12 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-con03a", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopThere have been similar suggestionsbefore for intercity travel The Hyperloop is notthe first proposal to use tubes with low – or no –pressure in them. A very high speed train wasproposed by Robert M. Salter in 1972. This as atrain running in a vacuum would have gonesubstantially faster than anything that iscurrently being proposed travelling at around3000 mph. [1] Nor is this the first proposal for apneumatic transport system; such trains werearound in the 19th century. They were firstproposed as far back as 1812 [2] and severalshort demonstration tracks were constructedsuch as the Beach Pneumatic Transit in New Yorkwhich opened in 1870. [3] Such idea has not gotoff the ground in the past and there seems noreason why they should now when the basictechnology is pretty much the same. [1] Salter,Robert M., ‘The Very High Speed TransitSystem’, RAND Corporation, 1972, [2]Medhurst, George, ‘Calculations and Remarks,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-con01a", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopIt will never work The plan for theHyperloop is sound technically but would it workpolitically? It is unlikely that the California highspeed rail project will be scrapped simplybecause there is a new competitor on the block.The Hyperloop has the advantage of being cheapbut it is cheap because it is being built in themiddle of an existing highway, the interstate-5.Building the Hyperloop would therefore causetraffic chaos so there would not be much politicalsupport. [1] Build it elsewhere and land wouldneed to be bought just as with proposals for highspeed rail. Maglevs are, like the Hyperloop,practically sound – one travels from ShanghaiAirport into the center of the city [2] – but theyhave not been built. High speed trains, despitebeing slower, have been the preferred methodfor creating high speed transportation systemsbecause they can easily connect into the existingrail infrastructure, a problem for both theHyperloop and maglevs. [1] Yarow, Jay, ’41", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-con04b", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopEven if Elon is not currently willing tolead the project himself he is willing to both builda demonstration prototype to prove thetechnology and to invest money in thedevelopment himself. [1] [1] Elliott, Hannah,‘Hyperloop Update: Elon Musk Will StartDeveloping It Himself’, Forbes, 12 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-beghwbh-con02b", "title": "", "text": "business economy general house would buildhyperloopIt is very unlikely that the Hyperloopwould quickly reach its capacity. Currently thenumber of people travelling from Los Angeles toSan Francisco by plane only number 2.8millionso there would clearly be plenty of room forexpansion. [1] [1] Amin, Saurabh, ‘Ride theHyperloop before decade’s end?’, CNN, 13August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismEven an allinclusive package holiday benefits the economythrough buying local products and hiring stafflocally. To get beyond the lower end of themarket Tunisia is diversifying its tourism formore profitable gains through cultural activitieswhich can be charged separately to board andlodging. Cultural tourism equates to around37% of worldwide tourism1 and Tunisia isbeginning to further embrace this aspect. The setof the fictional planet of Tatooine from the StarWars films is a popular destination for tourists,although this is now threatened by sand dunes2.There are other notable locations which are notthreatened however. The ancient city ofCarthage, excavated in the mid-19th century,the world heritage site of Kairouan, and theSaharan desert are prominent destinations forcultural tourism. The growth of this sub-sectorcould incur more profitable gains.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismProfit margins aretoo small A major problem for Tunisia’s tourismsector is the small profit margin. The industry’smain targets are European, middle class incomevisitors on package holidays to sea-side resorts.This has resulted in a low per-capita spendingrate as food, drink and travel are all usuallyincluded in sea-side holiday resorts. Averageper-capita spending for tourists in Tunisiaamounted to around $385 in 2012 which is lowwhen compared to Egypt’s $890 and Greece’s$10001. This reliance on a low-profit niche in thetourism industry is a systematic flaw which willnot provide the economic growth which thecountry needs. 1) Achy,L. ‘The Tourism Crisis inTunisia Goes Beyond Security Issues’, Al Monitor,26 June 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismThe majority ofmodern economic industries have to faceoverseas competition. Tunisia, like its NorthAfrican neighbours, was convinced in the 1990sto emplace neo-liberal reforms in return forincreased lending from the World Bank and otherlenders. These reforms, based on the freemarket principles, ensured that protectionismended and domestic industries had to competeagainst other international actors. Sectors suchas agriculture have become increasinglythreatened by overseas competition since the1990s1. The disparity between rich and poorcreated by the reforms has been listed as one ofthe major factors for the Jasmine revolution2. 1)Aoun,A. ‘The Performance of TunisianAgriculture: An Economic Appraisal’, New Medit,vol.3 no.2, 2004 pg.5 2) Nazemroaya,M.‘Dictatorship, and Neo-Liberalism: The TunisianPeople’s Uprising’, 19 January 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismVulnerable tounrest Relying on tourism ensures that theeconomy is at the mercy of unrest. The violenceand break down in law and order following theTunisian revolution resulted in a notabledecrease in tourists as tourists were unwilling tovisit an area which they view as dangerous. Thisis demonstrated by the footfall of tourists whichdeclined from 6,487,000 in 2010 to 4,456,000 in2011 1. The increase in attacks by Salafists, aconservative sect of Islam which promotesSharia law and has attacked tourist destinations,has dissuaded many potential visitors2. This hasbeen exacerbated by government travelinformation which generally advises againstvisiting regions during periods of unrest,especially for Westerners who are perceived asprofitable targets for ransom3. The resultantdecrease in tourists reduces revenue, makingtourism an unreliable industry for Tunisia. 1)African Manager, ‘Tunisia-Tourism: Clear", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismThe long termaffects that instability have on industries such astourism is overstated. Since the Tunisianrevolution, there has been a continued effort bySalafists to attack tourist destinations. However,tourism has recovered from the low point of2011. In the first ten months of 2013 Tunisiaattracted 5.5 million tourists, increasing by 5.7%over 20121. The continued growth of the sectordemonstrates that the impact which instabilityhas is exaggerated. Besides instability wouldequally affect other industries; closing factories,damaging perceptions of an ability to completeorders etc. 1) Reuters, ‘Tunisia tourism up by5.7 pct in first 10-months of 2013’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismEnvironmentaldamage caused by alternative sectors is farworse. Pollution in the industrial sector hasbecome much more evident since the removal ofBen Ali’s regime. 13,000 tonnes of industrialpollution are released from the Gulf of Gabesevery year, causing high rates of infertility,miscarriages and deaths1. This is a commontheme amongst Tunisia’s industrial areas and isfar more destructive than tourist activities. 1)Addala,R. & McNeil, ‘Pollution in Gabes,Tunisia’s shore of death’, Al-Jazeera, 14 June2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismOverseascompetition Tunisia’s tourism industry is at riskfrom overseas competition. International tourismis a very competitive market, relying on theindustry is therefore an illogical policy. Tunisia isalready being undercut on prices by othercountries despite its low fees. Morocco, Spainand Turkey can afford to charge a lower price forpackage tours than Tunisia due to better airtransportation links1. Even before the Jasminerevolution, Tunisia was starting to lose ground tothese countries. The ten years before theremoval of Ben Ali saw the number of tourists toTunisia rise from five to seven million, whilstMorocco rose from five to nine million2. Outsideof the Mediterranean, Tunisia must compete withpopular tourist destinations such as the Far East,North America and Australasia. 1) AfricanManager, ‘Tunisia-Tourism: Clear Improvement,but a timid pace!’, data accessed 24 January2014 2) Achy,L. ‘The Tourism Crisis in Tunisia", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismTourism causespollution The tourism industry in Tunisia resultsin notable damage to the environment. Withoutsustainability, economic growth will only last inthe short term. This is especially pertinent fortourism, where environmental beauty is ofparticular importance. From the construction ofinfrastructure and travel, to the general wasteproduced, tourism is problematic in the sensethat it can often cause pollution; which in turndamages the country’s reputation1. Most touriststo the region are from Europe, although thereare an increasing number of Russians whichmeans travel becomes a major source ofpollution. A return journey via plane from Londonto Tunis creates around 310 kg of CO2 (standardpassenger jets create around 0.17kg of CO2 perkm) 2. This is disproportionately damagingcompared to other vehicles, but is the mostpractical way of reaching Tunisia. Other impactssuch as overuse of water, land degradation and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismThe potential forgrowth within other sectors of Tunisia’s economyis far greater than that of tourism, if invested inproperly. The energy sector has been highlightedas a potential avenue for development, asenergy efficiency projects would provideemployment and a lower cost of production inthe industrial sector1. At present, the industrialsector’s low profits are the product ofhigh-energy costs due to energy imports.Sustainable energy production in Tunisia throughprojects such as solar panels would help increaseprofit margins. Research and development inindustry and agriculture also has the potential toincrease profits and employment. At presentthere are few private R&D departments incomparison to those in the public sector, but itprovides another avenue for greater technicalefficiency in other areas which could then createa higher revenue2. 1) World Bank, ‘EnergyEfficiency in Tunisia: Promoting Industry While", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismWhile the sectordoes provide employment, there is a regionaland gender disparity. The number of womenemployed by the generally female friendlyindustry is below the national average. Only22.5% of those employed in tourism are female,while the national average is 25.6%1,demonstrating a clear under-representation.Regional disparity also exists between coastaland inland regions. Years of coastal-focusedeconomic growth has resulted in anunderdeveloped interior region with few jobs inthe tourism sector2. 1) Kärkkäinen,O. ‘Womenand work in Tunisia’, European TrainingFoundation, November 2010 2) Joyce,R. ‘TheRegional Inequality Behind Tunisia’s Revolution’,Atlantic Council, 17 December 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not relytourismInvestment Tourism should be reliedupon for economic growth as it attractssignificant foreign investment. Tourism is thelargest form of foreign currency income, witharound £728 million being produced by externalvisitors in 20121. Attracting Europeans, whohave relatively large disposable incomes, hasbeen a prominent tactic of the industry withfavourable results. It is estimated thatEuropeans account for 95% of all overnight staysin Tunisia2. The other major sectors of servicesand agriculture do not inspire foreign investmentof this magnitude. 1) Khalifa,A. ‘Foreign directinvestment and tourism receipts pick back up inTunisia’, Global Arab Network, 7 October2012 2) Choyakh,H. ‘Modelling Tourism Demandin Tunisia Using Cointegration and ErrorCorrection Models’ pg.71", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismOther industriesare less reliable Other sectors, such asagriculture and the industrial sectors, haveproven to be unreliable as well. Tunisia’sagriculture sector is the largest employer in thecountry and has received significant investmentsince the 1980s. Despite this, the sectorperformed poorly between 1985-2000 and wascostly to the Tunisian economy; ensuring lowreturns and importation of food to meet domesticdemand1. The industrial sector alsodemonstrated itself to be vulnerable in the 2008economic recession. In addition, the low value ofproduced goods creates little opportunity forlucrative profits2. The flaws of these sectorsmake them unviable as alternatives totourism. 1) Aoun,A. ‘The Performance ofTunisian Agriculture: An Economic Appraisal’pg.7 2) Elj,M. ‘Innovation in Tunisia: EmpiricalAnalysis for Industrial Sector’ 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismProducesEmployment Tourism is the second largestemployer in the country. The industry producesover 400,000 jobs for Tunisians1. Thisemployment figure is vital to Tunisia which has alarge number of students in higher-education,around 346,000 in 2010, and a consequentiallyhigh expectation of employment2. Tourism alsohas a positive effect on other linked industriessuch as transport, creating jobs in these sectorsas well. This creation of employment allows morepeople to sufficiently contribute to societythrough taxes and the purchasing of goodsthrough their wages. This, in turn, produceseconomic growth and should therefore beencouraged. 1) Padmore,R. ‘Tunisia tourismindustry looks to rebuild’, BBC, 22nd August2013 2) Global Edge, ‘Tunisia: Economy’, dataaccessed 27 January 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepahbtsnrt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy africa house believestunisia should not rely tourismThe prominence offoreign investment in tourism has decreasedsince Ben Ali’s fall. Prior to the Jasminerevolution, financial actors who were close to theruling regime were encouraged to invest andgiven a privileged position. Once the regime wasremoved, so were the favourable conditions1.Reliance on Europe for tourists, and the foreigninvestment that accompanies them, has alsoproven to be unwise. Since the 2008 economiccrisis, many potential European tourists havebeen out of work, or have reduced disposableincomes at the very least, which has decreasedthe flow of tourists and financial investment2. 1)Achy,L. ‘The Tourism Crisis in Tunisia GoesBeyond Security Issues’, Al Monitor, 26 June2012 2) Padmore,R. ‘Tunisia tourism industrylooks to rebuild’ , BBC, 22nd August 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldPeople whomove to the cities have chosen to move fromtheir families and dear ones, because they wantto create a new and better life for themselves.Armed with great motivation, they enter thecities and are often prepared to undertake workthat others do not want to do, hoping to climbthe social ladder later on. Interestingly it is oftenthe case that those in slums have a higher rateof employment than those not living in slums. InUganda for example only 9% of young men areneither in school or employment compared to16% for those not living in slums. [1] Thisbenefits the development of the city and it isonly with this extra workforce that the city canfully develop, thus most big cities have at somepoint had slums, such as London’s East End inthe 19th Century. It might take time, but for thelong-term benefits of the cities, rural-urbanmigration should be promoted. An example ofthis slow kind of development is the progress", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldRestrictionson migration would benefit people in the citieseconomically and socially Cities are veryappealing to poor people. Even if their livingstandards in cities might be unacceptable, theyget closer to basic goods, such as fresh water,sanitation etc. However, these things existbecause there are productive people in the citieswho work and pay taxes. What happens whentoo many people come at the same time is thatpublic money is stretched too thinly and thesebasic goods can no longer be provided. Thisleads to severe humanitarian problems such asmalnutrition, thirst, lack of medication,etc. However, this humanitarian crisis does notonly harm those directly affected, it also createsan unattractive environment for business. Thus,people who enter the city cannot find work, asproduction does not grow in relation to thepeople who enter. They become excluded fromsociety and often turn to crime, which further", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldThe argumentis based on the idea that there is a lot ofinvestment that is just waiting to be made inrural areas. In reality, this is not so. Until thereare real investors who are prepared to changethe conditions of rural areas in developingcountries, it is morally bankrupt to force peopleto remain in an untenable situation as marketingmaterial for hypothetical investment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldThegovernment has a right to make decisions in thebest interest of the people Man is a social being.Therefore people live in communities wheredecisions that affect the many, are taken byrepresentatives of the many. Thus, a socialcontract exists between the people and theirgovernment. [1] In exchange for part of theirautonomy and freedom, the government ensuresthat policies are made in the best interest ofpeople, even if this might come at the expense ofshort-term interests for some individuals. This isa typical example of this kind of case. The trendis emptying the countryside, stopping theproduction of agricultural goods and hollowingthe amenities provided by the cities. Even if eachindividual has a personal incentive to move tothe cities, the harm to the cities is greater thantheir accumulated individual gains. It is in thesecases that the state must act to protect itspeople and ensure long term benefits. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldThegovernment has a right to make some decisionson behalf of the people, but not any decision.Once the state acts against one group of peopleto further the interest of an already privilegedgroup of people it loses this right as the stateexists to protect everyone in society not just themajority or a privileged group. This is preciselythe case in this motion. People who live in ruralareas are already disenfranchised andcondemned to terrible conditions, and theproposal only serves those who want theircomfortable bourgeois life to be even morecomfortable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldThe principleat the heart of this debate is that of the rights ofthe individual. While it might be true that a largegroup of people make uninformed decisions, aban on any decisions in relation to where peoplelive will keep the individuals from making anydecisions, informed and uninformed. Thedamage to those who actually could improvetheir lives greatly outweighs the benefits,especially as the resources that would be neededfor this policy could be used to educate andinform people in rural areas and thus improvethe basis of their decisions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldRestrictionswould benefit rural areas Unlimited rural-urbanmigration erodes the economy of the cities, asshown in the previous argument, and limits theireconomic growth and available resources. On anational level, this causes decision makers toprioritise the cities, as the country relies more onurban than rural areas, thus preventing themfrom investing in the country-side. [1] China is agood example of this where urban privilege hasbecome entrenched with ‘special economiczones’ being created in urban areas (thoughsometimes built from scratch in rural areas) withmoney being poured into infrastructure for theurban areas which as a result have rapidlymodernised leaving rural areas behind. Thisleads to a whole culture of divisions whereurbanites consider those from rural areas to bebackward and less civilized. [2] Moreover, therewill be little other reason to invest in rural areas,as the workforce in those areas has left for the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldPoor,uneducated people are lured into cities Thecause of rural-urban migration in developingnations and the main reason why it becomesproblematic is that people who move to the citiesare not making informed decisions. They are ledto believe that the cities contain opportunitiesthat they cannot find where they live, and thereare no mechanisms such as efficient media oradequate education to eradicate thismisconception. [1] Myths can be easilypropagated by a single successful migrantreturning home to visit that then attracts manyothers to try their luck without any knowledge ofthe possible costs. [2] This is exacerbated byunscrupulous organisations that prey on theirdesperation to take all their money to organisetheir move to the city. Some of those who aretrafficked find themselves brought to the city andexploited through forced labour, begging, oreven prostitution. [3] Many of those who move", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-con03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldThis kind ofargument underestimates the capacity of humanpotential. People in rural communities devote alltheir efforts and their creativity towards gettingto the cities because they believe it is the bestfor them and their families. If they do not havethis option, they can devote that energy to theircommunity and make it grow to compete withthe cities. It is then the duty of the governmentthat imposes this restriction to support suchcommitments by giving them the right conditionsto improve their situation by investing in ruralareas as much as urban ones.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-con01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldFreedom ofmovement is not an intrinsic human right, butrather a right that can and should be given bythe state where it is possible. For example thestate puts people into prisons; this infringes theirfreedom of movement. This is partially aspunishment, but the core rationale for this is toprotect the people outside of the prison frompotentially dangerous people. [1] But for that,there would be significantly cheaper and moreefficient ways of punishing criminals. The peoplewhose freedom of movement is restricted are athreat to people living in the cities and to theeconomy of the nation as a whole. In the betterinterest of the nation and to protect innocentpeople whose lives will be damaged byunrestricted migration, these people must acceptrestricted freedom of movement. [1] See thedebatabase debate ‘ This House believes criminaljustice should focus more on rehabilitation ’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-con02a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldIt is practicallyimpossible to control people's movement One ofthe major problems with the proposal lies in thevery fact that we are indeed dealing withdeveloping nations. These nations have verylimited capacity to manage this kind of system.What will happen instead, will be a state ofconfusion, where the law will be upheld in someparts while ignored in others. The case in Chinaclearly shows that corruption follows in the wakeof this kind of legislation, where urban Hukousare sold illegally or officials are frequently bribedto ignore the law. [1] Furthermore, it onlycauses those who choose to move to the cities,in spite of the law, to be alienated from societyand live a life outside of the law. Once outside ofthe law, the step to other crimes is very small asthese people have little to lose. [2] In short, thelaw will only work in some cases and where itworks it will lead to increased segregation andmore crime. [1] Wang, Fei-Ling. “Organising", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-con04a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldRestrictionscause an incredible loss of potential One of thebest things about a functioning developed nationis that young people can choose their profession.Apart from this being beneficial for theindividual, this means that the best suited personfor a given trade will often be the same thatpursues it. If we prevent people from movingfreely we deprive the cities of talented peoplewhose talents and skills are much better suitedfor urban professions than for rural jobs. Inshort, this policy would make farmers out of thepotential lawyers, politicians, doctors, teachersetc. Indeed this is the whole basis of mostmodels of migration, people leave rural areasbecause there is surplus labour in that area whilethe cities needs new workers. [1] [1] Taylor, J.Edward, and Martin, Philip L., “Human Capital:Migration and Rural Population Change”,Handbook of Agricultural Economics,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-con03a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldRural life ismiserable and has higher mortality rates thancities This planet does not find worse livingstandards anywhere than in the rural areas ofdeveloping countries. These are the areas wherefamine, child mortality and diseases (such asAIDS) plague the people. [1] China’s Hukousystem has condemned millions of people topremature death by locking them in areas thatnever will develop. [2] While the cities enjoy thebenefits of 12% growth, the villages are as poorand deprived as ever. [3] It is a poorly concealedpolicy aimed at maintaining a gaping socialcleavage and allowing the rich to remainrich. [1] Maxwell, Daniel., “The PoliticalEconomy of Urban Food Security in Sub-SaharanAfrica.” 11, London : Elsevier Science Ltd., 1999,World Development, Vol. 27, p. 1939±1953.S0305-750X(99)00101-1. [2] Dikötter, Frank.Mao's Great Famine. London : Walker &Company, 2010. 0802777686. [3] Wang,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-con01a", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldFreedom ofmovement is an intrinsic human right Everyhuman being is born with certain rights. Theseare protected by various charters and areconsidered inseparable from the human being.The reason for this is a belief that these rightscreate the fundamental and necessary conditionsto lead a human life. Freedom of movement isone of these and has been recognised as such inArticle 13 of the Universal Declaration of HumanRights. [1] If a family finds themselves facedwith starvation, the only chance they have ofsurvival might be to move to another placewhere they might live another day. It is inhumanto condemn individuals to death and suffering forthe benefit of some nebulous collective theory.While we might pass some of our freedoms tothe state, we have a moral right to the freedomsthat help us stay alive – in this context freedomof movement is one of those. [1] GeneralAssembly, “The Universal Declaration of Human", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-con04b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldWhile factuallytrue for developed nations, this point completelydisregards the reality of developing nations. Mostof the labour that is available is unskilled,whether it is in the rural or urban communities.There is little reason to believe that the poor willautomatically be able to gain better educationshould they move to the city. The harm causedby letting migrants flood the cities to lead amiserable life greatly outweighs that of havingone or two too intelligent farmers who miss outon their calling.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-epsihbdns-con02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldNo amount ofconfusion can compare with the nearly anarchicalstate of places like Nairobi, where there is no lawand very little state. [1] In the current situationwhere there is a menacing trend that threatensthe very fabric of society, even if the law wouldnot work to its full effect, it is better for it towork partially than not to have it at all.Corruption is a separate issue that alreadyfesters in these regions under the status quo anddoes not need this extra policy to thrive. Thismust be dealt with separately, but it is indeedregrettable if a good policy is kept from beingput into practice from fear of a phenomenon thatis in no manner causally contingent upon thepolicy. [1] Maxwell, Daniel., “The PoliticalEconomy of Urban Food Security in Sub-SaharanAfrica.” 11, London : Elsevier Science Ltd., 1999,World Development, Vol. 27, p. 1939±1953.S0305-750X(99)00101-1.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestIn addition to themoral concerns, it is not proven thatdictatorships are sustainable in the long term.There will always be groups seeking a democraticgovernment, which could lead torevolution. There is a particular issue withhandovers of power in dictatorships, especiallythose with personality cults – for example thetransition to democracy after the death ofFrancisco Franco in 1975, or the collapse anddisintegration of Yugoslavia in to ethnic conflictfollowing the death of Tito. Many authoritarianregimes require a lot of upkeep in terms ofpropaganda which counterbalances the cost ofelections [1] . An election may be costly but it isalso a good indicator of the performance of agovernment, providing a mechanism ofmonitoring the performance of the “socialcontract”. Democratic governments areaccountable to their people at the ballot box,which gives those in power an incentive to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestDictatorshipsassure low cost political stability Due to the lackof rotation in office, a dictatorship allows for amore stable government with more ability toplan for the long term, which is crucial forattracting foreign investment. Given that ademocracy requires regular elections, eachelection can change the economic environmentof a country. A change in government may leadto a switch in policies, partisan appointments togovernment bodies, and a medium term focusalways set on the next election. Close electionscan lead to disorder as votes are recounted andappeals lodged in the courts. After the 2006Mexican presidential election, tight results leadto popular unrest and mass protests calling for arecount. The president elect had to deal with alarge legislative faction that did not recognisehim, and his opponent refused to concededefeat. [1] Without a stable framework, the lackof foreign confidence may impede development.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestDictatorshipsgenerally focus only on supporting one elementof society, which means that there are oftenopposition groups from other demographicsready to oppose them. When the repression fails,the state will no longer be stable. Even if adictatorship can create economic growth, it willnot necessarily permeate through all elements ofsociety, making them more likely to object to thegovernment. If a dictatorship manages to createan inclusive economy, demands for an inclusivepolitical system will follow. While a dictatorshipmay work in the short term, political change willthen result from this very success as shown bythe countries like South Korea and Taiwan thatgrew rapidly as autocracies before havingdemocratic revolutions. According to AdamSmith, ““[c]ommerce and manufactures canseldom flourish long in any state which does notenjoy a regular administration of justice, inwhich the people do not feel themselves secure", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestDictatorships aremore effective than democracies at mobilizingresources for investment. Dictatorships aresuperior to democracies in that they can makedecisions and implement policies quicker. Theycan easily modify institutional and legalframeworks towards development goals, as thereis no need for a political consensus behind theiractions. This also insulates government fromspecial interests that must be reconciled with indemocracies. This allows dictatorships to createa pro-investment legal, economic andinstitutional framework such as low taxes,exchange rate manipulations and import tariffs,without facing political opposition. For example,fracking, a technique used to extract hard toobtain gas, has generated widespread oppositionin the West, leading to it being banned in France[1] . An autocratic government would find iteasier to allow cheap access to this energy,boosting industry, as it could disregard this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestThis makes theassumption that dictators are rational, wise andseek to encourage development, rather thanoperate as kleptocrats. This is why dictatorshipusually does not benefit development; the veryconcentration of power means when they makepoor decisions the effect on the country is muchgreater. There is a similar result with corruption,a lack of checks and balances mean thatdecisions can be taken and implemented quicklybut this same lack also means there is little toprevent corruption. Corruption is often rife innon-democratic societies. For example, in Cubathe healthcare system is largely reliant onbribery and is often under-resourced. One USdiplomatic cable points out “[i]n one Cubanhospital, patients had to bring their own lightbulbs. In another, the staff used \"a primitivemanual vacuum\" on a woman who hadmiscarried. In others, Cuban patients pay bribesto obtain better treatment.” [1] [1] ‘Wikileaks", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestDictatorships canprevent social unrest Dictatorships are better atcontrolling discipline and order within society.They generally promote a state based onhierarchical values, through strict policies basedon security. This allows them to prevent financiallosses due to strikes and riots, and reduce crimerates, making the country morestable. Singapore is a de-facto one party state,in which the ruling People’s Action Party, isaccused of stopping the operation of oppositionparties. A former Foreign Minister of Singaporehas asked “How many Singaporeans really wantfree speech anyway? They want orderliness, adecent living” [1] . This both makes the countrymore competitive because there are moreproductive days and more attractive to invest inas expats will want to live in countries with littlecrime. Moreover when it comes to attractingimmigration for sectors of the economy there isnone of the opposition that would occur in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestThose casesshow that the dictatorship helped the economy.Even if it did not trigger the growth, it laid theground work for it. In Spain’s case it was adictator who was able to change to the necessaryfree market policies while in South Korea it wasthe previous autocrats that launched thecountry’s miracle. While economic policy is moreimportant than political freedoms, dictatorshipsare better at implementing such a framework ofpolicies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestThose casesshow that the dictatorship helped the economy.Even if it did not trigger the growth, it laid theground work for it. In Spain’s case it was adictator who was able to change to the necessaryfree market policies while in South Korea it wasthe previous autocrats that launched thecountry’s miracle. While economic policy is moreimportant than political freedoms, dictatorshipsare better at implementing such a framework ofpolicies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestDevelopment isabout more than economic growth Amartya Senhas argued that “the removal of substantialunfreedoms […] is constitutive of development[in so far as give people] the opportunity ofexercising their reasoned agency [1] ”. In abroader sense, democracy is necessary for adeveloped society because a precondition of adeveloped society is for that society to be able todecide for itself what its objectives are. It issociety as a whole that needs to define what itconsiders to be development. The Myanmarunder the junta may have considered its goals tobe a strong military showing that Burma wasdeveloped. But without the citizenry agreeingthis would not make Burma a strong state. Quitethe opposite the lack of freedoms would showthe country is not actually developed.Development means more than economicgrowth, it has to include other indicators as inthe Human Development Index, but also things", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-con04a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestDemocratic ruleof law is the best ground for political stability andgrowth In order for a society to developeconomically, it needs a stable politicalframework and dictatorships are often lessstable. A dictator will have to prioritize theretention of power. As repression is inevitable, adictator will not necessarily be entirely popular.There will regularly be a doubt about the futureand sustainability of a dictatorship. Bearing inmind the messy collapses of some dictatorships,a democracy may be a more stable form ofgovernment over the long term [1] . Onlydemocracies can create a stable legal framework.The rule of law ensures all of society has accessto justice and the government acts within thelaw. Free and fair elections act as a bulwarkagainst social unrest and violence. Economicfreedoms and human rights protection also havepositive effects on economies. Private propertyrights, for example, encourage productivity and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestPolitical regimehas a limited impact on development It can beargued that a good economic policy, such asChina’s economic policies, have helpeddevelopment. But a free market policy can bedone with any form of government, and cannotbe exclusively attached to a dictatorship or ademocracy. Any political system can use it.Although it has been noted that South Korea wasan autocracy during economic ‘takeoff’ itseconomy has also grown significantly sincedemocratization with GNI per capita growingfrom $3,320 in 1987 to $22,670 in 2012.[1] Another example is that Spanish economicgrowth in the 1950-2000 period. The 1960seconomic miracle in Spain was not necessarilycaused by Franco’s regime – he controlled thecountry in the 1950s, when the country did nothave such economic success. In 1959, Francoopened up the Spanish economy internationally,ending the isolationist economic policies", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestDemocracy actsin the interest of the general population, which isgood for development It can be argued that agood economic policy, such as China’s economicpolicies, have helped development. But a freemarket policy can be done with any form ofgovernment, and cannot be exclusively attachedto a dictatorship or a democracy. Any politicalsystem can use it. Although it has been notedthat South Korea was an autocracy duringeconomic ‘takeoff’ its economy has also grownsignificantly since democratization with GNI percapita growing from $3,320 in 1987 to $22,670in 2012. [1] Another example is that Spanisheconomic growth in the 1950-2000 period. The1960s economic miracle in Spain was notnecessarily caused by Franco’s regime – hecontrolled the country in the 1950s, when thecountry did not have such economic success. In1959, Franco opened up the Spanish economyinternationally, ending the isolationist economic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-con04b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestEconomicdevelopment is not exclusively bound up withregimes or institutions. Natural factors such asrivers for transport, potential land use andnatural resources are key to explaining whysome countries are more prosperous thanothers. Many countries with higher economicgrowth are authoritarian or unstable democracies[1] . These may have the necessary economicconditions for growth even without theseinclusive political institutions. [1] GDP growth onan annual basis adjusted for inflation andexpressed as a percent, CIA World Facbook,2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-economy-bepighbdb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "business economic policy international globalhouse believes dictatorship bestCertain economicstandards have to be met to genuinely satisfyindividual autonomy and freedom. If economicgrowth is a necessity for democracy,dictatorships are better at gaining the requiredgrowth. If dictatorships grow faster while notredistributing wealth then at least there will bemore wealth to redistribute when the state doeseventually start to do so. It might therefore beconsidered once again that it is the autocraticstate that sets the conditions for democracies totake over and increase development in thenon-economic areas.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehbisrip1b-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house believes israel shouldreturn its pre 1967 bordersSelf-determination isnot an absolute right. Not every territory andregion in the world that seeks independence hasthe right to it. This is due in no small part to thefact that such a system would be unworkable.Certain criteria must be met for a territory andpeople to obtain a legitimate right toself-determination, including not compromisingthe fundamental security or territorial integrity ofthe original state, which a Palestinian statecreated through Israel withdrawing to its 1967borders arguably, would do. Moreover, it ispossible for Israel to withdraw from most of theWest Bank, as it has offered to do in the past,while keeping some strategically essential land.This would allow for Palestinianself-determination whilst falling short of fallingback totally to the 1967 borders.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehbisrip1b-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house believes israel shouldreturn its pre 1967 bordersFailure to withdrawblocks legitimate Palestinian aspirations tostatehood. The Palestinian people since 1967have demonstrated through resistance to Israelioccupation their desire for an independent stateof their own. [1] Throughout the years polls haveconsistently showed respectable Palestinianmajorities in favour of a negotiated two-statesettlement, which would offer them anindependent state as well as allowing Israel tocontinue to exist as an independent statealongside the new Palestinian nation. [2] Israel'srefusal to withdraw to the 1967 borders meansthat the majority of Palestinian people arecompelled to live under the control of a statethey do not wish to be a part of, a violation oftheir right to self-determination underinternational law. The 1993 Vienna Declaration,which reaffirmed the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights and the UN Charter (and so setsthe standard in current international law),", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehbisrip1b-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house believes israel shouldreturn its pre 1967 bordersSimply withdrawing toits 1967 borders would not end theIsrael-Palestinian conflict. Violence betweenIsraelis and Palestinians long pre-dates the 1967war. The 1967 war itself was caused by the factthat even an Israel within its 1967 borders washated by neighbouring states for existing. [1]Palestinian support for two-state solution, evenone where Israel withdrew to its 1967 bordersdeclined around 2008, and is waning evenamong the 'moderate' Palestinian camp, as wellas among additional Arab elements. [2]Regarding Hamas, the reason it speaks only of“long term truces” with Israel and not peace isbecause it only wishes to make a deal allowing itto grow strong enough to eventually destroy theIsraeli state, not to make permanent peace. [3]It is also naïve to think that an Israeli stateexisting within its 1967 borders would gain thefavour or even support of Iran. Iran wants to bethe dominant power in the Middle East, and any", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehbisrip1b-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house believes israel shouldreturn its pre 1967 bordersIsrael has no right tothe occupied territories. Because Israel won theland during war, it is considered occupiedterritory under international law, and it is illegalfor Israel to annex it. [1] In July 2004, theInternational Court of Justice delivered anAdvisory Opinion observing that undercustomary international law as reflected in Article42 of the Regulations annexed to the Hague IVConvention, territory is considered occupiedwhen it is actually placed under the authority ofthe hostile army, and the occupation extendsonly to the territory where such authority hasbeen established and can be exercised. Israelraised a number of exceptions and objections,but the Court found them unpersuasive. TheCourt ruled that territories had been occupied bythe Israeli armed forces in 1967, during theconflict between Israel and Jordan, and thatsubsequent events in those territories, had donenothing to alter the situation. [2] Even the Israeli", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehbisrip1b-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house believes israel shouldreturn its pre 1967 bordersIsrael won the 1967war, even though this tiny nation was up againstnumerous Arab nations that aggressivelyinitiated the conflict. [1] It had and has a right,therefore, to govern territory it rightfully foughtand died for. All land held by any nation wasgained through conflict at one time or another;the Palestinian people came to be in possessionof their land in the West Bank through the ArabConquests of the 7th Century. [2] Why areIsrael's conquests any less legitimate, especiallyseeing as Israel took this land in self-defenceand has kept only the land it needs for itscontinuing security? Moreover, hundreds ofthousands of Israeli citizens now live insettlements beyond the 1967 borders, and Israelhas both the right and responsibility to protecttheir lives and homes by continuing to hold thisterritory. [1] BBC News. “1967: Israel launchesattack on Egypt”. BBC News On This Day. 5 June1967. [2] Kennedy, Hugh. “The Great Arab", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehbisrip1b-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house believes israel shouldreturn its pre 1967 bordersReturning to the 1967borders would bring peace to Israel. If Israelwere to withdraw to its 1967 borders, thePalestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) wouldrecognise Israel as legitimate within itsremaining territories and end the conflict. InOctober 2010 Senior Palestine LiberationOrganization official Yasser Abed Rabbo said thatthe Palestinians will be willing to recognize theState of Israel in any way that it desires, if theAmericans would only present a map of thefuture Palestinian state that includes all of theterritories captured in 1967, including EastJerusalem. “We want to receive a map of theState of Israel which Israel wants us to accept. Ifthe map will be based on the 1967 borders andwill not include our land, our houses and EastJerusalem, we will be willing to recognize Israelaccording to the formulation of the governmentwithin the hour... Any formulation [presented tous] – even asking us to call Israel the 'Chinese", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehbisrip1b-con03b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house believes israel shouldreturn its pre 1967 bordersIsrael has forciblyremoved settlements when transferring backoccupied land in the past, most notably in 1982in the Sinai and 2005 in Gaza. While difficult, it ispossible, and any ensuing difficulties are thefault of the Israeli government for allowing thesesettlements in the first place, and as such thecost (of not having their own state) should notbe borne by the Palestinian people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehbisrip1b-con01b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house believes israel shouldreturn its pre 1967 bordersIsrael won the 1967war, demonstrating that despite a majorcoordinated Arab attack on Israel, it could defendits pre-1967 borders adequately. [1] This putsthe lie to the central argument that the pre-1967borders are indefensible. They defended thembefore under extremely hostile conditions; theycan defend them again now under lessconventionally threatening conditions, with agreater conventional military capacity to wage adefence, and with the unwavering support of theUnited States. [1] Johnson, Paul. “A History ofthe Jews”. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1987.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehbisrip1b-con02a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house believes israel shouldreturn its pre 1967 bordersReturning to the 1967borders would make war more likely. TheForeign Minister of Israel, Avigdor Lieberman,said in 2009: “A return to the pre-1967 lines,with a Palestinian state in Judea and Samaria,would bring the conflict into Israel's borders.Establishing a Palestinian state will not bring anend to the conflict.” [1] This is why the Americanambassador to the UN at the time of the 1967war pointed out that “Israel's prior frontiers hadproved to be notably insecure”, and AmericanPresident Lyndon Johnson, shortly after the war,declared that Israel's return to its former lineswould be “not a prescription for peace but forrenewed hostilities.” Johnson advocated new'recognized boundaries' that would provide\"security against terror, destruction, and war.”[2] An Israel that withdrew completely to the1967 borders would offer a very tempting target,since it would be a narrow country with nostrategic depth whose main population centres", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehbisrip1b-con03a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house believes israel shouldreturn its pre 1967 bordersMany Israelis now livein the occupied territories. Israel has more thanjust national security at stake in the occupiedterritory of the West Bank -hundreds ofthousands of Israeli citizens now live there,many in areas which are not strategicallyessential (the areas described above). Betweenthe West Bank, East Jerusalem and the GolanHeights (all outside of Israel's 1967 borders),over 400,000 Israelis live in settlements in theoccupied territories. [1] These ever-expandingsettlements represent a barrier to Israeliwithdrawing to its 1967 borders. In 1993, whenIsraeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PalestineLiberation Organization leader Yasser Arafatfamously shook hands on the White House lawn,there were only 109,000 Israelis living insettlements across the West Bank (not includingJerusalem). Today there are more than 230settlements and strategically placed 'outposts'designed to cement a permanent Jewish", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehbisrip1b-con01a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house believes israel shouldreturn its pre 1967 bordersIsrael has the right toclaim minimal territory to ensure security Israelhas been the victim of multiple major illegal warsof aggression on the part of the Arab world, mostnotably in 1948 and 1967. These wars invalidateany special claim made by Arabs and Palestiniansto pre-1967 territory, and justify Israel inkeeping as much territory as is necessary tosecure itself against these hostile states. Israelcould have gone much further and taken moreterritory than it did in 1967 (as it was easilywinning the war), but instead it restricted itselfto only taking the territory that was necessaryfor it to create security buffer. [1] When peacedeals have allowed Israel to improve its securitythrough giving up land historically, it has doneso, for example when it returned the Sinaipeninsula to Egypt in 1982 in exchange for apeace treaty with Egypt, or when Israel returnedthe small swath of Jordanian territory it heldwhen King Hussain of Jordan wanted to make", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehbisrip1b-con02b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house believes israel shouldreturn its pre 1967 bordersThe Middle East, andthe world more generally, is a far different placethan it was in 1967. There is a significantlysmaller risk that Arab states will gang up in aconventional war against Israel. This owessignificantly to the fact that Israel is much morepowerful militarily, Arab states are less powerfulrelatively, and the military alliances anddynamics in the region tend to favour Israelmore. All of this means that maintaining a bufferin Israel, with the post-1967 borders, for thesake of defending against a collective Arabassault is highly unreasonable. Israel does notneed this buffer. It can return to its pre-1967borders.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldMigration resultsfrom poverty; poverty will not be solved throughmigration. Migration is a survival strategy -therefore development initiatives are requiredfirst for poverty to be reduced. Three points needto be raised. First, patterns of migrationshowcase the prevalence of a 'brain drain' [1]across Africa, and inputting a free labour marketwill continue to attract skilled migrants to desiredlocations. Research by Docquier and Marfouk(2004) indicates Eastern and Western Africaaccounted for some of the highest rates of braindrain; with rates increasing over the past decade. Rather than promoting free movement Africannations need to invest in infrastructure, healthand education, to keep hold of skilledprofessionals. Second, the extent to whichremittances are ‘developmental’ are debatable.Questions emerge when we consider who canaccess the money transferred (gender relationsare key) and therefore decide how it is used; the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldMigration is'developmental'. Recent reports by the HDR(2009) and WDR (2009) have shown migration isa means of development – free movement hasthe power to alleviate poverty, enable markets,and connectivity. Taking recent evidenceconcerning worldwide remittance flows, thedevelopmental nature of free movement isshown. In 2013, it is estimated, throughinternational migration, $414bn were remittedback to developing countries [1] . Remittanceflows into Africa (from within and internationally)accounted for $40bn in 2010, accounting for anincreasing percentage of GDP (AfDB, 2013;IFAD, 2013). Northern Africa articulated thelargest total of remittances received.Remittances remain beneficial for supportinglivelihoods. The influx of remittances tohouseholds provides security, an additionalincome for support, enables householdconsumption, and investment in alternative", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldA unified labourmarket will not be achieve if root issues remainunresolved. Within East Africa, the constructionof an East African Community has been met withpolitical tensions. The recent evictions of nearly7,000 Rwandan refugees from Tanzania indicatethe idea of free movement does not provide asufficient basis for unity [1] . Despite regionalagreements for free movement, politicaltensions, the construction of ethnicity andillegality meant forced deportation was carriedout by Tanzanian officials. Political hostilitiesamongst heads of government is continuing todivide the nations within East Africa. Further,cases of xenophobia remain prevalent acrossSouthern Africa. Frequently reported cases ofxenophobic attacks on foreign nationals -including nationals from Zimbabwe,Mozambique, and Malawi [2] - indicate theinherent tensions of migration when jobs remainscarce and poverty high. Dangers occur in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldThe freedom tomove is a human right. Mobility is a human right- which needs to be enabled across nationalspaces and Africa. Obstacles need to beremoved. Mobility enables access tointerconnected rights - such as ensuring womentheir right to move enables empowerment in thepolitical, social and economic spheres. Takingthe case of migration of young people, theprocess reflects a right of passage, a means ofexploring opportunities and identity.For examplethe Mourides of Senegal have established adense network sustaining informal trading acrossmultiple scales based on a foundation of‘Brotherhood’ youths leaving rural areas becomeintegrated into dynamic social networks andeducated within the Mouride culture. As researchin Tanzania shows although migration is not apriority for all youths, many identify theopportunity as a time to prove yourself andestablish your transition into adulthood. The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldFree movement willprovide benefits for productivity. A free labourmarket provides a space for sharing (knowledge,ideas, and socio-cultural traditions), competing,and sustaining efficiency in development. Asneoliberal theory advocates a laissez-faireapproach is fundamental for growth. A freelabour market will enhance economicproductivity. Free labour movement enablesaccess to new employment opportunities andmarkets. Within the East African Community theCommon Market Protocol (CMP) (2010) hasremoved barriers towards the movement ofpeople, services, capital, and goods. Freeregional movement is granted to citizens of anymember state in order to aid economic growth.Free movement is providing solutions to regionalpoverty by expanding the employmentopportunities available, enabling faster andefficient movement for labour, and reducing therisk of migration for labour. Similar to initial", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldThe benefits of afree labour market are merely based on anidealistic reality. The CMP has only existed forthree years so it is impossible to draw anyconclusions. When looking at whether migrationenhances productivity questions need to beraised. First, what jobs are provided in the newdestination? Are the jobs safe and secure, orwithin informal employment? Second, where isproductivity actually encouraged? Is thedistribution occurring across an even geography;and assisting the poor? As yet there are noanswers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldThe reality ofachieving free labour movement is not as simpleas it may seem in practice. Contradictions haveemerged in the laws implemented by nationalgovernments, such as Uganda, and the desiredEAC regional laws. In addition, the recenteviction and detainee of refugees from Rwandaand Burundi, from Tanzania, indicate politicaltensions are at the heart of ensuring 'free'movement. Labour and migrant workers rightscannot be guaranteed until the duty, andresponsibility, is taken on at multiple scales -from local, national, and regionalauthorities. Finally, in order for mobility to beseen as a right, labourers and migrants need tobe granted the right to organise. Currently,labour unions operate at a national scale - formobility to be accepted as a right and migrantrights to be recognised labour unions arerequired across COMESA, EAC, and ECOWAS.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldPromoting a freelabour market across Africa will exacerbatedifficulties for planning. The geography ofmigration is uneven; and spatial disparities in theproportion of migrants presents challenges forurban and rural planning, which needs to beconsidered. First, where will migrants behoused? The housing crisis, and prevalence ofslums, across Africa show an influx of newworkers will overburden a scarce resource. Inaddition, the complex, and insecure, nature ofland tenure across Africa raises further questionsfor housing and productivity - will new migrantsbe able to buy into land markets to enhance theircapabilities? Second, are road infrastructuressafe enough to promote the frequent movementof labour? Will implementing a free labourmarket ensure the safety of those migrants? Weneed to ensure planners and policy can establishfundamental rights to a home, land, andpersonal safety, before promoting free", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldPolicies towards afree labour market will create unity. Nationalborders are a result of Africa’s colonial history.The boundaries constructed do not reflectmeaning or unite ethnic groups across thecontinent. The border between Togo and Ghanaalone divides the Dagomba, Akposso, Konkombaand Ewe peoples. [1] Therefore encouragingfreedom of movement across Africa will erase avital component of Africa’s colonial history. Theerasing of boundaries, for labour markets, willhave significant impacts for rebuilding a sense ofunity, and reducing xenophobic fears, of whichhave been politically constructed. A sense ofunity will motivate citizens to reduce disparitiesand inequalities of poverty. [1] Cogneau, 2012,pp.5-6", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldImplementing afree labour market will enable effectivemanagement of migration. Even without theimplementation of a free labour market,migration will continue informally; thereforepolicies introducing free movement and providingappropriate travel documents provides a methodto manage migration. In the case of SouthernAfrica, the lack of a regional framework enablingmigration is articulated through the informalnature of movement and strategic bilateral tiesbetween nation-states. Several benefits arisefrom managing migration. First, speeding up theemigration process will provide health benefits.Evidence shows slow, and inefficient, bordercontrols have led to a rise in HIV/AIDs; as truckdrivers wait in delays sex is offered [1] . Second,a free labour market can provide nationalgovernments with data and information. Theprovision of travel documentation providesmigrants with an identity, and as movement is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldPositives arise froma predominantly male out-migration. Women areprovided with a means of strategic, and practical,empowerment - as power is redistributed withinthe household. Women are placed in a positionwhereby capital assets and time can becontrolled personally [1] . [1] For more on thedebate see: Chant (2009); Datta and McIlwaine(2000).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldThe prevalence oftrafficking across Africa today is not new so it islikely a free labour market will make littledifference. Further, uncertainty remains as towhether or not the extent of human trafficking isactually rising. With the exact number of casesunknown [1] - are concerns sensationalised hypeor a growing reality? [1] See further readings:IRINb, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldUrbanisationwithout industrialisation, the dangerouslivelihoods of migrants. Across Africa a reality of‘urbanisation without industrialisation’ is found(Potts, 2012). Economic growth, and activity,have not matched the urban phenomena acrossSub-Saharan Africa. The sombre picture of urbaneconomics questions - what do new migrants doas opportunities are not found? More than 50%of Youth in Africa are unemployed or idle. [1]With migrants entering urban environmentspresented with a lack of safe and secure jobsunhealthy sexual politics are found, andprecarious methods are used to make a living.The scarcity of formal jobs, means a majority ofmigrants are forced to work in informalemployment. Informal employment will continueto rise creating its own problems such as beingbarrier to imposing minimum wages andemployment security. [1] Zuehlke, 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldWho is leftbehind? In promoting a free labour market, weneed to ask: who is left behind? To understandthe developmental nature of migrationinvestigation is needed into who doesn’t migrate- the non-migrant’s lifestyles raise keyconcerns. Data from the EAC indicates the EAClabour market remains popular among over 65'sand in favour of men; and further, a majority ofemployment occurs within agriculture [1] . Thelabour market remains inadequate in providingjobs for women and youths. Women and youthsreflect disproportionate numbers of those forcedto adapt, and create, new livelihoods followingmigration. Further, migrants are returning home,retiring, and therefore with limited effect onproductivity. The impact of migration isdistributed unequally. In a previous study byBrown (1983) the detrimental effect of maleout-migration from rural areas in Botswana wasindicated. Family units were altered, changing to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldMigrationreasonings and exploitation. A free labourmarket perceives migration in a predominantlyneoclassical light - people migrate due to pullfactors, to balance the imbalance of jobs, peoplemove due to economic laws. However, such aperspective fails to include the complex factorsenticing migration and lack of choice in thedecision. Promoting a labour market, wherebymovement is free and trade enabled, makes iteasier to move but does not take into accountthe fact migration is not only purely economical.By focusing on a free labour market as beingeconomically valuable, we neglect a biggerpicture of what the reasons for migrationare. Without effective management a freelabour market raises the potential of forcedmigration and trafficking. Within the COMESAregion trafficking has been identified as agrowing issue with the 40,000 identified cases in2012 being the tip of the iceberg (Musinguzi,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-miasimyhw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ment international africa society immigrationminorities youth house wouldWorking withininformal employment is better than nothing.Although debates have raised over thecosts-benefits of informal employment - whenconsidering the need for capital, money, and anincome, informal employment presents a betteralternative.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksNot all nations are equal.In an area where high technology is essentialrich nations may be able to monitor all cyberintrusions but there will be many countrieswithout the necessary systems. This treaty wouldtherefore in effect be making poor countrieswithout cyber defences into fair game. In theorythey would be protected by the treaty, inpractice with no monitoring there would benothing they could do.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksStates will monitor eachother, and an international body could be setup Once a treaty is set up to limit or eliminatecyber-attacks monitoring is unlikely to be aproblem because states will be willing to monitoreach other. States in order to defend themselvesfrom cyber-attacks already monitor thecyber-attacks that occur – the United States forexample already has several cyber defenseforces. [1] If that is not enough then there arenumerous private groups that will be monitoringcyber-attacks as most are made againstcorporate rather than government targets. Forexample private company Mandiant exposed aunit of the People’s Liberation Army for itscyber-attacks in February 2013. [2] Once acyber-attack has been traced and evidencegathered if the appropriate domestic authoritieswon’t deal with the culprit then an independentinternational institution can decide on thepunishment for the government that is not living", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksWhile it is true thatgovernments for the most part seek to preventnon-state actors that engage in violence weshould not assume that the response will be thesame for activities that are not violent. The riseof multinational companies has sometimes(particularly in the 1970s) been mentioned as athreat to the state (particularly poorer stateswhere the MNC may be richer than the state) yetmany countries promote their MNCs becausethey bring them wealth and therefore power. [1]Similarly having non state groups that are ableto engage in cyber-attacks bring an advantage tothose states that have them as they providebenefits both in conflicts (essentially creating acyber-militia) and in peace where they engage inespionage so damaging competitorsbusinesses. [1] Kobrin, Stephen J., ‘Sovereignty@Bay : Globalization, MultinationalEnterprise, and the International PoliticalSystem’, The Oxford Handbook of International", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksArenas of potentialconflict must be regulated Conflict needs to beregulated, and something that can start conflictseven more so. Warfare and conflict is currentlyregulated by the Geneva Conventions that seekto limit the effects of armed conflict and regulatethe conduct of the involved actors. [1] Just asimportantly there are rules on what weapons canbe used through various treaties that banweapons such as the Land Mine Ban, [2] and onwhen a state can legally initiate conflict throughthe UN Charter. In just the same way when anew area of potential conflict arises that toomust be regulated by treaty. The internet andthe threat of cyber-conflict is that new area atthe moment. While cyber warfare is not currentlya large scale threat it is still a form of conflictthat could escalate just like any other - thePentagon has explicitly stated it could respondmilitarily to a cyber-attack. [3] As a result it ismost sensible to draw up the rules and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksWhile there are bans oncertain weapons these are because suchweapons are considered beyond the pale. This iseither because they are horrifying as in the caseof nuclear, chemical and biological weapons, orindiscriminate as with land mines. This does notapply to cyber warfare. Other regulationssimilarly do not provide a good parallel as theGeneva conventions seek to limit the effects ofarmed conflict a similar treaty is clearly notnecessary for cyber-conflict because the effectswill already be limited by the type of conflict.Ultimately cyber-attacks are much more akin toespionage and are not regulated because theyare small scale, localised, and have limitedeffects as well as being difficult to trace.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksIt is unlikely that allstates would see this as beneficial to them. Therewill always be some states that benefit morefrom engaging in cyber-attacks than others –usually the underdog in other areas. Ifcyber-attacks are an area being used to redressthe balance then why should they be willing torestrict their freedom of action? This is whyRussia is unwilling to engage in deep cuts in thenumber of nuclear weapons it has – they are themain area of armaments in which they have anadvantage over their potential adversaries.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksThe use of the internetundermines the state by demonopolizing the useof force Ever since the state rose to ascendancyover powerful internal actors, such as the nobilityin a feudal system, the state has had a monopolyon the use of force. The state quickly became theonly institution with the resources to maintainmilitary forces and has become the onlylegitimate wielder of force. The internet howeverchanges this. Cyber-attacks are often byindividuals or groups who can carry out a crossborder attack without the aid of their homecountry. In 2011 CIA director Leon Panetta toldCongress “when it comes to national security, Ithink this represents the battleground for thefuture. I've often said that I think the potentialfor the next Pearl Harbor could very well be acyber-attack.” [1] If cyber-attacks are soimportant it stands to reason that the groupswho are able to engage in such activities shouldbe as limited as possible. While it is not always", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksA cyber treaty benefitseveryone A treaty that bans, or sharply curtailscyber-attacks would benefit every state. Eventhose who may currently benefit from cyberespionage would be better off signing up to thetreaty. First most cyber-attacks are not carriedout by the state even in countries like Chinawhere the state is using the internet as anoffensive tool. In its annual report to congressthe Department of Defence stated somecyber-attacks “appear to be attributable directlyto the Chinese government and military” but thisdoes not sound like a majority. [1] Secondly nostate wants a risk of conflict as a result of anunregulated new field of potential conflict. Oreven to risk relations with other nations;cyber-attacks in large part go on because theyare cost free. And finally all nations are thevictims of cyber-attacks. The United States hasrepeatedly condemned cyber-attacks against itbut China also claims that it is the victim of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-con03b", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksClearly cyber-attacks arenot currently deadly but this does not mean theywill not become so in the future. Leon Panettahas warned “A cyber-attack perpetrated bynation states or violent extremist groups couldbe as destructive as the terrorist attack of 9/11”.Such an attack would be indirect – unlike settinga bomb – but could be just as effective “Anaggressor nation or extremist group could gaincontrol of critical switches and derail passengertrains, or trains loaded with lethal chemicals.They could contaminate the water supply inmajor cities, or shut down the power grid acrosslarge parts of the country.” [1] At the momentsystems are not really connected enough toallow this but it is pretty much certain thattechnology will become more sophisticated,control more systems, and become more andmore connected. This is immensely beneficialeconomically but does create vulnerability. [1]Garamone, Jim, ‘Panetta Spells out DOD Roles in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-con01b", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksThere is no reason toassume that nations cannot get along on theissue of cyber security just because cooperationhas not been prevalent so far. The US and Chinadespite regularly accusing each other oflaunching cyber-attacks have set up a jointUS-China working group on cyber security. [1]There is clearly a willingness to work together onthis issue. As to working out who is behindattacks the United States at least claims to becapable of doing this. Panetta says theDepartment of Defence can track attacks so“Potential aggressors should be aware that theUnited States has the capacity to locate themand hold them accountable for actions that harmAmerica or its interests.” [2] That computers inmultiple countries should be taken over in orderto launch an attack should simply provideanother reason why all nations should want to beinvolved in preventing cyber-attacks. [1]‘US-China cyber security working group meets’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-con02a", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksA treaty would benefitlarger powers over the small Any treaty thatseeks to ban cyber-attacks would simply be anattempt to cement the position of the mostpowerful countries at the expense of weakerones. This is because cyber-attacks are, liketerrorism, weapons that can be used by anyoneto attack a much bigger target. To launch acyber-attack there is little need for training, onlya small amount of comparatively cheapequipment (to military hardware at any rate),and an internet connection. [1] And it is difficultto defend against. This makes it ideal for poornations to maintain cyber warfare as a crediblethreat to their bigger neighbours while theirneighbours threaten them conventionally withtheir bigger militaries. We have seen before armstreaties that are fundamentally biased in favourof a small group of powerful states. Most notableis the Nuclear non-proliferation treaty wherethere are five recognised nuclear weapons states", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-con03a", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksUnlike warfarecyber-attacks don’t kill so they don’t need to berestricted in the same way Warfare needs to beclosely regulated because of the numbers ofpeople who can be killed and the devastationthat can result. This is not something that is aconcern with cyber-attacks. So far cyber-attackshave not been very effective. ‘Stuxnet’ was acomputer worm targeted an important controlsystem in the Iranian nuclear programsabotaging gas centrifuges by making them runout of control. It was created by US and Israeliintelligence yet was not particularly effective,and certainly did not kill anyone. [1] Other majorattacks have infected a large number ofmachines, such as ‘Shamoon’ that attacked theSaudi state oil company ARAMCO which affected30,000 computers, but again this is simplydestruction of property. [2] No matter howindiscriminate cyber-attacks may be that theydon’t cause large numbers of deaths means", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-con01a", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksIt would neverwork There are immense challenges to making atreaty seeking to prevent or curtail cyber-attackswork. Even on issues where there are clearsecurity concerns it is unusual for the involvednations to be willing to get along and cooperate.This has proven to be the same with regards tothe internet governance with Russia and Chinawanting greater state control while the US andWestern Europe is opposed. [1] Even on issueswhere lives are being lost there is often no globalagreement as can be seen by the deadlock in theUN security council over what to do about thecivil war in Syria. [2] Additionally there is theproblem that working out who engaged in acyber-attack is difficult. Such attacks are oftenrouted through proxy computers to launch theirattacks. If attacking a difficult target that mayseek to strike back the attack will be throughnumerous proxies which will be in numerouscountries to make tracking back difficult. [3] This", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghwcitca-con02b", "title": "", "text": "global house would create internationaltreatyban cyber attacksEveryone would benefitfrom the potential closure of a zone of possiblefuture conflict. While cyber warfare may give asmaller state a brief advantage due to some lowcost methods of attack ultimately the superiorresources, both in defence and attack incyberspace of the richer state would be telling.In the United States the Defense AdvancedResearch Projects Agency (DARPA) alone has abudget of $1.54billion for research into cyberoffence from 2013-2017 [1] considering thatthere are numerous other agencies involved incyber warfare or defence, or monitoring theinternet it is clear that cyber-attacks are notsome wonder weapon that can even the oddsbetween states. [1] Kallberg, Jan andThuraisingham, Bhavani, ‘Cyber Operations:Bridging from Concept to Cyber Superiority’,Joint Force Quarterly, Vol.68, no.1, January2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsThe west has historically not been good atpicking the winner in the Middle East; take itsbacking of Saddam in the 1980, the Shah in the1970s, or the mujahideen in Afghanistan. Allhave either lost power or turned on those whosupported them. If we back the wrong group inSyria then we end upon a worse position thanbacking none at all; the west is alreadyperceived as being pro Sunni and is seen asbeing partisan rather than attempting to build abroad inclusive democracy for all communities.[1] So backing any group simply undermineslonger term western aims to create ademocracy. [1] Yacoubian, Mona, in‘Roundtable: arming the Syrian rebels’, ForeignPolicy, 21 February 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsIt is in the national interest fordemocracies to support those seeking to oustdictators Democracies should support moderategroups seeking to oust dictators because theresult will hopefully be a moderate, democraticstate. This would then be a reliable partner forthe future that would be more willing to helpengage and resolve the region's problems. Butthis is not all about being high minded andwanting to promote democracy in the MiddleEast, arms need to be provided in order toensure future influence in Syria. We alreadyknow that there are jihadis operating in Syria soit is plain that this is a conflict that will eventuallyhave wider implications for the west. If we wantto have influence in Syria after Assad isoverthrown then we need to begin helpingopposition groups. It is in our interest to build upthe moderate groups so as to deny support tothe extremists; once this is over we would be ina much better position if we have grateful friends", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsAnd what happens to these weaponsafterwards? Air defensive systems that candestroy Syrian jets could pose an equal risk toIsraeli or western warplanes. While Israel wassurprised by Hezbollah's use of anti tank systemsthat did not stop the Israeli army from ultimatelyprevailing in the conflict so there is little reasonto believe that 'evening the odds' will really alterthe outcome of the conflict.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsDiplomacy is not going anywhere The bestsolution would be a ceasefire between the twosides in the Syrian civil war and a negotiatedsettlement, but it is clear we are long past thepoint where this approach stood a chance ofsuccess. The United Nations peace effort underKofi Annan failed in the middle of last year [1]and there has been no progress since. Similarlyall attempts to bring pressure to bear throughoutthe security council have failed as a result ofRussia supporting Assad's regime. This leavesthe unilateral initiatives to help the rebels. Nostate wants full intervention as France did in Mali[2] so the only alternative is simply to help theFree Syrian Army. To do so means providingwhat they need to win the conflict; primarilyarms that can defeat the Syrian army. This neednot be considered to be exclusive withdiplomacy; the intervening state should continueto try to find a diplomatic solution just as beforethe Dayton accords NATO helped the Croats", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsSyria clearly meets the standards forintervention The Assad regime has clearly lostits legitimacy and has precipitated ahumanitarian crisis in Syria. The Februaryestimate of 70000 killed [1] is up from anestimate of 60000 only a month before, [2] soclearly the violence is escalating. The conflict isalso affecting neighbours; refugees have floodedinto Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey, and Israel isalready believed to have attacked a convoy orresearch facility involved in chemical andbiological weapons development. [3] Clearly thepresence of these weapons show how muchworse the situation could get if Assad is notoverthrown. Not intervening risks the wholeregion being slowly destabilised and drawn in tothe conflict. [4] [1] Nichols, Michelle, ‘Syriadeath toll likely near 70,000, says U.N. rightschief’, Reuters, 12 Feb 2012 [2] ‘Data suggestsSyria death toll could be more than 60,000, saysUN human rights office’, UN News Centre, 2", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsThe if the rebels are armed and the regimegets close to losing surely it will simply increasethe bloodshed and have greater motive to use itschemical and biological weapons. Thereforearming either side simply increases the potentialfor killing. A balance of death is not what anyoneshould be looking for in Syria.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsSimply because there is stalemate indiplomacy and on the ground does not makearming the rebels the option that should now betaken, indeed it does not mean that outsidepowers need to take any action at all. Those withSyria's best interests at heart would remain onthe sidelines, provide humanitarian assistance,and encourage new diplomatic initiatives. Theresponse should not be to turn Syria into a rerunof the proxy wars of the Cold War with the westarming be side and Russia the other.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsBalance in this case would not be a goodthing as this would simply mean a much longercontinuation of a bloody civil war. The longer theconflict continues the more difficult it is to putSyria back together again when peace finallydoes arrive.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsThe Free Syrian Army is outgunned TheSyrian army is one of the biggest armies in theworld; it is nothing like the poorly equippedLibyan army that was beaten by western backedrebels in 2011. The government has aircraft, andhelicopters that are used to bomb the rebels, andheavy Russian built tanks that are impervious tomost of the small arms the free Syrian army has.Providing arms would quickly even the odds;light anti-tank weapons would be effectiveagainst Syrian armoured vehicles repeating thesuccess with which Hezbollah employed themwhen they knocked out sixty Israeli armouredvehicles in 2006, [1] while man portable airdefence systems would quickly make the skiestoo dangerous for the Syrian airforce soprotecting free Syrian controlled areas from thethreat of attack from the air. [2] [1]Cordesman, Anthony H., ‘Preliminary “Lessons”of the Israeli-Hezbollah War’, Center forStrategic and International Studies, 17 August", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsWould balance the support for Syriangovernment Syria's government has beenreceiving outside support from a variety ofsources; Russia and Iran being the mostprominent. Iran has been training the Jaysh al-Shabi, a Syrian government-controlled forcemodelled on Iran's Basij militia. Far from justproviding weapons, both Iran and Hezbollah fromLebanon have been sending fighters to supportthe Syrian government. [1] The rebels havereceived some support for Qatar and SaudiArabia but not to the extent the Syriangovernment has. Anyone with an interest in thefree Syrian cause should realise that they cannotdo so simply by sitting on their hands expectinga victory when those doing the fighting are onlyprovided diplomatic support. [1] Doran, Michael,and Shaikh, Salman, ‘Arm the Syrian Rebels.Now’. Foreign Policy, 8 February 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsThis is a pointless argument; theconsequences of inaction are just unknowable.Doing nothing could lead to exactly the sameconsequences. Alternatively arming themoderates could speed the end to the civil warand the creation of a democratic state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsThis makes the assumption that the Assadgovernment is considered the legitimateauthority within Syria, the Russians accept this,but other countries are less sure. Both the USand UK now recognise the Syrian opposition asthe legitimate representative of the Syrianpeople [1] which would mean arming themwould be legal in the same way that the Russiansconsider arming Assad to be internationallylegal. [1] Malas, Nour, and Solomon, Jay, ‘U.S.Formally Recognizes Syria’s Main Rebel Group’,The Wall Street Journal, 12 December 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsArming the rebels would be unpopular Tenyears after the Iraq war interventions in theMiddle East are no more popular than they wereback in 2003. Getting involved in Syria would notbe popular no matter how small thecommitment. In the United States voters opposethe idea of supplying arms to Syrian rebels by45% against to only 16% in favour, in the UnitedKingdom opinion is even more opposed; whilethere are still 16% in favour there are 57%opposed. [1] Clearly arming the rebels would notbe popular with voters - there can therefore beno domestic reason for this policy. [1] Clark,Tom, ‘US and UK public reject stronger militarysupport for Syrian rebels’, guardian.co.uk, 22March 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-con05a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsWould it work? The most fundamentalquestion for any policy is whether it wouldactually work if implemented? In this case itseems to be doubtful that in practice arming therebels would be enough to allow them to prevail.It will simply be helping to even the odds;providing enough arms to prevail over a fullyequipped army that is supplied by Iran andRussia would require a truly colossal effort. Noone is seriously going to consider providing M1Abrams tanks to overcome Syrian armour whenthere are even concerns about providinganti-aircraft missiles. Even supporters of armingthe rebels such as Senator John McCain say \"thisalone will not be decisive\". All arming the rebelsdoes then is make the government appear to bedoing something (in a bad way since it is anunpopular policy), and stick a toe in the water(also bad as that may lead to escalatingcommitments), and another decision point sixmonths down the line. [1] [1] Lynch, Marc,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsPossibility of being drawn into a longdrawn out conflict Even just providing the rebelswith arms risks drawing the powers that supplythose arms into the conflict. [1] This is becauseit gives the intervening power a stake in theconflict. Once weapons have been suppliedallowing the Syrian government to reassertcontrol would be a large foreign policy reversaland would damage relations with the Syriangovernment for years to come. We need onlylook at the Vietnam conflict to know that whatstarts out as a very small commitment canrapidly escalate when the government decides itcannot afford to back down. What starts as justarming the rebels could quickly lead to troops onthe ground. Indeed it might require men on theground right from the start as if we were to beproviding heavy weapons the rebels would needtraining in how to use those weapons if they areto seriously be considered an equaliser. [1]Byman, Daniel, in ‘Roundtable: arming the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsUnforeseeable consequences We do notknow where arming the rebels will lead. Themost obvious parallel has to be Afghanistan inthe 1980s where the United States armed themujahideen and succeeded in their objective ofdamaging the USSR through a war of attritionmuch as the US had suffered in Vietnam.Afghanistan became an albatross around theSoviet Union’s neck. [1] But the US did not winthe peace, Afghanistan descended into civilconflict which had a Taliban victory thatsheltered Osama bin Laden; US arms inAfghanistan unintentionally lead more than adecade later to September 11. In this case wewould be arming a movement that has manyjihadi elements that could end up with theweaponry. Other countries such as Turkey arealso worried about where powerful weapons suchas anti aircraft missiles could end up if providedto the rebels. They fear they could easily findtheir way across the border to militant Kurds. [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-con05b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsWe cannot know whether this policy willwork until it is tried. The Free Syrian Army hasbeen remarkably successful so far capturinglarge swathes of the country and taking the fightto the regime in the capital Damascus. [1] Withmore sophisticated weaponry to naturalise thetanks, warplanes, helicopters of the regime theFree Syrians may well be able to finish thejob. [1] BBC News, ‘Syria: Mapping theinsurgency’, 4 December 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsSovereignty and non intervention ininternal affairs It is a clear international rulethat nations are sovereign and other states aresimply not allowed to be making interventionsinto another country’s domestic affairs. The UNCharter emphasises “Nothing contained in thepresent Charter shall authorize the UnitedNations to intervene in matters which areessentially within the domestic jurisdiction of anystate”. [1] Within a state only the government islegitimate as the supreme authority within itsterritory. [2] This is to prevent the bigger andricher powers from doing exactly this sort ofthing to obtain the result they want insideanother country. This is why Russian ForeignMinister Sergei Lavrov stated \"International lawdoes not permit the supply of arms tonon-governmental actors and our point of view isthat it is a violation of international law,\" inresponse to suggestions that the UK would armthe Syrian rebels. [3] [1] UN General Assembly,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsThe strategic situation in Syria is nothinglike that which meant the US felt it could notwithdraw from Vietnam. There is no line of'dominos' that could be knocked over in a row asa result of a victory by the Syrian government.Far from it, some of Syria's neighbours likeJordan may be strengthened by a governmentvictory as it would halt the momentum of protestagainst rulers in the region. There is also nolarge scale outside power that would takeadvantage of Syrian government victory as wasthe case with the USSR in the Cold War. In thiscase such a result would mean a return to thestatus quo, not something the west would desire,but hardly a strategic disaster so cutting losses ifthe policy does not work would be comparativelyeasy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gmehwasr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "global middle east house would arm syrianrebelsPublic opinion is not the decider of what isright and wrong in foreign policy; people arerarely in favour of any kind of action in a volatileinternational situation. Had public opinion beenthe decider the allies would have rolled over andlet Poland be taken in World War II.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsThis propositionline does not lead to a situation wheredeveloping countries forgive their colonisers andforget the suffering of the past; rather, it willlead to a situation where they identify thosecolonial forces as the source of their suffering,but also as the power which tried to underminetheir human integrity by paying them off. Suchdeveloping countries will always view reparationsas ‘insufficient compensation’ [1] , because thereis no lump sum on money which can atone forthe acts and atrocities committed against humanlife. This motion is not only ineffective but willexacerbate the current situation by portrayingthe West as a place where money has a highervalue than the human lives of developingcountries; as such, there is no reason for formercolonies to believe that their have gained anystatus other then an ‘opportunity’ for theWest. [1] Accessed from on 12/09/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsReparations wouldbe a step towards closing colonial scars. It isdifficult for former colonies to feel as if they canmove on and develop a wholly independentidentity when their ties to the past, and to theirformer colonisers, have not been definitivelyended. For example, while it is important toremember those who suffered under slavery, theoverwhelming memory of it [1] overpowers thehistory of those countries and innately links themback to former colonial powers. Furthermore,many of the problems now faced by formercolonies can be traced back to the actions ofcolonial-era masters, for example the birth ofethnic tensions between minorities in Rwanda [2]and Burundi [3] . In order to move on from thatdamaging legacy, and to conclusively prove thatsuch prejudices are always wrong, it is necessaryfor former colonial powers to show a tangiblemove towards closing that colonial chapter oftheir history. In this way they can begin to move", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsThese reparationshave done little to satisfy the recipient countries.For example, Israel asked Germany to improvethe reparations agreement [1] , which resulted inGermany withdrawing reparations entirely [2]and only served to increase tensions between thetwo nations. Furthermore, Israel has becomereliant on German reparation money [3] ,suggesting that reparations do not in fact allowthe recipient country to develop their wholenational identity without ties to formerdominating countries. Moreover, despite thepayment of reparations from Italy to Libya, Libyastill believes that it was ‘insufficientcompensation for colonial damages’ [4] . Justbecause reparations have been made in the pastdoes not, by any means, show that they weresuccessful or indeed that they are the bestoption available in the present day. [1]Accessed from on 12/09/11. [2] Accessedfrom on 12/09/11 [3] Accessed from on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsReparationsdemonstrate a true concern for the developingworld. Even alongside the colonial justificationsfor providing reparations, there are also manyother strong reasons why former colonial powersshould grant reparations. Former colonial powerstend to be economically developed, like America,Britain and France. The developed world shouldrecognise the dire poverty and social challengesfed by the developing world today. Giving aid asan act of charity can sometimes be seen asderogatory [1] , and is even rejected by thepotential recipients [2] [3] [4] . However,reparations allows a transfer of wealth betweenthese countries in a way which is sensitive to thehistory between them, and which alsodemonstrates a desire to improve theirrelationship. It allows aid to be given to thedeveloping world in a means which is dignifiedbut not spurious. [1] Accessed from on12/09/11 [2] Accessed from on 12/09/11 [3]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsWhat happenedduring the colonial era was morally wrong. Theentire basis for colonisation was predicated on aninnate ‘understanding’ and judgment of onesuperior culture and race [1] . This ethnocentricapproach idolised western traditions whilesimultaneously undermining the traditions of thecountries which were colonised. For example,during the colonisation of America, colonistsimposed a Westernised school system on NativeAmerican children. This denied their right towear traditional clothing [2] or to speak theirnative language [3] , and the children were oftensubject to physical and sexual abuse and forcedlabour [4] . The cause of this was simplyignorance of culture differences on behalf of thecolonists, which was idyllically labelled anddisguised as ‘The White Man’s Burden’ [5] .Colonial powers undermined the social andproperty rights [6] of the colonies, using militaryforce to rule if civilians should rebel against", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsThis is a veryone-sided assertion of past events. It was notonly the colonists who acted in an unacceptablemanner; for example, during the Indian Mutiny,a party of sepoys ‘execute[d] the 210 womenand children’ with guns and knives [1] . Some,though horribly wounded, remained alive untilmorning [2] . History is very complex; whilethere were certainly atrocious events, it is unfairand untrue to apportion blame to only one party– namely, the colonists. In any case, in the faceof such atrocities, it is completely superficial toimagine that mere money could wipe the slateclean. Reparations are used to correct a pastwrong [3] ; it would be derogatory to assumethat we can pay people off for acts such asthese, and that they require no more hindsightor consideration. [1] Accessed from on11/09/11 [2] Accessed from on 11/09/11 [3]Accessed from on 11/09/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsDisguising thepurely economic balance illustrated here as ademonstration of heartfelt regret undermines theprinciples outlined by previous propositionarguments. This is, in fact, a hollow gesture –one that is disguised as a reparation to overcomea country’s right (though we may not agree withit) to reject the aid which is offered to them. Therejection of aid is a demonstrative action initself; it sends a message that the recipientcountry does not wish to associate themselveswith the donor country. By trying to usereparations as a loophole, this conceptsimultaneously criticised the recipient country’sright to choose whether they receive aid or not,and undermines the value of reparationselsewhere as a genuine gesture.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsMost of theWestern world is currently undergoing a financialcrisis [1] . However prosperous these formercolonies might have been, in the modern worldthey simply do not have the money to providereparations to these countries on any scale whichmight come close to closing the economic gapbetween them. America’s enormous debt almostcaused a complete economic collapse in August[2] ; Britain was struggling under £2252.9 billionof debt as on July 2011 [3] . The proposition’snaive balancing argument fails to take intoaccount the realities of the economy and debt inraising this motion – it would be impossible toachieve. [1] The Telegraph. ‘Double-dip fearsacross West as confidence crumbles’. Publishedon 30/09/2011. Accessed from on 12/09/11 [2]BBC. ‘IMF calls for US to raise debt ceiling andcut spending’. Published 25/07/2011. Accessedat on 12/09/11 [3] Accessed from on 12/09/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsThere is already aprecedent for paying reparations to suchstates. In the past, dominating global powershave paid reparations and compensation forhistorical wrongs. For example, Germany paysan annual amount of money to Israel torecognise wrongs committed against Jews duringthe Holocaust, and to recognise the theft ofJewish property at this time [1] . Thesereparations have helped Israeli infrastructureenormously, providing ‘railways and telephones,dock installations and irrigation plants, wholeareas of industry and agriculture’ [2] andcontributing to Israeli economic security. Japanalso paid reparations to Korea after World War IIas the Koreans were ‘deprived of their nation andtheir identity’ [4] . Britain has paid compensationto the New Zealand Maoris for the damage doneduring colonial times and the seizure of theirland [5] , and Iraq pays compensation to Kuwaitfor damage done during the invasion and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsReparations wouldeffectively right the economic imbalance causedby colonialism. Given that much of the motivefor colonisation was economic, many formercolonies have suffered damage to their naturalresources [1] or human resources, [2] which hasleft them less able to sustain a healthy economy.Colonists targeted countries with rich naturalresources and little ability to defend themselvesfrom invasion and manipulation. By this method,they could supply their own markets with thenatural resources which they had alreadyexploited at home [3] , and find cheap (or free)human labour for their markets [4] . Given thatpowerful countries such as Britain [5] and France[6] gained their own economic prosperitythrough the exploitation of the economicpotential of the colonies, it is entirely appropriateand logical that they should pay reparations ascompensation. In this way, the economicdisparity between former colonies and colonists", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsTaxpayers alreadyfund the foreign aid which is distributedhabitually [1] [2] ; they are not to blame for afamine in Somalia, for example, but theycontinue to pay for it [3] . There is frequently adisconnection between the people who pay foraid and the people who receive it. However, werecognise that the need is great enough in suchcountries to make it not only legitimate, but amoral duty. Most citizens of former colonialpowers can recognise that some of the actscommitted during colonial times was wrong anddeserves repairing. Given that this is aproductive means of doing so, and already hasthe precedent of foreign aid more generally, it isentirely appropriate. [1] The Daily Mail. ‘Foreignaid budget to cost every family £500’. Published22/10/2010. Accessed from on 12/09/11 [2]Accessed from on 12/09/11 [3] BBC. ‘Somaliafamine: UK insists aid is “getting through”’.Published 18/08/2011. Accessed from on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsGiven that manyformer colonies remain poor (even after so manyyears), it is very unlikely that these people wouldhave no need for such money. The difference intimescale is irrelevant; what is relevant is thatsuch former colonies have a demonstrated needfor this money, and that atrocities occurredduring the colonial era. If it became to hard totrack down specific people, it would also beeasily possible to give money to the governmentas Italy did to Libya [1] , in which case thepotential for improved infrastructure and basicliving conditions could have a nation-widebenefit. Just because it may be difficult does notoverrule the many powerful arguments that weshould do this. [1] Accessed from on 12/09/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsSuch reparationswould do little to actually improve the developingcountries. Reparations are an incrediblyshort-term economic measure. To have anysubstantial impact, long-term systems wouldneed to be put in place to truly benefit suchcountries, and it would be far better toencourage sustainable growth [1] than a one-offbumper payment. Developed countries shouldlook towards improving their long-termrelationship with former colonies and establishingmeasures such as fairer trade rules or debt reliefas an efficient measure. This would allow the aidto be focused in the places where these countriesneed it most. The symbolism of reparations isalso potentially dangerous. Firstly, payingreparations may bring the belief that formercolonial powers have ‘paid their debt’ and nolonger have to seek to improve their ownconduct of foreign policy. Secondly, this measurewould allow dictators such as Robert Mugabe to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsThe very paymentof reparations exerts a neo-colonial power overformer colonies. The recognition that manyformer colonies are in desperate economic needonly adds to the sense that former colonialpowers desire to hold sway over them. Givingreparations induces dependency and can weakenthe appearance of government in the formercolonies, and may allow the donor governmentto exert influence over policy areas within therecipient country [1] . Far from giving therecipient country the means to develop itself asan independent nation, this motion simply recallsthe old power structure which existed duringcolonisation. [1] Accessed from on 12/09/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsReparationsunfairly target the taxpayers of former colonialpowers who had nothing to do with the deedscommitted under colonisation. It is unclear whoexactly is being punished under this mechanism.Ordering reparations rather than, for example, apublic apology from a monarch or government,only serves to harm tax-paying citizens whosemoney would be used to pay such reparations.There is a huge disconnection between thepeople who actually committed wrongs and thepeople who are now forced to literally pay forthem. This is likely to lead to an increase inhostility from the taxpayers who do notunderstand why they are being punished,towards the people of former colonies. It is nolonger a case where reparations could ever bepaid from the direct profits of exploitation as anyprofit from that must have been spent long ago.It is wrong to impose undue guilt and obligationof payment on to people who are entirely", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsTime has removedthe opportunity to truly make reparations tothose who may have deserved it. Reparationsare used to make ‘amends for wrong or injurydone’ [1] ; it is impossible to truly achieve thiswhen the victims of wrongdoing are long sincedead. Moreover, reparations which may havebeen made immediately after colonisation couldhave had a specific purpose – for example, torebuild property which was destroyed, or torestore items which were wrongfully taken.However, the development of both countries hasled to a very different state of affairs in both, andthere may no longer be an obvious end for themoney from reparations. There is also noprecedent for giving reparations to countriesafter so long a period of time. For example,Germany began paying reparations to Israel in1952 [2] , only 7 years after World War II endedin 1945. Time also makes it very difficult tojudge who the ‘victims’ are now. The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsThere is afundamental difference here betweencolonisation and the modern day; whereascolonial powers were formerly damaginginfrastructure [1] and natural resources [2] , inthe modern day under reparations they would behelping to preserve such resources and financethe development of a sound infrastructure. Norwould the former colonial powers be exertingmilitary strength [3] [4] [5] . There is an obviousdifference between the relations of a colonialpower and its colony, and a developed nationoffering reparations to a less developed nation.One notable change is that the flow of moneyhas changed direction – instead of exploiting theeconomic potential of the colony, the developedcountry is actually giving money to the formercolony. This opposition point simply does notstand [1] Accessed from on 12/09/11 [2]Accessed from on 12/09/11 [3] Accessedfrom on 12/09/11 [4] Accessed from on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghbfcpspr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "africa global house believes former colonialpowers should pay reparationsIt is entirelypossible that reparations could be paid in smallerinstalments over a much longer term asGermany has done [1] , thereby providing alonger-term solution rather than one lump sum.Furthermore, it is likely that if former colonialpowers offer reparations as a genuine attempt toaccept and apologise for the wrongs previouslycommitted, the longer-term relationship betweenthe two countries would be eased. Finally, it is atleast more likely that citizens in countries suchas Zimbabwe and Libya might re-think theiropinion of the West if reparations and help wereoffered, rather than blankly refused. While thedictators may continue to denounce the West, itwill be harder for them to do so if former colonialpowers show every attempt to help andcommunicate with the people they havewronged. [1] Rising, David, 'Germany increasesreparations for Holocaust survivors', Times ofIsrael, 16 November 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpsmhbsosb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "global politics society minorities house believessouth ossetia should beGeorgia's government isdemocratic and modern in its institutions. It isfully capable and intent on governing S. Ossetiademocratically and honestly. Moreover, if theaim of the S. Osseitans' is to join with Russia,upon seceding from Georgia (as seems likely),then the many arguments it is putting forward insupport of its national identity and right toself-determination do not apply in the same way,as they would be simply exchanging minoritystatus in one state for minority status in another,and not truly seeking their own homeland whereOssets would be a majority, as they claim. Thismeans that arguments about Ossetian being itsown language and the Ossets having a longhistory of self-rule are not in fact arguments forsecession, as secession would simply result in atransfer to Russia and not a truly Ossetian state.Therefore, the real question is: does Georgia orRussia have a greater claim to S. Ossetia as partof its territory? The historical arguments made", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpsmhbsosb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "global politics society minorities house believessouth ossetia should beGeorgian rule in SouthOssetia is historically illegitimate andoppressive Modern Georgia never reallycontrolled S. Ossetia. South Ossetia declaredindependence from Georgia shortly after Georgiagained independence from the disintegratingUSSR in 1991. South Ossetia has maintained defacto independence ever since. [1] Georgia,therefore, cannot really claim to have hadsustained, legitimate sovereign control overSouth Ossetia in modern times. Even the USSRrecognised S. Ossetia as distinct from Georgia,with the Kremlin stating in 1920 that “weconsider that Ossetia should have the power itprefers. Georgian intrusion into affairs of Ossetiawould be an unjustified intervention into foreigninternal affairs”. [2] S. Ossetia was anautonomous region within the USSR. It was notconsidered part of the same region that is nowGeorgia, and thus during its years under theUSSR, S. Ossetia built up a significant degree of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpsmhbsosb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "global politics society minorities house believessouth ossetia should beIf S. Ossetians renounceviolence, no future conflicts will occur. S.Ossetian militant separatists argue that, if S.Ossetia is not given independence, that futureviolence and chaos will result. Yet, this is onlythe case if S. Ossetian separatists continue toresist Georgia's sovereignty violently. If S.Ossetians renounce the use of force and theirseparatism, there will be no future conflicts. Thisis an equally valid solution as independence.Furthermore, the US State Department rejectedthe 2006 independence referendum and warnedthat it would “only serve to exacerbate tensionsand divert attention from the need to peacefullyresolve the conflict.” [1] [1] The Georgian TimesOnline. “US slams separatists' decision”. TheGeorgian Times. 9 November 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpsmhbsosb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "global politics society minorities house believessouth ossetia should beSouth Ossetia has a rightto self-determination The 1993 ViennaDeclaration, which reaffirmed the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights and the UN Charter(and so sets the standard in current internationallaw), unequivocally gives all peoples the right toself-determination: \"All people have the right toself-determination. Owing to this right theyfreely establish their political status and freelyprovide their economic, social and culturaldevelopment...World Conference on HumanRights considers refusal of the right toself-determination as a violation of human rightsand emphasizes the necessity of effectiverealization of this right\". [1] By this measure,South Ossetia has the right to self-determination(by democratic processes), and any suppressionof that right should be seen as a human rightsviolation. In 2006, South Ossetia held areferendum that found over 99% of itspopulation of over 100,000 desire independence", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpsmhbsosb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "global politics society minorities house believessouth ossetia should beSelf-determination is notan absolute right. Not every territory and regionin the world that seeks independence has theright to it. This is due in no small part to the factthat such a system would be unworkable. Certaincriteria must be met for a territory and people toobtain a legitimate right to self-determination(for example, viability as an independent stateand an authentic internal drive forindependence), and S. Ossetia arguably does notmeet many of these criteria. Therefore S. Ossetiapossesses no absolute right toself-determination, and its calls for independencemust be evaluated in the context of what theconsequences of independence would be.Furthermore, no countries recognized SouthOssetia's 2006 referendum and vote forindependence at the time it was carried out, andfew do now. Without such approval, thereferendum should be considered illegitimate.The European human rights watchdog, the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpsmhbsosb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "global politics society minorities house believessouth ossetia should beSouth Ossetianindependence will help prevent futureconflict The status quo in the region is one ofmilitarized clashes and tensions. It is importantto recognize that South Ossetia has been defacto independent for some time. If it does notachieve independence, the proposed alternativeis that it re-integrate into Georgia. Yet, of SouthOssetians have made it clear that they will notaccept this. The only possible course of action,therefore, would be to force over 100,000 SouthOssetians to live under the tyranny of themajority of the Georgian state. This would notonly be a clear violation of self-determinationand basic democratic principles, but it would alsorisk a protracted war or insurgency in S. Ossetiaagainst any re-assertion of Georgian authority.S. Ossetia and Georgia have been battling eachother for over a century. Georgia has beenaccused of ethnic cleansing there, and oflaunching a 'war of aggression' which killed a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpsmhbsosb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "global politics society minorities house believessouth ossetia should beIt is invalid to criticize S.Ossetia's referendum for risking instability. TheUS State Department as well as the EuropeanUnion both argued that the South Ossetiareferendum was wrong on the basis that it was“unhelpful” and could exacerbate tensions withGeorgia. [1] This, however, is an invalid statusquo argument. It posits that any vote taken bythe South Ossetians that disrupts the status quois invalid, while a vote that might uphold thestatus quote could be considered valid. This is anunprincipled argument. The South Ossetianshave a right to express their beliefs, and thosebeliefs are legitimate and should be respected,irrespective of whether it disrupts the status quoor even leads to conflict with Georgia. And, ifGeorgia and other states want to maintainstability, they can do so by not reacting violentlyto an independent South Ossetia. [1] TheGeorgian Times Online. “US slams separatists'decision”. The Georgian Times. 9 November", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpsmhbsosb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "global politics society minorities house believessouth ossetia should beRussia’s Ministry ofForeign Affairs described the 2006 referendumas a “free expression of the will of SouthOssetia’s people through democratic procedures.Many countries in Europe and America could onlyenvy the level of organization and democratictransparency [in South Ossetia].” [1](10)Similarly, Luis Tascón, a member of theNational Assembly of Venezuela, stated duringvisit to S. Ossetia that “Those people who wish tobe free will be free. And the free peoples will helpSouth Ossetia with it.” [2] (13) Denying thelegitimacy of this democratic referendum (whoseflaws have not been proved to have been sosevere as to discredit it entirely) is to deny theSouth Ossetian people the right toself-determination. [1] Socor, Vladimir.“MOSCOW’S FINGERPRINTS ALL OVER SOUTHOSSETIA’S REFERENDUM”. Eurasia Daily MonitorVolume: 3 Issue: 212. The JamestownFoundation. 15 November 2006. [2] Enotes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpsmhbsosb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "global politics society minorities house believessouth ossetia should beA South Ossetian state isunviable There are many factors that makeSouth Ossetia unviable as a state. South Ossetiais very small with a very small population. It isalso a landlocked state and very poor. Thesefacts make it unlikely that South Ossetia couldact effectively as an independent state. Theresult is that it would become dependent onother states. [1] This can already be seen fromthe fact that S. Ossetia has only been able tosecure its current de facto independence withsubstantial military and foreign aid from Russia.[2] S. Ossetia is economically unviable as anindependent state. It is landlocked and only hasmeaningful road access to the sea throughGeorgia. S. Ossetian GDP was estimated at US$15 million (US$ 250 per capita) in a workpublished in 2002. S. Ossetia is arguably lackingin the basic economic necessities for autonomy.Indeed, a $15 million GDP would make SouthOssetia one of the poorest nations in the world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpsmhbsosb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "global politics society minorities house believessouth ossetia should beGeorgia has a right toterritorial integrity Georgia has a legitimatesovereign right to maintain its territorial integrityas well as the social contract accompanying it.Georgia has the right to take action to secure theintegrity of these things, unless blocked by ahigher international authority. Internationally, S.Ossetia's independence is recognised by only fivenations (including Russia), demonstrating thatthe international community is not convincedthat S. Ossetia's claim to self-determinationtrumps Georgia's claim to territorial integrity. [1]In order to obtain independence, it is importantthat a country be recognized diplomatically by asignificant number of the members of the UnitedNations. This is important in large part because itensures that a state will have viable diplomaticrelations internationally if it becomesindependent. It also demonstrates that theinternational system supports a certain actionbeing taken internationally. Thus Georgia's claim", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpsmhbsosb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "global politics society minorities house believessouth ossetia should beIllegitimacy of the 2006referendum South Ossetia was wrong to holdelections under conflict conditions. In 2006,South Ossetia can be said to have been in 8conflicts with Georgia when it held its 2006referendum on independence. Holdingreferendums under such conflict conditions isgenerally illegitimate because the results of theelections are skewed by the conflict, threats, andthe various risks for the voters involved. Thiscaused David Bakradze, the chairman of aGeorgian parliamentary European IntegrationCommittee, to comment, “Under conflictconditions, you cannot speak about legitimateelections.” [1] This mirrors European humanrights watchdog, the Council of Europe’s,denunciation of the referendum as \"unnecessary,unhelpful and unfair\". [2] Furthermore Russia'sinvolvement in the 2006 referendum arguablycorrupted its validity, as many of the authoritiesin S. Ossetia were installed there by the Russian", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpsmhbsosb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "global politics society minorities house believessouth ossetia should beS. Ossetia has aneffective democratic government which carriesout an effective control over the territory and thepopulation. It has independent legal procedure,army and militia and security service. The statelevies taxes, provides property rights and socialservice – public health services, provision ofpensions, public safety, power and road andtransport services, etc. [1] (4) All this clearlypoints to the viability of an independent S.Ossetian state -a fact which already exists on theground. Or, if it wants, after independence S.Ossetia is morally within its rights to re-join withits kith-and-kin in North Ossetia, which is part ofRussia. Of course, it would have to first separatefrom Georgia, whereupon it will have thecapacity to then decide to join Russia. Moreover,few states n the world are truly self-sufficient,and there are plenty of poor landlockedcountries, so in this sense S. Ossetia would notbe unique. Furthermore, poverty from continual", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeAt that rate, war inAfrica is not going to be ended by 2020.Moreover, progress in the past does not meanthat the progress will continue into the future.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeProgress in endingconflict in Africa Conflict in Africa is slowly beingended. In 1992 there were 18 conflicts in Africa;by 2009 this had been halved to 9. [1] But adecline in the number of conflicts is not the onlypositive trend in African conflicts: there has alsobeen a decline in the size of wars. They havechanged from wars between two organisedarmies to being small scale insurgencies. In 1984the conflicts were on average causing more than20,000 battle deaths per year, but by 2008 onlyaround 1,000. Even the number of incidents ofgenocide and mass killing has been going downfrom 9 in the 1980s to five in the 2000s. [2]Ending war might therefore be considered to beambitious but it is not against the trend and notinconceivable. [1] Straus, 2012,pp.183-184 [2] Straus, 2012, pp.189-191", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeIncreasing the numberof peacekeeping missions does not always meanthat the result will be peace; clearly if there is aneed for peacekeeping or even more so combattroops then peace has broken down. The UnitedNations has almost 70,000 peacekeepersdeployed in Africa ,yet new conflicts and criseskeep erupting; in 2013 there were new conflictsin Mali, South Sudan, and the Central AfricanRepublic. In the case of Southern Sudan this isdespite there being 7500 UN peacekeepers in thecountry. [1] [1] Raghavan, Sudarsan, ‘Recordnumber of U.N. peacekeepers fails to stopAfrican wars’, Washington Post, 4 January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeThe SolemnDeclaration The Solemn Declaration did not justhighlight the goal but also that it would beachieved through three techniques: by 1,addressing the causes of conflicts – economicand social disparities, strengthening judicialsystems to ensure accountability, and reaffirmingcollective responsibility, 2, preventing emergingsources of conflict such as piracy getting afoothold, and 3, engaging in conflict prevention.[1] Africa has been building the African Peaceand Security Architecture to address thesecauses of conflict. It has created the Peace andSecurity Council that facilitates the AU’sresponse to crises; it can engage in actions fromhumanitarian assistance to military interventionif there are particularly grave circumstances suchas genocide. [2] When it does authorise action,this action is coordinated by the AU commission.When it comes to peaceful resolution of conflict,the AU has a ‘Panel of the Wise’ made up of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeHaving a system isuseless if it is not sufficiently funded to fulfil itsobjectives, at the moment the AU does notprovide sufficient funding for peacekeeping.[1] Moreover, reaction does not prevent war -just shortens it and reduces the intensity. ThePanel of the Wise is one method of attempting tostop conflict before it becomes really violent butexternal mediators can only do so much inpreventing conflict; most needs to come fromthe parties in conflict. [1] Williams, 2011, p.12", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeFiddling around withwhat is considered to be a war is not resolvingthe problem of conflict in Africa. The mostdevastating conflicts have been internal conflicts– if we want to end war in Africa we need toprevent these conflicts from occurring too.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeThe increasingeffectiveness of the African Union The AfricanUnion has been taking a much more activestance in preventing and resolving conflict. Since2003 responsibility for peace in Africa has beenwith the Peace and Security Council. This bodyhas authorised AU interventions in Somalia,Sudan, Burundi, and the Central AfricanRepublic. [1] The African Union is not the onlyorganisation engaged in peacekeeping; theEconomic Community of West African States(ECOWAS) has also been actively engaged inpeacekeeping, having been deployed innumerous conflicts since the 1990s, mostrecently in Mali where they took part alongsideFrench forces in defeating an Islamistinsurgency. [2] The AU is also boosting itscollective capacity to respond to crises creatingthe African Standby Force made up of fiveregional brigades of 4000 soldiers. This force,when complete, will enable rapid deployment", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeNot all conflict iswar What is War? The AU’s declaration does notdefine it. Ending all conflict is ambitious, endingonly inter state war in Africa on the other hand isnot. The vast majority of conflicts in Africa havebeen internal. The only true inter state conflictshave been the wars between Israel and Egypt,the Eritrean-Ethiopian war, the Uganda-Tunisiawar, and the Second Congo War. [1] None ofthese are ongoing. The only conflicts that mightcount as inter-state that might be consideredongoing are the situation in Western Sahara andborder clashes between the Sudans. WesternSahara might be considered to be frozen withvery few deaths as a result of it and the Sudanconflict is in large part a result of the borderbeing new. [1] Wikipedia, ‘List of conflicts inAfrica’, accessed 10 January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-con03b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeWhile events cannot beforeseen, fixing fragile states to make conflictless likely is possible. Eradicating poverty isalready an international goal and improvinggovernance is a regular concern among donors.The AU recognises that development, democracyand good governance are necessary to ensurestability and peace. [1] [1] Cilliers, Jakkie,‘Towards a Continental Early Warning System forAfrica’, ISS Africa, paper 102, April 2005, , p.2", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-con01b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeWhile we know that solong as there has been recorded history therehas been war, we do not know that war is a partof human nature. Indeed there is some evidencethat it is not. Research by Abo AcademyUniversity has found that primitive societies –tribes that don’t rely on agriculture ordomesticated animals – don’t have groupconflicts; violence is almost exclusively betweenindividuals. As these societies are a goodanalogue for society before what we termcivilisation arose it is likely that war is a result ofcivilisation not human nature. [1] [1] BBCNews, ‘Primitive human society ‘not driven bywar’’, 18 July 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-con02a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeAfrica is the mostwarlike continent In 2012 Africa had the mostdistinct conflicts of any region with 13 ongoingconflicts. [1] While Africa and Asia havethroughout most of the last fifty years hadroughly similar numbers of conflicts –approximately 10 per year [2] - Africa has hadmany more non state conflicts and the numberhas not declined since 2004 when there were 20non-state conflicts; in 2011 there were 22. [3]All in all there is little hope of managing to endall these conflicts by 2020. [1] ‘Armed Conflicts2012’, Uppsala Conflict Data Program,2013, [2] ‘Armed Conflict by Region’, UCDP,2013, [3] ‘Non-state Conflicts by Region,1989-2011’, UCDP, 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-con04a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeNo mechanism toprevent crises and war exists Within countries itis the state that ensures that conflict does notoccur: the state has a monopoly on the use offorce so ensures law and order. There is no suchhierarchy between states. African nations, aswith most other states in the world, believe inthe sovereign right of states to manage theirown affairs. In the same document as there is apledge to end war “respect for the sovereigntyand territorial integrity of each of its [AU’s]Member States” is reaffirmed. [1] While statesare considered sovereign there is no possibleway to create a mechanism to ensure thatconflicts do not happen. The AU cannot dictate toits members to ensure they avoid internalconflicts even if the AU knows a conflict iscoming as those members are the stakeholders.[2] All that the AU can do is react to ongoingconflicts when it is already spilling out of controland encourage good practice. [1] African Union,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-con03a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeGains may bereversed; events can’t be foreseen Africa stillhas many fragile states. The Institute ofStrategic Studies Africa identified 26 ‘fragile’states (meaning they have weak governance,conflict and violence, inequality and poverty)including DR Congo and Ethiopia and forecaststhat there will still be 11 fragile states by 2050.[1] This rather implies that war will not be endedby 2050, let alone 2020. Even in countries thatare considered stable events can quickly spiralinto conflict. Mali was considered to bedemocratic and reasonably stable before a coupin 2012: there were multiparty elections in 1992,it held regular elections that passed internationalinspections, its first president Konaré willinglystood down, there was comparatively goodfreedom of speech and media. [2] Yet after acoup in 2012 it went downhill to the point ofrequiring intervention by French troops in early2013. [1] Cilliers, Jakkie, and Sick, Timothy D.,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-con01a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeWar is in humannature War and conflict between groups is inhuman nature. As Hobbes famously wrote “thelife of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, andshort… Nature should thus dissociate and rendermen apt to invade and destroy one another”. [1]Although the motives have changed, conflict hasbeen a constant throughout human history. Thefirst militaries were created around 2700 BC butconflict between societies almost certainlyoccurred before this. [2] Pledging to end all waris high minded, but it is unlikely to actuallysucceed in overturning human nature. [1]Hobbes, Thomas, ‘Chapter XIII of the NaturalCondition of Mankind as concerning their felicityand misery’, Leviathan, [2] Gabriel, Richard A.,and Metz, Karen S., A Short History of War,1992,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-con04b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeWhile the AU cannotcompletely prevent conflicts from breaking out itis establishing a Continental Early WarningSystem. This will use publically availableinformation and involve organisations at alllevels from international to local to enable theAU, and any threatened states, to takepreventive action in the common good. This islinked to regional organisations such as ECOWASwhich has its own conflict preventionmechanisms and has the authority to react withpeacekeeping, mediation of disputes or otherpeace building mechanisms. [1] The AU can alsoensure any conflicts that do break out are endedquickly. The creation of the African StandbyForce should give the AU the strength to react tocrises and prevent conflicts escalating. [1]Cilliers, 2005, pp.1, 10", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-apwhbaucmip-con02b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics warpeace house believes africanunion can meet its pledgeAfrica is not the mostwarlike continent in terms of the frequency orduration of conflicts. Asia had 1.88 wars percountry from 1960 to 2008 compared to 1.65 percountry in Africa. [1] Moreover many more ofthese armed conflicts are internal and aresmaller. [1] Straus, 2012, p.186", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iighbopcc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "imate international global house believesoutcome paris climate conferenceWhile there aresure to be some countries that won’t live up totheir pledges this is also the case with bindingagreements even if they have built in penalties.This has been shown by the European Unionwhere Germany and France both flouted budgetrules that allowed a maximum deficit of 3% atthe start of the millennium despite the threat offines. [1] [1] Osborn, Andrew, ‘France andGermany to flout budget rules until 2006’, TheGuardian, 30 October 2003,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iighbopcc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "imate international global house believesoutcome paris climate conferenceOnly aninternational treaty can create penalties fornon-compliance A non-binding agreement willnot have any penalties for any countries that donot comply with it, this sets the agreement upfor failure. Without a binding agreement agovernment will find it difficult to bind itssuccessors who may back track in the decadesthat follow. Some states are backtracking evenbefore the agreement is finalised; the UK hasbeen abandoning its green policies – cuttingsubsidies for renewables, cancelling carboncapture and storage, reducing funding fordomestic energy efficiency, and selling the greeninvestment bank. [1] If governments will takesuch measures before the agreement is evenfinished then what hope does it have in thefuture if there is nothing to persuade sovereigngovernments to comply with their pledges? [1]Monbiot, George, ‘On climate change thisgovernment is indifferent to life, in love with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iighbopcc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "imate international global house believesoutcome paris climate conferenceVoluntarymeasures have got much further than previousattempts to get a binding agreement – at leastthere is going to be a good working agreementto build on in future this time. The changes thatcould mean countries ultimately targeting 2C oreven 1.5C are technological; if solar becomes thecheapest form of electricity generation, if electriccars become competitive with petrol, andbiofuels taken up for aviation fuel. [1] [1]Mathiesen, Karl, ‘Should we be aiming to keepglobal warming to 1.5C, not 2C?’, The Guardian,.2 December 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iighbopcc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "imate international global house believesoutcome paris climate conferenceThe hard part isthe cutting of emissions The problem with anon-binding agreement, even one where thetargets have been submitted by the governmentsthemselves is exactly that it is non-binding. Ifgovernments are not bound to cut emissionsthen there is a good chance that many of themwont. [1] The British government, which hasbinding targets, has been on course to miss its2025 targets with reductions of only 23% againsttargets of 31% due to a decision to reducesubsidies for housing insulation. [2] If countrieswhich have set targets for themselves in the pastare missing them what hope do we have forthese voluntary targets? [1] Taylor, Lenore,‘Paris climate talks: the real test is whethercountries will keep their word’, The Guardian, 30November 2015, [2] Harvey, Fiona, ‘UK ontrack to miss carbon targets, climate changeadvisers warn’, The Guardian, 15 July 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iighbopcc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "imate international global house believesoutcome paris climate conferenceEachgovernment has put in targets that they believeare realistic and that they are willing to try toreach. The countries involved are therefore muchmore likely to want to meet the target than ifthey had been imposed on them by a bindinginternational treaty. Europe has found thatbinding refugee quotas are almost impossible toagree and equally difficult to implement. [1]Instead it has generally been accepted that onlyvoluntary systems will work when it comes totaking in the majority of refugees with Hungarywilling to take legal action to prevent mandatoryquotas. [2] The same is the case on greenhousegas emissions. [1] Euractive, ‘Commission readyto drop mandatory quotas for refugees’, 17September 2015, [2] BBC News, ‘Migrant crisis:Hungary challenges EU quota plan in court’, 3December 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iighbopcc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "imate international global house believesoutcome paris climate conferenceIt is too late forhalf measures Two degrees Celsius hasgenerally been regarded as that safe level whichagreements should be aiming for. Thisagreement does not go so far with it expected tokeep the temperature increase to around 2.7degrees if everyone sticks to their commitmentsand makes deeper ones after 2030. [1]Unfortunately however the world will still mostlikely be heading towards a 3.5 degrees rise if nofurther cuts are made later. [2] Now is the timeto be much more ambitious and part of thatmeans binding cuts to prevent backsliding orthose agreeing carrying on as usual. [1] Nuttall,Nick, ‘Global Response to Climate Change KeepsDoor Open to 2 Degree C Temperature Limit’,UNFCCC Press Office, 30 October 2015, [2]Romm, Joe, ‘Misleading U.N. Report ConfusesMedia on Paris Climate Talks’, thinkprogress.org,3 November 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iighbopcc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "imate international global house believesoutcome paris climate conferenceThe UnitedStates Senate would be a potential sticking pointfor any treaty however it would be unlikely thatthe United States would hold out against the restof the world. At the worst case it would simplysign next time the democrats gain a majority.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iighbopcc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "imate international global house believesoutcome paris climate conferenceSovereignty isoften taken to mean that states can do whatthey like without interference. This is not thekind of mentality that will help solve climatechange or ensure that this deal sticks.Unfortunately climate change is a global issuewhere what happens in one country affectseveryone else just as much as the miscreant.The atmosphere is a global commons, currentlyfree for everyone to use, and more often abuse.As such the principles of sovereignty andnon-interference can have no place.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iighbopcc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "imate international global house believesoutcome paris climate conferenceOnly anon-binding agreement would get the targetsnecessary Fully binding treaties withmechanisms for compliance are the goldstandard for agreements between nations. Butbecause they are onerous they are the mostdifficult kind of treaties to get agreed to startwith. If the aim were such an agreement it wouldunfortunately never happen. This has beendemonstrated by the years of successive failuresin crafting climate agreements. COP 15 is themost notable; expectations were immensely highfor a binding international treaty but there was afailure to deliver, largely because governmentsdid not want a binding international solutionwhich is what was being negotiated atCopenhagen. [1] [1] BBC News, ‘Why didCopenhagen fail to deliver a climate deal?’, 22December 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iighbopcc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "imate international global house believesoutcome paris climate conferenceA moreinformal agreement avoids the US congress TheUnited States Congress is a potential hurdle forany climate agreement. While President BarackObama is keen to make tackling climate changea legacy of his Presidency the Republicandominated Congress is both likely to try to blockthe President for that very reason and issceptical of climate change. It is therefore amajor benefit to have an agreement that will notneed to be submitted to Congress for approval asany treaty needs to be confirmed by theSenate. The Secretary of State Kerry arguesthat it is “definitely not going to be a treaty,” and“not going to be legally binding reduction targetslike Kyoto”. It won’t need to be passed to theSenate because the President already has thepower to implement the agreement throughexisting law. [1] [1] Mufson, Steven, andDemirjian, Karoun, ‘Trick or treaty? The legalquestion hanging over the Paris climate change", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iighbopcc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "imate international global house believesoutcome paris climate conferenceSovereignstates should be allowed to set their own targetsand be trusted to meet them States aresovereign entities meaning that only they havepower within their borders and climate changeshould not be a cause for groups of countriesmeddling in the business of others. Each statemaking its own commitment and then doing itsown monitoring and enforcement is the right wayto go about preventing climate change. By doingit this way no countries will feel unduly burdenedor persecuted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iighbopcc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "imate international global house believesoutcome paris climate conferenceThere is littlereason why countries can’t voluntarily come upwith their quotas and then be bound to them bytreaty. Being willing to be bound by a treatywould show that the targets submitted are reallythe targets that countries are setting forthemselves rather than a public relationsexercise.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bldimehbn-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "bate living difference international middle easthouse believes newsThis is really not an issueabout the reporting of gay marriage or theopportunities to host a pride march. In many ofthese countries gay men and women facerepression, imprisonment and violence.Regardless of the victims of such actions, it sayssomething fundamental about the perpetratorsof those actions – governments, security servicesor religious groups – that they perform theactions at all. Privacy is an argument to be usedto prevent discrimination, not cover-ups ofdiscrimination and abuse; those who areoffended by such reporting can invoke theirprivacy simply by tuning out. Equally it isquestionable that proposition would make suchan argument based on the view that certainracial, ethnic or religious groups were less thanhuman and it might trouble bigots of anotherstripe to see their interests of those communitiesmentioned in the media. It is difficult to find adefinition of Human Rights that would not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bldimehbn-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "bate living difference international middle easthouse believes newsOn issues such as gaymarriage, human rights activists have taken theline that the right to marry is nobody else’sbusiness. That principle of privacy should workboth ways. Many have argued that issuesrelating to homosexual relations are,fundamentally, a matter of privacy. That weshould respect the rights of individuals to livetheir lives as they see fit without having theviews, actions and opinions imposed upon them.[1] It’s a reasonable position but must surelyrelate to viewers and readers as much as it doesto the subjects of news stories. If gay men andwomen have the right to live their lives free fromthe intervention of other traditions and beliefsthen so do those communities – religious andotherwise – that find some of their demandsoffensive or objectionable. If the rights toprivacy and self-determination are supported bythose who support gay rights, then it would beinconsistent to suggest that this does not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bldimehbn-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "bate living difference international middle easthouse believes newsIt seems perverse tosuggest that consumers of news would be likelyto abandon a channel on the basis of one story –or even several. Decisions by consumers of newsare determined far more by the general outlookof a channel than by particular stories – it is rareto find individuals who are interested in theentire output of a news organisation. Inaddition, new organisations clearly have aninterest in covering areas that are ignored bytheir competitors because it gives them acommercial advantage both through appealing tonew groups but also through enhancing theirreputation for impartial reporting. There isclearly a gap in the market to provide reportingof gay issues and it therefore should be in newsorganisations interests to fill that gap. This isexactly what al Jazeera did when it was set up; itfilled a gap left by the closure of BBC Arabic for abroadcaster that is willing to \"report the news asthey see it.\" [1] [1] ‘History of Al Jazeera", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bldimehbn-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "bate living difference international middle easthouse believes newsBroadcasters almost nevershow scenes of torture or torment because theyknow this will cause offence, the same principleshould apply here. Journalists and editors usetheir judgement all the time on what isacceptable to print or broadcast. Expletives [1]or graphic images of violence or sex are routinelyprevented because they would cause offence,giving personal details might cause distress andare omitted as a courtesy, and the identities ofminors are protected as a point of law in mostjurisdictions. It is simply untrue to suggest thatjournalists report the ‘unvarnished truth’ with noregard to its ramifications. Where a particularfact or image is likely to cause offence ordistress, it is routine to exercise self-censorship– it’s called discretion and professionaljudgement [2] . Indeed, the news outlets thatfail to do so are the ones most frequently andvociferously denounced by the high-mindedintelligentsia who so frequently argue that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bldimehbn-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "bate living difference international middle easthouse believes newsAll of the issues that Propraises are matters of choice - the use ofexpletives or the visual portrayal of a brutal actare the representations of an active choice,either by the subject of the story or the reporter.The endemic homophobia in the Arab worldattacks people on the basis of their humanity, ifpeople were being imprisoned for having greeneyes or red hair or black skin or breasts or anattraction to the opposite sex, nobody wouldsuggest that there were cultural sensitivitiesinvolved. Journalists would report it as a crime ofapartheid. Free speech is grounded in givingvoice to the voiceless, not only regardless of thefact that some may find that inconvenient but inactive defiance of it. Journalism at its bestrecognises that fact. For example the ethicsguide of the American Society of ProfessionalJournalists states that journalists should, “Tellthe story of the diversity and magnitude of thehuman experience even when it is unpopular to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bldimehbn-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "bate living difference international middle easthouse believes newsWhere there is a clearobjection to discussing a certain subject,insisting on doing so is not news, it’spropaganda. Ultimately all news outlets reportthat which is of interest to their viewers. Wherethere is no interest or, more frequently, an activelack of interest, news outlet do not - and shouldnot – impose a particular set of judgements orinterests on their customers. Doing so wouldarguably be patronizing and certainly be financialsuicide [1] . As a result they report what is bothinteresting and acceptable to those who consumethe news and, for the vast majority of newsoutlets, the companies that advertise on thestation, website or in the paper. Expecting newsoutlets to ignore those simple realities is askingthem to self-destruct by ignoring their market. Itis a clear example of sacrificing the good in thename of the best – in the example given, thewriter mentions that Al Jazeera covers storiesrelating to gay rights but does so on its English", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bldimehbn-con03b", "title": "", "text": "bate living difference international middle easthouse believes newsA liberal bias among thejournalistic elite in the West is hardly reason forchanging the editorial policies of news outlets innations that do not share those values. The firstduty of the journalist must be their role as theeyes and ears of those for whom they do theirreporting – the readers and viewers who bothdirectly and indirectly pay their salaries. As aresult, there is a duty on journalists not only toreport those issues of interest to that group butto avoid those issues which their customersconsider either irrelevant or distasteful.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bldimehbn-con01b", "title": "", "text": "bate living difference international middle easthouse believes newsIt is routine to makedeterminations on the basis of the race orreligion of those affected in a story as to whetherit is newsworthy or not. Sixty people of anothernationality die in an accident, it may be barelyreported, if two people of the news outlet’s homenationality dies in such a tragedy then it is amajor story. The interests and prejudices of theconsumers of news are reflected all the time inwhat editors consider to be important.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bldimehbn-con02a", "title": "", "text": "bate living difference international middle easthouse believes newsCitizens deserve the right toknow what is happening in their name. It is upto the public to decide whether those actionsthat are reported are right or wrong, journalistsand broadcasters should not act as a filter in thatprocess. Many of these actions – imprisonments,internments, brutality and others – areconducted by governments in the name of thepeople. Sometimes this is done undereuphemisms such as ‘protecting public morality’or in the name of a majority religion. This is usedas a catch all as shown by the case of journalistSofiene Chourabi who was arrested for ‘harmingpublic morals’ in response to calling for a protestagainst the governing party in Tunisia. [1] Itseems only reasonable that people have the rightto know what is being done in their name, howtheir morality is being ‘protected’ or what theirfaith is being used to justify. The failure to do soassumes that the public – individually andcollectively – are either to foolish to understand", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bldimehbn-con03a", "title": "", "text": "bate living difference international middle easthouse believes newsJournalism should report theexperiences of the vulnerable and oppressed justas much as those of the elite and powerful. Theidea that people are not widely interested in thelives of their fellow citizens is clearly untrue.Indeed, ‘people sell papers’ is one of the oldestsayings in journalism. However, there is also amoral obligation on journalists to report the newsthat impacts on the marginalized the most. Thisis demonstrably the case as it tends to thosestories that bring to life disadvantage or thevulnerable just as much as those that report themisdeeds of the powerful that win journalists therecognition of their peers and the professionalawards and prestige that goes along with that.Pulitzers and others are rarely handed out forreporting what is comfortable, mundane or safe.For example the 2012 Pulitzer for local reportingwas for an article on the sex scandal at PennState and Feature Writing on “haunting story of awoman who survived a brutal attack that took", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bldimehbn-con01a", "title": "", "text": "bate living difference international middle easthouse believes newsThe job of a journalist is toreport the world and events as they see them.Cultural sensibilities do not alter the fact thatthese events have happened. It is difficult to seehow a matter that is undeniably controversial onthe international stage and impacts on theperception of the perpetrating governmentaround the world could not be deemednewsworthy [1] . It should not be theresponsibility of journalists to determine whetheror not viewers and readers might find somethingof interest but, rather, to report events that havehappened and that may have an impact on thelives of consumers either as individuals or as anation. By that standard, these matters areclearly news. News organisations and individualjournalists do not report on military, political,financial or terrorist actions because they agreewith them but do so because of their impact onthe world in which their consumers live. Oftenthe very stories which are the most important to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bldimehbn-con02b", "title": "", "text": "bate living difference international middle easthouse believes newsIf Op’s argument were truethen news programmes would never end – andnever need to repeat a story. Governmentsundertake an enormous number of actions everyday that in some way impact upon their citizensand have wider implications for the wider world.By any objective standard, it is quite routine forall but the most important of these to gounreported – most consumers of news have littleinterest in or understanding of many of thecomplexities of economics or foreign policy. Forexample in 1999 only 29% of Americans saidthey were very interested in news about othercountries. [1] Likewise many importantdevelopments in science or literature –frequently involving public money – are barelymentioned by a media that knows its consumersto be uninterested. [1] Bostrom, Meg, 1999‘Public Attitudes Towards Foreign Affairs AnOverview of the Current State of Public Opinion’,Frameworks Institute p.11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalIndependentnations are capable of trying war crimesthemselves. The ICC is an unnecessary intrusionon national sovereignty. It should be up to eachstate to determine its own legal system as tohow criminal matters should be prosecuted. Ifthe US and Israel do have issues where militaryofficials have broken the international criminallaw, they can be dealt with by the existingCourts-Martial of their respective militaries. BothIsrael and the US are states that obey the rule oflaw. The ICC was unnecessary when the USmilitary convicted William Calley for the My Laimassacre, or the Mahmudiyah case. Theprinciple of complementarity is no guarantee asit is up to the ICC itself to determine if the stateis unable or unwilling, meaning it could take overa case for its own ends.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalDomestic courtsare often incapable of providing a fair trial, whenthey fail the ICC fills the void. Domestic legalsystems will often suffer from a lack of judicialindependence and potentially politicisedprosecutions, and are also open to allegations ofvictors’ justice, or whitewashes by a judiciarybiased towards the winners of the conflict. TheICC, as an effective court and with anindependent judiciary, provide a suitable andunbiased climate for these cases to be heard in.While it is difficult to give any former head ofstate a fair trial, it is even more so in casesinvolving states divided along ethnic and politicalfault lines where any conviction could be seen asone based on continuing hatreds rather thanevidence and criminal procedure. It is clearly inthe interests of the United States and Israel tosupport the principle that where there is noindependent judiciary cases can be moved to ahigher level. These states as much as any other", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalJust because thereis widespread public support for a thing ormeasure does not mean that it shouldautomatically be the case. The issue should bedebated on its own merits, rather than resting ona potentially ill-informed public. Ratification oftreaties is left to congress and the Knesset toensure that their consequences are properlyconsidered.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalThe ICC is a forcefor good, and the all states should be seen to bestanding fully behind it. The InternationalCriminal Court is a major breakthrough inproviding a permanent and durable system thatcan effectively prosecute and independently trywar criminals. In the past there was nopermanent framework for dealing with gravebreaches of human rights protection, oftenallowing states to perform evil acts withimpunity. Only for the very worst atrocities werespecial courts and tribunals set up. It should alsoact as a deterrent to future violations; it may notreduce conflict but will encourage states to keepa tighter rein on their militaries. An attempt at asolution to the problem of enforcement ofinternational criminal law is something to beapplauded, for the same reason the criminal lawon the domestic sphere is – it saves lives,protects human rights and provides civilization towhat would otherwise be anarchy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalIt took nearly twoyears for the ICC to launch an investigation intoatrocities in the Central African Republic. Thishas helped defeat the argument that it would befaster than the International Criminal Tribunal forthe former Yugoslavia and International Tribunalfor Rwanda were. So far being indicted by theICC has had little impact; for example it failed toprevent the election of Uhuru Kenyatta, who iscurrently facing trial by the ICC for crimesagainst humanity, as President of Kenya. TheICC is also hamstrung by its inability to capturedefendants itself. It can only do so with theco-operation of its member states. The US andIsrael have nothing to gain from membership,and everything to lose in terms of being on thereceiving end of politically motivated and abusiveprosecutions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalThe Americanpeople support ICC membership. In ademocracy the voice of the people should carryweight in determining how the country actsinternationally. According to a 2005 poll carriedout by the Chicago Council on foreign relations69% of the US population are in favour of USparticipation in the ICC. This clearly shows thatthe US people are unconvinced by the argumentson the theorized drawbacks of the InternationalCriminal Court and are happy for it to be ratified.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-con03b", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalThe only effect onUS freedom of action would be prohibition ofclear and significant violations of internationallaw. If the US stays within the internationalcriminal law, they will not be affected by the ICC.It would be harmful for any state to have specialtreatment – if the US were to be granted suchspecial treatment to the United States otherlarge states could request the same due to theirself-perceived international roles. Suchexceptions and opt outs would mean that theInternational Criminal Court would be grantingimpunity to large states, whatever gargantuanviolations of the international law are committed,and only investigate smaller ones. This wouldclearly be an unfair system of internationaljustice. If a country engages in more militaryengagements, and is larger and more powerful,it is all the more necessary that they are held tothe same standards as smaller powers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-con01b", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalIt is accepted thatthere is now such a thing as internationalcriminal law – from Nuremberg onwards, thereare some matters that can be punished bymultinational courts. The US also supported theICTY and ICTR – if the ICC is a breach of nationalsovereignty, so are all the single use tribunals.The ICC is essentially an intergovernmentalinstitution in the mould of the United Nations orthe IAEA – an institution that can sometimeslead to a decision that goes against the wishes ofindividual members but that does not mean themembers sovereignty is undermined. While theICC does have jurisdiction over nationals ofnon-party states, that only applies if referred bythe UN Security Council or if the acts in question.The principle of complementarity will allow statesto deal with issues themselves if they are willingand able to do so. Therefore the ICC is perfectlycompatible with national sovereignty.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-con02a", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalRisk of “lawfare”against Israel The specific position that Israel isin, places it at a unique risk of “lawfare”, the useand abuse of the legal process by states forpolitical ends. A particular concern is Article8(2)(b)(viii), which could be used as a particulartool to attack Israel over the settlements policy.Issues over settlements in the West Bank shouldbe resolved by negotiation during the existing,albeit fractious, peace process, rather than beingused as a tool for those who wish to derail goodfaith negotiations by dragging matters in to thehands of the international courts. Israel hasregularly been singled out for particular berationby UN bodies. For example, over half of thecountry-specific resolutions passed by the UNHuman Rights Council have been about Israel,while praising Muammar Gadaffi.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-con04a", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalICC trials violatethe due process guarantees of the USconstitution US ratification of the Rome Statutewould lead to the possibility of Americans beingsubject to trials with procedures that violate theAmerican Constitution. For example, there are nojury trials at the ICC – a majority vote of thejudges is enough to convict - is a violation of theSixth Amendment to the US Constitution. Theindependence and neutrality of some of thejudges may be doubtful if they come fromcountries with definite foreign policy intereststhat run contrary to those of the US. This isparticularly pertaining to judges who are frombackgrounds where judicial independence fromthe executive is not a defining feature of thelegal system who will be more likely swayed bypolitical considerations. There is, in addition, alack of rules against double jeopardy, and theglacial rate of progress made by the ICC withlengthy waits in pre-trial detention for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-con03a", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalThe rest of theworld is better off with the US out The crucialrole that the US plays for international securitymeans that, for the benefit of the rest of theworld, it is advantageous for the US to beoutside of the ICC jurisdiction. When militaryintervention is needed , it will often be the USthat does so. The US being in a position whereits actions would be constrained by a fear of ICCprosecution. This would be even worse if thecrime of aggression were to take effect, a broaddefinition of which could harm US interests. Withthe notable exceptions of the 1991 Gulf War andthe invasion of Afghanistan, most recent USoverseas missions could be seen as amounting tothe crime of aggression. Depending on thedefinition used, it has been argued that everysingle US president since Kennedy hascommitted the crime of aggression. In anincreasingly uncertain world, it could benecessary for the US to intervene American", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-con01a", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalRatification of theInternational Criminal Court would be a violationof national sovereignty Any state ratifying theRome Statute, is placing its citizens at the mercyof a court that operates outside of nationalcontrol. This is an unacceptable ceding ofnational sovereignty – thus no state other thanthe US has the power to deal with Americancriminals, and no one but Israel should deal withIsraeli criminals. International criminal law andnational sovereignty are inevitably enemies Notonly does the ICC threaten Americansovereignty, it threatens the sovereignty of allnations – the ICC can, in some cases, prosecutecitizens of nations that are not state parties.Authority for justice within one’s territory ishowever at the heart of the concept ofsovereignty. As a matter of principle the USshould not be supporting measures that affectthe sovereignty of any nation, let alone the USitself.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-con04b", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalWhile the ICCoperates its own rules of procedure and uses itsown formulation for due process rights, it hasprotections as strong as the top legal systemsaround the world. While the ICC is unique, itmeets the standards accepted for a fair trial. Forexample, article 66(2) of the Rome Statuteguarantees the presumption of innocence, article54(1) covers disclosure, article 67 includes theright to counsel and a speedy trial. Thesesafeguards are considered more than adequateby human rights campaign groups such asAmnesty International. While the ICC does notuse juries, in many cases it would be difficult tofind an impartial jury or to transport them, andthey would be unlikely to cope with the weightyand complex legal issues that occur in complexinternational criminal trials. At any rate, manystates, even common law ones such as the US,do not use juries at all (such as Israel), and insome circumstances they can be allowed in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-amehbuaisji-con02b", "title": "", "text": "americas middle east house believes us andisrael should join internationalIf Israeli nationalshave not committed any criminal offencesagainst international law, they have nothing tofear from joining the International Criminal Courtsystem. While some may agitate for action to bebrought against Israel for political reasons, theInternational Criminal Court has an independentprosecutor and complex procedures that will actas an adequate filter to stop it being hijacked asa tool for “lawfare” No state should haveimmunity from the international law, whatevertheir circumstances or potentials for mischievoususes of the legal system. In addition, Israelimembership of the ICC would be useful part ofthe bargaining in the peace process, to allow anycriminal cases against Israel to be handled by animpartial international court obeying full rules oflaw.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyImpartiality is notdefined by the constitution of the forces, but thedecision-making process which determine theiruse. A UN standing army would not alter theinjustice of the UN Security Council and its vetosystem, which institutionalizes self-interest inthe decisions of the body. As the recent proposalfor an independent UN force indicates, the forcecould move swiftly to avert catastrophe but onlyspecifically ‘after UN authorization’1. Thereforewhilst a UN standing army would ostensibly beneutral, the uses for which it would be deployedwould still have the same, underlyingself-interested motives on the part of the UNSecurity Council. The problem is therefore notresolved, but pushed further up the line. “Wehave to walk a fine line in order to build supportin the U.S. and in developing countries. This sortof thing creates suspicion that Western countrieswant to use this for political purposes.” 2 Onspeed of deployment, the UN’s ability to respond", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyA UN standing armywould be ideally suited to respond tocontemporary crises. Changes in modernwarfare dictate the need for an impartial,rapidly-deploying, multi-national force. Modernwarfare is no longer the trench battles ofbattalions aligned to a flag, it is increasinglypolice actions designed to prevent the resort towarfare in the first place or enforce ceasefiresonce they have begun. As such, the impartialityof a UN standing army would be highly valuable,offering both parties in the conflict a neutralpeacemaker and peacekeeper. Contrast this tothe perceived differences in attitude betweentroops from Britain, the US, Russia and France towarring sides in the Balkans. It would be free ofaccusations of meddling and self-interest thataccompany the participation of troops fromneighbouring states in UN interventions (forexample, Nigeria in West African missions). A UNstanding army could overcome local civilian", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyA UN standing armywould still have the same drawbacks as thecurrent model. Differences in language, culture,etc. will seriously mar operational effectiveness,especially in combat situations, irrespective ofwhether they have been trained together. In theheat of the battle, troops that have grown up indifferent cultures, speaking different languageswill understandably fall back upon what theyknow. Cultural instincts cannot be retaught orunlearned in a military barracks; they will provean obstacle to operational effectiveness. Inaddition, in a truly multinational force there willalways be a great many individual soldiers whocould be suspected of taking sides in a particularconflict (e.g. Muslims or Orthodox Christians inthe Balkan conflicts); are such soldiers to bepulled out from a particular mission, therebyperhaps weakening the whole force? A UN armymight also end up being very poorly equipped,for if the advanced military powers start to see", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyA UN Standing Armywould solve the problem of American militaryhegemony. A strong, effective and impartialUnited Nations standing army would denypowerful military states the right to bully andblackmail rivals into submission with the threatof military force. A UN army would be able tobalance that threat with their own willingness tocome to the aid of states under military duress.The United States, unwilling to risk a protractedconflict against a respected, well-trainedmulti-national force would have to fall back. Touse an example, American military interventionin Vietnam, against the wishes of the majority ofthe population, could have been prevented had aU.N. standing army existed to respond to thewishes of the Vietnamese people and standagainst the United States’ intervention. Theexistence of such a military rival would thereforeforce the United States to increase its investmentin its State Department and diplomatic solutions", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyA UN standing armywould not solve 'the problem of Americanmilitary hegemony', even if there is such aproblem. It is perhaps unlikely that the US wouldfund such an army. Nor would other majormilitary spenders like the United Kingdom belikely to since they already send troops to NATO,possibly in the near future to an EU army, andhaving its own army it would be significantlyoverstretched. This United Nations could notraise sufficient funds to create such a force. Toestablish military parity with the US wouldrequire a large nuclear arsenal and an enormousmilitary infrastructure. States will not everfinance such a force at the expense of buildingup their own forces. The army would have to bewilling to be pitched against the interests of theUS or other permanent members of the SecurityCouncil, yet any U.N. standing army wouldrequire the blessing of that Security Council,where those members have a veto. Therefore", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyA UN standing armywould be more effective in operationsthemselves. A UN standing army would be moreeffective than the variety of troops staffingmissions under the current system. At presentmost UN operations are supplied by developingnations who hope to make a profit from thepayments they receive for their services, butwho are under-equipped and badly trained.Forces from the major powers are providedsparingly and only after substantial publicpressure or when there exists an incentive fortheir use. A UN standing army would be betterprepared, both in regards to training andequipment, and its soldiers would have greatermotivation as they would have made a choice toenlist, rather than being conscripts forced bytheir own states to fight someone else’s war. Asingle UN force would also have better commandand control than in current situations, whendifferent national forces and their commanders", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyAlthough other reformsof the UN may be desirable in their own right,without involving the creation of a standing armythey will not address the central problems ofpeacekeeping. Proposals for a rapid reactionforce formed from member states may speed upthe arrival of troops a little, but it will still makethe UN dependent upon the goodwill of memberstates; if they choose not to participate in aparticular mission, then the usual long delaysand inadequate forces will result. Thepredominant concern is the safety of civilians,and the existence of a force or process forestablishing a force able to quickly andeffectively achieve this wherever necessary inthe world. A UN standing army is the onlysolution able to provide both quick and effectiveforce in every possible case.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyA UN standing armywould be cost effective. It would bring benefits tothe world economy, and therefore offset its ownexpense, through avoiding the protracted costsof refugee crises and other humanitariandisasters. These costs are both direct (throughaid) and indirect (as developed nations oftenbecome the destination of illegal immigrantsfleeing conflicts at home, e.g. Sri Lankans andKurds). War also disrupts trade and thusdamages the global economy, while a greaterconfidence that war can be avoided in future willencourage more long-term investment and thusgreater prosperity. Moreover, member statesproviding troops for current UN missions are paidfor their services, so a UN standing army wouldnot be much more expensive that the presentsystem.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyA UN standing army issimply impossible to form. A standing army forthe United Nations has an existing legalframework; it has never been attempted inpractice because it would be impossible tocreate. Article 43 of the original UN Charterspecifies that all member states are expected,upon the signing of a future UN agreement, toprovide ‘forces, assistance and facilities’ for themaintenance of international peace and security1. That it is has never been attempted is thedirect result of its sheer impracticality; whowould contribute the troops? How would they betrained, and ensure that troops trained in onestate would not be asked to thereafter fire ontheir own colleagues? Furthermore, where wouldthe U.N. standing army be located, for the UnitedNations has no land, and the United States wouldnot take kindly to a reprisal attack on the UNArmy at the United Nations Headquarters. Andwho would fund this army? The United States", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con05a", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyA UN standing army isunnecessary A UN standing army isunnecessary; in many cases UN missions arevery successful. In Guatemala for example, a UNpeacekeeping mission was essential in enablingthe conclusion of a decades-long civil war in1997. When there are problems these are moreto do with lengthy and difficult Security Councildeliberations, inadequate mandates, etc. ratherthan how long it took to gather a force together.In Srebrenica for example, where thousands ofBosnian men and boys were slaughtered bySerbian troops, the problem was not the absenceof peacekeepers on the ground, but aninadequate mandate to use force. The UN wouldbe much better spending its efforts on setting upa proper peacekeeping department, andstreamlining the UN as a whole.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con04a", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyA U.N. standing armyrenders the United Nations a de facto state, butwithout a territory or a population. Essentiallyonly governments have standing armies, so thisplan would inevitably make the UN more like aworld government – and one which is notdemocratic and where, in China, a totalitarianstate has veto power over key decision-making.This means a standing army may actually becounter-productive, impairing currentperceptions of the UN’s selfless neutrality,undermining its moral authority and its ability tobroker peace agreements. If the UN becomes aninstitution with its own voice, the fears that theUN would lose its role as the honest broker ininternational affairs would come to fruition1. 1.Miller, 1992-3, p.787", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyThere are betteralternatives to solving the problems ofcontemporary warfare. If it is granted that theUN currently reacts too slowly to crises,alternatives for an improved response could beimplemented without resorting to a standingarmy. A Rapid Reaction Force made up offast-response units from member states withelite military capability, pledged in advance forUN operations, would build upon the bestfeatures of the current system. Security Councilreform to remove the veto powers from thePermanent 5 members would allow deadlocks indecision-making to be rapidly broken and avoidthe compromises which produce weak missionmandates. An improved prediction capabilitythrough better intelligence and analysis, andcentral logistical planning at UN headquarterswould allow forces to be assembled andmandates drafted before problems becamefull-blown crises. Security Council rules could be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con05b", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyThe lessons from failedUN peacekeeping missions are that ‘coalitions ofthe willing’ do not work effectively; forces usedto training with each other will demonstratecohesion in a conflict zone 1. Furthermore, statescan be unwilling to get involved if they have badmemories; the UN failed to go into Rwandabecause of American objections following eventsin Somalia in 1990 2. A rapid response team thatdid not rely on American troops would have beenable to prevent much of the Rwandan bloodshed,or at the very least alleviate conditions untilwhich time the US could have decided to offer itspolitical will and military support. A standingarmy is required for those opportune momentswhen force is required to protect those for whomthe major powers are not willing to makesacrifices. 1. Wedgwood, R. (2001). UnitedNations Peacekeeping Operations and the Use ofForce. Washington University Journal of Law andPolicy, 69-86 2, Ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyA UN standing armywould not be cost-effective. The cost of such anarmy would be very high, especially if it were toinclude purchase of air and sea transport toreach theatres of operation, added to the highcosts of permanent establishment and training,and equipping the force for every possible typeof terrain. State armed forces have theadvantage of preparing for specific battles withspecific enemies. Any UN standing force wouldbe forced by its very nature to prepare for everyenemy, in every environment. Such a scope isneither desirable nor easy to overcome withoutgreat expense and large numbers. At present,the UN model is preferable; it can draw upondifferent kind of troops for different kinds ofmissions from whatever member states feel bestequipped to deal with a particular situation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con04b", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyA U.N. standing armydoes not render the United Nations a de factostate, for the army would still be under theauthority of the Security Council and thereforesubject to the will and control of its sittingmembers. As such, a standing army does notqualitatively alter the decision-making processwhich is the foundation for the moral authority ofthe United Nations and its ability to broker peaceagreements. The decision to deploy troops willstill have to be ultimately authorized by the UNSecurity Council; the only development beingthat the force will be both quicker to deploy,averting humanitarian catastrophes, and moreeffective, due to group cohesion, in its actions 1.The institutional restraints of the GeneralAssembly vote and Security Council veto wouldremain as a leash on the use of any standingarmy, with the proviso that once unleashed, theUN would be both quicker and more effective inits use of force to implement security council", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gpdwhwcusa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "global politics defence warpeace house wouldcreate un standing armyA U.N. standing army isnot impossible to form. The United Nations hasalready conclusively proved, in numerouspeacekeeping among other missions, its ability toplay a constructive, effective military role ininterventions; a standing army would merelyreplace the top level of command. Instead oftaking orders from the top brass in a nationalmilitary, the orders would come from UnitedNations commanders. For soldiers trained tolisten and respond to commands, this wouldconstitute merely a subtle shift that would notalter their operational effectiveness.Furthermore, funding would be provided throughsimilar streams to how peacekeeping forces arefunded contemporaneously,; however, once theU.N. standing army has proved itself capable,funding will surely come from those states whorecognize that pooling resources to form a U.N.army is more prudent than scratching together aunder-resourced, native army.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations has failedAsargued below (Opposition argument 2), the UNhas in fact been instrumental in developing themodern concept of human rights, which prior toits foundation essentially did not exist as an idea,and certainly not as a body of coherentinternational law. And the UN has acted toprevent and condemn human rights abuses allover the world. Where the UN has failed toprevent genocide or human rights violations, ithas generally been due to the failure of theinternational community rather than the UNitself. For example, the bloodshed in Rwandawent unstopped not because the UN wasunconcerned, but because those nations thatmight have intervened, such as the US, Franceor neighbouring African countries, were unableor unwilling to do so - not a failure that can fairlybe laid at the door of the UN.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations has failedUNignores or enables human rightsabuses. Despite the development of the conceptof human rights in the post-war world, the UNhas totally failed to protect the rights of citizens,ethnic minorities, women and children. It hasstood by during episodes of genocide inCambodia, Rwanda, Congo and Yugoslaviaamong many others [1] , tolerates some of theworld’s worst dictatorships as members, anddoes nothing to improve the situation of womenin developing nations. Indeed, where UNpeacekeepers have been sent into war-torncountries, they have sometimes been guilty ofthe most horrendous human rights abusesthemselves. [2] As of 2011, the UN’s HumanRights Council itself is comprised of memberssuch as Saudi Arabia, Cuba and China. [3] [1]“UN admits Rwanda genocide failure”. BBCwebsite, 15th April 2000. [2] MacFarquhar,Neil. “Peacekeepers’ Sex Scandals Linger,On-Screen and Off”. New York Times, 7th", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations hasfailedStories of bureaucracy and delay in theGeneral Assembly obscure the vital work thatgoes on, often unnoticed, through United Nationsagencies every day. It is true that the UN’sdecision-making processes are not terriblyefficient but in a body comprising nearly 200members this is probably inevitable. If there areproblems with the structure of the UN, such asthe Security Council veto, the answer is toreform those institutions to fit the challenges ofthe 21st Century. As an analogy, nationalgovernments have often been accused of beingslow to change and reform, but we do notconclude from this that “government has failed”and seek to abolish them!", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations hasfailedMost international co-operation can takesplace outside UN framework. The majoreconomic, political and trade issues around theworld are almost all dealt with either throughbilateral agreements between nations or byspecialised bodies set up for that purpose – theWorld Bank, IMF, EU, ASEAN, NATO, WTO and soon. In all of these fields the UN is little more thanan irrelevance. Even where the UN does getinvolved in international affairs – such as in theLibyan crisis of 2011 – it is other bodies, in thatcase NATO, which serve as the vehicle forinternational cooperation. [1] [1] . Bolopion,Philippe. “After Libya, the question: To Protect orDepose?”. Los Angeles Times.25th August 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations has failed:Main purpose of UN, to prevent war, has clearlynot been achieved. The UN was set up with theexpress purpose of preventing global wars, yet ithas done absolutely nothing to prevent them.Indeed, the UN has often served merely as aforum for countries to abuse and criticise eachother, rather than resolve disputespeacefully. In some cases, such as the 2003invasion of Iraq, UN resolutions have arguablybeen used as a justification for wars, rather thanto prevent them. Research shows that thenumber of armed conflicts in the world rosesteadily in the years after 1945 and has onlybegun to plateau or fall since the end of the ColdWar. [1] [1] Harrison, Mark & Wolf,Nikolaus. “The Frequency of Wars”. University ofWarwick, 10th March 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations has failedItis unfair to say that the United Nations has failedjust because conflict has not been eradicatedfrom the world. The causes that drive nations towar with one another often cannot be resolvedby diplomatic means; to set global peace as thetest for the UN’s efficiency is clearly unfair.Nonetheless the UN has served as an effectiveforum for behind the scenes diplomacy in manyinternational crises. It has come to the aid ofcountries when attacked, as in the examples of[South] Korea and Kuwait in 1950 and 1990respectively; it has also kept the peace in, forexample, the former Yugoslavia, Cyprus and EastTimor. The fact that armed conflicts around theworld have become less common since 1990 is,arguably, at least partly down to the good officesof the United Nations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations hasfailedDespite the proliferation of supranationalorganisations, the United Nations remains theindispensable global forum for meeting to discussworld affairs. Indeed, in a way this expansion inthe number and range of internationalorganisations is a testament to the success ofthe UN model. Furthermore, many internationalorganisations work very closely with the UnitedNations, or even partially within its system. Forexample, when the International Atomic EnergyAuthority assesses the compliance of nationssuch as Iraq or Iran with the Non-ProliferationTreaty, it is to the UN Security Council that itreports. [1] In any case, this debate is aboutwhether or not the United Nations has failed.Even if many decisions are now taken outside theUN framework that does not reflect badly on thatbody. [1] “How many times has the IAEAreported cases to the UN Security Council?”.IAEA Infolog. 15th February 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations hasfailedThe United Nations is no more corrupt thanany large organisation, much less nationalgovernments, and far more transparent thanmany comparable institutions. It is true that theHuman Rights Council contains some nationswith bad records on civil liberties but it is surelybetter to engage with such regimes and shamethem into slowly improving their human rightsstandards, than simply excluding them from UNorgans and losing any influence over how theytreat their citizens.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations has failedUNdecision-making procedures are veryinefficient. The UN displays all the worst traits ofbureaucracies the world over. The GeneralAssembly is little more than a forum for worldleaders and ambassadors to lambast each other.The Security Council is systemically unable totake decisive action in many of the world’strouble-spots due to its outdated permanentmembership structure, which gives five nations atotally disproportionate power to prevent theworld body from acting against their interests. Inthe UN’s 65 years, the veto has been used nearly300 times. [1] [1] “General Analysis on theSecurity Council Veto”, Global Policy Forumwebsite.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations hasfailedMany UN bodies are corrupt orcompromised. As mentioned above, the HumanRights Council consists of some the worst humanrights abusers in the world. The NGO UN Watchhas accused the HRC focusing almost exclusivelyon alleged human rights abuses by Israel to theexclusion of almost every other country.[1] There have been widespread allegations ofcorruption in UN bodies. [2] It is for thesereasons that the US long refused to pay its fulldues to the United Nations and threatens to doso again in future, as well as withholding fundingfrom UNESCO in 2011 after it voted to recognisePalestine as an independent state. [3] [1]“Anti-Israel Resolutions at the HRC”, UN Watch2011. [2] “Corruption at the Heart of the UnitedNations”, The Economist, 9th August 2005. [3]“US cuts UNESCO funds over vote for Palestinianseat“. BBC website. 31st October 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations has failedItis obviously true that some UN agencies andorgans carry out valuable and useful work.However, there are two ways of looking at this.The first is that UN work often duplicatesprograms and programs carried out by NGOs,national governments and charities. Its work isuseful, but by no means indispensable. Thesecond way of approaching this question is toask whether these are core functions of the UN –in other words, whether preserving worldheritage or co-ordinating vaccinationprogrammes is what the UN is really “for”. Wecan admit that some UN agencies do good workbut still believe that as a body; overall the UnitedNations has failed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations hasfailedNo-one is suggesting that the test of asuccessful United Nations should be an end to allarmed conflict. But even judged on its owncriteria, it has been remarkably ineffectual. Theexamples of Kuwait and Korea are bothsituations where defensive wars were fought bythe US and allies for their own reasons – thecontainment of Saddam Hussein andCommunism, respectively – not UN ideals.Where the UN did not authorise military action,such as in Vietnam or Iraq in 2003, this made nodifference. It is hard to think of an examplewhere imminent conflict was definitely averteddue to UN influence. As for UN peacekeepers,they usually come into conflicts only after theyhave ended and thousands of civilians beenkilled. They often do a good job, but they areseldom indispensable. Other regionalorganisations, such as NATO or the AfricanUnion, can equally well perform this function.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations hasfailedThe UN has been at the forefront ofpromoting respect for international law andhuman rights. When the United Nations wasfounded in 1945, the idea of “international law”,in so far as it had any meaning, was little morethan the customary behaviour of states towardseach other. Over the succeeding 60 years, theUN and its various offices and organs have takena lead role in codifying and promoting theconcept of international law and the protection ofhuman rights. For example, the crime ofgenocide was first enshrined in international lawin the 1948 Convention on the Prevention andPunishment of the Crime of Genocide. [1] [1]United States Holocaust Memorial Museum,“What is Genocide?”.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-con05a", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations has failedAsworld becomes more globalised, the need for aglobal forum for resolving problems becomesever more important. In a globalised economynations depend on each other as never before,and the costs of war and conflict grow everhigher. So it is more important than ever thancountries have a forum for resolving theirdisputes and simply talking to each other.Regional bodies such as the EU or ASEAN canperform some of these functions, and specialisedbodies such as the WTO some others; but therecan never be a substitute for the global forumprovided by the UN. If the United Nations did notexist, we would have to invent it. [1] [1]Hammarskjold, Dag. “Do We Need The UnitedNations?”. Address to the Students’ Association,Copenhagen, 2nd May 1959.www.un.org/depts/dhl/dag/docs/needun.pdf", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-con04a", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations hasfailedSolution to problems of UN is to reformoutdated structures. It is undeniably true thatsome of the UN’s procedures need to beimproved, and standards of financialtransparency improved. However, this is true ofmany governments and internationalorganisations, not just the UN. The answer to theUN’s problems is not to give up on it but ratherreform it for the 21st century, including perhapschanging or augmenting the permanentmembership of the Security Council to reflect thereality of the modern world. [1] [1] London,Jacqueline. “Reform of the United NationsSecurity Council”. International Affairs andForeign Policy Institute. 29th June 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations hasfailedMany UN organs carry out valuable workaround the world. The United Nations is farmore than simply a debating forum; it does amassive amount of vital work around the worldthrough its other organs. Examples of these arethe World Health Organisation (WHO), UNESCO,UNICEF, the International Court of Justice (ICJ),and the High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR) among many others. [1] Even if theslow speed of diplomacy at the UN GeneralAssembly can sometimes be frustrating, the ideathat the United Nations as a whole has “failed”simply does not take account of all these veryimportant bodies. Furthermore, the UN remainsone of the most respected of internationalorganisations among ordinary citizens. [1]“United Nations: Structure and Organisation”.United Nations, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-con05b", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations has failedItis arguable that the era of globalisation makesthe United Nations less important, not more.Trade disputes are settled bilaterally or throughthe WTO; economic crises through the offices ofthe World Bank and IMF; security problems, asoften as not, through the mediation of the US orother interested powers. All too often, the UN isa forum not for dispute resolution but the airingof grievances against other nations. Forexample, in the run up to the 2003 Iraq War,both the United States and its detractors, suchas France, used the UN to publicise and justifytheir position on military action, not to discuss itin any meaningful way. If a United Nations didnot exist, and we were obliged to invent one, wewould hopefully do a better job next time!", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations hasfailedThe UN has performed a valuable service inpreventing wars and in peacekeeping. It isclearly unrealistic to imagine that the UnitedNations could prevent all wars, but nonetheless ithas been successful at negotiating peacefulresolutions to international disputes. It has alsoauthorised military force to defend countriesfrom unprovoked attacks; Kuwait and SouthKorea, to name just two, owe their freedom toUN action. Finally, UN peacekeepers do vitalwork all over the world from Cyprus to Korea.[1] [1] “What is Peacekeeping?”. UnitedNations, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-con04b", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations hasfailedThis debate is about whether or not the UNhas failed. It may well be that the response to afailing organisation is not abolition but wholesalereform, as the opposition argue here, but thatwould not change the fact that the UN has notachieved what it was designed to do. And whilereform has been promised for many decades,nothing has ever been done to resolve thesystemic flaws of this organisation. So promisesof reform are an unsatisfactory answer to thecharges against the UN.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ghbunhf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "global house believes united nations hasfailedThe UN has been only one among manyorganisations which have shaped the moderndoctrine of international law. More influential indeveloping our contemporary understanding ofhuman rights, arguably, was the worldwidehorror at the Holocaust, Nuremberg war crimestrials, and the determination of the West to holddeveloping nations and Communist states to thesame standards that they [supposedly] adhereto. When activists in undemocratic regimes fightfor better civil rights, it is seldom the UN theycite as their model. It is fair to ascribe theUnited Nations its due share of credit for thisemerging consensus, then, but it has beenremarkably bad at actually encouraging, letalone enforcing, the rules it has helped to create.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarDespite the change in nominalgovernmental structure, the real holders ofpower have remained the same. The presidentThein Sein was handpicked by the outgoingmilitary leader Than Shwe. The top posts ingovernment and one-fourth of parliament isreserved was the military. Arbitrary lawsprevented leaders of the NLD, including AungSan Suu Kyi, from participating in the elections.Elections do not equal democracy. Other thanthe sugar-coated words of the new government,there has been no real movement towardsdemocratic reform. The international communityhas long called for an impartial investigation intothe systematic human rights violations to bringits perpetrators to justice. None of this has beenpromised, or is likely to be achieved under amilitary-controlled government, the main aim ofwhich is to hoodwink the internationalcommunity and provide security to the guiltyleaders of the military junta.1 1 Ellgee,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarMyanmar is no longer a militarydictatorship Myanmar has taken significantsteps towards democratisation in the last threeyears. The new constitution and the electionsthat resulted in the current civilian governmentbeing appointed represent a marked shift in itsgovernance structure. Though there may bescope for improvement in its democraticframework, institutions for democraticfunctioning have been created and this is a hugestep forward. Aung San Suu Kyi has also beenreleased from house arrest, and the tone of thestatements made by the new government hasbeen a reconciliatory one. A new human rightscommission has also been established. While thepace of reform may not match the supposedexpectations of the US and the EU, Myanmar’schoice to change gradually and engage withthem on its own terms must be respected. Thefundamental circumstances under which a policyof limited engagement was adopted with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarSince the government is still controlledby the military and there is no evidence to thatcorruption levels will go down in the new regime,engaging in trade with Myanmar will onlystrengthen the ruling elite. There is littleaccountability for developmental aid actuallyreaching its desired goals.1 Trading withMyanmar means trading with organisationscontrolled by the state/military in a nationalisedeconomy. Common people are exploited andkept in poverty while the profits are reaped by afew. This has been the experience ofinternational trade with Myanmar involvingcountries other than US and EU, and there is noreason that this will change. Further, there is nonecessary link between business activity anddevelopment of the rule of law, as theexperience of many African countries has shown.Opportunistic business entities are more likely tobe involved in rent-seeking monopolisticpractices that benefit them, instead of causing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarRegional factors favourre-engagement Myanmar has continuingeconomic and political relations with many othercountries, including members of the ASEAN, andsignificantly, China (which is also the source of alarge proportion of foreign investment inMyanmar). These countries, some of which aremajor economic and political partners of the USand the EU, do not share the same attitudeabout the legitimacy of the Myanmargovernment and the approach that should betaken towards it. For the purposes of regionalstability, it would be better for the US and the EUto align their positions with the others. Thisreduces the risk of diplomatic rifts which coulddestabilise the region. Further, if theinternational community presents a unitedviewpoint on what steps Myanmar should take toimprove its democracy, such steps are morelikely to be taken.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarStates should not be isolated onpolitical grounds The isolation of Myanmar bysome of the developed Western powers isarbitrary and marked by hypocrisy. The realreasons for the stance taken by these countriesare political. There is little consistency in theattitude taken towards other governments anddictatorships across the world that also havequestionable human rights records (Saudi Arabiaand Egypt, to name a few), but either offer otherstrategic and economic benefits, or are muchmore influential in international affairs thanMyanmar. Myanmar is only part of a group ofcountries (also including Cuba and North Korea)whose economic and political policies haveremained relatively opaque to arm-twisting bythe US and the EU. It is unfair to imposesanctions on and isolate Myanmar on this basis,especially in an emerging multi-polarinternational environment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engage myanmarThisargument is not a defence of the government inMyanmar. Making it a question of who is pointingfingers itself politicizes a principled stanceagainst an undoubtedly unjust system. The USand the EU have been consistent in their criticismof the military-controlled government and intheir principled support for pro-democracyactivists in Myanmar. This is in line with theirstated positions on human rights and democracyacross the world – with political allies or enemies- and in accordance with international treatiesthat they are signatories to. They have longvoiced concerns over human rights violations inChina and India, for instance. Only because theirmoral position may not have been as influentialin relation to certain countries, or that it hasbeen diplomatically unfeasible to take strongerpositions in certain circumstances due to globalpower relations, it does not mean they shouldnot take such a position in the case of Myanmaras well.1 1 Schmahmann, David, The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarThough countries in South Asia havedisplayed ambivalence in their attitude towardsMyanmar, it is not a reason for the US and theEU to change their stance. Regional players havesometimes tended to support the pro-democracymovement in their rhetoric, but have notadopted policies that are aligned with it.Therefore, they have not been able to cause anyreal democratic reform. If there is a unitedinternational community that does not activelyseek to isolate Myanmar, but to the contraryengages with it, the force that can drive suchreform will become even weaker. The risk ofharm from long-existent differences in attitudesbetween regional players and those who seek todisengage is very low, and nothing has occurredsince 1990 to suggest otherwise.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarWhile the policy of disengagement maynot have achieved all its goals, it has brought tothe forefront a moral standard by which thegovernment can be judged. This has helpedframe global opinion and influenced regionalplayers’ attitudes to Myanmar as well to someextent. More harm is done by continuing toengage with Myanmar since that option offers noincentive or pressure for democratic reform.Trading with Myanmar will only add to theeconomic and political clout of the ruling elite, asthe ‘trickle down’ to the population as a whole isminimal. A policy of disengagement, at the veryleast, prevents the military (which is sensitive tointernational opinion) from becoming evenstronger.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarThere is scope for further diplomaticprogress in the region throughdisengagement Reengagement has potential forhaving a positive influence in various contexts.Myanmar is rich in natural resources, includingforest products, minerals and gems. Removingtrade restrictions and offering developmental aidwould benefit the local economy andpopulation.1 In the longer term, economicactivity can act as a stimulus for development ofa stronger legal and business framework toreduce corruption. If the US and the EU createconfidence in the Myanmar government that theyare willing to offer something constructive ratherthan critical, it may be possible to ask for greatertransparency in government and reducesystematic violations of human rights as well.2The newly elected civilian government hasindicated it is willing to pursue democraticreform, and the US and the EU should not losethis opportunity for change. 1 BBC News, ‘India", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarDisengagement has done more harmthan good in the region The policy ofdisengagement has not resulted in anymeaningful change in Myanmar, politically oreconomically. Since Myanmar has not beendependent on the US or the EU, sanctions andarms embargoes have not had any effect on thegovernment. The changes in 2010-2011 havebeen due to the influence of the NLD, and certainregional players (like Thailand and China) whichhave sought to directly engage with Myanmar.Further, the sections of the population that aremost affected by the sanctions are those not inthe top tier of the political and economic class,but smaller manufacturers and the working class.Restrictions on exports and developmental aidfrom the US and the EU prevent localmanufacturers and consumers from havingaccess to them. On the other hand, restrictionson imports from Myanmar weaken the market forits exporters. These factors only further", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-con03b", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarReengagement will send a message tothe Myanmar government that the steps it hastaken have not gone unnoticed by theinternational community, and may lead to moresubstantive change over time. It will project theUS and the EU as constructive actors in theprocess of reform. Reengagement is a way ofgaining political and economic influence inMyanmar and in the region. It may lead tonegotiations at some stage, and reengagementnow would allow them to have a greater say atthat time. By not engaging, the US and the EUare not actually able to increase the influence ofthe opponents of the current government either.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-con01b", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engage myanmarThisargument assumes that democracy, and that tooa particular kind of democracy, is the onlylegitimate form of government possible. The kindof democracy that is followed in the West maynot be appropriate for Myanmar, in any case notat this stage. There are economic and politicalinequalities in Myanmar and its democracy is notperfect. However, if everyone was allowed toparticipate in elections, the country is likely toslip into a situation of civil war, since the electedindividuals may not wield real power. Attemptsat imposing a particular style of democracy incountries that may not be ready for it can becounter-productive (as in East Timor, forinstance). Further, not every country in theworld has claimed itself to be a champion ofdemocracy across the world. Such countrieshave no obligation to denounce a foreign regime,and have a right to decide what their policiesshould be. An apparently democratic governmentmay not be a good one (for instance,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-con02a", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engage myanmarTheinternational community and politicallegitimacy The military-controlled government inMyanmar clearly does not have popular domesticsupport - otherwise the artificial election processwould not have been necessary. Therefore, itderives its strength from the fact that manyinternational players other than the US and theEU have continued to recognise it, while there ishistoric precedent for concerted internationalopinion having influenced illegitimate regimes(Haiti and South Africa, for instance). Having anationalised economy increases the control themilitary has over trade and investment, while amajority of the country finds itself in poverty.The choice for the international community isbetween continuing to strengthen the military byengaging with it, or by disengaging (like the EUand the US) until the ruling elite runs out ofresources and options. The former option doesnot give hope to any real democratic reform,while the latter option would take away the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-con04a", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarVested international interest areharming Myanmar Certain members of theinternational community, especially regionalplayers like China and India, have tended toignore questions of legitimacy of the regime foreconomic and political benefits. While this maybe beneficial to them in the short term, it is veryharmful for Myanmar as a democracy in thefuture. Politically, a blind eye is being turned to aculture of violating human rights. If and whenMyanmar becomes a real democracy, it isunlikely that it will magically transform into amodel democratic state, unless enough emphasisis provided to fundamental principles of goodgovernance at the outset. Economically,investment is being provided in a highlymonopolistic and imperfect environment, withoutaddressing problems of corruption andinadequacy of legal processes. In the long run,even if a democratic constitutional frameworkexists, the country is likely to continue to have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-con03a", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarRe-engagement will weaken the reformmovement International and domestic pressurehas forced the military junta to set up a nominalcivilian government. It is important to make surethat change goes further and becomesmeaningful. This will involve bringing into force afair constitution, curbing human rights violationsand bringing its perpetrators to justice, andcreating conditions for legitimate democraticelections to take place. By reengaging at thisjuncture, the signal the ruling elite in Myanmarwill get is that this piecemeal, nominal change issufficient to hold them in good stead in theinternational political arena for a longer period. Itwould also be a betrayal of the pro-democracysupporters in Myanmar, who continue to be castout of the constitutional process and have littleactual political influence under the existingsystem.1 1 Thanegi, Ma, ‘Burma sanctions: Thecase against’, BBC news, ‘4 March 2002’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-con01a", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarLiberal democracies have a moralobligation to denounce illegitimate regimes Thenew civilian government in Myanmar is asillegitimate as the rule of the military junta whichled to its creation. The military junta itself wasguilty of overruling the democratic verdict in1990 that gave power to the NLD. Under the newconstitution, 25% of all seats in parliament andthe most influential governmental posts arereserved for the military, and more than 75%majority is required for amending theconstitution. Political prisoners (including AungSan Suu Kyi) were not permitted to participate inthe elections. Further, the election process itselfhas been described as a sham, involving violenceand intimidation of democratic activists. Thecurrent government is only a tool for thepreceding military junta to consolidate its powerand provide a safety valve for its leaders throughapparently legitimate means. It attempts to usethe false democratic process as a veil to resist", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-con04b", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarRegional players like China and Indiaare interested in border security and internalstability for Myanmar. There is no basis to saythat their political and commercial relationshipwith Myanmar must necessarily be forshort-term benefit. It is unfair to compareMyanmar with Western standards of preservinghuman rights or with ‘a model democratic state’,though there may not be any countries in theworld that fit the description. It is sufficient if it isat a stage where its standard of governance iscomparable with other countries in South Asiathat do not face international isolation orcensure. There is also evidence to show thatexposure to more sophisticated markets doeshave a positive influence on the development ofinternal legal systems. Though Russia may notbe a model economy, its economic growth hasbeen accompanied by gradual changes toattitudes and institutions internally.Reengagement would make it easier for these", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aghwrem-con02b", "title": "", "text": "asia global house would re engagemyanmarWhile international support is importantto some extent for the government, Myanmarhas significant political and economic relationswith many countries in the region, includingChina and North Korea, whose stance isstrategically motivated and is not going to beinfluenced by what the US and the EU do. It ishard to fathom a situation in the foreseeablefuture where the military and governmentleadership will be forced to bow down tointernational pressure, whether or not certaincountries choose to engage with it. The only wayfor the international community to remainrelevant to Myanmar would be by engaging withit. The situation is different from that in SouthAfrica and in Haiti because of the existence ofstrong allies, whose interests are different, if notopposed to in some respects, from those whofollow a policy of disengagement with Myanmar.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bmaggiahbl-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "bate media and good government internationalafrica house believes limitedDivisionism inRwanda did not spark as a result of thecontrolled media and government propaganda in1994, there were killings reported in the 1960’s1970’s and 1980’s[1] even before the media waspart of society. This came as a result of longstanding grudges and misunderstandingsbetween the Tutsi and Hutu groups in thecountry. That the media bears responsibility forspreading hate speech and broadcasting wherethe other could be killed moreover does notabsolve the individuals involved. Each individualhad the choice whether they acted on what themedia was telling them. In a completely freemedia there would be some of the same hatespeech and it would still be up to the individualto decide whether to follow that message. Farbetter to ensure that message cannot be aired inthe first place. [1] History world, ‘History ofRwanda’, historyworld.net", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bmaggiahbl-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "bate media and good government internationalafrica house believes limitedBlind obedience toauthority One of the major factors thatexacerbated genocide ideology was the “AKAZU”controlled media which made most of the Hutupopulation wrongfully obey authority andgovernment propaganda of divisionism[1]. Thiswas achieved by proclaiming that the Tutsi aresnakes and cockroaches in newspapers, anddirecting the Hutu extremists to where killingswere to be conducted on radio RTLM. Meanwhilethey also refused to broadcast speeches callingout for unity among people helping to lead to theassassination of the then Prime minister AgatheUwilingiyimana who opposed governmentrestrictions. There was no space to questionpolicies and ideas that were encouraginggenocide by manipulating people to believe itwas right path for Rwanda. The genocide shouldtherefore serve as an example that restrictingfreedoms of speech and press can cause severedamage. This is especially harmful to a healing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bmaggiahbl-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "bate media and good government internationalafrica house believes limitedMany donors havebeen deeply reluctant to stop or reduce aid,whatever the arguments over eastern Congo[1].Donors like to see their money have an impact,something that Rwanda’s transformation hasprovided. There might be concern about freedomof speech and the press but donors recognisethat the way to change this is not to simply stopaid; an act that simply damages those thedonors are trying to help not those who arelimiting freedom of speech. [1] The economist,‘The pain of suspension’, economist.com, 12January 2013 [2] Timmins, Jerry, ‘Free speech,free press, free societies’, li.com", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bmaggiahbl-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "bate media and good government internationalafrica house believes limitedAuthoritarianleadership President Kagame though considereda visionary leader has made Rwanda a countrybased on one man’s ideas. He has silencedcritics, opposition and any counter argumentsthat may not support his opinions through toughrules imposed against the media and freespeech. This sparked misunderstandings withinthe government forcing 4 four high rank officialsin exile, one, an ex-intelligence chief wasrecently murdered in South Africa[1]. Rwanda isessentially a hard-line, one-party, secretivepolice state with a façade of democracy[2]. Toavoid future conflict and government break downKagame needs to convene a genuine, inclusive,unconditional and comprehensive nationaldialogue with the aim of preparing andstrengthening the country’s future progress. Thefact that most Rwandans still want him to run forre-election after his two terms in 2017 showshow much he has controlled people to believe he", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bmaggiahbl-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "bate media and good government internationalafrica house believes limitedRwanda does notlimit freedoms of press and speech as such butdiscourages the use of sensitive articles orspeeches that would provoke insecurity in acountry still trying to heal from the wounds ofgenocide. This cannot be therefore consideredabusing people’s rights. Misunderstandings withthe 4 officials were not as a result of restrictedfreedoms but instead the desire of power[1] andcannot be taken a model for Rwanda’sfuture. Past conflict broke out due to divisionismwhich was given space through hate speechesand publications a behaviour that has no room inthe country today – indeed there are antidivisionism laws. Having a large populationsupporting a leader doesn’t mean they arecontrolled, he has done so much to revive losthope hence winning the favour of thepeople. [1] Smith, David, ‘Exiled Rwandangeneral attacks Paul Kagame as 'dictator',thegurdian.com, 30 July 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bmaggiahbl-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "bate media and good government internationalafrica house believes limitedInternationalconcern Rwanda, though a progressing countryis still aid dependent which has been a backbonefor its achievements today[1]. Spoiling Rwanda’srelations with the international community wouldtherefor be destabilising Rwanda’s focus andgrowth. This has been evident when somecountries cut aid to Rwanda recently followingallegations of the government supportinginsecurity in Congo [2]. Most donorgovernments are strong backers of human rightsand freedom. Continued restrictions to freedomof speech may provoke international reactionthrough cutting aid and trade ties a move thatmay hinder the success of Rwanda’s goals. Aidhas been cut on other human rights issues forexample donor countries have recently acted tocut aid to Uganda as a result of theircriminalisation of homosexuality.[3] [1] DFIDRwanda, ‘Growth and Poverty reduction grant tothe government of Rwanda", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bmaggiahbl-con03b", "title": "", "text": "bate media and good government internationalafrica house believes limitedIt is a wrongassertion that Rwandans are valued in theprocess of policy making when their genuineopinions are limited to a certain level. Thenational dialogue is a three day event and cannotcover the concerns of more than 11 millionRwandans. Moreover when people still fear tosay the truth as they go through in daily life [1],how can one expect such people to raise theright issues on a public platform with the mostpowerful people in the country? [1] AmnestyInternational, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bmaggiahbl-con01b", "title": "", "text": "bate media and good government internationalafrica house believes limitedRestricted press andspeech also limits political debate andengagement which are crucially needed inadopting fruitful policies[1]. The best policies arethose that are rigorously debated and analysed.The current leadership may have acted to checkcorruption but without institutionalised freedomof the press to encourage whistleblowing there isno guarantee that corruption won’t return in thefuture. Rwanda’s progress is thereforedependent on individuals, fine in the short termbut development takes decades. In the long termfor a state to progress there has to be balancingmechanisms so as to prevent misrule andimportantly persuade investors there will bestability. Moreover Rwanda is trying to create aknowledge economy. It is not like China’screation of a manufacturing based economy,instead it relies upon critical thinking, ideas andanalysis – all things that benefit from freedom ofspeech. [1] UNESCO, ‘Press freedom and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bmaggiahbl-con02a", "title": "", "text": "bate media and good government internationalafrica house believes limitedSetting Rwanda'spriorities Rwanda is an emerging democracyhealing from the wounds of the horrific past. Toachieve the set vision, there should be a prioritywhich in this case is economicdevelopment[1]. A large number of Rwandansbelieve that the government should focus ontransforming the nation economically although itmay mean restricting free speech, which hasprompted a huge participation in governmentdevelopment programs like Ubudehe[2].Freedom of speech and press needs to berestricted if the government wants to engage inunlimited development; there is no time toengage in long debates over whether a particularproject is being implemented the correct way.Having freedom of speech and press wouldhinder the government’s ability to manage theresources of the state and to encourageinvestors who don’t want to have protests totheir building factories, or have labour", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bmaggiahbl-con03a", "title": "", "text": "bate media and good government internationalafrica house believes limitedThere isaccountability without a free press Freedom ofspeech and the Press is not the only way ofcreating accountability in a country – especially acomparatively small one such as Rwanda.Rwanda has been ranked a transparent and isthe least corrupt state in East Africa [1] whereeveryone is accountable and equal before thelaw. How can this be without an aggressive freepress? Annually, all government officials arecross examined by locals publicly in a forumcalled national dialogue “Umushyikirano”, toensure that they meet the needs of citizens andassess their performance[2]. This has givenRwandans courage to express their desires andfeel much valued in the process of policy makingand engagement. It puts ministers and even thePrime Minister on the spot on individual issues.Restricted press and speech is thereforerendered irrelevant by such programs as peoplecan question authorities and demand justification", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bmaggiahbl-con01a", "title": "", "text": "bate media and good government internationalafrica house believes limitedFocusedleadership Progress in Africa has been hinderedby factors like corruption, conflicts and poorinfrastructure, all of which are linked to theincompetent or greedy leaders. Rwanda is adifferent case, ranked among the best countrieswith a strong and focused leadership in Africa,the country has set up clear policies like EDPRS[Economic Development and Poverty ReductionStrategy] which aims to change Rwanda from anagriculture based economy to knowledge andservice economy [1]. It is well known for zerotolerance to corruption, improved infrastructureand technology all of which are core factors inachieving development. In Africa, Rwanda topslist of easiest countries to do business a movethat has encouraged more investors into thecountry[2]. Limited freedom of speech andpress does not hinder economic development.What matters is that the government is trustedto fulfil all its commitments. After all, nothing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-bmaggiahbl-con02b", "title": "", "text": "bate media and good government internationalafrica house believes limitedWhile thegovernment of Rwanda has chosen the economythis does not mean the people agree – simplythat the government controls the narrative sogiving the impression, or persuading them thatthey agree. Restricting free speech and presshas increased critics from the Rwandan diasporaevidence that inside the country, citizens haveno way of putting forward their say[1]. Economicgrowth is not the only kind of progress. In orderto drive forward the economy Rwanda is stuntingthe progress of individual rights. [1] Keung,Nicholas, ‘Paul Kagame: Rwanda’s saviour orstrongman?’, thestar.com, 26 September 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedThe Basotho peopleexisted as a separate state for decades beforecolonization. There was a separate Basothoidentity long before the instauration of theapartheid in SA. Their history and roots givesLesotho an identity that is different from that oftheir only neighbors. That Lesotho never sufferedunder apartheid is in itself a big difference fromSouth Africa where the legacy still looms large.Lesotho has taken measures to highlight theirdifferences from South Africa; In 2013 Lesothointroduced national identification documents.[1] [1] Tefo, Tefo, ‘Lesotho finally introducesnational ID’, Public Eye, 5 July 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedThe historical reasonsfor which the state of Lesotho exists are nolonger relevant in a post-apartheid SouthAfrica The reason why Moshoeshoe, the leaderof Lesotho, wished to become a Britishprotectorate was because of the Boers of theOrange Free State was trying to take their land.In 1966, when the Kingdom of Lesotho gained itsindependence from Britain, it remained separatefrom SA as it had been a separate colony.Lesotho was under direct rule while South Africawas a dominion. There was no incentive tochange at the point of independence because SAwas ruled by the apartheid regime. Lesotho wasa strong public opponent of the regime andgranted a number of SA refugees’ politicalasylum. The African National Congress, theruling party in SA since 1994, was founded inLesotho. Moreover, during the struggle againstapartheid, the ANC’s armed wing organized itsguerilla units from the enclave. [1] We can firmly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedThere is no guaranteethat the SA government will indeed try to make achange after the integration of the Lesothoterritory. The narrative is quite different inEurope for example where regions like Catalonia,Venice and Scotland are trying to secedebecause they do not feel the nationalgovernment is addressing their problems as theyshould. Even if we agree that SA is the mostpowerful country in Sub-Saharan region and thatthey have more money that the Kingdom ofLesotho, there is no certainty that the money willbe redirected toward that region. SA already hasa lot of problems of its own.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedAnnexation will allowthe free movement of Basotho people, goods andservices For the Basotho in a landlocked countrythe free movement of their people is a right thatis in large part dependent on the South African(SA) government rather their own national one.Its importance is shown by 40% of bordercrossings into South Africa being from Lesotho.Acknowledging the fact that Lesotho is anenclave state surrounded by SA, the ability ofpeople to move freely depends on whether theyare allowed to enter SA or not. There iscorruption at border posts and the number ofcrossings results in long queues and slowservice; 63% of border crossers experienceproblems. [1] This is sometimes made evenmore difficult by SA government actions asbefore the World Cup in 2010 when borderrestrictions were tightened making it almostimpossible for Basotho to leave their country. [2]This happened due to the detention of several", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedWhile the ability ofBasotho people to travel abroad is somethingthat we should take into consideration, weshould also seek to understand the SAgovernment intention to secure their territory. Asa sovereign state that is primarily responsibletowards its citizens, SA has the right and theduty to secure its borders in order to prevent anykind of security problems that might occur whenpeople from a poor, underdeveloped country likeLesotho try to enter their premises. If SA isconcerned about the security of its border withLesotho how much less secure is it when theborder disappears? On the other hand, progressregarding border control is already being madethrough bilateral cooperation and agreements.[1] Certainly, there are less drastic solutions,such as border-unions that permit the exactsame advantages as annexation when it comesto borders. [1] Magubane, Khulekani, ‘SA,Lesotho to ease border control’, Business Day", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedWhile any annexationwould be mutually agreed there is no guaranteethat the whole international community wouldsee it positively; any resistance from groupswithin Lesotho and it could be a PR nightmare.Moreover the spin of it being a humanitariangesture is reliant on it following through andimproving conditions. If it succeeds then SA willlikely be called upon to resolve otherhumanitarian situations in the region such as inSwaziland.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedLesotho is in a direcondition and needs help from its closestally With about 40% of Basotho people livingbelow the international poverty line [1] , Lesothoneeds urgent help both from the economic andsocial perspective. A third of the population isinfected with HIV and in urban areas; about 50%of the women under 40 have the virus. [2] Thereis a major lack of funding and corruption in thesystem is halting any progress. The Kingdom ofLesotho is clearly unable to deal with its issuesand should be annexed by SA. Annexation is theonly way in which the SA government is going tocare about this enclave territory. Give Basothocitizenship and the right to vote in elections andthey will be taken into consideration. Give SA thepower to control and they will assume theresponsibility for pulling the Basotho out ofpoverty, giving them a better social system anda country in which they can thrive. A simple lookat the GDP per capita of each state shows the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedSouth Africa will gaininfluence, stability and a better image on theinternational stage Bringing South Africa andLesotho will benefit SA on the global stage. Themove would be one to provide aid to a smallerstate and provide stability. The dire conditionsfor the Basotho people are acknowledged by theUN and the Africa Union. Firstly, SA, by theannexation of Lesotho, will prove good intentionsin creating a sustainable Sub-Saharan Africa.This will ultimately create a better image and agreater influence in the region if they choose torespond positively to the People’s CharterMovement in Lesotho [1] , a social structurepleading for annexation. The movement, drivenby trade unions, has collected 30,000 signaturesin favor of their goal and is rising in popularity.Secondly the annexation will provide a boost forthe South African Development Community andSouth African Customs Union by demonstratingthe willingness of South Africa to integrate with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-con03b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedThe population inLesotho might be suffering from poverty but thisis not their fault but rather the result of the badgovernance. Lesotho is investing 12% of its GDPin education and 85% of its population over 15 isliterate. [1] This can provide an knowledgeable,smart workforce for SA which can help developboth countries. On the other hand, South Africais also dependent on one resource from Lesothoand this is water. Over the past 25 years, amutual, bilateral agreement has been madebetween the two sovereign states so that theLesotho Highlands Water Project can provide SAwith clean water. [2] Moreover, the textileindustry in Lesotho is competitive and profitable.The industry still contributes close to 20 percentof Lesotho's annual gross domestic product, andis its largest employer. [3] Lesotho would clearlynot just be a burden. [1] The World Factbook,2014, [2] Ashton, Glenn, ‘A Case for CloserIntegration between South Africa, Lesotho and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-con01b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedAssuming the twocountries are so well integrated, there should beno reason for not taking the last step that is theannexation of the territory. Furthermore, thecurrent sovereignty of the Kingdom of Lesothoexists as a fiction rather than reality. Theauthorities are not able to provide and take careof the basic human needs of their people; therewas a humanitarian crisis as recently as 2012when a third of the population needed food aidafter flooding. [1] Lesotho does not even havecontrol over its own defence with South Africahaving launched a military ‘humanitarianintervention’ in 1998 to save democracy butwhich was also about South African concernsover water. [2] Rather than permitting for thelocal government to loose its authority,annexation represents the short step towardsreal and sustainable development for theland-locked country. [1] Beukes, Suzanne, ‘Foodcrisis aggravates the already massive social", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-con02a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedA local, decentralizedauthority can provide better opportunities andsolutions for Lesotho With a population of only 2million people the Basotho would not have thevoice and the votes for legislative and executiveauthority in SA. South Africa’s population of53million would swamp their voice. Moreover,keeping the local government in place provides abetter option for the people in Lesotho as theyare closer to their government than they wouldbe in a bigger state. Lesotho needs adecentralized government that can respond tothe wishes and needs of the people. This issomething the SA government might not be ableto provide it as they are trying to provide generalsolutions for all of its territory. [1] Lesotho is oneof the leaders for democracy in Southern Africa[2] ; joining South Africa would not provide animprovement in accountability. In Europe andeven in South Africa, secession movementsexists because people feel they are better", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-con03a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedIt is not in the interestof South Africa to annex a poor, underdevelopedcountry It is not in South Africa’s interests toannex Lesotho. Lesotho would be a burden; it ispoor, might cause instability, and has noresources as compensation. On a simplecost-benefit analysis made by the SAgovernment they would clearly see they wouldhave more responsibility towards the Basothopopulation but new resources to fulfil thoseresponsibilities. South Africa has its ownproblems that it should be focusing on first.Poverty is officially at 52.3% [1] andunemployment is a great problem for SouthAfricans; a quarter of the majority blackworkforce is unemployed. [2] Moreover, Only40.2% of black infants live in a home with a flushtoilet, a convenience enjoyed by almost all theirwhite and Indian counterparts showing theinequality that still exists in the ‘rainbow nation’.[3] Why add more people under your protection", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-con01a", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedAnnexation is notneeded where there is already extensivecooperation between the countries Lesotho andSouth Africa already cooperate on a wide varietyof issues. If we look at the example of the lawsystem; the two systems are almost the sameand all but one of the Justices on the Court ofAppeal in Lesotho are South African jurists. [1]Moreover, there are at least fourinter-governmental organizations that maximizethe trade, help and social connections betweenthe two states. Starting with the African Union,going on to the Southern African DevelopmentCommunity [2] that promotes socio-economiccooperation as well as political and securitycooperation, moving to the Southern AfricanCustoms Union [3] and the Common MonetaryArea. Lesotho is not only helped by SA but this ishappening without them having to let go of theirnational identity and history. In much the sameway as different nations, large and small, benefit", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-appghblsba-con02b", "title": "", "text": "africa politics politics general house believeslesotho should be annexedOf course, the localLesotho authorities have a mandate to act uponthe interest of Basotho, but the problem is thatthey are not able to do so; Lesotho is dependenton foreign aid. The state simply doesn’t have tomoney to fund a health system that could dealwith the fact that 1 in 3 Basotho are infectedwith HIV. Moreover, the problems in SA andLesotho are not that different. In SA, one in tenpeople have AIDS and a majority deal withpoverty. Of course, economies of scale can dealbetter and cheaper with problems such aspoverty and health issues because of their abilityto provide more money, resources and expertise.The point about what kind of influence Basothomight have on the SA authorities is not entirelytrue. The National Council of Provinces, theupper house, gives each province ten delegatesregardless of population size [1] ; Lesotho wouldhave an outsized influence. [1] National Councilof Provinces, Parliament.gov.za, accessed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeActuallynational governments are more effective. Themore authority international governing bodies,organizations and institutions have, the less canthey afford to \"bother\" with local problemsapplying less effective problem solvingprocedures. Not fully understanding localtensions, burning issues in one particular areacan, in the long term, bring great harm to thecitizens of the whole federation. One spark canset ablaze a much larger fire than a federalgovernment can possibly imagine. Thereforecreating one European federal body will shift thefocus of the local problems and the problems ofthe average person to more global ones whichwill be problematic on its own. Furthermore theadvantages in the face of connection to thepolitical process, respect for local culturaltraditions and responsiveness to differingeconomic and physical situations will not beachieved, because boundaries fade away andpeople become more interested in the activities", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeA federalEurope will protect the cultural diversity of itsmember states A federal Europe will be moreadvantageous for individual citizens, since theywill be living in a powerful state, yet with respectof their cultural and local situation Subsidiaritycombines maximum effectiveness with maximumaccountability, with decisions being made at thelowest appropriate level. Citizens gain theadvantages of living in a large, powerful state interms of international economic, military andpolitical power, all available more cheaply in astate of 450 million people, and through theirincreased opportunities for work, study, etc. Yetthe advantages of living in a smaller state arepreserved in terms of connection to the politicalprocess, respect for local cultural traditions andresponsiveness to differing economic andphysical situations. Such checks and balancesprevent tyranny and increase willing obedienceto laws. Overall, we now have somethingresembling parliamentary democracy at the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeActually ifthe EU became a unified state, there would be sloss of UN Seats - a major democratic, liberalvoting block in international institutions such asthe UN would be lost, in return for one vote (foran incredibly powerful state). Due to the UK andFrance, both EU members and also UN SecurityCouncil permanent members (UNSC P5 - alongwith the US, China and Russia), and withGermany (G4 - along with India, Japan andBrazil) hopeful to gain a seat in the future,removal of these nations from the UNSC wouldleave it open to greater sway by American,Russian or Chinese influence. As it is, the UK andFrance provide a powerful voting bloc in the SC.(Italy has offered the plan of a revolving seat forEU member states.). Therefore countries fromthe EU are powerful enough as it is and creatingonly 1 country can result in the exact oppositesituation. None of the benefits, listed in theProposition argument are actually benefits of afederal Europe. They all have been achieved via", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeA federalEurope will ensure that large, multinationalbusinesses remain accountable for theiractions In a globalised economy, there is a needto tame multinational corporations, which wouldbe otherwise capable of playing nationalgovernments off against each other in search forlow wages, social costs and state protection. Afederal Europe would be powerful enough todemand high standards of behaviour from suchcompanies, because only a powerful andeconomically significant player can dictaterestricting conditions. This would ensure fairwages, safe working conditions and - additionally- Europe would be able to force the multinationalcompanies to implement correct and holisticpolicies and would also be in a position to make agreater difference on environmental issues suchas global warming. Sovereignty becomes lessrelevant when effective independence is lostanyway as the economy and the problems facedby all nations are increasingly globalised.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeA federalEurope will benefit the citizens of its memberstates A federal Europe would build upon thesuccess of the EU and its predecessors in tamingthe nationalism that caused so much conflict inthe twentieth century. The EU is drawing nearerto realising the vision of its founders for an“ever-closer union”. Despite the EU’s relativesuccess in this regard, while nationalgovernments still exist they will regardpolicy-making within Europe as a competitivebusiness, abusing vetoes and damaging thepotential prosperity of all of Europe’s citizens.Such is the case with Britain's veto over thecarbon tax, which the EU wants to implement -“The British government is \"highly likely\" to blockEuropean Commission proposals for a carbon taxcontained in a widely-circulated draft version ofthe Energy Taxation Directive, EU diplomaticsources said yesterday”. [1] A federal Europeanstate can build on the shared history and cultureof its members to further the common good,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeNationalidentity and differences remain far moreimportant than supposedly shared Europeanvalues. Existing national governments operate ondifferent models which recognise the historical,cultural and economic distinctiveness of eachnation, and thus provide an important focus forthe loyalty of their citizens (e.g. variousmonarchies, the French republican system,hallowed by successive revolutions). The furtherpower is removed from a citizen, the moredetached he is from the democratic process, theless accountable that power becomes, and themore likely it is to make decisions badly,damaging the interest of tens of millions ofpeople.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeTheassumptions about the multinationalcorporations are not actually proved. Nationalgovernments close deals with such corporationsif both sides have interest in it. Even if weassume such a thing existed nowadays – in afederal Europe the same problem would occuronly not with countries, rather with regions. Thatis because every region would want the companyto create more business in its area so we will endup with the assumed status quo today. The EUtoday is already strong enough in regards toimplementing environmental policies andrestrictions – the carbon tax, the cap and tradesystem. Dealing with the international issue ofglobal warming is not a point of a federal Europeor the EU, but a completely different matter.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeEurope isnot like America and Australia, which werefounded by immigrants with considerablehomogeneity of language and culture. Canada’srelations with Quebec show that where suchdifferences exist they can be politicallydestabilising, while federal states such as Braziland the USSR have not avoided dictatorship,human rights problems and economicbackwardness. Within the EU there is often nocommonality of interests on key federal issuessuch as defence and foreign policy. Even todaythere are big splits on major issues such asagricultural reform and trade policy. In actuality,Europeans don’t envy Americans because rightnow EU is far better in every aspect than the US– “Loory: What we have heard today is that theproblems here in the U.S. are certainly muchworse than in Europe.” [1] ”Anybody who claimsthat the US provides a model which the EUshould copy needs to consider the basiceconomic facts of the case.” [2] [1] Loory,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeA federalEurope will be a stronger international actor Afederal Europe will be better equipped topromote the interests of its citizens in the world,carrying more influence in the UN, WTO, IMF andother intergovernmental and treaty organisationsthan its individual states do now. Furthermore,Europe has a lot to contribute to the world interms of its liberal traditions and political culture,providing both a partner and a necessary balanceto the USA in global affairs. Once unified,Europe will become an (even more) importantnegotiating and trading partner – one of thebiggest economies in the world. It will have apopulation of 450 million – more than the UnitedStates and Russia combined. It will be theworld’s biggest trader and generate one quarterof global wealth. It presently gives more aid topoor countries than any other donor. Itscurrency, the euro, comes second only to the USdollar in international financial markets. France,Germany, Poland - these countries can hardly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeThe federalmodel has proved to be a successpreviously The success of federal stateselsewhere in providing peace and prosperity fortheir citizens, alongside democratic safeguards,point to the advantages of pursuing this model inEurope. The USA, Australia and Canada providestandards of living for their citizens which mostEuropeans would envy, while federal India is thebest example of a long-term democratic successin the developing world. The application of theprinciples of federalism to the European socialand environmental policy s the key to Europeansuccess. The creation of the single market meantthat much national regulation of social andenvironmental issues ceased to be effective: onlya European approach at the same level as theregulation of business would be able to work.Otherwise, companies might simply transferfrom one member state with a great deal ofregulation in these areas to another memberstate with less. If what economists call", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeThis is all amatter of PR. Politicians and leaders need towork harder in order to present the benefits ofan eventual federal Europe, which will also dealwith some of the problems the EU has today. Thepublic opinion is not a constant; it is rathervariable and changeable. Furthermore the EU isgetting some bad evaluation at the moment dueto the economic crisis, but this doesn’t mean theoverall opinion toward it is negative.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeSurely anill-advised dash to build a federal Europe andforcing people in a direction they do not wish togo is a bad idea. However a federal Europe is thenormal concurrence of the process of integration.And this is not against people’s will- “…He(Belgian ex-prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt)said, “I don’t think people have said that theyare against a United States of Europe”. The novotes in France and the Netherlands were,according to Verhofstadt, not “no votes againstEurope, but were votes against a certain type ofEurope… what people want is a strong Europe, aUnited States of Europe that can give an answerto their concerns”. [1] [1] Eurealist.co.uk,‘United States of Europe’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeExistingcontributive inequalities within the Union wouldbe amplified by a formal federal system There isa possibility that once a federation, Europe willadopt certain policies that might be harmful for aminority of the member states. In consequence,any economic downturn in those states couldmanifest itself on a larger scale in the UnitedStates of Europe as economies of the memberstates rely (more than ever) on eachother. Furthermore different states may notcontribute equally. States, because inducementsto cooperate or threats to punish may be low, failto provide for the collective benefit, thereforeessentially \"passing the buck\" to other states,and most frequently to the most economicallypowerful participants. Citizens of large states likeFrance, Great Britain, and Germany frequentlycomplain that smaller states are not paying their\"fair share\" of the costs of the European Union.Meanwhile, smaller states may complain thatthey are overlooked or even disregarded because", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-con04a", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeSubsidiaritywill deal with regional identities’problem Federalism and subsidiarity, that thingsshould be dealt with at the lowest, most local,level possible, [1] can allow for regionalidentities in a way national states cannot. Forexample for Northern Ireland, Corsica, BasqueRegion, Lombardy. In a Federal Europe suchpeoples would not feel under threat from adominant culture and long-running conflictscould be resolved, as issues of sovereigntybecome less relevant within the new politicalstructures. [1] Europa, ‘Subsidiarity’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeTheconcept of federalism lacks politicalsupport Euroscepticism is highest in Latvia, theUnited Kingdom, and Hungary, with only25%–32% viewing membership as a good thing.Belief that the citizen's country has benefitedfrom EU membership is lowest (below 50%) inthe UK, Hungary, Latvia, Italy, Austria, Swedenand Bulgaria. A significant minority (36%) do nottend to trust the European Parliament. TheEuropean Parliament does not command thesame sense of respect as national Parliaments,nor the connection with ordinary people. [1] [1]Directorate-General for Communication,‘EUROBAROMETER 71 Public opinion in theEuropean Union’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeMovestoward federalism will endanger the stability ofthe EU There are great dangers of forcingpeople in a direction they do not wish to go. Anill-advised dash to build a federal Europe couldraise dormant nationalist feelings, promote therise of populist politicians with xenophobicagendas and endanger the stability of the EU. AGaullist “Europe of Nations” [1] preserves thecurrent benefits of EU without the risks of furtherunwanted political integration. “(...)Dominantgroups have more to gain from the majoritarianprinciple which is indispensable for constitutionaldemocracies. As such, minorities would be placedat an ever more disadvantaged position in aEuropean state. Thus, the progression of the EUinto a federal state is bound to have a morenegative than it would a positive impact onEuropean integration.” [2] [1] Ross, ‘Chirac theGreat or de Gaulle the Small?’ [2] Cocodia,‘Problems of Integration in a Federal Europe’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-con04b", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeDevolutionand subsidiarity can be applied by existingstates, as Britain and France have both showedin the 1990s, and as Germany has done since1945. Spain’s problem with separatist terroristsin the Basque Region shows that even a greatdeal of regional autonomy fails to satisfyextremists.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ehbfe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "europe house believes federal europeOn thecontrary a federal Europe will bring the countriesa lot closer together. Matters of harmful policieswill be a lot less than they are right now in theEU simply because separate states do exist now.However when there is just one state with all thenations in it – the harmful policies toward acertain state will be reduced to a minimum –after all the leaders will be managing onecountry and will be watching for the interests ofall its people equally. Furthermore in a federalEurope the economic situation will even farbetter and faster than it is doing so now in theEU. As a matter of fact there are examples withthe recently joined states, Bulgaria and Romania,which after 3 years still cannot catch up with themore advanced western states. In a federalEurope this particular problem will be sorted out,because everybody will be a part of one majorand powerful country. Therefore in aneconomical aspect a federal Europe will managea lot better than the European Union is right", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iiahwagit-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "imals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherTougherprotection of Africa’s nature reserves will onlyresult in more bloodshed. Every time the militaryupgrade their weaponry, tactics and logistic, thepoachers improve their own methods to counterthem. In the past decade, over 1,000 rangershave been killed whilst protecting Africa’sendangered wildlife. [1] Every time one sideadvances its position the other side matches it.When armed military patrols were sent out,poachers switched their tactics so every hunterhas several ‘guards’ to combat the military. Thelack of an advantageous position in the armsrace has ensured that the poaching war is yet tobe won. [2] [1] Smith, D. ‘Execute elephantpoachers on the spot, Tanzanian ministerurges’ [2] Welz, A. ‘The War on AfricanPoaching: Is Militarization Fated to Fail?’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iiahwagit-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "imals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherNot allendangered animals have such culturalsignificance within Africa. Pangolins arearmoured mammals which are native to Africaand Asia. Like rhinoceros, pangolins areendangered due to their demand in East Asia.They are relatively unknown however, andtherefore have little cultural significance. [1] Thisis the case for many of Africa’s lesser knownendangered species. Any extension of protectionfor endangered animals based on their culturalsignificance would be unlikely to save many ofthese species. [1] Conniff, R. ‘PoachingPangolins: An Obscure Creature Faces UncertainFuture’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iiahwagit-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "imals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherHumandevelopment is of great importance to theAfrican continent, arguably more so thanconserving endangered animals. In 2010 it wasestimated that there are 239 millionsub-Saharan Africans living in poverty. [1]Poverty can be the cause of a wide array ofpolitical, security and socio-economic issues.Possible sources of income, such as cottonplantations and food crops, should therefore beembraced as they will have a more positiveimpact on the region than the survival ofendangered species. [1] World Hunger, ‘AfricaHunger and Poverty Facts’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iiahwagit-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "imals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherDeterrents in thecriminal justice system have not worked insimilar cases. The US drug war, which identifieda specific activity and made it a matter ofnational security, has resulted in harshsentences for those who deal or smuggle illicitsubstances. Despite these harsh punishmentshowever, there has been little success indefeating the drug business as the profit marginfor the trade is too high. [1] With Ivory andother products for which poachers are huntingthe same will happen; if some poachers are putup the prices will simply go up encouragingothers. Tougher protection of animals throughincreased conviction rates and extended terms islikely to fail. [1] BBC, “Global war on drugs ‘hasfailed’ says former leaders’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iiahwagit-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "imals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherLinking animalendangerment and poaching to terrorism as ajustification for action unnecessarily securitisesthe issue. This will only serve to create asituation where state actors can use poaching asan excuse to exploit threats. As with the war ondrugs and the war on terror, this power isapportioned to actors who are then capable ofabusing it for the sake of national security.[1] [1] Crick,E. ‘Drugs as an existential threat:An analysis of the international securitization ofdrugs’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iiahwagit-con03b", "title": "", "text": "imals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherThere is noguarantee that legalising the trade would satisfydemand in East Asia. [1] Nor is there anysubstantial evidence to suggest that prices woulddrop to the point where hunters could no longersustain themselves. If neither of these factorstranspires then there is a strong likelihood thatendangered animals would be hunted toextinction. [1] Player, I. & Fourie, A. ‘Howto win the war against poachers’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iiahwagit-con01b", "title": "", "text": "imals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherThere arenumerous sponsors who contribute towardsanimal protection schemes, reducing thegovernment’s burden. Private wildlife custodiansspend significant sums of money ensuring theyare fully equipped to deal with poachers. Thereare also private donors and interest groups suchas World Wildlife Federation (WWF) who supplyfunding for the governments’ conservationefforts. [1] This financial support has madeprojects such as the increased military presencein South Africa’s game parks possible. [1] Welz,A. ‘The War on African Poaching: Is MilitarizationFated to Fail?’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iiahwagit-con04b", "title": "", "text": "imals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherIf toughapproaches to conservation did not exist thenthe situation would be far worse. [1] The lack oflegislation and an armed response to thepoaching threat has led to the extinction of manyspecies, such as the Western black rhinoceros.[2] Without the boots on the ground thenpoaching would most likely expand due to thelack of deterrent which armed guards cause. [1]Welz, A. ‘The War on African Poaching: IsMilitarization Fated to Fail?’ [2] Mathur, A.‘Western Black Rhino Poached Out of Existence;Declared Extinct, Slack Anti-Poaching EffortsResponsible’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iiahwagit-con02b", "title": "", "text": "imals international africa house would africangovernment implement tougherMost of thesehuman deaths are caused by humans invadingthe territory of the animals at hand. Evengiraffes, usually considered peaceful animals, willattack if they feel that humans are too close.Generally, it is the human’s responsibility ratherthan the animal’s. Increased protection may savemore lives as methods such as fencing willforcibly separate humans from animals anddecrease the chances of the two coming in tocontact. [1] [1] Morelle, R. “Fencing off wildlions from humans ‘could save them’”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyThe Lisbon Treatyis limited in significance and has less problematicsuperstate aspects that the Constitutional treatyof 2004 such as an official flag, anthem and billof citizen's rights [1]. The Constitution wanted tofound the European Union on an entirely newbasis, whereas the Lisbon Treaty is aconventional amending Treaty. It is thisfundamental difference that justifies the lack ofreferendum for the Lisbon Treaty when it wasessential for the ratification of the Constitution.However the association with the previous Treatywould have seen the public wary and progressstifled as a result. The Lisbon Treaty was moreconcerned with technical reforms thanconstitutional significance and therefore did notneed the ratification of the national electorates.The result of a referendum is more likely toreflect public opinion on the current governmentthan on the proposed reforms. Furthermore onimportant foreign policy issues the elected", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyMajor changesneed to be put to the people and the peoplemust be trusted. The Lisbon Treaty significantlyaffects the workings of each member country. Itgives the European Union a legal personality,allowing it to sign international agreements andmember countries are now made subject tomajority voting [1]. The Lisbon Treaty does notonly affect international policies, criminal law andnational justice systems, it also gives power overto the Commission and European Court. Suchmajor changes must be put to popular vote, thecitizens of each EU member state have a right tolegitimise or reject these changes that push for amore centralized European superstate.Furthermore the will of the people needs to betrusted, if a reform is intentionally ambiguousand complicated, which was one of the criticismsof the Lisbon Treaty [2], it is the job of thepolitician to explain the cause to the public.Voters should be included in the debate and key", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyDemocracy itself isthe delegating of decision making to electedofficials and this is exactly what has taken placein the government's decision to not holdreferendums but pass changes through nationalparliaments. Referenda undermines democracyby negating the representative government andparliamentary sovereignty, they have beenchosen as the representatives of the people, bythe people, and therefore have the right to makeinformed decisions on their behalf about what todo in the nation's best interests. If there arelonger term issues with a government's decisionthen they can be made accountable at the nextgeneral election.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyThe decision not tohold a referendum directly ignores the wishes ofthe people and is therefore undemocratic. TheLisbon Treaty and the Constitution have 96% ofthe same text. Former French President ValéryGiscard d’Estaing, who wrote the original EUConstitution, has publicly stated that the LisbonTreaty is essentially the same as the proposedConstitution [1]. The decision from countries notto hold referendums in 2007 that they hadpreviously agreed to is a flagrant disregard forthe wishes of the people. Moreover the decisionto ratify the Lisbon Treaty through nationalparliaments in France and the Netherlands wherethe 2004 Treaty was rejected in popular votedemonstrates that the decision not to holdreferendums was in the fear that they would berejected when put to the people. Any decisionthat is forced through parliament in the fear thatit would fail when opened to the citizens of thatcountry lacks legitimacy. [1] Valéry Giscard", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyThe decision not tohold a referendum was not one taken against thewishes of the people. Firstly, citizens of Franceand the Netherlands, who voted no to theConstitution in public vote, accepted the decisionto not repeat a referendum in 2007.Furthermore, the accusation that the two textsare 96% identical is a crude one that ignores thefundamental difference in meaning that a fewwords can make [1] therefore the decision to nothold a referendum to ratify The Lisbon Treatyshould not be seen in conjunction with the resultof the Constitution referendum. Thisdemonstrates that the decision not to hold areferendum was not against the people's wishes:it was largely accepted that acceptingconstitutional changes through the electednational parliament was democraticallyacceptable. [1] 'The EU Reform Treaty", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyReform treatiesare too important to be left to politicians of theday Decisions that affect the nationalsovereignty of a country should not just be left toelected politicians who have power for a limitedtime but should be given to the citizens throughdirect vote. The nature of the Lisbon Treatychanged the relationship between member statesand Brussels; it is clearly a constitutional issueand therefore needs to be ratified by all citizens.The Blair Labour Government held referenda ona whole range of constitutional changes,including not only devolution in Scotland, Walesand Northern Ireland, but even on whetherindividual cities should have directly electedmayors", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-con03b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyAll politics is PR. Ifdemocracy was abandoned every time that themedia held sway with the public, thengovernment would soon become a dictatorship.It is a government's job to take up this PR warand to inform the public about the pros and consof possible reform so that they can make aninformed decision. It is not simply good enoughto declare that referendums don't work", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-con01b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyThe lack ofreferendums in the making of past decisions isnot reason enough to neglect democracy in thepresent. Decisions that were made by pastgovernments should be made accountable bypresent governments, because voting has beendenied in the past gives even more reason tonow open up these important decisions topopular vote.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-con02a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyIf all memberstates held a referendum on all EU treatiesnothing would get passed. The pure size andlogistics of the European Union is such that ifevery member state had to hold a referendum onall EU Treaties, no EU Treaties would getenacted. It is too likely that one of the memberstates will vote against a motion. The EU shouldbe able to vote on issues without consulting thecitizens of all member states, in the UKlegislation is voted on in parliament which ismade of constituency representatives. Theconcept for government's voting inrepresentation of their countries within the EU isthe same. Furthermore the UK did not hold areferendum on the war with Iraq, so why shoulda referendum be held for issues of lesserimportance.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-con04a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyVoters do notunderstand or care about EU reforms. Theywould have found the legal jargon off-puttingand a detailed knowledge of the existing EUTreaties is necessary to understand theamendments proposed 1. They have limitedunderstanding of the current system andtherefore cannot evaluate how reform treatieswould benefit or harm the EU and their nation'sinterest. Due to this lack of understandingcitizens are too likely to be swayed by media biasand anti Europe campaigners. All this is shownby the low turnout in European parliamentelections. Elected representatives on the otherhand, do understand the impact of the treatiesand therefore can make an informed decision onthe behalf of their people and in the nation'sinterest. 1 'An unloved Parliament', TheEconomist (7 May 2009), viewed on 13 June2011 'Elections 2009', eu4journalists viewed on13 June 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-con03a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyReferendums aremore about PR than politics. Referendum votesalways end up being about something other thanthe issue on the ballot paper. In manyreferendum campaigns the real issue becomesone of confidence in the government of the dayand its management of the economy, law andorder, public scandals, etc. So when people votethey are expressing their unhappiness at theirnational government rather than making aconsidered judgment about the future of the EU.This is exactly what happened in the French andDutch votes on the EU Constitution in 2005.When asked what influenced their decision, mostvoters said that they disliked aspects of EUenlargement, especially the arrival of EasternEuropean workers who might take local jobs, andthe proposed entry negotiations with Turkey –but none of this was anything to do with theConstitution [1]. Furthermore a referendumwould be pray to media distortion, which could", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-con01a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatySignificantchanges in the past have not been put to popularvote. In the past treaties with more far reachingconsequences have been ratified by rulingparliaments without ever going to popular vote.For example the 1986 Act establishing a SingleMarket and the 1996 Maastricht Treaty. Thesetreaties gave the EU power in economicregulation, immigration and monetary policy andyet were not put to majority voting. It wasunderstood that progress was important andpopular voting could halt progress. If thesechanges were made it is nonsensical that treatieswith less significance should use a referendum.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-con04b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyVoters do careabout EU reforms, and they are owed the respectof being told in layman's terms what specifictreaty changes would do in real terms. TheLisbon Treaty was unnecessarily complicated andfull of jargon (Browne, 'Gobbledegook'). It is therole of the politicians to make sure that treatiesare easy to understand and accessible to all thecitizens of the countries that they will affect. Ifthe public is apathetic it is because they knowtheir vote will ultimately be ignored. Democracyis paramount and in order to remain democraticEU reform needs to be passed by a public voteand not just the elected: prolonged eliteavoidance of the engaging the public will bemore detrimental in the long run1 1 Lu, Chien-YiLu, 'Fallacies in Embracing a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epvhwhranet-con02b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics voting house would holdreferendum any new eu treatyThere is adifference between holding a referendum forevery decision and holding one for importantconstitutional changes that will affect a nation'sfuture sovereignty. The logistics and the fear ofrejection should not be a reason to not hold areferendum. If anything the current controversysurrounding the war on Iraq and its legality isproof that referendums are fundamental inimportant issues to ensure that the rulinggovernment still reflects the will of the people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesMost often, prosecutions thatoccur are not just with only the losing side beingprosecuted for their crimes. The Nuremburgtrials prosecuted Nazi’s for offences theycommitted, but none of the Allied forces wereever brought for trial; Curtis LeMay whocommanded the US Air Force in fire bombingsthat killed hundreds of thousands of Japanesehimself said “I suppose if I had lost the war, Iwould have been tried as a warcriminal.”[1] Prosecutions also focus on a smallnumber of scapegoats, to the exclusion of themajority who showed sympathy for that regime,civilians that marched with the regime, orpolitical supporters. An example of this is theprosecution of the military junta in Argentina in1984-5 while Peronist supporters (the newgovernment was peronist) were given amnestiesunder the ‘full stop’ program. It took another 20years before more – 267 members of the militaryand police – were convicted.[2] The third reason", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesThe only just method Prosecutingoffenders is the only way to get a just outcomewhen there have been horrific crimes committed.At a most principled level, those who commit acrime ought to be held accountable for theiractions even if they are powerful or it damagesthe chances of peace because the powerful mustbe shown not to be above the law. Even wherethe law did not exist, or the leaders were incontrol of the law, international norms provide astandard for what actions merit prosecution, andjudiciaries have been very good at convictingthose who committed atrocities[1]. Having thosewho committed crimes convicted by law courtshelps prevent those affected by atrocities holdinggrudges and put the past behind them so aidingthe healing process [2]. [1] Moore, John J Jr‘Problems With Forgiveness’ 43 Stanford LawReview 733, February 1991 [2] abc news,‘Dallas Holocaust survivors welcome prosecutionof former Nazi guard’, wfaa.com, 20 August", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesBy using international courts,countries do not actually gain skills ordependence within their own systems, but mayinstead become reliant on thatsystem. However, such an internationalinstitution cannot handle all the cases and delaysthe process of justice; The ICTR have completelyfinished 47 cases in 20 years [1], a slowoperation compared to the Rwandan local courts.The domestic Gacaca system has done muchmore trying nearly 2million suspects.[2] But thissystem has been reconciliatory in nature withoutforensic evidence and cross examination. [1]Will, Ross, ‘Rwanda genocide: Did Bizimungutrial take too long?’, bbc.co.uk, 17 May2011, ‘Status of cases’, International CriminalTribunal for Rwanda, accessed 24/2/2014, [2]Kimenyi, Felly, and Asiimwe, Bosco, ‘Legalexperts hail Gacaca’, newtimes.co.rw, 18 June2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesProsecutions are needed forvictims Prosecutions are the only way forvictims to see those who caused pain againstthem brought to justice. The alternative of somekind of reconciliation often leaves those whoperpetrated crimes able to retain power as hashappened in countries like Bosnia andHerzegovina, Colombia and Guatemala[1]. Whenthis happens there is clearly a concern both thatthese individuals are not being held to accountand that they could act in a similar way again ifgiven the opportunity. Under the United NationsGenocide Convention of 1948, victims have aright to see offenders prosecuted[2]. And it isonly prosecution that will ensure that such actscannot occur again so giving peace of mind tovictims. [1] Osiel, Mark J. ‘Why Prosecute?Critics of Punishment for Mass Atrocity’ 118Human Rights Quarterly 147 [2] Akhavan,Payam, ‘Beyond Impunity: Can InternationalCriminal Justice Prevent Future Atrocities'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesVictims are often no better off byseeking prosecutions, especially becauseprosecutions are often hard to make stick in thefirst place. But moreover, the process ofteninvolves victims having to relive their story whilebeing cross examined, which further harms thevictim. The continued trauma among genocidesurvivors in Rwanda is largely due to having togive testimonies in such cases [1]. [1] Redressand African rights, ‘Survivors and post genocidein Rwanda’, redress.org, November 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesDeterrence doesn’t work as peoplewho commit these atrocities usually don’t believethey will be caught, or don’t care. Further,prosecutions can actually cause more offenses inthe future, as supporters of those prosecutedseek revenge for the prosecution occurring. Wehave seen this in Sudan where President Bashir’sindictment by the ICC has done little to haltattacks on civilians in both Darfur and, morerecently, South Kordofan [1]. [1] Jennifer,Christian and James, Bair, ‘ Why does the worldallow Sudan’s Bashir to target civilians? ’,globalpost.com, 30 July 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesInternational prosecutionencourages domestic justice By introducinginternationally based prosecution, the laws areable to effectively filter down into the domesticsystem. The international system takes care ofpowerful offenders who might otherwise notreceive a fair trial or be brought to justice. Thisthen allows domestic courts to prosecute thoseinvolved in the crimes at a lower level. This hasworked in Ivory coast where the former leaderwas brought to face charges committed at homeand also helped stabilize the situation in thecountry [1]. [1] Smith, David, ‘Laurent Gbagboappears before international criminal court’,thegurdian.com, 5 December 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesDeters future offences Byprosecuting those who commit crimes againsthumanity and war crimes future leaders aredissuaded from committing such acts [1]. Whencriminals are held accountable, the belief in thereliability of the legal system is enhanced,society is strengthened by the experience thatthe legal system is able to defend itself and thesense of justice is upheld or rectified [2]. Sincethe Office of the Prosecutor announced itsinterest in Colombia in 2006, the governmenthas taken a number of measures particularly thePeace and Justice Law to ensure domesticprosecution of those who could potentially betried by the ICC. The threat of ICC prosecutionappears to have concerned former PresidentPastrana. Vincente Castrano (AUC) aparamilitary leader was fearful of the possibilityof ICC prosecution, a fear that reportedly directlycontributed to his group’s demobilisation[3]. [1]Safferlin, Christoph J.M., ‘Can Criminal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesIt is the threat of prosecutionsthat cause leaders to fear committing crimes inthe first place. The best way to stop leaderscausing damage is for them to be deterred fromdoing so by being held accountable of theirdeeds.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesThis often leads to a scenariowhere leaders grant themselves immunity, orcontinue to commit atrocities, in the comfort ofknowing that immunity is coming. Those in theCIA who committed what many consider to havebeen torture were granted immunity by thejustice department claiming that it would beunfair to prosecute men and women working toprotect America [1]. Such an immunity oramnesty can then be used to close discussions tofind the truth and effectively shut of the healingprocess. [1] Greenwald, Glenn, ‘Obama's justicedepartment grants final immunity to Bush's CIAtorturers’, thegurdian.com, 31 August 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesProsecutions don't get to the realtruth Truth is the most important factor thatsupports the healing process. Individuals whenbeing prosecuted have incentives to hide crimesand lie about the true motivations for offencesoccurring as they don’t want to go to prison fortelling the truth. This means that the whole truthof matters never really come to light. TRC’s, suchas that in South Africa, do a very good job ofensuring that the full record of human rightsabuses come to light [1].The Rwandan Gacacacourts which encompasses three importantfeatures of relevance to broader experiments ofreconciliatory justice serve as a lesson. Thosewho confess their crimes are rewarded with thehalving of prison sentences and as a result,60,238 prisoners have confessed to participatingin the genocide [2]. Second, gacaca lawhighlights apologies welcomed by many as animportant ingredient to promotereconciliation. [1] Linfield, Susie, ‘Trading Truth", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesFear of prosecutions cause leadersto do more damage Instead of giving upfighting, leaders continue to fight, disrupting theability of a country to move on, for fear ofprosecution. Pol Pot, for example, rebuilt armiesand continued to fight long after his regime wasoverthrown, killing thousands more people. Hadan amnesty been offered, he might well havegiven up and allowed the country to heal with farless death. Joseph Kony also continues to plagueUganda from within bush land even though hehas offered to surrender for amnesty, becausethe ICC refuses to grant him any indemnity forhis crimes [1]. [1] BBC news Africa, ‘LRA leaderJoseph Kony 'in surrender talks' with CAR’,bbc.co.uk, 20 November 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesPeace more important thanJustice In practice, prosecutions often come atthe expense of other forms of reconciliation. Forinstance before Truth and ReconciliationCommissions can work amnesties have to begiven for people to be willing to tell their stories.In order for people to put down weapons, oragree to tell stories, prosecutions must be givenup. This is evident with the conflict is SouthSudan; the opposition which had signed theceasefire agreement to restore stability in theregion, breached it and started fighting againwhen many of its members were indicted for thecrimes they had committed [1]. In such case themost important thing is to prevent futureatrocities as healing can only start when there isno conflict or atrocities going on. [1] DeustcheWelle, ‘South Sudan: Rebels Strike Oil Centre,Breaching Ceasefire’, allafrica.com, 18 February2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aglhrilhb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "africa global law human rights international lawhouse believesProsecutions allow an equalchance for both prosecution and defense to showthe truth as they believe it with the result thatfar more facts are brought to life than a processthat is reliant only on the individual being‘truthful’. Moreover an amnesty may not beforever as it is against the norms of internationaljustice so it is unlikely that they will tell thewhole truth.[1] Argentina for example has seenthe prosecution of those who were givenamnesties two decades earlier [2]. [1] Ahmed,Anees and Quayle, Merryn, ‘Can genocide,crimes against humanity and war crimes bepardoned or amnestied?’, sas.ac.uk, 28 January2008, [2] Layús, Rosario Figari, ‘Better Latethan Never: Human Rights Trials in Argentina’,RightsNews, Vol.30, no.3, May 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesCurrently 3 in 4 youthswork informally or within vulnerable employment- working without a formal written contract(Work4Youth, 2013). Although technology maycreate new markets it will not change the type ofemployment youths engage in. The use oftechnology will mean a majority of youths willcontinue to work informally - without access tosocial security, a valuable pension scheme, andsocial protection in the event of a crisis.Self-employment and having the flexibility toconnect to different markets provides atemporary fix and income. Stability and securityis not provided for youths.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesTechnology has drivenyouths to identify new markets A keytechnology for youths are mobile phones anddevices. Across West and East Africa thepossession of mobile phones has enabled citizensto network and form solutions to socialproblems. By 2015, there are expected to be 1billion mobile cellular subscriptions inSub-Saharan Africa (Sambira, 2013). This is thefirst African generation directly accessinghigh-technology, although uncertainty remains inthe amount of youths having access totechnology. Through mobile phones newbusiness opportunities, and flows of money, arebeing created. Furthermore, mobile phones areproviding innovative solutions to health caretreatment, ensuring better health for futureentrepreneurs and youths. SlimTrader is apositive example [1] . SlimTrader uses mobilephones to provide a range of vital services - fromairplane and bus tickets to medicine. The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesSuch platforms areknown, and accessible, by a minority withinAfrica - limiting who benefits from the technologyavailable. Rising entrepreneurs across Africatypically are able to access resources requiredand network their ideas, whilst a majority ofyouths remain out of the innovation loop. Asinequality disparities continue to increase inAfrica, a similar trend is identifiable to youthtechnology and entrepreneurialism.Entrepreneurs rising in Africa show the future ofa ‘young millionaire’s club’. They hold the rightconnections, access to credit and electricity, andtime to apply to their business model. Themillionaire entrepreneurs continue to create newtechnologies - not vice-versa.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesTechnology hasenabled Africa’s cultural industries togrow. Technology has enabled the developmentof entrepreneurial ideas for business, but alsowithin Africa’s cultural industry. Access to videorecording mobile phones, the internet, andtelevised publications has created a new cultureof expression for African youths. Culturalindustries are raising critical questions forpolitics, and empowering youth to tell theirstories. The use of journalism has becomemobilised by youths - as seen in initiatives suchas, African Slum Voices, of which areencouraging youths to pro-actively raise theiropinions and voices on issues occurring withintheir communities. Furthermore, the music andfilm industry in Africa has arisen as a result ofaccess to new technologies at a lower-cost. Twokey components responsible for the growth ofNollywood (Nigeria’s Film Industry) includeaccess to digital technology and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesTechnology will leadjob growth for youths. The rate ofunemployment in Sub-Saharan Africa remainsabove the global average, at 7.55% in 2011,with 77% of the population in vulnerableemployment [1] . Economic growth has not beeninclusive and jobs are scarce. In particular, ratesof youth unemployment, and underemployment,remain a concern [2] . On average, theunderutilisation of youths in the labour marketacross Sub-Saharan Africa stood at 67% in 2012(Work4Youth, 2013). Therefore 67% of youthsare either unemployed, inactive, or in irregularemployment. The rate of unemployment variesgeographically and across gender [3] . Thereremains a high percentage of youths withininformal employment. Technology can introducea new dynamic within the job market and accessto safer employment. Secure, high quality jobs,and more jobs, are essential for youths. Accessto technology is the only way to meet such", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesRecent evidence by theWorld Bank indicates unemployment is not onlydue to the limited availability of jobs. A highproportion of youths have been identified as ‘idle’- not in school, training, or work, and notactively seeking employment. Althoughvariations are found, in 2009 only ~2% of maleyouths, aged 15-24, and ~1% of female youths,who were not in school or employment inTanzania, were actively looking for work [1] .Without motivation technology will not make adifference. [1] WDR, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesCultural industriesdon’t always provide a positive role. Ifentrepreneurial youths today are usingtechnology to create films on witchcraft in thepublic sphere, what effect will this have on futuregenerations? Growth cant just rely on creativeindustries as there needs to be money created todrive demand for these films, and any moneythat might be made by the creative industriesare undermined by piracy. Without a solutionsmall time films are hardly the most secure ofjobs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesDespite programsdistributing technology into schools does theavailability of technology provides futurebenefits? Having a tablet does not ensureteachers are well-trained to assist and guide thechildren. Without proper oversight it might provemore of a distraction. Technology in schoolsmight also mean students having technologysubstituted for teachers. With programs stillbeing implemented, and results variable, thecausality between technology, education, andthe rise of well educated, motivated, youthsremains precarious.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesTechnology is buildinga platform for sharing ideas. Entrepreneurialismcan be encouraged through an awareness, andsharing, of new ideas. The technologicalrevolution has provided a platform for personalexpression, delivery of up-to-date news, and thevital sharing of local ideas and thoughts. InNigeria the Co-Creation Hub has emerged,encouraging an entrepreneurial spirit. Further,Umuntu and Mimiboards’ are connectingindividual communities to the web byencouraging local content creation [1] . Suchplatforms are enabling the transfer of knowledgeand innovative ideas. Innovative solutions arebeing introduced to routine problems, such as‘Mafuta Go’ an app to find the best price forpetrol (Christine Ampaire). [1] See furtherreadings: Co-Creation Hub Nigeria, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesChanging educationsystems and democracy. Technology hasenabled access to e-books and resources forstudents and teachers [1] . Such changes haveenabled improved efficiency in teaching, with theavailability of up-to-date resources andawareness of relevant theories. Furthermore, theease by which students are able to accessmultiple resources and buy books online isexpanding their intellectual curiosity andlibrary. In addition to raising new students,technology can be seen as a tool for democracy.Technology provides a tool for governmentaccountability, transparency in information, andfor good governance. Organisations, such asUshahidi (Crowdmapping) following Kenya’s2007 post-election violence; and mySocietywhich updates citizens on parliamentaryproceedings in South Africa, show howtechnology is feeding democratisation for youths[2] . [1] See further readings: Turcano,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesTechnology isenhancing security, not threatening it. Measuresare being implemented to ensure cyber-securityand further technology is creating new, local,initiatives for security on the ground. UshahidiCrowdmapping - an interactive, collective,mapping tool - was used to expose, andremember, political violence that occurred inKenya’s 2007 presidential election [1] . [1] Seefurther readings: Ushahidi, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesCredit is now becomingmore accessible through technology.Mobile-banking schemes such as MPESA acrossEast Africa and ZAAB in Somalia, use mobilephones to transfer money and payments. Themobile banking scheme is increasing theefficiency of borrowing money from social circles,enabling quick transactions to be carried out,and introducing users to a wealth of marketopportunities. Technology is integral toentrepreneurship.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesThe technologicalrevolution has been hyped. Debates may beraised as to whether the technological revolutionis actually a reality across Africa [1] . Haveexpectations been too high; the benefitsexclusive; and the reality over-exaggerated? Onthe one hand, the type of technology raisessignificant questions. Although the populationwith access to a mobile phone has risen, thequality of the phones indicates a hyped-reality.Although technology has become easilyaccessible, the quality of such technologies putsconstraints on what it can be used for. A vastmajority of mobile phones are imported fromChina - at low-cost but also poor quality. Qualitytesting on imports, and locally producedproducts, is needed to approve marketdevices. On another hand, the reality of internetconnectivity is not high-speed, and therefore oflimited use. Better connectivity emerges incertain geographical locations, to those who can", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-con04a", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesTechnology has onlybenefited private companies. Ultimately,technology, its provision, distribution, andfunction, is based on a business model. Profitsare sought and losers emerge. The technologyhype has attracted global technology giants,ranging from IBM to Google – a key issue as towhether entrepreneurialism can emerge amongstyouths and technology used sustainably. Themonopolisation of technology markets bymultinational companies puts constraints on theability for small businesses to break through.Any profits created are not recirculated in theirlocality, or Africa, but return to the country oforigin. For entrepreneurialism to be gained, andyouth jobs emerge, the technological giantsinvesting in Africa’s rising future need to partnerwith communities and small businesses.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesTechnology remainsinsecure and a security risk. The internetremains at risk. Cybersecurity is a key concern,and the prevalence of hacking events acrossAfrica identifies the need to promote security forthe new digital users. Cyber-crime costs theKenyan government around Ksh.2 billion(Mutegi, 2013); and affects around 70% ofSouth Africans. In order to encourage moreusers in technology their safety, against fraud,hacking, and identity theft, needs to beprioritised. Without security technology can’thelp entrepreneurs as customer details, businessplans etc can’t be kept private.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesTechnology will notresult in entrepreneurialism without providing afoundational basis. The key constraint forentrepreneurship is the lack of access to finance,credit, and basic infrastructure - whether acomputer or technical skills on how to usedifferent systems. Limited accessibility acts as anobstacle to entrepreneurialism. In order toencourage an inclusive capability for youths toget involved in entrepreneurial ideas, technologytraining and equal start-up credit is required.Furthermore, dangers arise where credit hasbecome easily accessible - putting individuals atrisk of debt where a lack of protection andpayment planning is provided. Kenya’s UwezoFund provides a positive example, wherebyaction has been taken to provide youths withsafe credit. The government collaboration iscalling for youths to apply for grants and loans ina bid to encourage entrepreneurial activity forall. Loans are interest-free.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-con04b", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesSeveral examples maybe found on established partnerships betweenmultinational technology firms and civil-societygroups. Microsoft has become a key investor inSouth Africa to tackle youthunemployment. Microsoft has established aStudents to Business initiative in South Africa,aiming to build human capital and provideprofessional skills to students, thus assisting jobopportunities. Multinational companies areinvesting in youths as they recognise the burdenof high unemployment and the potential talentsyouth have. By providing young students withkey skills and sharing knowledge, a newgeneration of technology developers, leaders,and entrepreneurs will arise.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-siacphbnt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ss international africa computers phones housebelieves new technologiesThe technologicalrevolution across Africa is broad, ranging frommobile technology to internet connectivity. Theavailability of mobiles has broadened who canuse technology - being more inclusive to multiplesocio-economic groups. Internet.org [1] hasbeen established to resolve issues, makingconnectivity affordable. The initiative, whichinvolves a collaborative partnership betweenFacebook and technological organisations, has avision of ensuring access to the internet for thetwo-thirds who remain unconnected.Connectivity is a fundamental necessity to livingin our ‘knowledge economy’. Their mission hascentred on three aspects: affordability,improving efficiency, and innovative partnershipsto expand the number of people connected.Intervention has therefore focused on removingbarriers to accessing information by connectingpeople. Furthermore in Kenya, mobile phoneshave been made accessible to a wider audience", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldThere are bigdifferences between Romania and Bulgaria andTurkey; this is caused by the political situationregarding Turkey’s support for North Cyprus.Cyprus is a member of the European Unionhaving joined in 2005 and would be likely toblock any attempt by Turkey to join so long asTurkey supports the breakaway north of theisland, the European Union admitted that Cypruswould become an obstacle as soon as it joined.[1] [1] University of Miami study, ‘Turkey’sMembership Application: Implications for the EU’,Jean Monnet/Robert Schuman Paper Series, Vol5 No 26 August 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey hasprecedents, such as Romania and Bulgaria, bothof whom were accepted into the EU Romaniaand Bulgaria, who have by far the worst humanrights’ records, were prioritized over Turkeywhen they were granted the right of accession,joining the EU in 2007. The EU rewarded statesthat have made a big effort to democratize andchange policy in order to be allowed in to the EU.By essentially procrastinating on Turkey's case,the EU are discouraging Turkey from making therequired changes to their legislature and normsand thus hindering their chances of accession.Countries such as Hungary, Poland, and theCzech Republic were pressurized to reform at arapid pace after being promised by the EU theywould likely be in the EU in a relatively shortperiod of time; Turkey has been given no suchpromises. Turkey should have even more 'right'to be in the EU as these states, as it formallyapplied for membership long before these states", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldThere are fears thatTurkey joining the EU would create the possibilityof a ‘single market’ in terrorism. \"Turkey will notbe admitted to the E.U. It will not be admittedbecause, at this point, given the behaviourmainly of Arab Muslims (for does anyone doubtthat it was the Arab influence that caused someChechens to embrace not only the idea of Jihad,but all of the current methods being used tofurther it), Europeans have lost their stomach forparroting phrases about the religion of \"peace\"and \"tolerance.\" They do not want to admit acountry of 70 million Muslims, who would thenmove freely about Europe. They do not wantTurkey admitted because it will be an easyconduit for non-Turkish Muslims to enter Europe,posing as Turks.\" [1] [1] ‘Turkey will not beadmitted to the EU’ by Hugh Fitzgerald, 6thDecember 2005", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey is a povertystricken country and entry into the EU wouldhelp to raise the living standards for its entirepopulation The EU has welcomed poorerentrants than Turkey without disaster; Ireland,Spain, Portugal and Greece were all much poorerthan the EU average when they joined and all arenow well integrated and much more prosperous.Disastrous migration was forecast in their casestoo, but did not occur. Nor is Turkey as poor ashas been suggested; Turkey with a GDP percapita of $8215 in 2009 is richer than Romaniaat $7500 and Bulgaria with a GDP per capita of$6423 [1] both of which are already members.Turkey’s economy is also in the process ofreform, including the restructuring of its bankingsystem and IMF programmes; in the next fewyears this process will allow for faster, moresustained growth. Turkey provides a large newmarket for EU goods; should it be accepted intothe single market the economic benefits would", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldThe EU will never beable to integrate Turkey economically. Turkey istoo poor, with millions of subsistence farmersand living standards far below the Europeannorm (making massive migration to richer EUcountries inevitable). \"Despite its currentpopulation accounting for 15% of the EU-25population, its GDP is equivalent to just 2% ofthe EU-25 GDP. Its GDP per capita is 28.5% ofthe EU-25 GDP (European Commission, 2004)\"[1] . It would be a significant drain on EU fundingto bring its economy and living standards to anacceptable level. Turkey is a nation of over 70million with significantly lower living conditionsand wages than most EU member states. MostEU states are already going through a recessionand credit crunch and are suffering enoughwithout a potentially huge number of Turkishmigrants legally given the right to live and workin 27 member states, but who would be expectedto choose to reside mainly in the more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey first appliedto join the EU back in the 1960s but there is nodocument where EU leaders have promisedunconditionally to include Turkey in the future.In a decade of candidacy Turkey has managed tosatisfy less than half of the chapters, and theseare only the minimum prerequisites. Even if theyhad, past declarations (as opposed to treaties)cannot be held to bind today’s leaders inweighing both their own national interest and thewider European interest. The possibility istherefore a long way off. The possible negativeimpact of Turkish EU membership upon existingmembers must be considered. The recent rise offar-right anti-immigration politicians, such asMarine Le Pen, Jorg Haidar and Pym Fortuyn,point to a dangerous public reaction to moreopen borders and unchecked migration.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey joining theEU would help the international fight againstterrorism Turkey is a key geo-political strategically to the West and should be integrated fully inorder to ensure its continued cooperation.\"Turkey is a secular Muslim democracy and acrucial ally for the West. The eastern flank ofNATO, straddling Europe and Asia, it played acritical role in containing the Soviet Union duringthe Cold War. In the 1990s, it helped monitorSaddam Hussein and protect Iraqi Kurds bypermitting U.S. warplanes to use its bases. Afterthe September 11, 2001, attacks, it became astaging area for coalition forces in Afghanistan,where Turkish forces eventually assumed overallcommand of the International StabilizationForce. Turkey continues to be a pivotal partner inthe fight against al Qaeda and other terroristgroups, despite attacks by radical Islamists athome.\" [1] [1] ‘Turkey’s Dreams of Accession’by David Phillips, Foreign Affairs", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldAny country thatfulfils the accession criteria should be allowed tojoin Turkey was promised a chance to join theEU by a unanimous vote at the Helsinki summitin 1999, when its candidacy was unanimouslyaccepted after three decades of consistentTurkish requests. As a candidate country Turkeyshould be allowed in once it meets themembership criteria which were first set out inthe Copenhagen European Council of 1993.These were stability of institutions guaranteeingdemocracy, the rule of law, human rights andrespect for and protection of minorities, theexistence of a functioning market economy aswell as the capacity to cope with competitivepressure and market forces within the Union andthe ability to take on the obligations ofmembership including adherence to the aims ofpolitical, economic & monetary union. [1]Clearly economic and political reforms arenecessary, but that is true of all states", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey has a largenumber of pending cases to be addressed by theEuropean Court of Human Rights [1] . Police useof torture is widespread against PKK membersand sympathisers. Turkey refuses even toacknowledge that Kurds have a separate cultureand ethnicity, referring to them as 'MountainTurks'. Peaceful protestors, including (but notonly) those wanting improved rights for theKurdish minority, are still tried and imprisonedunder anti-terrorist laws. The UN Working Groupon Enforced or Involuntary Disappearancesreported that in 1994 there were over 50disappearances in Turkey, more than in anyother country [2] . There are also restrictions onthe freedom of the press. It is true that reformshave begun, but there are questions as to howthoroughly these will be implemented. And incases where judgments have been put forwardby the European Court of Human Rights, Turkeyis often loath to implement the advice of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey is not aEuropean country - 95% of the nation’slandmass is on the wrong side of the Hellespont,in Asia. If Turkey is allowed into the EuropeanUnion, not only would the institution’s very namebecome nonsensical, but it would be impossibleto place a limit upon its potential futureexpansion. If Gibraltar belonged to Moroccorather than Britain, would we have said yes toMorocco’s application to join the EuropeanUnion? Former French President Valery Giscardd'Estaing told Le Monde in 2002 - \"The day afteryou open negotiations with Turkey, you wouldhave a Moroccan demand (for membership of theunion)\" [1] . One could of course then argue thatTurkey should not be the only geographicallynon-European member of the European Unionand that Morocco and Armenia would makeexcellent candidates. But if Morocco, why notAlgeria? If Armenia, why not Azerbaijan? FrenchPresident Nicolas Sarkozy said in January 2007:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey is a highlyunstable democracy in an unstable part of theworld Turkey has a better history of democraticelections than a number of the formercommunist states currently negotiating theirmembership of the EU. Its election of a partywith Islamist roots has led to a smooth transferof power, with no attempt at intervention by thesecularist military (as in the past). In 2010 theEU welcomed the success of a referendum onchanges to the Turkish constitution whichreduced the power of the military and made itfully subject to democratic authority. Turkey isnear some global flash points, but its entry intothe EU would not bring these potential dangerscloser to current EU members. The EU is alreadyengaged in conflicts in Libya, Iraq, andAfghanistan; Turkey’s inclusion would not havemade that more or less likely. Turkey is alreadya long-standing member of NATO; this meansthat any security crisis on Turkey’s borders, for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-con05a", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey would havethe largest population of all member states andwould therefore hold a disproportionate amountof voting power Turkey is a large country inEuropean terms, but even if its population wouldmake it the largest single EU member by 2020,this would still only give it some 15% of the totalin an enlarged EU of 25 countries or more. Thisis a much smaller proportion than Germanyrepresented in the EU of 15 before the 2004enlargement (21.9%) [1] , so it is ridiculous toargue that Turkey would dominate EUdecision-making. It would not gain full status formany years anyway; an inauguration period, inwhich it had semi-membership status, wouldintroduce it slowly to the process. Turkey wouldnot be able to change EU policy to suit itself assoon as it arrives. [1] European Union (EU-15)& Constituent Nation Population from 1950& Projections to 2050, Demographia, 2001", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey would be anunstable Muslim state in a traditionally Christianunion Turkey’s citizens may be Muslims, but thestate is as firmly secular as France in terms of itsconstitution and government. The new Justiceand Development Party (AK) which is currently ingovernment is not seeking to overturn thesecular constitution, although it does want toamend some laws that positively discriminateagainst devout Muslims. These include rules suchas the ban on women wearing headscarves ingovernment buildings; restrictions on expressingreligious belief which would break human rightslaws within the EU. Regardless of one's beliefssurrounding Turkey's possible ascension to theEuropean Union, the fact that the nation'spredominant religion is Islam is surely not one ofthe issues to be considered. Millions of Muslimsalready live within the EU; excluding Turkey frommembership on the grounds of religion wouldsuggest these European Muslims were", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey has a poorhuman rights record Turkey’s human rightsrecord is improving rapidly, with the abolition ofthe death penalty and the removal of restrictionson the use of the Kurdish language. \"Encouragedby the EU, Turkey has pursued legislative andconstitutional reforms liberalizing the politicalsystem and relaxing restrictions on freedom ofthe press, association, and expression. Turkeysigned and ratified Protocols 6 and 13 of theEuropean Convention on Human Rights. Itabolished the death penalty and adoptedmeasures to promote independence of thejudiciary, end torture during policeinterrogations, and reform the prison system. Inaddition, Turkey has significantly reduced thescope of its antiterrorism statutes, which hadbeen used to curtail political expression, and itamended the Penal Code and Codes of Criminaland Administrative Procedure. Police powershave been curbed and the administration of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-con05b", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey is too big tobe safely included within the EU. The Turkishpopulation - estimated at 65.6 million in 2000 -is on current growth trends forecast to rise to87.3 million by 2025, making it the largest singlestate in the EU [1] . As population sizedetermines representation and voting strength inthe Council of Ministers, and in the EuropeanParliament, Turkey would be able to dominate EUdecision-making and set its own agenda, to thedisadvantage of existingmembers. [1] Population projections ofcountries and their coastal regions: Turkey", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldThe geographicaldefinition of Europe must be limited and does notinclude Turkey There is no obvious and widelyaccepted geographical definition of a frontier toEurope. Is Russia a European country? AreGeorgia and Armenia? Are Cyprus and Malta?The fact that the Mediterranean country Italybecame a member of a regional organisation, theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), wascertainly not determined by geography, but wasan act of political imagination. Today the locationof a Mediterranean state in the North Atlantic isno longer considered as something \"odd\".Another example of changing perceptions of aregion is the change from regarding the borderof Europe as falling between East and WestGermany; Europe broadened to include all theformer Eastern European countries as potentialmembers of the EU. Given that part of Turkey’sterritory is on what everyone accepts is theEuropean mainland, why shouldn’t it be allowed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey is not aChristian country but a Muslim one, unlike all thecurrent or prospective EU states, which havebeen shaped by a shared legacy of Christianvalues, history and culture. Turkeys AK party hasbrought on many changes that are interpreted asbeing non-secular or rooted in Islam. IndeedTurkey’s history represents a clear rejection ofany Christian tradition, from the centuries-longOttoman Muslim conquest of Byzantine Christianterritories, to the early twentieth-centurypopulation exchange with Greece which removedmillions of long-established Christian familiesfrom Turkish territory. Most recently, Turks haveseveral times elected to government a party withIslamist roots, suspected of wishing toundermine the country’s secular constitution [1]. Turkey is not as moderate a country as it wouldseem. [1] ‘Turkey denies break with Europe’,BBC 10th June 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aegmeppghw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "americas europe global middle east politicspolitics general house wouldTurkey does nothave a stable democracy. The military hasintervened three times to remove governmentsof which it disapproved in recent decades, mostrecently in 1997 [1] . The nature of the strugglebetween Turkey's generals - who try and keepthe country as secular as possible (arguably atthe expense of the right of the people to decidefor themselves which party best represents theirviews) - and the increase in votes and influencefor conservative Islamic political views paves foran unstable political environment which isvulnerable to extremism [2] . Turkey has somedangerous neighbours and its inclusion withinthe EU would expose Europe to a greatlyincreased risk of crisis and conflict. The Caucasusis very unstable, with some of its nations lookingto Turkey for support for religious and culturalreasons. A Middle Eastern border would heavilyinvolve the EU in the Israeli-Arab conflict andgive it a border with an aggressive and unstable", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandAn attempt at aplebiscite in 1921/22 under the specter of a warof independence and civil war would have beenfraught with danger and even more open tointimidation than the House of Commons. Itwould be undemocratic to relinquish NorthernIreland today, because recent polls have shownthat the majority of people want to remain withinthe UK. * *Moriarty, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandThe partition ofIreland was undemocratic The people ofNorthern Ireland should have decided whether ornot they wanted to be united with NorthernIreland, rather than it being battled out in theBritish Parliament and the country partitioned bythe Government of Ireland Act of 1920* thatcreated a separate parliament for the sixcounties of Northern Ireland.** It was becausethe vote was not put to the Irish that theUnionists could twist arms and manipulate Britishpoliticians into allowing the six counties toremain part of the UK. After partition, theUnionists fixed electoral boundaries so therewould never be a Republican majority in anelectorate. This was unjust and illegitimatelyprevented a pro-Republic vote passing infuture. * Government of Ireland Act, 1920, **Ferriter, ‘Ireland in the Twentieth Century’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandThere is noevidence that the Catholic population todaysuffers a bias in the current political system,except for that which they make for themselves.As of 2010 the Catholic representation in theHouse of Commons is 5 Sinn Fein and 3 SDLPagainst 8 Democratic Unionists,* it is only thefact that the Sinn Fein members do not take uptheir seats that make things uneven. In the NIAssembly things are slightly more skewed. As of2011 there are 55 Unionists and 43Republicans.** Attacks against Catholics are notbased on religious lines. Unionist attacks are onlyfocused on those Catholics that are Republicans.In general Catholics are perfectly safe inNorthern Ireland. Additionally in united Ireland,the Protestants would become the marginalizedminority. Abortion is illegal in the Republic ofIreland***, for example, which will inhibit thefreedom of non- Catholics. Such laws are likelyto stay because of the overwhelming Catholic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandEconomicefficiency A Unified Ireland would be better offeconomically. “Ireland is too small for twoseparate administrations….There is a drawtowards the greater integration of services,structures and bodies on an all-Ireland basis inorder to deliver quality services and economiesof scale.” – Martin McGuinness, Deputy FirstMinister for Northern Ireland* Having twoelectricity grids, two transport networks, twoseparate police and judiciary hamper economicgrowth and waste resources that could be betterused in a unified system, as cost would lower asefficiency rises. *McGuinness, 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandBritain is morallyobliged to permit the secession of northernIreland The age of colonialism is over. Werecognize that the dominance of one countryover another is morally wrong. Ireland wasalready in the hands of the Irish people beforeEnglish earls and kings invaded. The Irish had aright to the ownership of their land because theycultivated it and so put their labor into it. Theuse of force to seize that land from the people’scontrol is unjust because it denies them the rightthey had to their land. They had no choice tovoluntarily hand over their land either. To rightthis historical wrong, the British governmentshould relinquish Northern Ireland, just as theyhave decolonized the rest of the world ending theBritish empire except for a few scatteredoutposts. Since Hong Kong was handed back toChina in 1997 Northern Ireland is the onlyremaining colony with a significant populationand independent identity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandThe Unionists inNorthern Ireland who wish to remain part of theUK should have the freedom to do so. To disownNorthern Ireland would be a second involuntarydecision made by an outsider.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandIf you were toadopt a federal system, which would best pleaseUnionists, the systems would not integrate verymuch anyway as Northern Irish ‘states’ wouldwant their own state constitution and haveseparate judiciary to the rest of Ireland, as is thepractice in the US.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandWe are at peacenow. The Good Friday Agreement has createdstability, with the exception of occasionaloutbreaks but nothing like the horror of TheTroubles. We do not need re-unification to havestability. In fact, the positive outcome that mighthappen is unsure and not a reason worthgambling on. It is likely that there will beconflict in the beginning. Such a huge move willcome to Unionists as a shock and withoutknowing how much power they will have, havingto answer to Dublin, it is likely that paramilitaryactivities will flare up again. This will, of course,spark off IRA and other Republican attacks. Ifescalations get worse, the British may interveneas well as the Irish army and there may be anentire repeat of The Troubles.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandIt would be easierto protect the rights of religious minorities withina united Ireland Unrest in Northern Ireland wasstarted by the appalling treatment of the Catholicminority there. When there was a NorthernIreland Parliament there was somegerrymandering, while the discrimination inrepresentation was slight very few nationalistswere able to get senior jobs, in the civil servicefor example in 1927 fourteen of the 229 officersof staff officer rank or above, or 6 per cent, wereCatholic, while in 1959 there were forty-sixCatholics out of 740 in such ranks, or once again,6 per cent.* Over the years reforms have beenintroduced but there is still huge stigma againstthe Catholic community in Northern Ireland, whohave little representation in politics, because it isdominated by Unionist rhetoric. The best way toensure equal treatment of the Catholics inIreland is to unite majority Protestant NorthernIreland with Catholic majority Republic of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandUniting Irelandwould bring about an end to sectarian violence Aunited Ireland doesn’t have to marginalize theProtestant population. If they are included morein the political process there can be debate,discussion and an airing of grievances which canthen be resolved. There is little sense ofattachment to the UK, and British institutions.Much like the Scottish and Welsh, the NorthernIrish feel Northern Irish. This shows that the tiesto Britain are not emotional, but political. It isclear that Unionists just want to have power overhow they run their lives. If Unionists are includedin the political process in a united Ireland theywill have no grievances and there will finally be alasting peace.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-con03b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandThere are manyways to resolve some of these issues. Firstly,regarding political resentment, a system offederalism is likely to ensure some level ofpolitical autonomy on both sides. Secondly, sucha huge project is likely to attract funds from theUN, EU, the IMF, from charities from privatedonors etc. So, the former Republic of Irelandwill not be subsidizing the Northern Irish, nor willthe Northerners be left without support. Therewill most likely to be international bodies andcharities monitoring the transition too, so thatany outburst of violence can be contained orreported.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-con01b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandEconomicfortunes rise and fall all the time. Many inNorthern Ireland looked up enviously during theRepublic’s boom. There were even clamors fromNorthern Irish politicians to lower the corporatetax in Northern Ireland to match the Republic’ssuccess. So, economic reasons for opposingunification don’t stand in the long run.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-con02a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandThe majority ofthe inhabitants of Northern Ireland do notsupport unification The Good Friday agreementaffirmed “That if, in the future, the people of theisland of Ireland exercise their right ofself-determination … to bring about a unitedIreland, it will be a binding obligation on bothGovernments [UK and Ireland] to introduce andsupport in their respective Parliaments legislationto give effect to that wish”.* However as yet theNorthern Irish do not wish to exercise this right.In a recent survey conducted by The NorthernIreland Life and Times it transpired that,“Overall, 73 per cent believe the long-term policyfor the North should be maintaining the union,with 58 per cent supporting devolution and 15per cent in favour of direct rule. Just 16 per centwant a united Ireland, with 3 per favoring anindependent Northern Ireland.” This is not justamongst the Protestant population. The surveyalso showed that, “just one in three Catholics (33", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-con03a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandUnification wouldreignite civil disorder and violent factionalismamong Irish communities As shown above, theNorthern Irish don’t want to unite with theRepublic. The Irish in the Republic will alsoresent the new drain on their economy. Eitherthe Republican parties in Ireland will resenthaving to concede some power to new politicalentities or the Unionists will resent beingmarginalized. The recent reoccurrence ofviolence in Belfast is being attributed to thebreakdown of protestant communities and lowjob prospects for young protestants. Both ofthese problems will be exacerbated in a majorityCatholic Ireland. All of these examples illustratehow unrest is likely to breakout again in a unitedIreland.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-con01a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandUnification wouldbe damaging for the economies of both parts ofIreland The Republic of Ireland is currently in acrisis. It is the I in P.I.G.S, the European Unioncountries whose economies are bust and requirea bailout package. It would not be to the benefitof either Northern Ireland joining such a fragileeconomy, nor would it be good for the Republicof Ireland, having the cut back on publicspending whilst trying to integrate Northern Irishtransport/police systems etc. Northern Ireland isa weak economy anyway and a lot ofemployment comes from the public sector, 30%compared to the UK average of 21%.* Theregion is £9billion in the red or £5,502 perperson, three times the UK average.** Thesejobs will obviously no longer be an option underre-unification and so there is likely to be massemployment amongst the newly integratedNorthern Irish. To counter this, money fromRepublican taxpayers will have to go to subsidize", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epglghbni-con02b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics government local governmenthouse believes northern irelandIt is highlyprobable that opinion will shift. Current statisticsreflect the fact that this generation has livedthrough The Troubles. The next generation islikely to see a nation divided, which appears toso obviously belong together. There is noevidence that current opinion will not changewith time.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newReducing nucleararms through New START will not compel othersto stop pursuing nukes. The logic behind NewSTART asserts that for every negativedevelopment in the area of nuclear proliferationthe US needs to take a substantive step in thedirection of nuclear disarmament. Ultimately,this approach effectively assumes that thepossession of nuclear arms by the US (andRussia) is the incentive driving other nations topursue nuclear weapons programs so as to beable to deter the United States. Not only is theassumption misplaced, but the policy willundermine deterrence and increase the likelihoodof the use of nuclear weapons. It is foolish forthe U.S. to take substantive steps toward nucleardisarmament at the same time the nuclearproliferation problem is growing worse. [1] TheUS should also not seek to improve relations bybribing them with New START at the cost ofdamaging US defence capabilities. [1] Spring,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newThe New STARTtreaty will help against Iran’s nuclearprogram. New START will help bolsterUS-Russian cooperation, which is necessary forsolving the problem of Iran’s nuclearproliferation. On Nov. 19, 2010, theAnti-Defamation League released a statement,which came from Robert G. Sugarman, ADLNational Chair, and Abraham H. Foxman, ADLNational Director: \"The severe damage thatcould be inflicted on that relationship by failing toratify the treaty would inevitably hampereffective American international leadership tostop the Iranian nuclear weapons program. TheIranian nuclear threat is the most seriousnational security issue facing the United States,Israel, and other allies in the Middle East. Whilesome Senators may have legitimate reservationsabout the New START treaty or its protocol, webelieve the interest of our greater and commongoal of preventing Iran from developing nuclear", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newNew START willcause American missile and nuclear capabilitiesto atrophy, not to be maintained. This is becauseit locks the US in to agreements of defensivereductions which are tied into Russian offensivereductions. This could eventually leave the USbadly under-defended by its missile systemswhen compared against the offensive capabilitiesof other nuclear states. Moreover, New STARTleaves in place the pre-existing Russian tacticalnuclear advantage harming US capabilities bycomparison. [1] Overall New START hams USmissile and nuclear capabilities, and furtheradvantages Russia and other nuclear powers,and so should not be supported. As Mitt Romneyargued in 2010: \"Does New START limitAmerica’s options for missile defense? Yes. Forthe first time, we would agree to aninterrelationship between strategic offensiveweapons and missile defense. Moreover, Russiaalready asserts that the document would", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newThe New STARTtreaty will make for a safer world. Reducing USand Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles makesfor a safer world, as Dr. David Gushee states:\"The issue on the table is a nuclear armsreduction and verification treaty between theUnited States and Russia. The treaty, called NewSTART, would reduce Russian and Americandeployed nuclear weapons to 1,550 and deliveryvehicles to 700 each. This would be a 33 percentreduction in the existing arsenals, which is worthachieving and celebrating even as we know thatcountless cities and millions of precious humanbeings could be destroyed by the use of evenpart of the remaining arsenals. Still, thesereductions would be a great step on the way to asafer world, as would the re-establishment ofbilateral, intrusive verification measures for bothsides, also part of the treaty.\" [1] The world issimply a much less secure place without NewStart, and not just because New START means", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newNew START isabout national politics, not about the interests ofthe world or peace. As George Will argued in2010: \"The (Obama) administration's ardor forratification is understandable, as is Russia's. Thepresident needs a success somewhere; Russianeeds psychotherapy. It longs to be treated aswhat it no longer is, a superpower, and it likesthe treaty's asymmetries.\" [1] New START isabout serving these domestic political interests,not securing peace, which it will not achieve asthe inspections it puts in place are highly flawed,and there remains a high probability that Russiawill cheat on the treaty and augment its nuclearcapabilities regardless. All this treaty does isweaken the US, and a situation where one powerweakens and the other grows stronger is notgood for world peace. [1] Will, George.\"Obama's time-warp focus on the New STARTtreaty\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newThe New STARTtreaty maintains US nuclear and missiledefence. The US’ Nuclear armament will bemodernized along with New START. “The Obamaadministration has agreed to provide formodernization of the infrastructure essential tomaintaining our nuclear arsenal. Funding theseefforts has become part of the negotiations inthe ratification process. The administration hasput forth a 10-year plan to spend $84 billion onthe Energy Department's nuclear weaponscomplex. Much of the credit for getting theadministration to add $14 billion to the originallyproposed $70 billion for modernization goes toSen. Jon Kyl, the Arizona Republican who hasbeen vigilant in this effort. Implementing thismodernization program in a timely fashion wouldbe important in ensuring that our nuclear arsenalis maintained appropriately over the next decadeand beyond.” [1] Both US Military and civilianleaders insist that the new START treaty will still", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-con03b", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newAgreementsbetween the biggest nuclear powers are a goodstarting point towards disarmament. We cannotexpect countries with a very small number ofnuclear weapons to be disarming if the countriesthat have the vast majority of the world’s arsenalhave not already begun the process of getting ridof their own. Even the reductions in New STARTwill not bring either Russia or the United Statesanywhere near the level of any other nuclearpower whose nuclear weapons number in thehundreds not thousands. Both countries wouldneed to reduce a very long way before they losedeterrence against China, let alone North Korea.As former secretaries of state argue America has“long led the crucial fight to protect the UnitedStates against nuclear dangers… The world issafer today because of the decades-long effort toreduce its supply of nuclear weapons. As aresult, President Obama should remain similarlycourageous with New START.” [1] If linkage", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-con01b", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newMany of theworries about the impact of the treaty are muchmore of a political problem than problems withthe treaty itself. U.S. missile modernization inparticular is still up to the President andCongress to sort out the funding between them –the restrictions are minor. [1] Worries about theimpact on missile defense are also a red herring.Missile defense is not aimed at Russia and theUnited States simply needs to make sure that itsdefenses are obviously aimed at who it says theyare aimed at: rogue states such as Iran andNorth Korea. Regarding other defencecapabilities, the New START Treaty preservesAmerica’s ability to deploy effective missiledefenses, and simply prevents it from beingeffective enough to undermine deterrence,something which Russia would be right inworrying about if the United States had anyintention of building such a comprehensivemissile defence. The prohibition on converting", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-con02a", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newThe New STARTtreaty helps Russia more than the US Not onlydoes New START leave in place Russia’s extanttactical nuclear advantage but it has furtherloopholes for Russian weapons. As Mitt Romneyargued in 2010: \"Does the treaty provide gapingloopholes that Russia could use to escapenuclear weapon limits entirely? Yes. Forexample, multiple warhead missile bombers arecounted under the treaty as only one warhead.While we currently have more bombers than theRussians, they have embarked on new programsfor long-range bombers and for air-launchednuclear cruise missiles. Thus, it is no surprisethat Russia is happy to undercount missiles onbombers.\" [1] New START also fails to limitrail-mobile intercontinental ballistic missiles(ICBMs), which Russia could potentially makeuse of. The definition of rail-mobile ICBMlaunchers was established in the expired STARTas “an erector-launcher mechanism for launching", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-con04a", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newProblems withVerification. Verification is vital in anyagreement to limit arms. Both sides need to trusteach other a bit but a lot of this trust needs tocome from comprehensive mechanisms tomonitor and ensure that both sides are carryingout their commitments. If the verification systemis not good enough then neither side will havefaith in the agreement and will be more likely totry and bypass it. Unfortunately the expiredSTART’s verification regime was robust whencompared to that for the New START. BakerSpring at the Heritage foundation lists some ofthe specific areas that are significantly lessrobust: A narrowing of the requirements forexchanging telemetry (electronic transmissionsthat give details of missile performance thathelps give a good idea about whether Russia iscomplying with the treaty) , A reduction in theeffectiveness of the inspections (the Russiansfeel that inspections are unfairly biased against", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-con03a", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newThe New STARTtreaty sets a bad approach for a changingworld New START reduces US deterrence inworld that is arming, not disarming. The UnitedStates has relied on deterrence for sixty yearsand as a result has prevented war between thegreat powers. A US drawdown, especially asother new powers are arming, will underminedeterrence. This will then encourage rivals to tryto catch the United States while the reductionsshow that the United States is in decline.[1] While proponents of reducing nuclearweapons, or reaching global zero, argue thatpossession of nuclear weapons by the nuclearweapons states is the incentive behindproliferation, this is not true. The US hasconsistently taken leadership in the reduction ofnuclear arms through treaties but this has so farhad no effect in encouraging other nuclearpowers to reduce their arsenals and indeed newpowers have joined the club. Reducing nuclear", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-con01a", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newThe New STARTtreaty harms US nuclear capabilities As DavidGanz, the president of the Jewish Institute forNational Security Affairs (JINSA), argues: \"Thistreaty would restrain the development anddeployment of new nuclear weapons, missiledefense systems, and missile delivery systems.\"[1] The atrophying U.S. nuclear arsenal andweapons enterprise make reductions in the U.S.strategic nuclear arsenal even more dangerous.The new START treaty allows nuclearmodernization but while the US capacity tomodernize nuclear weapons is limited and eithercongress or the president is likely to preventmodernization on cost grounds. The Russianshave a large, if unknown, advantage over theUnited States in terms of nonstrategic,particularly tactical, and nuclear weapons. TheNew START treaty however ignores theseweapons entirely as it is focused on strategicarms. This therefore leaves the Russians with an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-con04b", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newThe verificationrequirements of New START have satisfied notonly the Obama Administration but also a largenumber of foreign policy experts. A panelincluding Henry Kissinger argues that NewSTART “emphasizes verification, providing avaluable window into Russia's nuclear arsenal.\"[1] Howard Baker argues that: \"PresidentReagan was famous for his adage about dealingwith the old Soviet Union: “Trust but verify.”Since the last START treaty expired in December2009, we’ve had no right to conduct inspectionsof Russian nuclear bases, and thus no way toverify what the Russians are doing with theirnuclear weapon systems. For us veterans of theCold War, that’s an alarming fact and acompelling reason to ratify this New STARTtreaty without further delay.\" [2] When theallegations are gone through individually they donot stand up to scrutiny. On the telemetry issuethe treaty does not limit throw-weight so the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-glilpdwhsn-con02b", "title": "", "text": "global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newThe New STARTtreaty does not help Russia more than it does theUnited States. Former Secretary of DefenseRobert Gates argued at the time the Russiansare currently “above the treaty limits. So theywill have to take down warheads.” [1] If therereally is undercounting of missiles on bombersthen it affects both sides equally – as Romneysays “While we currently have more bombersthan the Russians”, so this too should not be aworry. Russia does not currently deployrail-mobile ICBMs and neither does the UnitedStates, explain why the definitions are not there.However the State Department argues that “If aParty develops and deploys rail-mobile ICBMs,such missiles, their warheads, and theirlaunchers would be subject to the Treaty.” As thedefinitions of ICBM launchers would includethem. [2] Finally we should recognize that we donot know that Russia would have reduced itsbomber and missile forces without a new treaty,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseOther countries arehypocritical in expecting Africa to develop in asustainable way. Both the West and Chinasubstantially damaged their environments whilstdeveloping. During Britain’s industrial revolutionpollution led to poor air quality, resulting in thedeaths of 700 people in one week of 1873 [1] .That said, sustainable resource management hasbecome prominent in some African countries.Most countries in the South African DevelopmentCommunity (SADC) have laws which regulate theimpact that mining has on the environment,ensuring accountability for extractive processes.In South Africa, there must be an assessment ofpossible environmental impacts before miningbegins, then the company involved mustannounce how it plans to mitigate environmentaldamage [2] . In Namibia, there are conservationzones and communal forests where deforestationis restricted in order to prevent negativeenvironmental consequences [3] . [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseEnvironmentalDamage Both licit and illicit resource extractionhave caused ecological and environmentaldamage in Africa. The procurement of manynatural resources requires processes such asmining and deforestation, which are harmful tothe environment. Deforestation for accesspurposes, timber and cattle has led to around3.4 million hectares of woodland being destroyedbetween 2000 and 2010 and, in turn, soildegradation [1] . As Africa’s rainforest arenecessary for global ecological systems, this is asignificant loss. Mining and transportation alsocreate damage through pollution and thescarring of the landscape. Mining producesvarious harmful chemicals which contaminatewater and soil, a process which is worsened byillicit groups who cut corners to ensure higherprofits [2] . [1] Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United States ‘Worlddeforestation decreases, but remains in many", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseResources are not theproblem, bad management and agreements arethe problem here. The presence of Foreign DirectInvestment (FDI) in resource extraction can havea more positive impact than if it was absent. Thepresence of FDI is often associated withincreased bureaucracy efficiency and rule of law[1] . There have been attempts by Westerngovernments to curtail illicit transactions as well.In 2013, the British government spearheadedthe Extractive Industries Transparency Initiativeaimed at encouraging accountability from TNCs[2] . Governments control the resources; theysimply need to be more willing to fight, andprevent corruption, to get a better deal. [1]Bannerman,E. ‘Foreign Direct Investment andthe Natural Resource Curse’ Munich PersonalRePEc Archive 13 December 2007 [2]Duffield,A. ‘Botswana or Zimbabwe? ExploitingAfrica’s Resources Responsibly; Africa Portal 12December 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseResource abundancehas led to poor governance Corruption in Africangovernance is a common feature of Africangovernance [1] , with resources being a majorsource of exploitation by the political class.Natural resources are often controlled by thegovernment. As resources fund the government’sactions rather than tax, there is a decrease inaccountability to the citizenry which enables thegovernment to abuse its ownership of this landto make profit [2] . To benefit from resourcewealth, money from the exploitation of mineralwealth and other sources needs to be reinvestedin to the country’s economy and human capital[3] . Investing in infrastructure and educationcan encourage long term growth. However alarge amount of funds are pocketed by politiciansand bureaucrats instead, hindering growth [4] .Africa Progress Panel (APP) conducted a surveyon five mining deals between 2010 and 2012 inthe Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). They", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseResources don’t haveto mean poor governance. In 2013, attemptswere made to counter corruption, the G8 and EUhave both began work on initiatives to increasethe transparency of foreign firms extractingresources in Africa [1] . The Extractive IndustriesTransparency Initiative has been established inan attempt to improve governance on thecontinent by funding attempts to stem corruptionin member countries. The results of this latterinitiative has resulted in the recovery of ‘billionsof US$’ in Nigeria [2] . Other projects arecontinuing in other African countries with greathope of success. [1] Oxfam ‘Moves to tackleAfrica’s ‘resource curse’ reach turning point’ 23October 2013 [2] EITI ‘Impact of EITI in Africa:Stories from the ground’ 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseKleptocrats wish toincrease their personal wealth and power, andwill find a means to do so. To contribute powerover resources as the main motive is inaccurate,as noted by Charles Kenny in Foreign Policy; ‘Forevery Gen. Sani Abacha skimming billions offNigeria's oil wealth, there is a Field Marshal IdiAmin massacring Ugandans by the thousandswithout the aid or incentive of significant mineralresources’ [1] . There are many ways to increasepower, if mineral wealth isn’t available thenthey’ll find another way. [1] Kenny,C. ‘Is itreally true that underground riches lead toaboveground woes? No, not really.’ ForeignPolicy 6 December 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseForeign companiesgain most of the profits The majority ofinvestment in Africa by Trans NationalCompanies (TNCs) goes towards resourceextraction [1] . Many companies use transferpricing, tax avoidance and anonymous companyownership to increase profits at the expense ofresource abundant nations [2] . Productionsharing agreements, where companies andstates share in the profit of a venture, can oftenbenefit the former over the latter. In 2012Ugandan activists sued the government for onesuch deal where the country was to likely toreceive only half the profits rather than threequarters [3] . Kofi Annan, former United NationsSecurity General, has claimed that Africa’soutflow of funds by TNCs in the extractiveindustries is twice as high as inflows to thecontinent. Businesses such as Barclays havebeen criticised for their promotion of tax havensin Africa [4] . These allow TNCs to avoid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseResources are asource of conflict There is a strong connectionbetween the presence of natural resources andconflict within Africa. Natural resources,especially those with a high commodity pricesuch as diamonds, are a useful means of fundingrebellions and governments [1] . The 1991 civilwar in Sierra Leone became infamous for theblood diamonds which came from mines withforced slavery. These diamonds were used tofund the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) foreleven years, extending the blood-shed.Continued conflict in the Congo is also attributedto the control of mineral wealth [2] andexemplifies how resources have negativelyimpacted Africa. [1] Pandergast, 2008, [2]Kharlamov,I. ‘Africa’s “Resource Wars” AssumeEpidemic Proportions’ Global Research 24November 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseEmployment practicesare usually discriminatory against locals in Africa.Due to a lack of local technical expertise, firmsoften import professionals particularly for thehighest paid jobs. The presence of theseextractive industries can also disrupt localeconomies, causing an overall decrease inemployment by forcing the focus and fundingaway from other sectors [1] . Returning to theNigerian example, the oil industry directlydisrupted the agricultural industry, Nigeria’sbiggest employment sector, causing increasedjob losses [2] . [1] Collins,C. ‘In the excitementof discovering oil, East Africa should not neglectagriculture’ The East African 9 March 2013 [2]Adaramola,Z. ‘Nigeria: Naccima says oil sector iskilling economy’ 13 February 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseThe trade of naturalresources can be unreliable for African nations.Exports on the international market are subjectto changes in price, which can harm exportorientated countries should there be a decreasein value. The boom/bust cycle of oil has beenparticularly damaging. The drop of oil prices inthe 1980s had a significant impact on Africancountries which were exporting the commodity[1] . The boom/bust cycle of resource value hasimpaired, rather than inhibited, some states’debts. The price slump of copper in 2008severely damaged Zambia’s mineral orientatedeconomy, as FDI stopped and unemploymentrose [2] . This debt crisis had been created byanother slump in prices in the 1980s that forcedthe government to borrow to keep spending. [3]This demonstrates how international markets areunreliable as a sole source of income. [1]African Development Bank ‘African DevelopmentReport 2007’ pg.110 [2] Bova,E. ‘Copper Boom", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseBring Africa out ofpoverty The African continent has the highestrate of poverty in the world, with 40% ofsub-Saharan Africans living below the povertyline. Natural resources are a means of increasingthe quality of life and the standard of living aslong as revenues are reinvested into the poorestareas of society. There are 35 countries in Africawhich already conduct direct transfers ofresource dividends to the poor throughtechnology or in person [1] . In Malawi,£650,192.22 was given out in dividends to thepoorest in society ensuring that they were given$14 a month in 2013 [2] . This ensures thatthere is a large base of citizens profiting fromnatural resources which increases their incomeand, in turn, their Human Development Indexscores [3] . [1] Devarajan, S. ‘How Africa canextract big benefits for everyone from naturalresources’ in The Guardian 29/06/13 [2]Dzuwa,J. ‘Malawi: Zomba Rolls out Scial Cash", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseNatural resourcescreate employment The extraction of naturalresources creates the possibility of job creationwhich can strengthen African economies. Bothdomestic and foreign firms require man powerfor their operations, and they will often drawfrom the local labour force. Employment ensuresa better standard of living for the workers andinjects money in to the home economy leading togreater regional economic stability. In Nigeria,for example, the company Shell hires 6000employees and contractors, with 90% beingNigerian and at higher wages than the GDP percapita [1] . This would indicate that the presenceof natural resources is economicallystrengthening Africa. [1] Shell Nigeria ‘Shell at aglance’ date accessed 16 December 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseSource oftrade Natural resources are a source ofeconomic revenue for Africa. If managed wellthen this can become a genuine source ofprosperity. Africa does not currently havedeveloped secondary and tertiary sectors yet [1], most of the continent’s economics surroundsprimary sector activity such as resourceextraction and farming. The high commodityprice of items such as gold, diamonds anduranium is therefore valuable for Africa’s trade.Profits from this trade have allowed countries tostrengthen their economic position by reducingdebt and accumulating external reserves, aprime example of this being Nigeria. [1]Maritz,J. ‘Manufacturing: Can Africa become thenext China?’ How We Made Africa 24 May 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-sepiahbaaw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ss economic policy international africa housebelieves africans are worseDespite projects suchas direct dividends, the gap between rich andpoor is still worsened by natural resources.Investment from the profits of natural resourcesin human development is relatively low in Africa.In 2006, 29 of the 31 lowest scoring countriesfor HDI were in Africa, a symptom of lowre-investment rates [1] . Generally it is only theeconomic elite who benefit from any resourceextraction, and reinvestment rarely strays farfrom urban areas [2] . This increases regionaland class inequality, ensuring povertypersists. [1] African Development Bank ‘AfricanDevelopment Report 2007’ pg.110 [2] Ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersThe issue is notteachers or investment per se, rather thestructure of teaching used. The curriculum isfocused on passing exams to meet the MDGcriteria and get students to the next stage. Thereremains a need to incorporate the teaching of lifeskills for potential career options, andencouraging students to engage in innovativethinking and explore interests. UNICEF’sChild-Friendly Education approach is a clearexample, whereby the child’s need is the centralfocus. Technology is changing teaching, andteacher training needs to be less theoretical;more focused on the subjective needs of thechildren. Further, challenges to teacher trainingare prevalent. For example, not all schools aregovernment owned - with faith bodies, privatesector and NGOs establishing schools. Thediversity of ownership creates challenges forregulating training provided. By focusing onteaching curriculum the national government can", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersTeachertraining Investment is required in teachertraining to ensure quality control. Teachers needto be provided with qualifications and effectivetraining both technical and theoretical. Teachersneed to be introduced to methods on how tointeract with students, provoke student debates,and manage large classes. In-service trainingand pre-teaching training are key. Countriessuch as Uganda and Angola [1] have utilised onthe job training for teachers, with positive resultsfor teaching quality. In Uganda initiatives, suchas INSSTEP [2] , provided capacity training toteachers and headteachers. 14,000 secondaryschool teachers participated between1994-1999, followed by school inspections tomonitor capacity. The ‘mobile-caravan’ approachis making it easier, more feasible, and flexible, toprovide training [3] . Additionally, investors andnational governments need to provide Modelschools, indicating what responsibilities teachers", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersA positive interventionto tackle geographical disparities in education isby introducing long-distance learning. ICT andtechnology makes such a reality possible. Suchproposals require institutional change. Thecapacity of local, and regional, governmentbodies need to be built to enabledecentralisation. Community centres can be usedfor distance learning, forming schools that areadaptable to the needs of rural children andfamilies. However, for such proposals we need tofocus on decentralisation and ensuring goodgovernance amongst local and regional actors.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersSocial Policy:encouraging teaching careers UNESCO (2013)report the need for 6.8mn teachers by 2015 forthe right to primary education to be achieved.The teaching workforce requires includes bothreplacements and additional teachers. Africa hasa reality of low teacher-student ratios. In 2012,80 students were reported per teacher in theCentral African Republic (World Bank, 2013).Positive schemes are needed to incentivisepotential teachers to enter the profession andmeet demand. Careers can be encouragedthrough multiple paths. For example, providingincentives to study teaching as a profession.Tanzania’s Ministry of Education provides grantsto students entering University to studyteaching.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersFirstly, encouragingteaching as a employment path does not ensurecommitted or motivated teachers are gained.Secondly, the problem is advocating ‘universal’education when the infrastructure does notmatch. Low teacher ratios per student indicatethe need for new buildings, and bigger schools.Facilities need to be improved with space formore classes. Schools need to be designed toenable diverse learning - such as space for IT,games, and public discussions. The experienceof learning is broader, and goes beyond theclassroom. Good education is not solely relianton the teacher, but on what the student is ableto engage in and how they can learn to raise newideas and questions. Investment is thereforerequired in new schools and universities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersA key concern forgovernment’s education policy is ensuringefficiency in the allocation of resources.Investment is required in managementstructures - to ensure teachers accept the socialcontract of responsibility, and duty, to theservices provided and enable the efficientallocation of public resources. Weaknesses havebeen identified with regards to resources beinglost or misused in districts or schools. The risingcases of ‘Ghost teachers’ - teachers who are notreal but created to exist on paper - indicates thescope of chaotic management structures andpersistent corruption. Resources are being lostthrough cases of manipulation, whether byteachers or government officials embezzlingmoney. Reports from Sierre Leone, Uganda, andLibya, showcase the concerning reality [1] .Before higher wages can be provided, forgeriesneed to be resolved. A system needs to be builtwhich enables monitoring to ensure real teachers", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersIncentivising movementso there are teachers where they areneeded Although the extent of rural-urbandisparities remains debatable, geographicaldisparities in living standards and education arearticulated across Africa. The location, andprovision, of teachers does not always matchneed. In Uganda, the universalisation ofeducation has been met with inequities,regionally and across socioeconomic groups, inthe quality of education (Hedger et al, 2010).Incentives are required to deploy teachers todistricts according to need; and encourageteachers to relocate. For example, awards needto be provided for teachers to move to ruralareas, and the development of teacher housingschemes - providing teachers with houses in newlocations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersSocial Policy forsatisfied teachers The creation of national socialpolicies which provide secure, and stable, wagesfor teachers is fundamental. Social policy canmake satisfied teachers. A key concern amongstteachers is finance - inadequate wages andinsurance. Teacher wages is considerably lowerthan other formal professions - combining toenforce low morale and occupational motivationas pay is too low to sustain individuals andhouseholds (Bennell, 2004). In South Africa anaverage teaching salary is 19,535 ZAR incontrast to the 28,235 ZAR average granted inall jobs in South Africa (Salary Explorer,2013). Further, social policy is required tointroduce teacher pension schemes. Pensionschemes are provided for workers within theformal employment sector, by various publicorganisations - including the government andGEPF [1] . However, some national pensionschemes are more developed than others and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersFundamentally,structures cannot be changed withoutdevelopment. Human capital however, providesa means of development. Studies have shownthe positive role human capital - a compositemeasure of education and knowledge - has on anation’s development. The AfDB have shownthat enhanced human capital amongst Africa’syoung population is empowering change -promoting good governance and post-conflictrecovery; and intrinsic to economic growth(Diawara, 2011). In other words teachers needinvestment to educate the youths in order toovercome these barriers to universal education.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersA key concern inachieving the MDG is quality control - regulationis required to do so, and the standard of teachingneeds to be monitored; this cannot be done athome. Investing in teachers will ensure basicneeds are met. Teachers are the vital resourcesto transfer knowledge, and providing universalaccess to standardised education. Thus directinvestment is required in teachers for studentswell-being.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersColonial legacies: theissue of language A fundamental restriction toachieving universal education in several Africancountries is not teachers, as a resource, butrather the lack of a national language.Colonialism enforced national boundaries, ofwhich remain mismatched to ethnicity andlanguage. African nations remain some of themost diverse in the world. With the exception ofTanzania, whereby Julius Nyerere used policy tocreate a sense of national unity and language,many African nations placed minimal focus onnationalisation. Around 46 languages are spokenin Zambia. Such language diversities makeuniversal education difficult. Therefore,presidents such as Paul Kagame, have the rightapproach of enforcing a national language.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-con04a", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersThe MDG is thebarrier Significant progress has been made inmeeting the MDG in Africa, therefore criticismneeds to be raised on the MDG themselves. TheMDG are unrealistic, unfair, and the benchmarksset fail to acknowledge progress made (Easterly,2009). The barrier to achieving universaleducation is not a lack of investment, ratherinappropriate targets.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersThe complex controlsover enrolment Suggesting investments arerequired in teachers limits a recognition of themultiple forces creating barriers to achieve aright to education. Universal education isconstrained by political, socio-cultural, andeconomic, structures. Firstly, gender inequalitiesin education raise cultural norms of the role ofgirls in society, and within the domestic-sphereat home. Religious and cultural beliefs mean girlsaccount for 70% of children not attending school.Across Sub-Saharan Africa the economics of childmarriage often mean girls leave school orbecome reluctant to go to school. A positivecorrelation is found between low education andcountries with high rates of child marriage [1] .Niger has the highest rate of childmarriage. Secondly, poverty and hunger act askey restraints in achieving the target. AsMkandawire (2010) argues, development needsto be brought back onto the ‘pro-poor’ agenda.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersTeaching begins athome For the target of universal primaryeducation to be achieved we need to look beyonda narrow education policy. Programs are requiredto enable teaching at home. The benefits ofeducation need to be accessed nationwide; whichwill cumulatively encourage children to go toschool and participate to do their best. Forexample, by introducing adult training/educationcourses to parents and elderly populations,parents are able to assist children at home, andto recognise the benefits of gaining an education.Simply providing better teachers at school failsto recognise the importance of intra-householddecisions and life. For universal education thewhole population strata needs to be included;and adult courses provided on basic maths,english and science.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-con04b", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersCritiquing thefoundation of the MDG does not resolve thereality that around 56mn children are still unableto use their right to education (UN, 2013).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-atiahblit-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ary teaching international africa house believeslack investment teachersProposals for basingeducation, and teaching, on a universal languageraise criticism. Will students be able to ask forassistance at home and amongst theircommunity if the language taught is notunderstood? Does enforcing a national languagereturn to unequal relations of power - overridingthe history and ethnic diversity of said nation?Shouldn’t national governments be moresensitive to local communities and groupidentities? Finally, what language will be chosen,and how will the decision be made? Theimplementation of a national languageintroduces a risk of conflict in unstablecountries. It also needs to be remembered thata national language has to be taught; somethingwhich requires investment in teachers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldStates can get veryworked up about very small pieces of land. Sizeappears to matter little when the issue is one ofsovereignty. For that matter neither does theworth of the land or the population living on it. Agreat many of the world’s hot spots are oververy small areas of land often with small ornon-existent populations such as Gibraltar,Falklands, Senkaku, and the islands of the SouthChina Sea.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldSmall size makes forease The Seychelles, as with the other nationswhose very existence is threatened by climatechange, is small. It is twice the size ofWashington D.C., so smaller than many cities. Assuch finding enough land to relocate the countryshould not be a problem. Several of the statesclosest to the Seychelles; Kenya, Tanzania,Somalia, and Madagascar, have plenty of landthat they could give up without anyinconvenience to their own state. Kenya, thesmallest, is more than 1200 times bigger thanSeychelles", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldShared sovereignty islikely to create problems in the future. No statewants to have another state controlling someaspects of its sovereignty and any deal theSeychelles entered into would be an unequal oneas the Seychelles would both be much smallerand be the state asking for help. If the host statefor example maintained control over nationaldefense what would there be to stop that countryessentially mounting a takeover of theSeychelles new territory in the future?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldMoving is animperative It is clear that if the Seychelleswishes to remain as a sovereign nation it willhave to relocate almost all of its population andit makes sense for this to be in one place sokeeping the nation together. The way to do thisis through purchasing land and sovereignty fromanother country that has land to spare. There isclearly little other choice and some of the smallisland states have already accepted this. Kiribatifor example has already bought land from Fijiwith the intent of using it as a last resort for itspeople. [1] [1] Yu, Bobby, ‘The Sinking Nationof Kiribati: The Lonely Stand AgainstStatelessness And Displacement from RisingOceans’, The Arizona Journal of EnvironmentalLaw & Policy, 11 January 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldUnlike the Maldives orKiribati the Seychelles will still have a smallamount of land. [1] The government couldestablish a permanent outpost even if it doeshave difficulties with water supplies. TheSeychelles would therefore be able to maintainsovereignty through this outpost much asmounting bases on small islets around the worldprovide sovereignty without acquiring newterritories elsewhere. [1] Conan, 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldThe suggestion thatthe polluter pays is in relation to the cleaning upof pollution and reduction of emissions nothelping those who are affected by theconsequences. Accepting an obligation to helpeveryone affected by climate change would meandeveloped nations taking on an immense burdenin terms of rebuilding lost homes and livelihoods.No government would make such a commitmentto any but its own citizens.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldShared sovereignty Ifthere are no countries willing to cede completesovereignty over territory then some kind ofshared sovereignty could be considered. “Thisconferred jurisdiction must include rights tobecome a citizen, migrate, work, access healthcare, and access social security.” [1] Additionallythere would almost certainly need to besovereignty over justice, law and order. Howeverthis would potentially leave large areas ofsovereignty in the remit of the host nation; suchas providing defense. The most notablecompromise by both might be to maintainsovereignty over people rather than justterritory. There have been suggestions such asby Krasner that shared sovereignty should beconsidered, and become much more normal. Andsome forms of shared sovereignty havehappened before such as foreign control oversome tax revenues, or the status of forcesagreements the USA had with Germany that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldOther nations have anobligation to help The President of Vanuatu hasnoted “If such a tragedy [the disappearance of astate] should happen, then the United Nationsand its members will have failed in their first andmost basic duty to a Member and its innocentpeople, as stated in Article 1 of the Charter ofthe United Nations.” [1] As long ago as 1992developed nations accepted “the responsibilitythat they bear in the international pursuit tosustainable development in view of the pressurestheir societies place on the global environmentand of the technologies and financial resourcesthey command” and that “polluter should, inprinciple, bear the cost of pollution”. [2] There isalso a Convention on the Reduction ofStatelessness in which article 10 demands thatany redrawing of borders must not render aperson stateless, the principle behind whichwould equally apply to a disappearing state. [3]The small island states are losing their countries", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-con03b", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldWhile this is technicallythe case, and indeed the Seychelles would evenmaintain some territory, it would not be a viablelong term option. While other countries wouldmaintain recognition of a territory-less state for awhile would they do so over the long term? TheSeychelles government would meanwhile haveimmense problems exercising any kind ofauthority. How would a state with no, or verylittle, territory collect any taxes? Without afunctioning government with revenues providingany of the services of a state to its citizens wouldbe impossible. Meanwhile its citizens would likelybe scattered and there would be a clash betweenany services offered by the state they arestaying in and a government in exile trying toexercise control.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-con01b", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldThe cost need not beborne by the state from which they Seychelles isgiven land; rather it could come from the fundsthat have been set up to help developing nationsadapt to climate change such as the AdaptationFund and the Green Climate Fund. [1] This wouldmean the money would be coming fromdeveloped countries that can easily afford thecosts of helping rebuild the lives of 90,000people not the country that provides theterritory. [1] ‘Finance’, unfccc.inc, accessed26/2/2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-con02a", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldNew countries forgedby those fleeing disaster There have been veryfew countries that have been created incircumstances that are at all similar to that whichwould happen when island nations are forced toabandon their homeland. The closest parallel isIsrael when Jews arrived en mass first becausethey were promised the land after WWI, when itis notable that they purchased the land theyoccupied, [1] and then after the disaster of theHolocaust. The Palestinians have not been happyabout the loss of territory. Indeed there havebeen few examples in history of peoples’ willinglygiving up land to a new arrival whether it is dueto colonialism or migration. The result, especiallyif sovereignty is involved, is usually conflict. [1]Pipes, Daniel, ‘Not Stealing Palestine, butPurchasing Israel’, National Review Online, 21June 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-con03a", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldCould retainsovereignty without acquiring newterritory While it is normal for states to haveexclusive sovereign control over territory this hasnot always happened in the past. There havebeen governments in exile that have remainedrecognised as a result of wars or revolutions.Most notable perhaps was during world war IIwhere there were governments in exile as aresult of invasions by Germany and Japan. Forexample Philippine President Quezon set up TheCommonwealth government in exile inWashington D.C. which remained the recognisedgovernment by the allies and therefore much ofthe world. [1] A state therefore does not have tohave control over a populated territory tomaintain a sovereign government and for theworld to recognise it as such. [2] Having apopulation on the territory over which the statehas sovereignty matters little; migrants don’talways change citizenship when they move to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-con01a", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldOther states would notwant to waste resources on a refugee state TheSeychelles are not a particularly rich place. Theirmain industries are tourism and tuna fishingaccounting for 32% of employment, [1] both ofwhich are unfortunately entirely dependent uponthe territory of the islands themselves andcannot be moved. The result is that theSeychelles have little to offer those states thatmight consider giving up territory. The countrywill therefore have difficulty rebuilding itseconomy and would likely be a drain upon itshost making countries unwilling to take on thecommitment. [1] The World Bank, ‘SeychellesOverview’, October 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-iwiaghbss-con02b", "title": "", "text": "imate water international africa global housebelieves seychelles shouldIsrael while it may bethe only obvious modern example is a terribleanalogy. The number of people from small islandstates is tiny compared to the number of Jewswishing to live in Israel/Palestine. Those from thesmall island state are unlikely ever to be in aposition to dictate terms to those who arealready living in the state so there will becooperation not conflict.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingBucking this trend ofincreased HDI figures are the states who arecurrently witnessing, or have recentlyexperienced, armed conflict. Africa has observedmany well-known and lesser known conflictswhich have damaged infrastructure and made itsignificantly harder for local populations toaccess key services such as schools andhealthcare. Five of seven countries with thepoorest nutritional scores are African and haverecently emerged from armed conflict [1] , theyare also rated as some of the poorest countriesin the world. [1] Smith, ‘Africa is not rising’,2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingHuman developmentindicators have significantly improved in recentyears. Human development index (HDI)indicators are used to assess levels of lifeexpectancy, education and income indicesthroughout the world. The majority of Africanstates have seen an improvement in thesescores since 2001, and are predicted to continuethis trend. Some African states, such Seychelles,Libya and Tunisia, are in the ‘High HumanDevelopment’ category and are positioned in thetop 100 for HDI indicators, an improvement from1990 [1] . Life expectancy has increased by 10%on the continent and infant mortality hasdecreased as well, thanks to the greateravailability of mosquito nets and the attentiongiven to HIV/AIDS [2] . Education is seen as acornerstone to growth as it allows the quickerattainment of the skills required forknowledge-intensive industries (such asagriculture and services), which will in turn lead", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingFDI increases have notbeen universal in Africa. Both Southern andWestern Africa have witnessed decreased levelsof FDI in 2012 [1] . South Africa, whilst beingwell known for fluctuating levels of investment,saw a decrease of 24% in 2012 and Angola sawa decrease of $6.9 billion of FDI. Furthermore,companies have attempted to avoid tax whilstoperating African countries, as the Barclays taxhaven scheme has demonstrated [2] . FDI is alsodependant on the condition of other economies.During the global recession, which began in2008, there was a notable dip in investment andFDI has not fully recovered yet [3] . In additionto this, there is no guarantee that FDI will createemployment. This suggests that the future ofFDI, and the improvements that can be made toAfrican infrastructure and employment levels asa result, are unstable to say the least. [1]UNCTAD, ‘Foreign Direct Investment to Africaincreases’, 2013 [2] Provost, ‘Row as Barclays", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingAfrica’s Economies aregrowing rapidly Africa has recently experiencedsome of the most significant economic growth inthe world. Amongst the top ten growingeconomies in the world are five Africancountries; The Gambia, Libya, Mozambique,Sierra Leone, and South Sudan [1] . The latter,South Sudan, witnessed GDP growth of 32% in2013. Other economies in Africa are also doingexceptionally well, such as Ethiopia and Ghana.As ever, natural resources are a key export forthese countries. Recent investments from Chinain exchange for Africa’s abundant naturalresources have enabled many African countriesto develop at a significantly faster rate, withtrade between the continent and Chinaincreasing by $155 billion [2] . All of this hascontributed to an average GDP growth of 4.8%in the past ten years. There is a rapidlyexpanding middle-class and it is predicted thatby 2015 there will be over 100 million Africans", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingWhilst there has beensignificant economic growth in many Africancountries, the majority of people are not seeingthe benefits. Despite some success stories, suchas Folorunsho Alakija becoming richer thanOprah [1] , most Africans have not benefittedfrom economic growth. Afrobarometer conducteda survey of 34 African countries between 2011and 2013 [2] . They found that 53% found theireconomic situation to be either ‘fairly’ or ‘verybad’. Only one third of respondents believed thattheir national economy had improved in the pastyear. Statistics like these demonstrate that mostare seeing no improvement in their lives despitecurrent levels of national economic growth. Thefinite nature of many of the resources being soldby Africa means that the current levels of tradecannot be maintained forever, calling Africa’sfuture economic growth in to question. [1]Gesinde, ‘How Alakija’s wealth grew’, 2013 [2]Hoffmeyr, ‘Africa Rising?’, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingInternet use is stillvery low in Africa, only 16% regularly access theinternet. Some areas lag far more than others aswell, highlighting regional disparity and the rolethat has on the economy. While East Africabenefits from large-scale mobile phoneownership, a money transfer system M-Pesa hastransactions of $1 billion per month, other areassuch as West Africa have failed to do the same[1] . This has led to a potential loss of businessfor the region’s population who requirecommunications for their farms andbusinesses. [1] Felix, ‘Insight’, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingForeign DirectInvestment to the continent hasincreased Foreign investment into Africa hasseen a large increase in recent years, which hasenabled Africa to invest significant amounts offunding in to infrastructure, jobs creation andacquisition of technology [1] . In Kenya, Ugandaand Tanzania, foreign businesses account for amuch larger percentage of employment than anydomestic firm, hence increasing the standard ofliving for a greater number of people [2] . FDIhas gone from $15 billion in 2002 to $37 billionin 2006 and $46 billion in 2012. The vastmajority of this investment is based onextractive industries such as agriculture and rawresources. However, Africa has recently seen anincrease in FDI for manufacturing and services aswell [3] . Central Africa alone received $10 billionin 2012-3, due to an increased interest in theDRC’s copper-cobalt mines. The sources of thisFDI vary, but China has become the major", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingGreater Access toTechnology Proponents of this view claim thatthe traditional image of ‘Dark Africa’ is becomingoutdated in the light of greater access totechnology. Due to poor infrastructure, mobilecommunications have had a transformativeimpact on African life. In the past decade therehas been a notable increase in mobile phoneownership, with the trend set to continue. Thereare over 600 million mobile phone users inAfrica, which is more than in North America andEurope [1] . Mobile phones allow the use ofservices such as agro-info and mobile banking tofurther their businesses. It is thought that by2017, 30% of households will have a television intheir house. Household technologies becomingmore available have gone hand in hand with thedevelopment of more sophisticated farming andindustrial techniques. A recent Pan-Africanproject designed at improving legume technologyand enrich low-nitrogen soils has made it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingIn recent years therehas been a large amount of aid provided to Africafor the express purpose of climate changeadaption, demonstrating a growing awareness tothis issue. The UNEP claimed that between 2010and 2011 it provided several hundred milliondollars each year, with an unknown amountcoming from other development projects,directed towards climate change adaption [1] .While this does not cover future costs, it is astart. [1] Rowling, ‘Africa Faces Sharp Rise inClimate Adaption Costs – Unep’, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingFifteen out of thetwenty countries which have made the mostprogress towards completing the MDGs areAfrican states. According the UNDP the goals ofuniversal education, gender equality and theempowerment of women, combat HIV/AIDS, TBmalaria and other diseases and Globalpartnership are on track to being completed.While the other goals have not been completed,there is hope that they will be completed in time.The fact that the majority of states have made atleast some improvement on these goals is apositive in itself. They have attempted toimprove the quality of their populations’ lives,which has a positive impact upon theireconomies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingMajority of states arestill undemocratic While there is a lot ofcontention over government type, democracy isseen as an aspiration in Western eyes, andAfrican dictators have a history of running brutaland corrupt regimes. In Africa the majority ofstates are still dictatorships. Only 25 of the 55states are democratic, whilst the rest areauthoritarian or hybrid regimes. These dictatorsare commonly associated with poor governance,which in turn can affect economic growth. Recentpictures of Robert Mugabe and his team ofministers asleep at an African-Arab economicsummit demonstrate how little enthusiasm someof these leaders have for the progress of theircountry [1] . [1] Moyo, ‘Mugabe and hisministers sleep through economic summit’, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingWar and Civil unrestdisrupt development and economicgrowth Another major barrier to economicdevelopment in Africa is the regional instabilitycaused by the 23 wars and episodes of civilunrest. War is naturally a costly affair; the 2001conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea cost theformer $2.9 billion with extensive damage to itseconomic and social infrastructure. A BBC reportnoted that extra funding had to be diverted awayfrom development in order to meet the risingdemands of the war [1] . What makes Africa’ssituation far worse is the tendency of manyarmed groups to become bandits rather thanarmies with political objectives [2] . Theinclination for these armed groups to forsake anyideal of governing in favour of banditry and rapemakes them harder to negotiate as ‘legitimategrievances in these failed or failing African statesdeteriorate into rapacious, profit-orientatedbloodshed’ [3] . The constant disruption to the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingThe Continent is stillvulnerable to natural disasters A major roadblock to development and economic growth inAfrica is the prevalence of natural disasters.These disasters commonly affect the poorest andmost vulnerable in society, as they are often theones living in the ‘most exposed areas’, thuspreventing development [1] . In Somalia, forexample, the 2013 cyclone left tens of thousandshomeless in an already impoverished area,worsening their economic situation [2] . Dr TomMitchell from the Overseas DevelopmentInstitute has claimed that economic growthcannot occur until disaster risk managementbecomes central to social and economic policy[3] . Disaster management could cost too muchhowever. In November 2013, a United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP) reportdemonstrated that 2070 a total $350 billion perannum would be required to deal with thethreats presented by clime change such as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingMillenniumDevelopment Goals have not yet beenreached While the majority of Africangovernments have made efforts to reach theMillennium Development Goals (MDG), thedeadlines for achieving them are fastapproaching with little sign of complete success.The MDGs were established in 2000, and laid outa set of criteria which each country should aspireto in order to become developed. Thesedevelopment goals are essential for Africa to beable to effectively grow. The United NationsDevelopment Programme readily recognises thatthe eradication of hunger, reduction of childmortality, improvement of maternal health andensuring environmental sustainability are all offtrack in Africa [1] . Observing the causes of thisfailure, the inequality existing in Africa is blamedas a fundamental roadblock. [1] UNDP, ‘MDGProgress Reports – Africa’, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingDespite numerousongoing conflicts on the continent, there havebeen efforts to create an end to war. The numberof conflicts in Africa has decreased since its peakin the early 1990s [1] , and there is increasedoptimism with the resolution of the M23 rebellionin DR Congo which will hopefully bring Africa’smost devastating war to an end. There is adesire by many African states to end war in theregion, as illustrated by the African Union’s (AU)objective to end war on the continent by 2020[2] . Amongst other objectives, the AU hasstated that it wished to ‘address the root causesof conflicts including economic and socialdisparities’ [3] . African peacekeeping forceshave also become more prominent, with largecontingents in Mali and Somalia. As of December2013, the AU has begun preparations to send apeacekeeping force to the Central AfricanRepublic [4] , suggesting the AU will be proactivein preventing conflict on the Continent in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-segiahbarr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ss economy general international africa housebelieves africa really risingThe rise in the numberof democracies, and the Arab Spring movementin Northern Africa, demonstrates an increasingdedication to democracy. At the end of the coldwar there were only three democracies; the largenumber of regime changes show that Africangovernments are becoming more accountable tothe people that they are supposed to represent.Arguably, one of the main goals of the ArabSpring was to seek democracy and a greater sayin politics. This led to regime changes in Egypt,Libya and Tunisia with protests occurring in otherstates as well. In 2012 Egyptian President,Mohamed Morsi, announced laws that wouldmake him free from judicial review [1] . Theresulting protests saw him removed from power,demonstrating the continued desire fordemocracy in Northern Africa. [1] EgyptIndependent, ‘Morsy issues new constitutionaldeclaration’, 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandThe PRC does not ignorecountries that do not have diplomatic relationswith it. São Tomé is a case in point; PRC isopening a trade mission in the country despitenot change in diplomatic recognition. This is inpart because the Chinese are taking part in a$400million deep-water port development. [1]Not engaging in diplomatic relations with the PRCdoes not damage economic relations. [1] ‘Chinato open mission with tiny Sao Tome, despite itsTaiwan links’, Reuters, 14 November 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandEconomicallybeneficial Switching diplomatic recognition toChina can be economically beneficial. A countrythat changes recognition is both likely to begiven a reward for the change and then be muchcapable of engaging in joint economic projectswith the PRC. Malawi for example cut its ties withTaiwan at the end of 2007. PRC offered a$6billion financial package for the defection. [1]Malawi has since benefited from large amountsof Chinese investment; Chinese companies havebeen involved in building vital infrastructure suchas schools and roads, and even a new parliamentbuilding. [2] And trade between China andMalawi has been booming with growth of 25% in2010 alone. [3] Even the Chinese believe thatrecognition occurs as a result of the economicincentive the Chinese envoy to Malawi havingbeen quoted calling Malawi beggars. [4] [1]Hsu, Jenny W., ‘Malawi, Taiwan end 42-yearrelations’, Taipei Times, 15 January 2008, [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandWhile the PRC may havemore people the rights of its people to considerthemselves Chinese is clearly recognised theworld over. It is Taiwan however whose rightsare quashed by its lack of recognition; it canneither be recognised as China or exercise itsright to self-determination as Taiwan as Chinahas threatened invasion if it declaresindependence. [1] This would be unjust.Changing recognition to ensure ‘peace’ would notchange the Taiwanese position so rendering thechange meaningless. [1] Hutzler, Charles,‘China Threatens War Over Taiwan’, WashingtonPost, 21 February 2000,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandPRC is clearly the Chinathat matters The Chinese civil war is over, and itis clear that it is the People’s Republic that haswon. The 1992 consensus (though the term wascoined later) between Taiwan and the PRC is thatthere is “one China, Different Interpretations”about who controls that China. [1] If there isonly one China then it is clear which of the twoChina’s that one is. The PRC is 266 times largerthan RoC, has 58 times the population, and itseconomy is 13.7 times bigger (by purchasingpower parity). [2] States should be recognisingthe PRC as the “one China”. [1] Kan, Shirley A.,‘China/Taiwan: Evolution of the “One China”Policy – Key Statements from Washington,Beijing, and Taipei’, Congressional ResearchService, 26 August 2013, , p.47 [2] All figuresfrom The World Factbook, China and Taiwanpages ,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandThe PRC may be muchmore powerful, more populous, and bigger, butthat does not mean that it is the legitimategovernment of China. The decision to recogniseother countries is a matter for each governmentand should be based on their perception of thelegitimacy of the two contenders and their ownnational interests not comparisons between thetwo competing sides.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandSão Tomé is not a largecountry; it is unlikely to have interests that arethreatened by the kind of resolutions the UNSCmakes unless it is itself the subject. MoreoverBeijing has not let the lack of recognitionundermine relations with the remainingmembers; Beijing would not engage in actionsthat might create enmity that would then reducethe chances of a change in recognition.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandShould not ignore the willof 1.3billion A small African country should notignore one sixth of the world’s population. Torecognise a tiny country of 23million over one of1.3billion is being unjust to a huge portion ofhumanity. When there is such an imbalance inpopulation it is clear that the democratic path isto recognise the side with the greater population.When all the states that have recognised Taiwanfinally transfer recognition to the PRC Taiwanmay finally recognise that it would be best offreturning to China. By changing its recognitionSão Tomé and other small countries can do theirbit to ensure peace in East Asia.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandCannot avoid dealing witha UNSC member The PRC is a member of theUnited Nations Security Council and as such isone of the key members of the UN. It istherefore difficult for countries to avoid dealingwith it. The Pacific island of Tonga’s switchedrecognition because it feared the PRC would vetoits membership of the UN. [1] São Tomé isalready a member but that does not mean thePRC can’t cause problems in the internationalbody; it clearly has the ability to scupper anyinitiative São Tomé wishes to pursue. Similarly inother international institutions while the PRCdoes not wield as much power as it does in theUN it still has considerably more influence thanTaiwan; this includes over some organisationsthat provide aid such as the World Bank and IMF.São Tomé therefore must deal with the PRC, thisbeing the case it should not let recognition get inthe way. [1] Fossen, Anthony Van, ‘The Strugglefor Recognition: Diplomatic Competition between", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-con03b", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandChina is interested inAfrican states; for decades many African stateswere seen as ideological partners, and now theyare economic partners. [1] A President’s firstoverseas visit is always symbolic; President Xi’sfirs visit was a four country tour taking in Russiaand three African countries; Tanzania, SouthAfrica, and Republic of Congo. [2] This showshow important Africa is to Beijing. [1] Qichen,Qian, ‘Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy’,HarperCollins, 2006, Chapter 8 pp.191-230 [2]Forum on China-Africa Cooperation, ‘Africa:China's New President Concludes First ForeignVisit With Fruitful Results’, allAfrica, 1 April 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-con01b", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandDemocracy and historyhave little to do with recognition; PRC isrecognised by many democracies around theworld. The PRC is also on the side of formercolonies having itself suffered a ‘century ofhumiliation’. The PRC is an observer of the NonAligned Movement which contains almost allcountries that have been colonies. [1] [1] ‘TheNon-Aligned Movement: BackgroundInformation’, Government CommunicationsSouth Africa, 21 September 2001,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-con02a", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandThere is a truce in thediplomatic conflict There is a truce betweenTaipei and Beijing on the issue of recognition.Neither is currently aiming to poach countriesfrom the other. China has refused advances fromEl Salvador and Honduras that have said theywish to change their recognition to the PRC. [1]When Gambia terminated its ties with TaiwanHong Lei a spokesman for the PRC ForeignMinistry said “We learned the relevantinformation from the foreign media. Before that,China was not in contact with The Gambia.” [2]The truce has been maintained and Gambia hasbeen left essentially not recognising either China.[3] [1] Cole, J Michael, ‘Is China and Taiwan’sDiplomatic Truce Over?’, The Diplomat, 18November 2013, [2] Enav, Peter, ‘Beijing wasin dark about Gambia's broken ties with Taiwan:China official’, The China Post, 16 November2013, [3] Atkinson, Joel, ‘Gambia’s Break withTaiwan’, The Diplomat, 2 December 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-con03a", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandReceive much greaterinterest from Taiwan There are benefits to beingone of only twenty-two countries that recogniseanother country; you are lavished with attention.The President of the RoC visited São Tomé inJanuary 2014, [1] he was last intending to visitonly two years before but cancelled as PresidentManuel Pinto da Costa was overseas. [2] Visitsalso regularly go the other way; in a four monthperiod from October 2010 São Tomé’s President,Minister of Finance, and Prime Minister all madeseparate trips to Taiwan. [3] The PRC beingrecognised by many more countries could neverprovide the same level of attention. As one of thepoorest countries in the world without thequestion of recognition the PRC would havepractically no interest in such a small Africanstate. [1] ‘Ma vows to strengthen ROC-SaoTome relations’, Taiwan Today, 27 January2014, [2] Hsiu-chuan, Shih, ‘Ma’s trip canceleddue to scheduling conflict: Sao Tome’, Taipei", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-con01a", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandShould recognise ademocracy São Tomé is a multiparty democracyand has been since 1995 with free and fairelections. [1] The country is eleventh on theIbrahim Index of African Governance. [2] Itshould therefore be supporting its fellowdemocracy; Taiwan. As a country that was acolony of Portugal for five hundred years havingonly secured independence in 1975 São Toméshould not wish to support a country thatcolonises others such as Tibet and InnerMongolia, seeks to colonise Taiwan, and engagesin aggressive actions to seize small islands innearby seas. [1] Bureau of Democracy, HumanRights, and Labor, ‘Sao Tome and Principe’, U.S.Department of State, 2012, [2] ‘The IbrahimIndex of African Governance’, Mo IbrahimFoundation, accessed 10/2/2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-aahwstdrtfm-con02b", "title": "", "text": "africa asia house would sao tome drop relationstaiwan favour mainlandThat there is a truce atthe moment does not mean that diplomaticrelations with Taiwan should not be dropped.Taiwan is not China so Sao Tome should not berecognising Taiwan even if the PRC will notaccept recognition at the moment. The PRC isalso unlikely to keep the truce for long – anycountries changing diplomatic recognition will beable to formally recognise the PRC as soon as thePRC finds it politically expedient to needleTaiwan.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentThe proposition vastlyunderstates the negative impact a default has onthe local economy. It is unrealistic to compareGreece with Argentina. As a member of theEurozone, the developments within the Greekdebt crisis have a huge impact on nationssuffering from similar problems, as well as theEurozone as a whole. Moreover, devaluing theDrachma would be nowhere near as beneficial asthe proposition suggests. Greece is not rich innatural resources or industry and so boostingexports will not make a huge difference. Yes, adefault would resolve the uncertainty aboutwhether Greece will default and exit the Euro.However this new predictability would not begood; it would simply show investors that theycannot invest in Greece because they will losetheir money. Ratings agencies are unlikely toconsider Greece a safe investment for a longtime so there will not be internationalinvestment.[1] [1] Pappa, Eppi: “Q&A:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentDefaulting would bethe quickest route to economic recovery Underthe status quo, the Greek economy is onlyheaded in one direction: deeper recession. Thereare no signs of the situation changing any timesoon. Were the Greek Government to default onits debts, after a period of recession, conditionswould quickly be favourable for economic growthonce more. This is what was observed whenArgentina and other nations [1] recentlydefaulted and can be explained by many factors.Firstly, defaulting and exiting the Eurozonewould allow Greece to conduct monetary policymore freely: they would be able to quicklydevalue their currency in order to make Greekgoods and services more competitive on theinternational market. This would increase exportsand attract investment, as well as touristslooking for cheaper holidays – all of which wouldcontribute towards the rebuilding of the Greekeconomy. [2] Moreover, were Greece to default,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentGreece’s default willnot decrease uncertainty. If anything, theperceived risk of investing in other Eurozonemembers suffering from their own debt problemslike Italy, Spain, Portugal and Ireland wouldrocket sky-high. The Eurozone project as a wholemay struggle on with Germany trying to keep ittogether, but claiming that a Greek exit from theEurozone would restore stability is short-sighted.Many of Greece’s creditors are European banksand financial organisations. Greece’s defaultwould, therefore, be a heavy blow for many oftheir creditor companies who would be unlikelyto be willing to invest in other nations sufferingsimilar problems to Greece.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentThe current austeritymeasures are not working The Austeritymeasures put in place by the ECB, IMF andEuropean Commission have led to nothing butmisery for the Greek people. They have failed tocut down the total debt % GDP ratio and havealso failed to increase the competitiveness of theGreek economy. This is because raising taxesand slashing the minimum wage has sent theeconomy deeper and deeper into recession.Unemployment is at a record high of 21% andthere is a severe shortage of credit leading tosevere difficulties in companies financing theirday to day projects. What’s more, the countryitself is plunged into depression. Escalated(inevitably) by the local and international media,the climate is one of despair and investment is atthe bottom of anyone’s priorities. This furtherperpetuates the cycles of recession and preventsany of the austerity measures having theirdesired effect. Additionally, the drastic fall in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentThe proposition’sclaims that the austerity measures have totallyfailed are unfounded. Although it is true that thetotal debt % GDP ratio has not gone down, this isnot as serious as the prop make out. The budgetdeficit is the main problem that needs to comedown because a consistently high budget deficitis what will make the situation spiral out ofcontrol and make Greece default on its debts.There is nothing per se problematic with having alarge total debt (look at the USA’s total debt of$10 trillion, or Japan’s much higher debt to GDPratio of 230% which unlike in Greece has notresulted in high interest rates,[1] for example).The fact that Greece’s budget deficit has gonedown from 16% to 9% is an encouraging sign ofimprovement. In addition, the proposition arenot contentious in their claims about thenegative effects of austerity. What they havefailed to demonstrate, however, is whydefaulting is the only solution to the suffering", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentA Greek default wouldincrease stability for the rest of the Eurozone AGreek exit from the ‘Eurozone does not mean theend of the euro. It will, instead, mark a newbeginning. Germany has a long and proudtradition of currency strength, but it could notcope with going back to the deutschmarkbecause it would rocket in value and destroy thecountry's competitiveness. Some 97% of theEurozone's population will continue to use thesingle currency and their leaders will circle thepolicy wagons to protect what is left.’ [`] AGreek default and departure from the Eurozonewould decrease uncertainty and fear within therest of the Eurozone. This, in turn is likely toattract higher levels of investment andtransactions across Eurozone members. [1]Parsons, Nick: “Eurozone crisis: what if… Greeceleaves the single currency”, 14 May 2012, TheGuardian,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentThe situation inIreland, Italy, Spain and Portugal is not asextreme as that faced by Greece. It is thereforehighly unlikely that a Greek default would haveas severe a domino effect as the oppositionsuggests. Greece is the main source of politicaland economic uncertainty in the Eurozone, andtheir departure would ease the situation,facilitate investors and allow for the Eurozone torally strongly. [1] [1] Ruparel, Raoul andPersson, Mats: “Better off Out? The short-termoptions for Greece inside and outside of theeuro”, June 2012, Open Europe, 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentIt is not necessarilytrue that the whole banking sector in Greecewould collapse. Given that the default would beorderly and take place within the context of theEuropean Union, the ECB and EuropeanCommission would still provide substantialliquidity aid for Greek banks. Moreover it is nottrue that a devaluation of domestic currencynecessarily leads to high inflation – this was notthe case, for example, when Britain exited theEuropean Exchange-rate Mechanism in 1992 andpursued a devaluation policy of the BritishPound. [1] Lastly, evidence of recentgovernments that have defaulted suggests thateven though some of the harms the oppositionrefer to may actualise, recovery generally followsfairly quickly, as was the case with Argentina,South Korea and Indonesia. [2] [1] Ruparel,Raoul and Persson, Mats: “Better off Out? Theshort-term options for Greece inside and outsideof the euro”, June 2012, Open Europe, 2012 [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentDefaulting would notsolve Greece’s problems The proposition arguethat the hardship endured by the default wouldonly be temporary, but an analysis at theparticular situation facing Greece indicates theopposite. Greece’s problems arose from ahorrifically inefficient public sector embeddedwithin a mentality of corruption and tax evasion.Even if we assume that defaulting wouldeventually boost Greek exports and help theeconomy recover, this would not solve theunderlying problems that caused the crisis in thefirst place. By leaving the Eurozone anddefaulting, Greece would lose easy access toborrowing, meaning that taxpayers would soonhave to face the reality that they would have topay for the inefficiencies within the public sectorand support all the other structures that needreform. [1] Greece must, therefore, addressthese underlying issues or face the exact sameproblems in the future. Given that solving these", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-con04a", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentLeaving the Eurozonewould be detrimental for Greece in thelong-run. Even if the proposition are correct inclaiming defaulting and leaving the Eurozonewould stimulate growth in the Greek economy,such benefits are transitory whereas the benefitsof remaining in the Eurozone are permanent. [1]Having the Euro provides stability for the Greekeconomy – investors know that the currency willnot collapse, making their invested capitalworthless. The gravity of the outcomes of aGreek default cannot be known for sure, howeversome economists have even suggested thathyperinflation could occur – leading to disastrousconsequences for Greece. [2] Moreover, in thelong term, a single currency makes investmentand transactions with other Eurozone membersmuch more efficient and profitable. This isparticularly important given that the vastmajority of Greek trade is carried out with otherEuropean members. In light of these benefits, a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentA Greek default wouldhave a negative domino-effect on other Eurozonecountries. A Greek default will leave tremendousshockwaves across the Eurozone. Investors willinstantly become wary of default in Portugal,Spain, Italy or Ireland, particularly given thesudden nature of the Greek default.Consequently, huge volumes of capital will flowout of these countries and into other moresecure ones like Germany and the Netherlands.[1] This will, in turn, heighten speculation aboutthe danger of default of other Eurozone nations.Speculation of default is particularly dangerousbecause it drives demand for government bondsdown. This leads to the interest payments ongovernment bonds rising which in turn raises theinterest rates governments need to pay on theiroutstanding debt. The new, higher paymentsgovernments must make on their debt increasestheir budget deficit % GDP ratio, thus making itmore likely that the country will actually default.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentDefaulting wouldcause chaos in Greece There is no good solutionfor the crisis Greece finds itself in, only less badones. Austerity measures imposed on Greecemay currently be causing suffering, but austerityis the least bad option available for the Greekpeople: default would be considerably worse.Here is what would most likely happen: TheGreek banking sector would collapse [1]. A largeportion of the Greek debt is owed to Greek banksand companies, many of which would quickly gobankrupt when the Government defaults. This isalso because Greek banks are almost totallyreliant on the ECB for liquidity. [2] People wouldconsequently lose their savings, and credit wouldbe close to impossible to find. The Governmentwould quickly devalue the Drachma by at least50%. This will lead to imported goods beingmore expensive and consequently to a huge risein inflation with the living costs increasingtremendously.[3] These two events would lead", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-con04b", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentEven in thelong-term, continued Eurozone membership forGreece is not sustainable. The size of their totaldebt % GDP ratio is such that even if Greecewere to recover (eventually) with the currentausterity measures, Greece would always besusceptible to yet another debt crisis in the eventof a future global or European recession.Eurozone membership denies Greece fiscal andmonetary policy freedom required to faceeconomic shocks to prevent this from happening.We thus see that in the long-term growth ismore sustainable for Greece without the Euro.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ipecfiepg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ic policy eurozone crisis finance internationaleurope politics governmentIn receiving financialsupport from the ECB and European Commissionto prevent the escalation of a major bankingcollapse in Greece, the Greek Government wouldbe expected to continue with reforms of thepublic sector. What’s more, defaulting wouldgrant the Greek Government more time toimplement such reforms, making them morelikely to succeed and less painful on the Greekpopulous. The oppositions fears are, therefore,unfounded.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsWhile many thingsmay have eased up for a few years in the 2000sChina has since hardened its policies in manyareas rolling back progress. On the one childpolicy for example Zhang Feng, director of theprovincial population and family planningcommission, has said there would be \"no majoradjustments to the family planning policy withinfive years.\" [1] Meanwhile village elections havenever gone further than the villages and the oddtrial in townships and are still one party affairs.[2] When it comes to international affairs Chinais not using the veto any more than previouslybut its rise is no longer considered so peacefulafter a string of clashes with its neighbors,particularly on its sea borders such as the SouthChina Sea where Vietnamese vessels have beenharassed inside Vietnamese waters. [3] China isobviously not following a straight line towardspeaceful coexistence and democracy. The EUshould keep the arms ban to pressure China into", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsChina has changeda lot since Tiananmen China has changed overthe past two decades, becoming more open tothe world and more open domestically. Forexample it is experimenting with democraticelections at village level and since 1998 begunextending these to townships. [1] It has alsoeffectively scrapped the repressive one-childpolicy. Internationally China is a responsiblemember of the international community, asbefits a permanent member of the UN SecurityCouncil. At the United Nations, although itoccasionally abstains from votes, it very rarelythreatens to use its veto power in the SecurityCouncil, it has only used the veto six times since1971 when the PRC joined the UN [2] - unlikethe USA, for example. Its \"peaceful rise\" can alsobe seen in its hosting of the six-nation talks overNorth Korea's nuclear programme. And China isincreasingly willing to operate within regionaldiplomatic frameworks covering East Asia, SE", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsJust because otherswill sell if the EU does not is not a reason to liftthe arms ban. The EU’s weaponry is often moreadvanced than those produced by Russia andmay be originally built to fight alongside the USso potentially be more damaging US security. Itis also not always true that China can simply goand get high tech arms elsewhere. Under USpressure Israel said that it would allow U.S.officials to review weapons transactions somaking it much less likely to transfer the mosthigh tech weapons. [1] Russia is also unwilling tosell high tech weapons to China both because itfears their impact on the balance of power inNorth East Asia where China could potentially bea future threat to the Russian Far East andbecause China has often copied Russiantechnology and improved upon it resulting in lostbusiness in the long term. [2 ] [1] Wilson, Scott,‘Israel Set to End China Arms Deal Under U.S.Pressure’, 2005. [2] Weitz, Richard, ‘Why China", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsA code of conduct isneeded not a ban The current arms ban ispurely symbolic. China is already able to buy arange of military items from Europe ($555million worth in 2003) [1] and the USA, whichhas a similar \"ban\" on weapons sales to China.This is because the EU’s current ban is not legallybinding and it is up to each EU member to defineand implement the embargo meaning theembargo is not effective. [2] An arms ban istherefore a blunt instrument that does not work.Instead future sales should be regulated by atough EU code of conduct which preventsmilitary equipment being sold to any state whichmight use it for external aggression or internalrepression. Such a code of conduct for all armsexports has already existed since 1998. [3] Sucha code of conduct will be a much betterguarantee that China is not sold arms unless EUstates are sure they will not be misused. [1]Tkacik, ‘E.U. Leadership Finds Little Public", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsChina can’t beignored Europe has a developing strategicpartnership with China. China is Europe’s largesttrading partner with EU exports in goods of€113.1billiion and imports of €281.9billion and inservices of €20.2billion and €16.3billionrespectively, [1] and as China's rapid growthcontinues it is playing an increasingly importantpart in the global economy and in internationalaffairs. Clearly it is in the EU's interests to worktogether with this emerging superpower. MaZhaoxu a Foreign Ministry spokesman called it‘the obstacle to the sound growth of theChina-EU relationship,’ [2] after more thanfifteen years, it is time to lift it. China hasrepeatedly said that it will never enjoy a normaltrading relationship with the EU until the ban islifted. Europe’s first responsibility is to its owncitizens economic wellbeing which would benefitfrom greater trade ties between China and theEuropean Union. [1] European Commission,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsThe idea of a\"strategic partnership\" with China is both vagueand cause for concern. It is unclear what such apartnership would involve and questionablewhether it is desirable. On one hand, by liftingthe arms ban the EU will be showing that itfavours stability over democracy and profit overprinciple. Other repressive regimes and would-betyrants will surely take note. On the other hand itis unclear what actual harm there is to Europefrom keeping the ban in place. Despite Chineserhetoric about it damaging their tradingrelationship with the EU, it is not clear howEuropean states are disadvantaged compared toother countries, as mentioned China is the EU’slargest trade partner already. As a WTO memberChina is committed to further market openinganyway, [1] and as a member of the UN SecurityCouncil it is in its own interests to cooperate withothers for mutual benefit. [1] Kim, Ki Hee,‘China’s Entry Into WTO And Its Impact ON EU’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsA Ban that is notvery effective is better than no ban at all. Thatthe Chinese are so determined to get the banlifted shows that it does make a difference and istherefore worth keeping. Either way theEuropean Union should not give it up for nothing.Rather as the Danish lead opposition to liftingthe ban argues \"Any decision to lift the armsembargo must be linked to specific Chinese stepson human rights.\" [1] [1] EUobserver, ‘Leakedcable shows fragility of EU arms ban on China’,2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsCooperation hasvery little to do with influence in internationalaffairs, what matters is how aligned the nationalinterests of the two powers are. This is the casewith Russia and China where both want to bluntwestern power, prevent separatism, and endorsewhat Russia calls ‘sovereign democracy’ whichmeans a rejection of notions of universal humanrights. [1] The areas that the EU most wantsprogress on among the least likely for there to beChinese action without any kind of incentive.Lifting the ban will likely help with trade,something that China sees as being in itsinterest, but will make little difference to China’spolicies towards human rights and other areaswhere it considers any criticism to be outsideinterference. [1] Menon, Rajan, ‘TheChina-Russia Relationship’, 2009, pp.13-15.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsChina will simplyget similar products elsewhere In a globalmarketplace, if EU states don't sell China arms,others will. Russia and Israel [1] already sellChina much high-tech military material, between2001 and 2010 Russia sold over $16billion ofarms to China. [2] As Israel is a key Americanally, US criticism of Europe over lifting this ban isparticularly unfair. It is in Europe's economicinterest to gain part of the huge Chinese marketand so safeguard European jobs. And if Europeanarms industries cannot find export markets, theirproduction for domestic military forces is simplynot enough to support the cost of research anddevelopment, [3] so our indigenous arms sectormay collapse. [1] BBC News, ‘US ‘anger’ atIsrael weapons sale’, 2004. [2] Ottens, Nick,‘Russian Arms Sales to China Drying Up’,2010. [3] Ashbourne, Alex, ‘Opening the USDefence Market’, 2011, p1.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsCooperation is thebest way to gain influence Cooperating withChina is the best way to gain influence with theregime in order to promote democracy andhuman rights, engage it internationally, etc. TheChinese respond very badly to being publiclylectured or threatened, [1] but they will listen tothose friendly nations who have earned theirtrust in ways like these. China for example oftenfollows Russia, since the beginning of the 1990sits biggest arms supplier, when it comes tovoting in the United Nations Security Council.Thus both vetoed sanctions against Syria in 2011and shortly after Russia shifted its position tourging Assad to carry out reforms Chinafollowed. [2] The influence of the United Statesover other East Asian states in encouraging theirdemocratization also shows that friends canapply influence on issues such as human rightsas well as where interests coincide; The UnitedStates played a key role in sheparding Philippine", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-con03b", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsChina is makingprogress towards resolving many of its territorialdisputes. It has resolved it long disputed borderwith Russia and has also been resolvingterritorial disputes with its Central Asianneighbors on terms favorable to the CentralAsian powers, for example Tajikistan ceded only1,000km2 of the 28,000 that China claimed. [1]There are good reasons to believe that even ifBeijing is pulling its weight on the regional andworld stage it is not a threat to peace andstability. China’s booming economy relies ontrade, both when importing the necessary rawmaterials and exporting the finished productsaround the world. China’s trade was 44.2% ofGDP in 2009. [2] Any regional conflict evenagainst a much weaker neighbor would preventthis trade as there are many choke points suchas the straits of Malacca and cause immensedamage to the Chinese economy. [1]Ramachandran, Sudha, ‘China plays long game", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-con01b", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsThe arms ban is ananachronism - only China, Myanmar andZimbabwe are singled out by the EU in this wayfrom all the regimes in the world. [1] China istherefore right to call this policy as showing a“political prejudice against China” [2] as manyother nations have perpetrated similar humanrights violations. This is pointlessly offensive tothe Chinese government and people, who see itas political discrimination against them, and itshould be lifted. The new code of conduct shouldbe sufficient to prevent worries that Europeanweaponry will be used to repress demonstrationsas it prohibits exports where there is a “Risk thatexport would be used for internal repression orwhere the recipient country has engaged inserious violations of human rights”. [3] [1] BBCNews, ‘EU China arms ban ’to be lifted’’,2005. [2] Xinhua, ‘China calls for end to“prejudiced” EU arms embargo’, 2010. [3]Archick, Kristin, et al., ‘European Union’s Arms", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-con02a", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsPrevents acompetitor from building a high techmilitary The arms ban is very effective inpreventing the Chinese military gaining access tothe best modern technologies. A convincing codeof conduct has yet to be drawn up, but even if itlooks very tight, it has a major flaw. IndividualEU member states will be able to judge forthemselves whether a proposed arms salebreaks the code. Past experience suggests thatwhen exports are at stake, perhaps with the riskof job losses in an election year, then politiciansinterpret codes like this very loosely, so forexample despite this code UK arms exports mayhave been used in the conflict against the Tamilsin Sri Lanka. [1] This will be made worse by thethought of an EU state that if it refuses aparticular military sale to China, then anothermember state will be more flexible. This meansthat each individual member will make decisionsbased upon what is best for it individually and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-con05a", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsLifting the ban willdamage relations with the U.S. Even if it was inEurope's interest to sell arms to China, thedamage from upsetting the United States bylifting the arms ban would be much greater. Thisis partly because America takes the human rightssituation in China more seriously, but mostlybecause the USA has a major commitment to thefreedom of Taiwan. If China did attack the island,America would almost certainly intervene. As theUS State Department has said in relation tolifting the ban, \"We don't want to see a situationwhere American forces face Europeantechnologies.\" [1] Congress has alreadythreatened to restrict technology transfers toEurope if the ban is removed. [2] For fear of this,BAE Systems, one of Europe's largest defencefirms, has said that it would not sell to Chinaeven if the ban was lifted. [3] [1] Brinkley, Joel,‘Rice Sounds a Theme in Visit to BeijingProtestant Church’, 2005. [2] Archick, Kristin,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-con04a", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsThere is no reasonto strengthen China militarily Lifting the armsban will strengthen China militarily. The US fearsless the Chinese purchase of EU weaponry andarmour, than that the regime will get hold ofadvanced communications and control systems,as well as high-technology guidance systems,night-vision equipment, etc. [1] - all of whichwould make its existing military far moreeffective. Even if the EU is reluctant to sell suchmaterial to China, the possibility will give theChinese leverage in negotiations with existingsuppliers like Israel and Russia, who will feelunder more pressure to sell China their mostmodern technology. In time, China's ability to\"reverse engineer\" high-technology equipmentwill also boost their own military research anddevelopment programmes. [2] [1] Archick,Kristin, et al., ‘European Union’s Arms Embargoon China’, 2005, p16. [2] Page, Jeremy, ‘ChinaClones, Sells Russian Fighter Jets’, 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-con03a", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsChina is a threat toregional stability China poses a threat toregional and international peace and should notbe encouraged and helped by European armssales. It has territorial disputes with most of itsneighbours, particularly over oil and gas reservesin the South China Sea. The regime has alsoencouraged an assertive nationalism, damagingrelations with Japan, for example with protestsover the Japanese detention of a Chinesefisherman who rammed a Japanese coast guardboat. [1] Most seriously, China claims ownershipover Taiwan, [2] a pro-Western Chinesedemocracy, and is rapidly building up the kindsof military forces it would need for an assault onthat island, which it is now believed could betaken in as little as three days, [3] as well asstaging exercises designed to intimidate itspeople. In 2005 the Chinese parliament passed alaw that force should be used against Taiwan if itdeclared formal independence. [4] Quite apart", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-con05b", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsLifting the ban maybriefly result in condemnation from the UnitedStates but it is unlikely to damage relations overthe long term. The United States and Europe arestrong allies in NATO and both accept that fromtime to time one partner will do things the otherdoes not like.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-con01a", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsThe arms ban is stillnecessary The European Union should stick toits principles. The arms ban was imposed for areason - the massacre of students demonstratingfor democracy and openness in 1989. NothingChina has done since shows it regrets its savageactions in Tiananmen Square - indeed many ofthe demonstrators are still in prison today. [1] Ifthe ban is lifted, the EU will be implying that itshould never have placed the ban on arms salesin the first place, and signalling that China cando what it likes to its own people without fear ofEU objections. Indeed if there is an end to thearms ban, the next time that peacefuldemonstrators are attacked by the armed forcesin China, they may be able to do it withEuropean weapons. Overall, China's humanrights record is still very bad. It still hasn'tratified the International Covenant on Civil andPolitical Rights and is regularly criticised byAmnesty International [2] and Human Rights", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-con04b", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsLifting the arms banwill not strengthen China militarily. Not onlywould sales be restricted by the new code ofconduct, but China’s Ambassador to theEuropean Union has also clearly reiterated \"Wehave stated several times that we do not intendto buy European military equipment\" as \"Wecannot afford to buy such expensive weapons\".[1] Even if China was sold high-tech Europeanequipment, this could even be beneficial for theEU as it would make China dependent on the EUfor such items and make it less likely to pursueits own research and developmentprogrammes. [1] Rufino, Filipe and Vucheva,Elitsa, ‘EU Arms Embargo is ‘politicaldiscrimination, says Chinese Ambassador’, 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eghrhbeusli-con02b", "title": "", "text": "europe global human rights house believeseuropean union should lift itsChina is increasinglyable to develop its own high tech weapons so bycontinuing to have a ban in place will make verylittle difference to China’s capacity to build hightech weapons. This is shown by China’s unveilingof a prototype stealth fighter the J-20. [1] Evenif the code of conduct is not watertight neither isthe current arms ban as some weapons are stillsold in spite of the ban. [1] Foster, Peter, ‘Chinastealth fighter a ‘masterpiece’ of homegrowntechnology’, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionIt is not up tooutside powers to decide what is and what is notin the interest of any peoples but their own.While those attempting to circumvent censorshipmay see themselves as promoting some kind ofuniversal human rights in practice they arepushing their own notions on other peoples thatmay not share these ideals. This may be the caseeven when there are some in that start thatshare these ideas; thus for example while thereare dissidents in China that want democracy,most of the population is not particularlyconcerned with creating a more democraticsystem and in 2009 95.9% were satisfied withtheir government’s performance. [1] [1] Saich,Tony, “Chinese governance seen through thepeople’s eyes”, East Asia Forum, 24 July 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionIt is legitimate toundermine illegitimate governments to promotehuman rights Autocratic governments thatbreach their people’s human rights have nolegitimacy domestically as they do not representthe people or protect their interests. They alsohave no international legitimacy, as they areviolating their obligations that they have signedup to through various international agreementssuch as the universal declaration of human rights[1] and the international covenant on civil andpolitical rights [2] which oblige states to respecttheir citizen’s human rights. Other statestherefore are legitimate in acting for the peopleof the repressed state to undermine theirgovernment and take up their cause. Byimposing censorship the government is violatingits people's freedom of expression which thatgovernment has promised to uphold therefore itis right that other governments shouldendeavour to uphold that standard. It was", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionThe public arerarely interested in foreign policy and want tokeep well clear of foreign entanglements; theymay like the idea of promoting democracy but ifit means anything more than simple publicsupport then they shy away as shown by onlyaround 20-30% considering it a priority. [1]Undermining censorship may seem to be a cheapoption for governments but they then have toown the consequences; such as having to pay tobuild stability which may be much more costly.The American people may have supported theIraq war but they were against the immenseamounts of wealth that was spent to try to putthe country back together again. By underminingcensorship revolution is being promoted alongwith the damage and chaos this can bring so theresult may be a costly rebuilding process,possibly with troops on the ground. [1]“Historically, Public Has Given Low Priority toPromoting Democracy Overseas”, Pew Research", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionAdvancing nationalinterests A nation’s foreign policy should beprimarily concerned with advancing the nationalinterest. By the national interest we meanpromoting the interest of the nation as a wholerather than any of its subnational groups;whether this is building up the state's militarypower to protect its citizens through alliances ormilitary bases, benefiting the nation's economythrough trade deals, or encouraging the creationof friendly governments around the globe. [1]Circumventing censorship helps obtain this lastobjective for democracies by encouragingpeoples in autocracies to find their own voice andpush for democracy; a system of governmentthat is more compatible to other democracies.Ultimately this will also provide other benefits;friendly governments with similar politicalsystems are more likely to create tradeagreements with each other so providingeconomic benefits, in the 1990s the volume of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionThere is littlecertainty that undermining an autocracy willbenefit the countries that undermine it. No statecan full control what goes on in another state; aneven more oppressive regime could be theresult. Even if there is a transition to ademocracy this does not mean it will benefitthose who wanted change. This is becausedemocratic governments have to take account ofthe desires of their own people which may notalways be in alignment with the interests of theforeign powers that supported political change.Thus while it would seem that the United States,as a democracy, should be naturally inclined tosupport a democratic government in Egypt inpractice Mubarak operated more in line with USinterests by keeping the peace with Israel thatthe Muslim brotherhood threatens to disrupt.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionAs foreign statesare not the legitimate representative of thepeople it is not legitimate for them to setthemselves up as the arbiter for those whom itbelieves are being deprived of rights. Thesestates that are meddling in the affairs of otherscannot know the full consequences of theiractions; circumventing censorship could end upsimply undermining a stable state withoutenabling anything to replace it. This is just as theArab Spring has undermined the Syriangovernment but has only resulted in a conflictnot the creation of a stable democracy. Countriesthat undermined the Syrian government cannotsay that their contribution has been positivewhen there have been 70,000 killed [1] as aresult of the collapse of the state. [1] Nichols,Michelle, “Syria death toll likely near 70,000,says U.N. rights chief”, Reuters, 12 February2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionIt is domestic notinternational legitimacy that matters Whatmatters for a state when it comes to foreignpolicy, and therefore with helping to circumventcensorship, is whether the policy is consideredlegitimate domestically. Since a government'slegitimacy is domestically derived from thesupport of its people if they support the policythen it is legitimate. While it is often notconsidered a top priority people in democraciesusually support promoting human rights andspreading democracy around the world. [1] [1]Stevenson, Kirsten, “Strong support fordemocracy promotion in national opinion ballot”,Foreign Policy Association, 23 October 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionIt is legitimate toenable freedom Circumventing censorship is acost effective method of promoting freedom.When a country has refused to recognise theright to freedom of expression of its own peopleand indeed is actively stopping them fromexercising this right then it is legitimate for othercountries to step in to act as an enabler of thoserights. By circumventing censorship so thefreedom of expression is returned to those thathave had their voice stripped from them. Doingthis costs the state that is acting almost nothing;thus Britain’s Foreign Office is devoting a mere£1.5million to promoting expression online, [1]and yet the benefits for those who it helps can beconsiderable by helping them to publicise andorganise themselves by providing a platform.The small cost should be compared to the benefitof keeping activists one step ahead of theauthorities by, for example providing softwarethat helps make sure online communication is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionIf a regime is sointolerant as to threaten its citizens for usinglines of communication that have been openedby another country then that country is clearly inneed of greater openness towards freedom ofexpression and information. This is somethingthat undermining censorship achieves. Clearly ina few cases the attempt to circumventcensorship may be used by the government butthe creation of the path to circumvent censorshipalone shows that foreign governments arewatching. Even the most repressive regimes areless likely to use force when they know theoutside world is watching.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionProclamations thatthere can be no interference in another state aresimply attempts by elites to cling on to power bypreventing any help reaching those campaigningfor democracy. These declarations, even the UNCharter, are negotiated, written, and signed bythe leaders of governments not their people sofavour those who are already in power.Something cannot be considered illegitimate justbecause it is supported by the status quo.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionGovernmentsenable censorship to protect their citizens Whatcensorship is it legitimate to undermine?Censorship is often created in order to protectthe people not to strip them of freedoms. This ismost obvious when we consider that filters toprevent hate speech or child pornography areforms of censorship that may be enabled withthe intention of protecting citizens not repressingthem. Iceland for example has recently decidedto ban pornography and it would be enabled in asimilar way to censorship by regimes like Chinaor Iran. [1] Even harsher censorship thatnaturally looks more repressive to us may beconsidered a legitimate means of protecting thepeople and their values. When a government isusing censorship to ensure stability is thatcensorship not justified when compared to thealternative? While there may be divisionsinternally about the legitimacy of this censorshipit is certainly not legitimate for outside actors to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-con04a", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionAggressive foreignpolicy is not legitimate foreign policy Foreignpolicy is legitimate when it is peaceful and basedupon mutual respect. It is no surprise that themost controversial foreign policy actions arethose that are aggressive whether this isinvading another state such as the Iraq war,attempting humanitarian intervention as inKosovo, or engaging in clandestine actions suchas Iran-Contra. This is because there is apowerful norm against aggressive action ininternational relations in order to maintainstability. Undermining states by circumventingcensorship is simply a new method of engagingin aggressive actions against another state.NATO has accepted that cyber operations can beconsidered to constitute an armed conflict, [1] soit is increasingly accepted that actions on theinternet can be aggressive action. Indeed “Ifsuch cyber operations are intended to coerce thegovernment… the operation may constitute a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionThis policy is notnecessary and may be counterproductive Unlessa state wishes to pull the plug on the internetentirely state censorship on the internet is nevercomplete. Dissidents and those who areinterested in getting around censorship willmanage with or without help from othergovernments, they will use privately developedsoftware, or proxies to get around censors andprotect themselves. Having help from foreigngovernments to bypass censorship may even putthe people this policy is trying to empower in aneven worse position. The use of software that ismeant to undermine censorship helps to provethat the dissident’s intent is hostile towards thegovernment and the state’s policies – otherwisethey would not need to software, and would notresort to using methods developed by foreigncountries. Russia is increasingly cracking downon those who have contact or receive help from‘foreign agents’ particularly foreign NGOs, such a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionThe internationalsystem is based on equality andnon-interference Relations between states arebased upon “the principle of the sovereignequality of all its Members.” The UN Charteremphasises “Nothing contained in the presentCharter shall authorize the United Nations tointervene in matters which are essentially withinthe domestic jurisdiction of any state”. [1] Withina state only the government is legitimate as thesupreme authority within its territory. [2]Without such rules the bigger, richer, stateswould be able to pray on the weaker ones. Thiscannot simply be put aside because one statedoes not like how the other state runs its owninternal affairs. The United Nations has gone sofar as to explicitly state “all peoples have theright, freely and without external interference, todetermine their political status and to pursuetheir economic, social and cultural development.”[3] Circumventing censorship would clearly be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-con04b", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionThe NATO manualdoes specifically state “network intrusions, thedeletion or destruction of data… computernetwork exploitation, and data theft do notamount to a non-international armed conflict.”[1] Instead it has to be persistent, and be carriedout by organised armed groups; likely notcriteria that would be ever satisfied byundermining censorship. [1] Schmitt, MichaelN., ed., “The Tallinn Manual on the InternationalLaw Applicable to Cyber Warfare”, CambridgeUniversity Press, 2013, pp.87-88.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-gsciidffe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "global science censorship ip internet digitalfreedoms freedom expressionGovernments donot have a monopoly on the knowledge of whatis best for their people and even the people maythemselves make a mistake when deciding onwhether to be an open society. Thus even if itappears that many people support censorship itmay be legitimate to undermine it. In particularis people have never had a chance to experiencelife without that censorship how can they beconsidered to be making an informed choicewhen deciding to live with censorship?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eiahwpamu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "e international africa house would provide accessmicrofinance unbankedOne of the key benefitshighlighted about Oxfam’s Saving for ChangeInitiative is the empowerment provided forwomen. Women are argued to be moreindependent, able to organise withincommunities, and provided with a voice ofpower. However, are women empowered? In thecases of microfinance in Cameroon, Mayoux(2001) highlights the inequalities operatingwithin community groups. The message is wecannot rely on communities, and social capital,for empowerment as women within suchcommunities have different relations to power.The ability for women to use savings and creditfor self-empowerment is limited by wider,traditional, gender inequalities. Microfinance mayact to reinforce unequal power relations andpositions within society. Furthermore, women’sempowerment needs to be understood ascomplex. [1] Real, and strategic, empowermentfor women goes beyond increased access to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eiahwpamu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "e international africa house would provide accessmicrofinance unbankedCan we rely on businessto solve social problems? Ultimately the modelproposed through microfinance schemes is thecreation of a consumer market where risks arealready high. This has shown to be one of thekey factors of microfinance failing in South Africa(Bateman, 2013). The microcredit providedacross South Africa, post-apartheid, aimed tosolve social problems - however, it has acted tosupport risky consumption not investment. Witha lack of secure incomes, due to high levels ofunemployment, underemployment, and informalemployment, the rate of repayment is low.Households have been forced into severe povertyby being provided with credit which they can’tpay back. Even among those who do invest howmany of their business ideas will succeed?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eiahwpamu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "e international africa house would provide accessmicrofinance unbankedThe provision ofmicrofinance within livelihoods is based on apositive view of social capital [1] and cohesion.The idea relies upon a perception whereby socialnetworks within the community are able topositively organise funds and remain democraticin how they manage poverty. It fails toacknowledge negative aspects of social capital -such as how networks can act to exclude andrestrict who becomes a part of the scheme. Civilsociety is not without internal politics, withcompeting interests, and can beuncooperative. [1] Social capital represents therelationships and linkages between peopleand/or groups, of which are formulated withrules and norms. See further readings:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eiahwpamu-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "e international africa house would provide accessmicrofinance unbankedLoans provided areembedded with conditions, which can constrainwhat an individual can do with the money. Amicrofinance loan is still a loan, it needs to bepaid back, if someone is in poor health for a longperiod they will run into difficulty. Can savingschemes enable social protection in the longterm when the amount saved is just enough tocover one sick person? We need to realisticallyevaluate what the loan enables, provides, andhow long for. To provide real health security amuch more comprehensive finance system isneeded, such as insurance", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eiahwpamu-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "e international africa house would provide accessmicrofinance unbankedThere is a need toreinvigorate Africa’s agricultural system;however, the ability for microfinance to do this isdebatable. The distribution of loans is notnecessarily adequate or responsive to the need.The loans provided need to be able to providesecurity and protection in the face ofenvironmental crisis. There are some thingsmicrofinance can’t solve; more variable rains anddesertification for example. Loans can only beprovided if the risks are known and the risks aregetting higher so too will be the costs ofloans. Additionally, multiple factors areresponsible for Africa’s agrarian crisis. The lackof an agriculture marketing board for farmers tocontrol price, insufficient infrastructure, and thelegacies of structural adjustment, all act toconstrain the agricultural system.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eiahwpamu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "e international africa house would provide accessmicrofinance unbankedAfrica’s microfinanceschemes can be different, and are fundamentallydifferent. Across Africa there is a history ofinformal lending. Microfinance is not new, butrather embedded in traditional practices. Thismeans communities are aware of the obligations,rules, and practice of microfinance. Additionally,the path taken by microfinance lenders showsstricter controls are being taken to ensure thatthe loans are not subprime. In a bid to ensurethe safety of the poor the Bank of Ghana has setup minimum capital requirements for theborrower and new regulations to ensuremoney-lent is repayable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eiahwpamu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "e international africa house would provide accessmicrofinance unbankedAll policies have barriersand potential disadvantages and for a scheme tobe rolled out the advantages must outweigh thecosts. In the case of microfinance advantagesare higher. Microfinance has a low cost forimplementation, and can therefore be distributednationwide. Rolling out microfinance schemesmeans a majority of the population will becomeable to access vital services through a flexibleloan. Microfinance not being able to reacheveryone is not a reason to enable it for those itcan reach. If bad governance preventssustainability then something needs to be doneabout governance – it does not invalidatemicrofinance as a concept. And all those involvedin supply do have close enough objectives to runthe scheme there simply needs to becompromises to ensure they remain the same.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-eiahwpamu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "e international africa house would provide accessmicrofinance unbankedMicrofinance does nothave to be short term financing. Because it is acommunity based loan that is based on trust ifthose wanting the loan can explain why theywant a loan over the longer term then it ispossible to get longer loans. Moreover long terminvestment should not be something those whoare struggling day to day have to think about;such investments as education should be madeby the government not relying on individuals torealise their long term interests. No one wouldargue that microfinance is the solution to a pooreducation system.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-emephsate-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "europe middle east politics house supportsadmission turkey euTurkey today only has 3% ofits total territory located on the Europeancontinent making it dubious that it counts asEuropean geographically [1] . The core of Turkeyis located geographically in Asia Minor. Turkishculture has little connection with the cultures ofthe other members of the European Union. Thisis a result of its culture deriving from a traditionas an Islamic state whereas the members of theEuropean Union all have histories as Christianstates meaning there are less shared valuesbetween Turkey and EU members than EUmembers have between themselves. [1]Geography of Turkey. Wikipedia. Accessed on:September 3, 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-emephsate-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "europe middle east politics house supportsadmission turkey euTurkey is actually part of theEuropean continent both geographically andhistorically. Geographically, Turkey is astride thedivide between Europe and Asia, it isuncontestable that Turkey is in part a Europeancountry and so has the right to become amember of the European Union. Turkey’s biggestcity, Istanbul, is located within Europe. One ofthe core values of the EU stands as “everycountry on the European continent after havingcompleted all the necessary preparations has theright to join the EU’’ [1] . Furthermore, Turkeyand its predecessors, the Ottoman Empire andByzantine Empire were major European andWorld powers from the end of the Roman Empireuntil the breakdown of the World War I. TheOttoman Empire took part in the Europeanstate’s system from its birth even if as in someways an outsider, until the end of the eighteenthcentury Turkey was considered to be much morea part of the European system than Russia. [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-emephsate-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "europe middle east politics house supportsadmission turkey euFalse, the EU values arepresent in Greece for more than three decades,but problems related with their traditional way oflife are persisting more and more, knowing thefact that Greece and Turkey are sharing more orless the same cultural values. Not even tomention the cases of Bulgaria and Romaniawhich have not changed in any way, surprisinglythey are getting even worse than before. Byciting the examples of how the European valueswill attain as far as Iran, Iraq and Syria, theargument is clearly saying that Turkey is indeednot an European country by bordering thosethree countries and the big question is how anactual European country as Turkey-as the case iswilling to promote, ‘’has to get Europeanvalues’’?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-emephsate-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "europe middle east politics house supportsadmission turkey euThe admission of Turkey willhelp the economy of the EU develop moredynamically. Turkey has a booming economywith one of the fastest growing economies of theworld [1] . Turkey has a young, skilled andvibrant workforce contributing in the fields ofinnovation, industry and finance. Having a youngand growing population means that Turkey is inthe opposite situation to the European Union,whose population is declining. As a result Turkeyjoining would be very complementary to theEuropean Economy. In Turkey 26.6% of thepopulation are under 15 [2] while in the EU only15.44% is. [3] This is significant because thepopulation of the European Union as a whole willbe declining by 2035 [4] and because of theaging population the working population will bedeclining considerably before this. Agingobviously means that the EU will not be able toproduce as much, but also that much more of EUresources will be devoted to caring for the elderly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-emephsate-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "europe middle east politics house supportsadmission turkey euTurkey may have a growingeconomy, but this does not make it a goodcandidate for EU membership. Despite its growththere is still a lot of poverty in Turkey. Its GDPper capita is less than half the average of the EU.[1] When looking at Turkey, everyone thinks ofIstanbul, forgetting the other ‘’invisible’’ Turkey,where there are major economic problems, suchas unemployment, low wages, bad infrastructureand high immigration rates. [2] [1] ‘Turkey’,The World Factbook, 24 August 2012, ‘EuropeanUnion’, The World Factbook, 24 August2012, [2] Daily News. Economy. Number ofpoor people increasing in Turkey. Accessed onSeptember 3, 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-emephsate-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "europe middle east politics house supportsadmission turkey euStrategic position andenergy benefits There would be immensestrategic benefits both to Europe and to Turkey ifshe were allowed to join the European Union.Turkey is already a important regional powerwith a lot of influence in the Middle East andCentral Asia and it is already a member of NATO,which most members of the EU are also a partof. [1] This is in part because Turkey is in animmensely strategic geographic situation as theborder between Europe and Asia. Historically thishas meant Turkey is ideally located for trade,today it means it is strategically close to the oiland gas fields advanced economies like the EU’sdepend on. Turkey is therefore vital for Europe’senergy security. According to the EU energyminister “Turkey comes first in these countriesfor cooperation” on energy issues because of itslocation. [2] This is because Turkey is animportant transit point for Oil coming throughthe Bosporus from the Caspian Sea and Russia", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-emephsate-con03b", "title": "", "text": "europe middle east politics house supportsadmission turkey euThe issue of Cyprus willeventually be resolved; one small member statecannot hold the destiny of 550 million peoplehostage indefinitely. [1] Europe made a mistakeby not forcing Cyprus to resolve its problemswith Northern Cuprus and Turkey before joiningthe EU [2] however Europe once again hasleverage as it is in negotiations to bailout thecountry. [3] [1] Lake, Michael, ‘Turkey: Tiltingfrom U.S. to EU?’, Atlantic Council at 50, [2]‘Cyprus: Six Steps towards a Settlement’,International Crisis Group, Europe BriefingNo.61, 22 February 2011, [3] Kambas, Michele,‘Cyprus hopes for deal with Troika in October’,Reuters, 5 September 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-emephsate-con01b", "title": "", "text": "europe middle east politics house supportsadmission turkey euTurkey has a boomingeconomy. Turkey has one of the fastest growingeconomies of the world Turkey is thereforerapidly catching up with Europe and this willtherefore become less and less of an issue; atthe same time Europe will need Turkey morewhile Turkey will need the EU less. [1] Whilemany Turks may wish to move to the EU to try tofind work it is unclear either that they would doso, Europe’s average unemployment rate iscurrently higher than Turkey’s, or that Europewould let them, there would likely be transitionalrules such as those imposed on Bulgaria andRomania. [2] [1] GDP growth (annual %). TheWorld Bank. Accessed on: September 3,2012. [2] EURES, ‘Free Movement : Romania’,European Commission,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-emephsate-con02a", "title": "", "text": "europe middle east politics house supportsadmission turkey euTurkey is not yet up toEuropean standards of human rights. Turkey isa democracy but it is not yet up to the standardsnecessary for membership in the EuropeanUnion. Turkey has numerous problems with theautocracy of its leaders, the suppressed humanrights of the Kurdish and the other minorities.The State Department Human Rights Reportcondemns for example arbitrary arrest and says“Police detained more than 1,000 members ofthe pro-Kurdish Peace and Democracy Party(BDP) on various occasions” during 2011. Kurdsand other minorities are “prohibited from fullyexercising their linguistic, religious, and culturalrights” and are harassed when attempting toassert their identity. [1] There is little freedom ofthe press in Turkey, most of the media arestate-controlled resulting in turkey ranking 148thon Reporters without borders press freedomindex whereas the lowest EU country is Greeceranked 70th. [2] While some countries in the EU,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-emephsate-con03a", "title": "", "text": "europe middle east politics house supportsadmission turkey euTurkey must recognizeCyprus. The biggest problem facing Turkey thatwill prevent its entry to the European Union isthat it does not recognize Cyprus, a state that isalready an EU member. It is clear that Cyprusand relations with it are the main sticking pointas the EU President Van Rompuy has admitted“Were it not for some challenges from one of themembers of the European Union, Cyprus, wewould have made more progress when it comesto Turkey, I acknowledge that negotiations onenlargement are stalled for the time beingbecause one of the members of the club hasproblems with the process.” [1] Negotiationstowards reunification of the island have stalledsince the EU backed UN peace plan was rejectedby the Greek Cypriots in 2004 just before theyjoined the EU. Neither Cyprus nor Turkey arewilling to take any possible steps that would helpbuild confidence and break down the barriers toagreement such as reopening ports and airports.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-emephsate-con01a", "title": "", "text": "europe middle east politics house supportsadmission turkey euTurkey is not enougheconomically developed to join the EU. Turkeyhas many economic problems ranging from highinflation, high regional disparities, high wealthdisparity, unemployment, bad infrastructure andpoverty among others. The country must solelyfocus itself onto improving those problems,before obtaining EU-membership. Not resolvingeconomic problems before joining the EU canlead to problems as exemplified by Greece,Portugal and Italy, countries which had their bigeconomic problems that were overlooked uponjoining the Eurozone. Turkey’s GDP per capita isless than half the average of the EU [1] and as alarge country with more than seventy millionpeople it would pose an immense strain on therest of the Union. The effect of this economicdisparity is likely to lead to a massive influx ofimmigrants from Turkey to the rest of the EU,because they will take advantage of freemovement of people in the European Union and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-emephsate-con02b", "title": "", "text": "europe middle east politics house supportsadmission turkey euTurkey is a democracy but itis not yet up to the standards necessary formembership in the European Union. Turkey hasnumerous problems with the autocracy of itsleaders, the suppressed human rights of theKurdish and the other minorities. The StateDepartment Human Rights Report condemns forexample arbitrary arrest and says “Policedetained more than 1,000 members of thepro-Kurdish Peace and Democracy Party (BDP)on various occasions” during 2011. Kurds andother minorities are “prohibited from fullyexercising their linguistic, religious, and culturalrights” and are harassed when attempting toassert their identity. [1] There is little freedom ofthe press in Turkey, most of the media arestate-controlled resulting in turkey ranking 148thon Reporters without borders press freedomindex whereas the lowest EU country is Greeceranked 70th. [2] While some countries in the EU,such as France, have criminalized the denial of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyConsultation,collaboration and the attempted creation of acommon set of values has not worked and is notlikely to work. This language is not muchdifferent from what we have heard with everyattempt the EU has made to push for furtherpolitical integration. The role of the CommonForeign and Security Policy (CFSP), as agreedupon back in 1993 during the Maastricht Treaty,was in fact presented very much along similarlines. Fifteen years later however, that unitedfront has not been created. If anything, the EU’spolitical union, and certain any attempts towardsa common foreign policy, have completelydisintegrated when faced with the War in Iraqand the larger war on terror and more recentlythe Euro debt crisis on another front.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyThe fact that it is aRepresentative highlights the fact that the EU isbased on consultation and consensus, and that isa positive thing. While the new ‘EU HighRepresentative for Foreign and Security Policy’marks only a bold first step towards a moreunified voice for the EU, the decisions are indeedstill based on a state by state consultationmechanism – hence the name representative.This should however not to be downplayed as aless significant change in how the EU approachesits foreign policy. The consultation aspect is infact essential to reaching agreement and theimportance of not only presenting a united frontto the rest of the world (the EU is exemplary intrade policy and environmental policy, but lessimportant when it comes to presenting a unitedvoice in foreign policy as Belgian Foreign ministerMark Eyskens put it in 1991 “Europe is aneconomic giant, a political dwarf, and a militaryworm” 1, but also creating a united front through", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyThe creation of acombined post of High Representative for foreignand security policy and Vice President of theCommission for External Relations marks aneedless complication of decision making. Itadds an expensive and largely pointless layer ofEuropean bureaucracy to a substantively weakand poorly coordinated foreign policy. This failureis made worse by the member states’ refusal toappoint a senior European politician withinternational credentials to the post. Thissuggests that the European Union is simply notready to pursue a serious and substantiveforeign policy. 1 1 Charlemagne, 'The test forAshton and Europe', The Economist, 1st February2011,accessed 1/8/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyThe EU has alreadybeen unifying on multiple fronts, this is just astep in the same direction. The EU has slowlybeen building up its own common militaryframework, with the UK and France leading theeffort to pool European military capacity. Inaddition, the EU itself has created newinstitutional bodies such as the Political andSecurity Committee, a Military Committee andmilitary staff. The EU has had military envoys inMacedonia and Bosnia-Herzegovina and hascommitted itself to the creation of a CommonSecurity and Defense Policy with 3-4,000 troopson permanent standby in multilateral‘battlegroups’ ready for immediatedeployment(see Rockwell Schnabel’s articlelisted below)1. While incremental, these aresteps not to be ignored. The Union has alsoplaced that military capacity within the broadercontext of a security strategy designed topromote international peace, justice and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyThe very creation of acommon military framework has been fraughtwith disagreement. The UK and France have onlybeen willing to cooperate bilaterally and outsidethe EU framework, within a set ofnationally-framed security interests. Both statesare also very traditional military powers. Whilesome states pretend to support the creation of acredible EU military capacity, they are unwillingto contribute seriously to its construction andwhen faced with a crisis almost always turn tothe United States for military solutions. While theEU does like to see itself as the diplomat of theworld and flaunt its achievements with theInternational Criminal Court (ICC) and the WorldTrade Organization (WTO), it still ponders thepossibility of a middle-of-the-road strategy ofmilitarization and securitization. In themeanwhile, it continues to reside comfortablywithin the US sphere of military protection whileacting as an enfant terrible who rebels against", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyThe position of HighRepresentative will be, and has been, largelypowerless, because the member states havesuch divergent interests that agreement will berare, and that attempts to devise a commonforeign policy for the EU are doomed. Becausecontrol of foreign policy is such a key aspect ofsovereignty, it would be wrong for nationalgovernments to give this power away to the EU,which is less democratically accountable. If theEU and its High Representative do try to pressurestates into common positions this may wellbackfire, creating strong anti-EU feeling in bothnational governments and public opinion.Pushing too hard for a common foreign policyand giving too much power to an unelected HighRepresentative may instead begin to tear Europeapart. 1 1. Traynor, Ian, 'EU foreign ministersround on Lady Ashton', guardian.co.uk, 23rd May2011, accessed 1/8/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyThe creation of thepost of a High Representative marked animportant change in the EU. The creation of apost of High Representative and Vice President ofthe Commission (HRVP) marks an importantchange in the decision making process at the EUlevel with regards to foreign policy. Agreementon the post showed a clear commitment to thepursuit of a common EU foreign policy and todeveloping a unique cooperative model forforeign and defense policy decision making thatgoes beyond the nation state. Member statesshould now deliver on that commitment byseeking as much common ground as possible toensure that the High Representative’s role istruly significant. The goal of a common foreignand security policy should thus be supported notonly as a mechanism to streamline EU’s positionand role in world politics, but also to reinforcenotions of cooperation and consultation essentialfor maintaining a stable international system, in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyThe HighRepresentative will be a catalyst and a facilitatorfor decision-making. The High Representativewill not only act as a spokesman for EU nationswhen they agree on foreign policies, but will actas a catalyst around which external policy willincreasingly become coordinated. By chairingmeetings of EU foreign ministers, he or she willbe able to shape the agenda and influence theoutcomes of meetings, encouraging memberstates increasingly to think in terms of commonforeign policy positions. They will have addedauthority from their ability to speak for the EU inthe UN Security Council. The HighRepresentative will also direct the EU’s newExternal Action Service, which brings togetherpolicy specialists from both the Council andCommission in a unique manner (ranging fromthe Arctic region to nuclear safety andenlargement) 1. With representatives all over theworld the EU will develop a foreign service", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyThe EU is indeed underNATO’s and US’s military umbrella, and whileterrorist attacks on EU’s territory have certainlyheightened levels of anxiety, its ‘foreign policy’ isstill based on an inclusive approach: bringthreatening nations under your economic andpolitical umbrella and provide them withincentives to collaborate. Academics such asAllen David and Michael Smith have argued thatthe EU’s ‘foreign policy’ seeks to go beyond thenation state and thus treats what lies outside itsborders not necessarily as ‘foreign’ and‘threatening’ but rather as a different system.1The EU provides a subsystem of internationalrelations within a larger global system, in whichthreats and fears subside as a result of economicand military integration. The most pressingchallenge is to learn how to extend this systembeyond the current borders of the EU, keeping inmind that the accession process is a mechanismnot to be abused. 1. Allen, David, and Smith,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyOne should not forgetthat a uniting Europe in itself has been a verybold undertaking that has taken severalcenturies to develop, and is certainly far frombeing a finished product. It would be unfair toargue that the EU has made no progress in itscollaboration on foreign policy since the initialestablishment of the CFSP, or that the pastfifteen years have seen more decay thanprogress on further political integration. Themixed EU reaction to the war in Iraq has longbeen a point of contention and criticism, yet itrepresents only a small and exceptional failure,in a much larger common EU foreign policy. TheEnlargement Process has been by far one of themost successful elements of EU foreign andsecurity policy, along with many other successstories with aid to third parties and managementof international conflicts, for example the EU’srole in Kosovo.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyThe previousarrangement of having two foreign policy centers(in the Commission and in the Council) wasarguably inefficient, but consolidating these intoa single office-holder has created morecomplexity and at significantly greaterexpense. Creating a position of EU HighRepresentative is not objectionable in itself.Previously the EU was in the ludicrous situationof having two foreign affairs spokesmen, onefrom the Council and the other from theCommission. Rivalry and duplication of efforts,staffs and resources results, and so focusing allthe EU’s external affairs work around one personmakes some sense. What it does not mean isthat the High Representative should lead a drivefor a stronger common foreign policy position.Only when member states agree (which may notbe often) will he or she have a role. In fact, byweakening the foreign affairs role within theCommission, this development may actually limit", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyThere have been testson the EU's ability to create a common foreignpolicy that it has failed. The War in Iraq, alongwith previous notable failures to deal with thebreakup of former Yugoslavia, has been anexcellent test for the extent to which the EU canclaim to have a common approach to worldpolitics and foreign policy in particular. It hasclearly pointed out a whole range of diverse andoften opposed national interests, and nationalpublics that were unwilling to make compromisesalong EU lines of commitment. It has alsoshowed that the economic power of the EU is notenough to turn it into a major player on theinternational scene: the lack in military powerand presence speaks for itself. The EU still liesvery much under the umbrella of NATO and USmilitary power and as long as this militarydependency continues, the EU will not be able tohave its own independent voice in world politics.1 1. \">", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyThe post of a HighRepresentative is merely a shadow of what itshould have been, and its failure shows the EU'sinability to consolidate foreign policy. Whileseemingly groundbreaking, the currentagreement on the EU reform treaty was nothingbut a lame attempt to salvage a much bolderinitiative: an EU Constitution. The rejection ofthe EU Constitution in the Dutch and Frenchreferendums, as well as the extreme difficulty ingetting even its watered-down version accepted,shows the extent to which the member states ofthe EU are not yet ready to think and act inunison. The UK representatives successfullyinsisted that the language of the reform treatyclearly states that major foreign policy decisionswill continue to be taken at the state level.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-epdlhfcefp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "europe politics defence leadership house favourscommon eu foreign policyCreating a common EUforeign and security policy will in fact be easierthan many people suppose, because many of the21st century’s most important issues in externalrelations are already part of the ‘normal’ EUpolicy routine; climate change, development,trade, aid and the environment, for example.Most such issues are ones on which any singlemember state, even one as significant as Britain,France or Germany, cannot hope to make a realglobal impact alone. Only by coordinating policyat EU level will the interests of member states beadvanced at all. Having a High Representative tocoordinate and promote this work on behalf ofthe Union as a whole makes sense and actuallygives all member states a greater internationaleffectiveness – the true measure of sovereignty.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesMore casual sex withbarrier contraception is preferable to the currentamount without contraception. The amount ofconsensual sex is not going to change no matterwhat the church teaches. As long as the use ofbarrier contraception was promoted along withthis promotion of casual sex, it would be a hugenet reduction in the cases of contraction of HIV.Therefore, condoning the use of barriercontraception would be the more responsiblestand to take on the part of the Catholic Church.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesGoing back on this rulewould promote casual sex Condoning the use ofbarrier methods of contraception would beimplicitly condoning casual sex since theirprimary function is within that context. This isparticularly important since the Catholic Church'steachings on casual sex are not takenparticularly seriously already. Any action, suchas the Catholic Church allowing the use of barriercontraception, that would promote casual sex incountries with severe AIDS/HIV problems, wouldbe an incredibly irresponsible one. Pope Paul VIargued that when considering \"the consequencesof methods and plans for artificial birth control.Let them first consider how easily this course ofaction could open wide the way for maritalinfidelity and a general lowering of moralstandards.\" The Church's current stance onbarrier contraception, therefore, is the mostresponsible one1. 1 Pope Paul VI. \"HumanaeVitae.\" 1968.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesAIDS/HIV can be spreadoutside of having casual sex. The HIV epidemic isspread not just through people having casualsex. In many cases, wives contract HIV aftertheir husband being unfaithful or having hadpremarital sex. There are also many cases wherea woman has little choice in being sold off to aman and is forced to have sex with him. Thereare also a huge number of cases of rape whereHIV is contracted. In all of these cases, if theCatholic Church had condoned barriercontraception, the likelihood of HIV beingcontracted as a result would have beendramatically reduced; whether that is throughcontraception being used in that particularinstance of intercourse or through the man notcontracting HIV in the first place.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesProtects people fromspending eternity in Hell. It is important toremember that the Catholic Church believe thatbarrier contraception is against God and thatusing it will condemn people to Hell. Therefore,even if the Church's stance on condoms isharmful, which the proposition does not acceptthat it is, it is less harmful than people spendingan eternity suffering. In this context, therefore,the most responsible thing for the CatholicChurch to do is to forbid the use of condoms and,thereby, save people from Hell1. 1 Pope Paul VI.\"Humanae Vitae.\" 1968.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesRadical changes risk thestability of the Catholic Church. Whenever aChurch makes a radical change to its doctrinesand teachings it causes a huge amount oftension within the Church. An excellent exampleof this is the Church of England allowing womento become bishops; a huge number of people leftthe Church over the controversy. Since theCatholic Church's ban over contraception of allkinds is something that it has stood fast over fora great number of years, as well as somethingthat sets it apart from most other denominationsand faiths, the proposition believes that a changein this would result in a huge amount of tensionwithin the Church. This tension would inevitablybring about a considerable risk of large parts ofthe Church collapsing altogether. This would bemuch the same as the tensions over gay priestsin the Anglican church that have led to fears of aschism1. Therefore, in the interests of its ownstability, the sensible course of action for the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesThe Catholic Churchalready has huge numbers of people leaving, thiscould help stop that. The Catholic Church isalready becoming increasingly unpopularbecause of its refusal to compromise on anyissue and its inability to adapt and change tokeep up with an ever changing world. Ratherthan damage the stability of the Church, allowingbarrier contraception would show that theChurch is capable of change when change isnecessary. Importantly, when the Church ofEngland allowed women to become bishops, itcaused some tension at the time but had no longterm negative impact on the stability of theChurch.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesThis is a wilfulinterpretation of a highly ambiguous passage.The Church's belief that barrier contraception isagainst God is based entirely on a single passageof the Bible where Onan is condemned forwilfully 'spilling his seed.'1Importantly, the factthat he spilled his seed alone was not even themain reason that he was condemned. It is wellwithin the power of the Catholic Church toofficially change their belief that using barriercontraception will send people to Hell and allowits use. Since the passage is ambiguous, thedecision should be made based on what is bestfor society and the Church as a whole. Theopposition believes that in their main case theyhave proved that the Church lifting their ban onbarrier methods of contraception would be betterfor society and therefore they believe they havewon the debate. 138:9-10, The Book of Genesis,The Bible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesThe commandment givenis to 'go forth and multiply', not to multiply asmuch as possible with no thought forsustainability. Contraception can helpmonogamous couples control the amount ofchildren they have and when so that they canensure they don't have more children than theycan sustainably provide for. The idea that anylimitation of procreation is against God is a singleinterpretation of a very ambiguous passage. TheCatholic Church has the freedom to choose theinterpretation that is best for humanity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesIn context of otherteachings, does not promote the spread ofAIDS/HIV. The Catholic Church does not onlyforbid the use of barrier contraception but also ofcasual sex. The issue is not that the Church isbeing irresponsible by banning the use of barriercontraception but that people are choosing tofollow some of the Church's teachings but notothers. Pope Benedict XVI argues AIDS is \"atragedy that cannot be overcome by moneyalone, that cannot be overcome through thedistribution of condoms, which even aggravatesthe problems\"1. If people followed the Church'steachings on casual sex as well as theirteachings on barrier contraception, the AIDSepidemic would be dramatically decreased.Given, therefore, that it also forbids any sexoutside of marriage, the Catholic Church istotally justified in forbidding barrier methods ofcontraception2. 1 Wynne-Jones, Jonathan. \"ThePope drops Catholic ban on condoms in historic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesThe Catholic Churchbelieves that any limitation of procreation isagainst God. Catholics consider the firstcommandment given to them by God to be to'multiply'1. In light of this, anything that limitsprocreation, be it the use of contraception oreven condoning the use of contraception, isagainst God. It is important to remember thatthe Catholic Church's primary obligation is not toits people but to God. The Church is, therefore,justified in any action where the alternative isgoing against what they believe to be the wishesof God, even if it is harmful to the people of theChurch. 11:28, The Book of Genesis, The Bible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesThis would not protectwives. In these situations the wife would beexpected to have unprotected sex, so that thecouple could conceive a child, even if the Churchcondoned the use of contraception. If a husbandcontracts HIV, the Catholic Church condoning orforbidding the use of condoms makes absolutelyno difference to the fact that his wife is verylikely to contract it also. The only action by theChurch that would affect this would be to try andhighlight the fact that sex outside of marriage isalso forbidden to a greater degree and allowingthe use of contraception would only weaken thismessage.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesThe Catholic Church isnot a democracy. The opposition makes nomention of the huge numbers of Catholics whoactually support the Church's decision to forbidbarrier contraception. There is by no means aclear majority either way. Even if there was aclear majority of Catholics in favour of barriercontraception, the Church is under no obligationto change its official stances or any part of theway it works based on the opinions of membersof the Church. The Church is founded on thebasis that it is doing God's bidding and changingits working based on the demand of the peoplewould undermine that.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesIn contradiction to theCatholic Church's responsibility to promotelife. Many Catholic countries in Africa and SouthAmerica have huge problems with AIDS and HIVwith thousands of people dying as a result. In asurvey carried out in 20091, it was found that insub-Saharan Africa 22.5 million people wereliving with HIV/AIDS and 1.3 million people diedof AIDS. An enormous number of these peoplecontracted HIV because they did not use acondom during intercourse, under the advice ofthe Catholic Church. It is clear, then, that theCatholic Church's stance on barrier contraceptionpromotes the spread of AIDS. The oppositionalso believes that since the Catholic Church arein a position of power over a colossal number ofpeople, they have a responsibility to ensure thewelfare of those people. They must, therefore,reduce the likelihood that the people that theyhave power over will die as much as they can.Their ban over the use of barrier contraception is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-con05a", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesBirth control withinmonogamous relationships. Contraception is notjust used in casual sex but within monogamouscouples who want to control when they havechildren. The reason for this could be so theyensure that they don’t have more children thanthey can afford to reasonably lookafter. Contraception can help monogamouscouples to give more to the children they dodecide to have and to the community, since lessof their time and money will be used inmaintaining a family which is larger than theycan reasonably afford to control. The current costof raising a child in Britain is calculated to beover £210,000, a very substantial sum that anyresponsible parent must think about beforehaving more children 1. Since, in this case,contraception promotes a good in thecommunity, as well as more responsiblereproduction, the Catholic Church is unjustified inits blanket ban over barrier contraception. 1.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-con04a", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesPromotes image ofCatholic Church as uncaring andstubborn. Organised religious groups, such asthe Catholic Church, around the world,regardless of faith and denomination, changetheir official stances in an effort to keep up witha changing world. For example, the Church ofEngland allowing women to become bishops. Indoing this, these groups show that they are ableto be reactive and can fit into a world thatchanges every day. Even the Catholic church hasbegun to realise that by stubbornly refusing tochange its stance, the Catholic Church presentsitself as unable to adapt and stuck in its ways 1.As a result, it finds that it will lose a lot of itsinfluence and, by extension, its propensity to dogood. Since its stance on contraception limits theChurch's ability to do good, then it is clearly astance that generally causes harm and,therefore, is an unjustified one. 1.Wynne-Jones2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesBarrier contraception canprotect women from husbands withAIDS/HIV. There are many cases, particularly inSouth America and Africa, of men contractingHIV from sexual partners outside their marriage,be it from before they were married or from anextramarital affair and passing it on to theirwives. In cases such as these, the wife mayfollow all of the teachings of the Catholic Churchand still contract HIV. If the Church did notforbid the use of barrier contraception then thefrequency of occurrences such as these would beseverely limited. Since, as discussed above, theCatholic Church, has a responsibility to promotelife in its people, their ban of barriercontraception is unjustified.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-con05b", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesThe Catholic Church doesnot forbid all methods of contraception whichcould be used as alternatives. The CatholicChurch actually condones the use of naturalcontraceptive methods, which essentially amountto only having intercourse at times of the monthwhen the woman is not fertile. It is notunreasonable of the Catholic Church to expectmarried couples to just withhold from sex atcertain times of the month if they do not wish toconceive another child. This situation gives noreason to make an exception.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesOpposed by much of theChurch In spite of the Catholic Church's ruling, ahuge number of people who identify as Catholicdo not adhere to the Church's teachings oncontraception. Additionally, many Catholicpriests and nuns openly support non-abortiveforms of contraception, including barriercontraception. In 2003 a poll found 43% ofcatholic priests in England and wales wereagainst the church's stance and a further 19%were unsure1. The Church should listen to therequests and opinions of those who are part of it2. 1 Day, Elizabeth. \"Most Catholic priests 'do notsupport Rome over contraception'.\" TheTelegraph, 6 April 2003, 2 Short, Claire.\"HIV/AIDS", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-con04b", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesRadical changes riskstability of the Catholic Church. As outlined in themain proposition case, rather than making theCatholic Church seem as if it can move with thetimes, suddenly changing its stance on barriercontraception would make the Church seemweak and would lose a lot of its support. Sincetheir stance on barrier contraception issomething that the Catholic Church has stood byfor a huge number of years suddenly moving onit would throw their conviction on everything intoquestion and would have a severe negativeeffect on the stability of the Church.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-international-ssiarcmhb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "sex sexuality international africa religion churchmorality house believesThe Catholic Church alsoforbids sex outside of marriage. The oppositionhas tried to ignore the fact that the CatholicChurch actually does not allow sex outside ofmarriage either. It is not a case of the Churchsaying it is acceptable to have casual sex as longas contraception is not used but saying thatneither is acceptable. If abstinence werepractised, there would be no HIV epidemic. Sincethe Church preaches abstinence outside ofmarriage it cannot be held accountable for theHIV epidemic.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadIt seems odd toquote the wife of an investment bankercommenting about the abuse of other people’smoney. What is becoming increasingly clear incritiques both from the left and the right is thatwe can actually afford a welfare state just finebut not at the same time as allowing a bunch ofWall Street wideboys to play fast and loose withthe nation’s money. In terms of twentiethcentury ideologies, certainly there have beenchanges on both sides of the political fence – therise of moralising neo-cons and a growing farright is nothing for Conservatives to write homeabout – but the idea that Capitalism now reignssupreme rather than having the guts of itcorpulent excesses scattered across the capitalsof Europe is simply laughable. As the highpriests of Capital write themselves yet anothercheque, an increasing number of people areobjecting to the idea that public services shouldbe closed so that the very rich can have their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadSocialism was atwentieth century ideology which ran its courseand ran out of steam when it became clear thatCapitalism worked better The world has movedon; it is inconceivable that the protests of theseventies and eighties could be refought again.This issue was settled at the end of the eighties.It wasn’t just the collapse of the Soviet Union,although that no doubt played a major role inshaping the future of socialism in Europe. In aglobalised world the traditional ideas about classand the nature of the labour market have movedon and politics moved on with it. Socialists mayhave won many of the arguments over socialissues, but arguments on the advantages of freetrade, deregulation, the role of the state, therelationship between government and industryall line up firmly in the Capitalist column. Therewere some remnants of dogmatic, “classical”socialism left in continental Europe, especiallyamongst its union movements, which are now", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadRemembering thatthose states that dashed after the illusory prizeof low taxes and deregulated banking arecurrently only being propped up by the ratingsagencies should give politicians around theworld- both radical and conventional- somethingto think about. However, even the most casualwander around the blogosphere makes clear thatthe principles of market economics are a longway from being universally agreed. Theintellectual recovery from the assault posed byThatcherism and Reaganomics has taken timebut is certainly taking place and it is increasinglythe Right that appears intellectuallybankrupt. Organisations like the New EconomicsFoundation are approaching old problems in newways alongside a whole range of popularmovements – environmental, youth led,immigrant led and others. The fact that modernsocialism has as much to do with the industrialstruggles of the seventies as it does with the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadAlthough there areprotests as a result of the banking crisis and theresulting financial meltdown, they have nocohesive ideology There is clearly a differencebetween the general malaise of those protestingthe result of the financial crisis and any form ofcoherent ideology or manifesto for government.The only people pretending that protesters inAthens or Rome – or the Occupy movementworldwide – are in some meaningful waySocialists are aging class warriors from theseventies. The Occupy movement may wellcount many social liberals [i] among itsmembers, and these individuals are almostcertainly unhappy about many aspects ofmodern Capitalism but that doesn’t makeOccupy, or the Athens street protestorsSocialist. [i] Occupy Wall Street Website.“Forum Post Liberalism is Not Socialism”. 12November 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadSocialism hasfrequently been defined by its opponents and asCapitalism has changed so have the politicalresponses made to it. The fact that this iterationof socialism is different should come as nosurprise to anyone who has studied the history ofSocialism. That earlier generations of Socialistswould not have recognised a blog or a Twitteraccount doesn’t change the fact that theyrecognise the flaws of Capitalism and reject thewidely accepted views of the last twenty years orso that if everything is left to the market theneverything will come out just fine.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadEven the leaders ofthe Left have given up on Socialism as a creedand have now accepted the vast majority ofmodern Capitalist principles Even the leaders ofthose European political parties that still callthemselves socialist tend to avoid the word.Broadly speaking even the leaders of the left-outside Cuba and Colombia- accept the basicprinciples of Market economics and recognisethat high-tax, high-spend economics simply doesnot work. Like it or not borders are now openand the idea that the state can control the flowof capital is a thing of the past. As a resultpeople generally are richer and the idea thatthere a solid class block is simply no longerrelevant to their lives.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadAs has so oftenbeen the case in the history of Socialism, themoment one form is comprehensively beaten, itsadherents announce, “Oh that wasn’t reallySocialism”. The reality is that Socialism fell withthe Berlin Wall it just took a few years for theimpact of that to ripple all the way acrossEurope. The last stage of that process is nowtaking place as the economies that continued tobelieve that social systems would pay forthemselves realize that not only is that fantasynot the case, it never was. It may have taken acrisis in Capitalism to demonstrate that Socialismis a luxury Europe cannot afford but the result isthe same anyway.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadTrying to pretendthat absolutely anyone who disagrees in someway with the architects of the banking bubblecan be described as a Socialist is simply takingthings too far. Many people are suffering as aresult of austerity measures and it is interestingthat in countries with left wing governments theprotests support the right and vice versa. Thishas nothing to do with the emergence ofSocialism for the 21st century – howeverdesperately the Socialists of the 20th centurymay wish it. The closest even the most ardentsupporters of the current protests can get is that‘things should be different’ other than that ittends to be a round of decidedly nineteenthcentury solutions to nineteenth century problems", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadThe idea thatwealth should be more fairly and evenlydistributed has never had so many supportersand the failure to do so has rarely been morekeenly felt In the model of Blair and Clinton, itdidn’t matter if the rich got a lot richer, as longas the poor got a bit richer. That model has nowbeen shown not to work and the rather timid newleaders of the left are starting to return toconcepts of fairness and equality rather than therather bland concepts of ‘opportunity’ and‘choice’. Europe is increasingly governed byunelected technocrats who seem to think thatthe opinions of a handful of international bankersare somehow more important than the jobs andlivelihoods of millions. This may always havebeen the case but it tends not to show duringtimes of plenty. Now these latent inequalities arebecoming apparent and people are angry. It isperhaps one of the great ironies of history thatone of the aspirations of early nineteenth century", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con05a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadIt is impossible toacquire the information necessary to create acoherent economy A planned economy requiresthat the planners have the information necessaryto allocate resources in the right way. This is avirtually impossible task. The world containstrillions of different resources: my labour, ironore, Hong Kong harbour, pine trees, satellites,car factories – etc. The number of different waysto use, combine and recombine these resourcesis unimaginably vast. And almost all of them areuseless. For example, it would be a mistake tocombine Arnold Schwarzenegger with medicalequipment and have him perform brainsurgery. Centralised planning cannot possiblysort through the myriad of way of arrangingresources to arrive at the most efficient usage.Only a decentralised price system can achievethis via the institution of private property andassociated duties and rights. [1] [1] Boudreaux,Donald J, ‘Information and Prices’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con04a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadGlobalisation hasmade socialism impractical to implement Globaleconomic forces have rendered socialismpowerless. Financial speculation, and investmentflows can make or break economies, and theagents who channel these monies want to seecountries liberalise, privatise and de-regulatemore. This is being shown by the speculativeattacks on Eurozone countries where themarkets are showing they can forcegovernments to implement tough austerity oreven force changes in government without anelection as has happened in Greece and Italywhere technocrats have taken over as Heads ofGovernment. [1] These more flexible marketsgenerate higher levels of growth and prosperity,and provide higher returns on investment,encouraging more. Countries which try to resistglobalisation and liberal economic markets, as in‘old Europe’, suffer stagnant growth and higherunemployment as a result. Old socialist-style", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadClassconsciousness is an important aspect ofSocialism, it would be hard to find a period inrecent history when the majority have been soaware that their interests are not the same asthe uber-rich It has rarely been so clear that theinterests of the few are not the same as those ofthe vast bulk of either European societies or theworld outside it. At a time of risingunemployment, a handful of people who arealready fantastically rich continue to paythemselves obscene salaries and bonuses. Ofcourse there is nothing in this that is unusual, it’sjust not usually done in so cavalier afashion. Although there is nothing mechanical inthe process, most Socialist thinkers have beenclear that the popular realisation that there reallyis a class distinction between what the Occupyprotesters refer to as the 1% and the rest of usis an important first step towards establishingSocialism. Whatever the media and political", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con05b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadWhile there are avast number of potential combinations ofresources, the ones that are useless are mostlyobvious and do not need a market to tell us so.Nobody would attempt to generate power byburning bicycles, for example. An economy thatis organised by prices will be organised by thosewith enough capital to out-bid all others, notthose willing to pay the best price because theycan make the most use of the resource", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadSocialism haschanged historically to meet the challenges ofthe moment and is addressing those of the 21stcentury in new ways It should perhaps come asno surprise that the days of standing outsideshopping centres and train stations handing outsoggy newspapers have passed into the annalsof political history – although some still doit. Equally, trades union are no longer seen asbeing as central to European Socialism as theyonce were. However, the militancy seen over thelast few years suggest, if anything, that whatwas a diversified ‘anti-capitalist’ movement isnow coalescing around a rather clearer set ofgoals of which the basics of the anti-capitalismmovement are merely a part. In the light of theglobalisation of Capitalism, the left is increasinglyrediscovering its internationalist roots whichwere lost to a great extent in the seventies andeighties in national struggles to save industriesand jobs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con04b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadWhat investorswant more than anything is a stable economyand skilled workforce. Ironically it is theEuropean nations where socialist thoughtremains strongest (the Nordic Countries) thatare consistently ranked as the most competitiveeconomies in the world. [1] Careful statemanagement of the economy, provision ofinfrastructure and investment in exceptionalhealth and education systems through hightaxation have created a dynamic and highlyqualified workforce, and attracted hugeinvestment from technologically advancedindustries. [1] World Economic Forum, ‘TheGlobal Competitiveness Report 2011-2012’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppgshbsd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics government societyhouse believes socialism deadSetting the crisesof the last few years against decades ofprolonged growth under market capitalism reallyshows the lie of this idea. There is no doubt thatcertain sectors over-reached themselves in thelatter part of the last decade but to suggest thatthis is a collapse of the Capitalist model makesabout as much sense as the idea that a handfulof idealists camped outside St Pauls are theemergence of a new political movement. Bothideas are preposterous and only give credence tosome of the madder parts of the Right whomwould like nothing more than to be able todemonise the protesters and their demands.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieThisconveniently ignores that patients in apermanent vegetative state (PVS) do recover. Italso ignore that Alzheimer’s patients enjoymoments of lucidity that bring pleasure to boththemselves and their friends and relatives. Italso discounts the possibilities offered byadvances in medical science. The one point inany of the processes that is irreversible is thepoint of death – in the event of a misdiagnosis orthe creation of a new drug, it’s too late if theperson is already dead.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieMedical scienceallows us to control death, suicide andeuthanasia are sensible corollaries to that. Wenow live longer than at any time in the 100,000years or so of human evolution and longer thanthe other primates [i] . In many nations we havesuccessfully increased the quantity of life withoutimproving the quality. More to the point, too littlethought has been given to the quality of ourdeaths. Let us consider the example of thecancer patient who opts not to put herselfthrough the agony and uncertainty ofchemotherapy. In such a circumstance, weaccept that a person may accept the certainty ofdeath with grace and reason rather than chasingafter a slim probability of living longer but inpain. All proposition is arguing is that thisapproach can also apply to other conditions,which may not be terminal in the strict sense ofthe world but certainly lead to the death of thatperson in any meaningful sense. The applicationof medical science to extend a life, long after life", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieSocietyroutinely accepts that the state has a role inbalancing the desires of some with the threatsthose pose to others. For every reasoned,unpressured decision that can be presented byprop, we can offer a situation in which thedecision to die was coerced, or at least was notdevoid of financial of self-serving interests on thepart of others. The only way to prevent thosenegative outcomes is to deny the palatable onesthrough a complete moratorium. Such actionsmay not become routine yet even one deaththrough compulsion is too many. However it isequally likely that once a right to die becomesestablished it comes to be seen as normal thatsomeone who is particularly ill or frail willexercise the right to die. Once this is normalisedthen it becomes easier and easier for theboundary to slowly slip as it is an arbitrary line,either those exercising the right slowly becomeless and less ill or frail. Alternatively there is aslide into coercion as it becomes normal it begins", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieSuicide is arational choice in many situations. Whenconfronted with chronic pain or with diseasesthat steadily remove our sense of self – or atleast the self of whom we are aware – death hasproven to be a sensible option taken by sensiblepeople [i] . It is a simple fact that we all die, ourobjections to it tend to be based on the idea thatit can happen at the hands of others or at a time,or in a manner, not of our choosing. Neither ofthese issues arise with either assisted suicide orvoluntary euthanasia. Proposition has nodifficulty at all with the suggestion that bothprocedures should be regulated and take place insafe, medically supported,environments. However, if an individual acceptsthat death is their preferred option in such ascenario, it is difficult to comprehend of reasonswhy they should not be allowed to proceed. Oursocial rejection of murder does not, ultimatelyrelate to death itself but to the denial of choice.With murder someone is denying that person all", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieIt is the markof a civilised society that we accept theinconvenience of laws in some circumstancesbecause we also require their protection inothers. To take a trivial example we take awaythe choice for people to drive on the other side ofthe road to everyone else. Here the protectionoffered by a full moratorium on killing requiresthat we accept all of its implications. Thechallenge is to use medical science to make it amoot point. Proposition has therefore made apowerful argument in favour of better painkillersand more research into mentally debilitatingillnesses. Many of those developments havecome about as a result of the very humanattributes prop is so keen to cite. Realising thatthey have an opportunity of future free of painand illness, humans have found ways ofdelivering it. It is precisely because death cannow be managed that the process ofself-imposed triage prop suggests is increasinglyunnecessary; a fact to be applauded, not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieThe decision todie is a deeply personal one - it is no business ofthe state. Ultimately, the decision to die is apersonal one, it may affect others but, clearly ithas the greatest impact on the person whodecides to die. Clearly those who remain behindwill have to deal with the consequences of thatdeath and the end of their relationship with thatperson but, one would hope, that would be thecase if she had died of natural causes at a laterdate. Furthermore the experience of watchingsomeone die can by as traumatic, or more so, forthe carer or loved one than it is for the individualconcerned. What it clearly is not, is an issue forlegislators and other strangers who have noconnection to the person involved. There aredeeply personal issues such as love, death, sex,and reproduction where we accept the state mayhave a role in the formal sense of preventingtheir abuse but otherwise should not have anopinion either way. With the right to die the statehas maintained not only an opinion but a criminal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieThis risk can bemitigated by making it clear that the elderly,disabled, and others who may feel a burden aregenuinely wanted as a part of society but thatthe right to die is there if they feel it is too much.Any right to die being allowed is not going to beas simple as going to the doctors and getting aninjection. In any system there would be checksand balances put in place. There would probablybe some form of application process, checks tosee if there is any coercion and that it is what theindividual really wants as well as probably someform of cooling off period after which the checkswould probably be redone before they finallyhave their chance to exercise their right to die.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieThe issue thatOp highlights is the matter of intention, that thecourts should not be interested in why someonetook the decision to kill another person.However, that does not apply here as theintention is that of the person who has chosen todie. In a majority of nations suicide is alreadylegal – the most spectacular exception to thisbeing North Korea, a country with, otherwise, afairly relaxed approach to the deaths of itscitizens. Accepting the right to die simplyextends the ability to do so to those whocurrently are incapable of performing thenecessary procedure themselves [i] . [i] BBCNews Website. Right-to-die law appalling, saysHealth Minister Anna Soubry. 8 September 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieOnce the moralabsolute is broken, there is no other crediblepoint before the right to use becomesstandardised. It is easy to say that this socialmove would not lead to healthy thirty year oldswalking into emergency rooms and asking to endit all because they had just broken up with theirpartner or been sacked. However, it’s ratherdifficult to see why it should not. Proposition saysthat all this would do is extend the right tocommit suicide to those currently incapable ofperforming the act themselves but that isn’t so.It also extends the surety of success and of amedically painless procedure that is not availableto the teenager with a razorblade or thebankrupt with a bottle of pills and another ofvodka. For the sake of exactly the equality ofapproach, it seems only fair to do so. Propositionare attempting to pick the easy bits of the casebut, by doing so, they leave contradictions intheir case, why shouldn’t the right to die beuniversal? They know the reason; society would", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-con04a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieThe death ofone individual has implications for others, whichby definition, do not affect the suicideherself. Even setting aside the religiousconcerns of many in this situation [i] , there aresolid secular reasons for accepting the sanctity oflife. First among them is the impact it has on thesurvivors. The relative who does not want aloved one to take their own life, or to die in thecase of euthanasia. It is simply untrue thatothers are not affect by the death of theindividual – someone needs to support thatperson emotionally and someone has toadminister the injection. Because of the ties oflove involved for relatives, they are, in effect, leftwith no choice but to agree regardless of theirown views, the law should respect their positionas well. It further gives protection to doctorsand others who would be involved in theprocedure. Campaigners are keen to stress thatdoctors should be involved in the process whilstignoring that, pretty much whenever they’re", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieThere is a riskthat even a free choice may have some coercioninvolved. By far the biggest worry is that a rightto die will create a silent form of coercion thatcannot be detected. In the West’s increasinglyelderly society the role of older people in thatsociety, their value and their continuingcontribution is all too likely to be masked by theissue of the cost placed on those of working age.Even where older people do not face pressurefrom their families, society needs to be aware ofthis wider narrative. Such a narrative will slowlycreate a norm where the elderly feel that theyare a burden and it is expected that they willexercise their right to die. The ‘choice’ willremain and they will even think it a choice free ofcoercion but will exercise their right not becausethey really want to die but because they feel it iswhat they ought to do, once the right to die iscompletely normalised those exercising it maynot even consider that what they are doing is notreally of their free will. Perceiving oneself as a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieIt is impossibleto frame a structure which respects the right todie for the individual but that cannot be abusedby others. In terms of moral absolutes, killingpeople is wrong sets the bar fairly low. Prettymuch all societies have accepted this as a linethat cannot be crossed without the explicit andspecific agreement of the state which onlyhappens in very rare circumstances such as intimes of war. There is a simple reason for ablanket ban. It allows for no caveats, nomisunderstandings, no fudging of the issue, andno shades of grey. Again, the reason for thisapproach is equally simple; anything other thansuch a clear cut approach will inevitably beabused [i] . As things stand guilt in the case ofmurder is determined entirely on the basis that itis proven that someone took another life. Theirreasons for doing so may be reflected insentencing but the court is not required toconsider whether someone was justified in killinganother. It is in the nature of a court case that it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-con04b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieObviouslynobody is going to compel doctors or others inthe medical profession to undertake a procedureof which they do not approve. Indeed doctors areroutinely required to give independent advice -so that a patient is aware of the available options- without being required to perform a procedurethemselves. The same is true with relatives orfriends. There are many issues in life, where wemay disagree with someone’s decision but werespect their right to make that decision just asthey respect ours to check that they haveconsidered all the implications. In the case of thedoctors this is simple professionalism, in the caseof loved ones, respect.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elhbrd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life house believes right dieIt is notuncommon for legislation to apply in extremecircumstances and not in more routine ones –the right to use violence in defence of the homeor self being just one example. If the legislationstates that this relates to certain, terminalconditions and those patients shown to be ofsound mind, then that’s how the legislationworks. Society gives the universal right to freeeducation but not if you’re 46 and decide thatyou should have done something different atschool, the right is confined. That applies hereand in most universal rights. Its aim is to solveone particular legal problem, not all of them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalFirstly, due toour larger and more sophisticated brains, onewould expect the average human to have a greatmany more interests than any animal, for thoseinterests to be more complex andinterconnected, and for there to be a greatercapacity for reflection and comprehension of thesatisfaction gleaned from the realisation of suchinterests. Thus, we can ascribe greater value tothe life of a human than an animal, and thusconclude there to be less harm in painlesslykilling an animal than a human. Secondly, to theextent that research on animals is of benefit tohumans, it is thus permissible to conductexperiments requiring euthanasia of the animalsubjects. [1] [1] Frey, R. G., “Moral Standing:The Value of Life and Specieism”, in La Follette(ed.), Ethics in Practice, (Malden, Mass; Oxford :Blackwell Pub, 2007)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalAnimal researchnecessitates significant harm to the animalsinvolved Animal research, by its very naturenecessitates harm to the animals. Even if theyare not made to suffer as part of the experiment,the vast majority of animals used, must be killedat the conclusion of the experiment. With 115million animals being used in the status quo thisis no small issue. Even if we were to vastlyreduce animal experimentation, releasingdomesticated animals into the wild, would be adeath sentence, and it hardly seems realistic tothink that many behaviourally abnormal animals,often mice or rats, might be readily moveableinto the pet trade. [1] It is prima fasciaeobvious, that it is not in the interest of theanimals involved to be killed, or harmed to suchan extent that such killing might seem merciful.Even if the opposition counterargument, thatanimals lack the capacity to truly suffer, isbelieved, research should none the less be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalMost developedcountries, including the United States and themember-states of the European Union, haveregulations and laws which require the researchmethods that do not involve animal modelsshould be used wherever they would produceequally accurate results. In other words,scientists are barred from using animals inresearch where non-animal methods would bejust as effective. Further, research animals areextremely expensive to breed, house and carefor. Developed countries have very strict lawsgoverning the welfare of animals used inresearch; obtaining the training and expertadvice required to comply with these laws iscostly. As a result, academic institutions andmedical or pharmaceutical businesses functionunder constant pressure to find viablealternatives to using animals in research.Researchers have a strong motive to usealternatives to animal models wherever", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalWould send apositive social message, increasing animalwelfare rights more generally in society Mostcountries have laws restricting the ways in whichanimals can be treated. These would ordinarilyprohibit treating animals in the manner thatanimal research laboratories claim is necessaryfor their research. Thus legal exceptions such asthe 1986 Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act inthe UK exist to protect these organisations, fromwhat would otherwise be a criminal offense. Thiscreates a clear moral tension, as one groupwithin society is able to inflect what to any othergroup would be illegal suffering and crueltytoward animals. If states are serious aboutpersuading people against cock fighting, dancingbears, and the simple maltreatment of pets andfarm animals, then such goals would beenhanced by a more consistent legal positionabout the treatment of animals by everyone insociety.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalAnimals have aright not to be harmed The differences betweenus and other vertebrates are a matter of degreerather than kind. [1] Not only do they closelyresemble us anatomically and physiologically,but so too do they behave in ways which seem toconvey meaning. They recoil from pain, appearto express fear of a tormentor, and appear totake pleasure in activities; a point clear toanyone who has observed the behaviour of a petdog on hearing the word “walk”. Our reasons forbelieving that our fellow humans are capable ofexperiencing feelings like ourselves can surelyonly be that they resemble us both inappearance and behaviour (we cannot read theirminds). Thus any animal sharing our anatomical,physiological, and behavioural characteristics issurely likely to have feelings like us. If we acceptas true for sake of argument, that all humanshave a right not to be harmed, simply by virtueof existing as a being of moral worth, then we", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalAnimals do nothave such a right not to be harmed; even if theyare similar to humans in terms of their feelings(that opposition does not concede) this right isimpossible to argue for. The right of a human notto be harmed is a part of a quid pro quo that wewill also not do harm to others. Animals areunable to engage in such a contract either to usor to other animals. Animals are not about tostop hunting other animals because the animalthat is hunted feel’s pain when it is caught and iteven if animal experimentation was to be endedit is unlikely that humanity would stop killinganimals either for food, to preventoverpopulation or by accident all of which wouldhave to be the case if animals feeling of pleasureand pain and resulting rights had to be takeninto account.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalWe do not haveto justify cock fighting and other acts of animalcruelty as morally permissible. These aredifferent acts to animal research in an importantrespect. It is not the intention of the researchersto harm the animals, but rather to produce highquality research for the betterment of humanlives. Whilst it is true that in some cases harm tothe animals is a reasonably foreseeableconsequence of the research, this is minimisedwherever possible, with pain killers, anaesthesia,and attempts to use other research means.There are many exceptions in law which maintainmoral consistency due to the intention behindthe act. For example, killing someone for moneywould be murder and illegal, whilst an exceptionmight be made if you were killing in war, orself-defence, as the intention behind the act isheld to be both different and morally just.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalWe do not needto justify the moral value of severely cognitivelydisabled persons, although if we wanted to, wecould invoke notions of kinship, and family asproviding a justification for acting in anapparently specieist manner. [1] Rather, it issufficient to highlight the point, thatexperimenting on humans of any cognitivefunction, carries with it certain negativeexternalities. Such persons are likely to haverelatives who would be harmed by theknowledge that their loved ones are being usedin medical experiments for example. Even in thecase of such a person who lacks any relatives,broader society and disabled rights groups couldbe harmed by a policy that allows treating somedisabled persons differently to the rest of ourmoral community. Such externalities wouldmake experimenting on animals, rather thansuch persons, both preferable and morallyconsistent. [1] Fox, M. A., “The Moral", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalResearch can bedone effectively without experimenting on livingcreature As experimenting on animals isimmoral we should stop using animals forexperiments. But apart from it being morallywrong practically we will never know how muchwe will be able to advance without animalexperimentation if we never stop experimentingon animals. Animal research has been thehistorical gold standard, and in the case of somechemical screening tests, was for many years, bymany western states, required by law before acompound could be released on sale. Scienceand technology has moved faster than researchprotocols however, and so there is no longer aneed for animals to be experimented on. We nowknow the chemical properties of mostsubstances, and powerful computers allow us topredict the outcome of chemical interactions.Experimenting on live tissue culture also allowsus to gain insight as to how living cells react", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalSome groups ofpeople have less capacity for suffering than mostanimals It is possible to conceive of humanpersons almost totally lacking in a capacity forsuffering, or indeed a capacity to develop andpossess interests. Take for example a person in apersistent vegetative state, or a person bornwith the most severe of cognitiveimpairments. We can take three possiblestances toward such persons within this debate.Firstly we could experiment on animals, but notsuch persons. This would be a morallyinconsistent and specieist stance to adopt, andas such unsatisfactory. We could be morallyconsistent, and experiment on both animals andsuch persons. Common morality suggests that itwould be abhorrent to conduct potentially painfulmedical research on the severely disabled, andso this stance seems equally unsatisfactory.Finally we could maintain moral consistency andavoid experimenting on the disabled, by adopting", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-con03b", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalThis againhighlights some of the problems with animalresearch. In the UK example cited, animaltesting had been done, and the dose given to thehuman volunteers was a tiny fraction of the doseshown to be safe in primates. Animal research isan unreliable indicator of how drugs will react inthe human body, and as such alternatives shouldbe sought and improved upon.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-con01b", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalTo argue thatthe ends justify the means does not justifyresearch upon animals. Firstly we do not knowthe extent to which animals are capable ofholding interests or experiencing suffering, asthey are unable to communicate with us. Ourshared similarities give us cause to believe theymust have at least a truncated experience of theworld to us, but we cannot know the level of thattruncation. Thus in order to avoid committing asignificant moral harm upon a being we do notfully understand, a precautionary principle ofnon-experimentation would be well advised.Secondly, even if we would be achieving a netgain on the utilitarian calculator, that isinsufficient justification on its own. By that samelogic, experimenting on one person to save thelives of many could be justified, even if it causedthem suffering, and even if they did not consent.Common morality suggests that this is anobjectionable position to hold, as the moral", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-con02a", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalPeople would dieand suffer needlessly under such a policy 23new drugs are introduced each year in the UnitedKingdom alone . [1] . While almost all of thesedrugs will have been brought to the market afterextensive animal testing, the number of animalsused to check their safety only seems to be ahigh cost when the benefits that each drugbrings to its users are inadequatelyconsidered. New drugs that are approved formedical use have the potential to relieve humanpain and suffering not only for the first group ofpatients given access to them, but also for futuregenerations of sick and suffering individuals too.Consider all the lives, all over the world, thathave benefitted from penicillin since its discoveryin 1928. If drugs cost more to research anddevelop, then that reduces potential profitmargins, and some drugs that would haveotherwise been discovered and released will fallbelow the new threshold of likely profits", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-con05a", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalAnimals involvedin animal research are mostly well treated. Thevast majority of animals used in research are notsubjected to suffering. Where there may be pain,they are given painkillers, and when they areeuthanized it is done humanely. [1] They arelooked after well, as the health of the animals isusually not only required by law and goodpractice, but beneficial for the experimentalresults. Many of these animals live better livesthan they might have done had they been borninto the wild. Many animals, and indeed humans,die untimely deaths that are due to reasonsother than old age, animal experimentation mayincrease these numbers slightly but so long asthe animals are treated well there should be nomoral objection to animal research. If thefoundation of the argument for banning animalexperimentation is therefore based upon thecruel treatment and pain suffered by animalsthen this is a reason for regulation to make sure", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-con04a", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalAnimal researchis only used where other research methods arenot suitable Developed countries, including theUS and all members of the EU (since EU Directive2010/63/EU) have created laws and professionalregulations that prevent scientists from usinganimals for research if other, non-animalresearch methods would produce equally clearand detailed results. The principle describedabove is also enshrined in the \"3Rs\" doctrine,which states that researchers and theiremployers have a duty to identify ways to refineexperiments conducted on animals, so that yieldbetter results and cause less suffering; replaceanimals used in research the non-animalalternatives where possible; and reduce thenumber of animals used in research. Not onlydoes the 3Rs doctrine represent a practical wayto reconcile the necessity of animal research withthe universal human desire not to causesuffering, it also drives scientists to increase the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-con03a", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalAnimal researchis necessary for the development of truly novelsubstances Undoubtedly then, the mostbeneficial research to mankind is thedevelopment of truly novel drugs. Evenaccording to the proposition this representsabout a quarter of all new drugs released, whichcould be seen as significant given the greatpotential to relieve the suffering beyond ourcurrent capacity that such drugs promise. Afterthe effects, side effects and more complexinteractions of a drug have been confirmed usinganimal and non-animal testing, it will usuallypass to what is called a phase I clinical trial -tests on human volunteers to confirm how thedrug will interact with human physiology andwhat dosages it should be administered in. Therisk of a human volunteer involved in a phase Itrial being harmed is extremely small, but onlybecause animal tests, along with non-animalscreening methods are a highly effective way of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-con05b", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalThis logicassumes that one positive moral action cancancel out a negative moral action. That ananimal is well treated before being involved inanimal testing and its suffering during testing iskept to a minimum does not balance the veryreal suffering the animal experiences during theexperiments themselves. Regulation would notbe helpful in addressing this contradiction as thesuffering during the experiments could never beeliminated as if we knew the effects theexperiment will have on the animal theexperiment would not be necessary in the firstplace.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-con01a", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalAnimals' rightsare of less moral worth than humanrights Humans are complex beings with largewell developed brains, that form sizeable socialgroups, have significant ability to communicatewith one another, possess interconnecteddesires, preferences and interests about theworld, have an awareness of their own existenceand mortality, and as such are beings worthy ofmoral consideration. Animals too express someof these characteristics to some degree and thusanimals too are worthy of moral consideration.However, animal lives and human lives are ofunequal value. This is due to the fact that noanimal possesses all of these characteristics tothe same degree as the average human, or evencomes particularly close. Thus any rightsascribed to animals should be truncated relativeto the rights we ascribe to humans. [1]Therefore animals should not rightly possess thesame rights to not be experimented upon as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-con04b", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalThe opposition'sconclusions can be attacked in three ways. First,countries that are less economically developedthan wealthy North American and Europeanstates are not likely to support rules or lawssimilar to the 3Rs doctrine or Directive2010/63/EU. In these countries, low animalwelfare standards often mean that animalresearch is cheaper relative to the cost ofnon-animal methods such as computer models orcell cultures. Second, across the world,researchers tend to specialise in certain fields.Animal researchers tend to involve animal workin most of their projects, meaning that they maybe less aware of alternative methods that couldbe used. Essentially, an individual who has spenttheir entire career as an animal researcher islikely to see all scientific problems in their field ofresearch as solvable through animalexperiments. Finally, toxicology work on newdrugs (and sometimes other products) still", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-apessghwba-con02b", "title": "", "text": "animals philosophy ethics science sciencegeneral house would ban animalFirstly the vastmajority of drugs released today (around 75%)are so called “me too” drugs that add little, if anygenuine innovation to the existing body ofpharmaceuticals in production. Rather, theyrepresent only a slight molecular tweak on anexisting drug line. Such drugs rarely save lives oreven relieve much suffering upon their release,as they are only very slightly better, for onlysome patients, than the drugs available prior toits release. [1] None the less, the developmentof only technically novel compounds is used as ajustification for research on animals, even whenthe benefit from such research is marginal atbest. Secondly, even if there was a smallincrease in future human suffering, relative to afuture where such a policy was not adopted, itwould be worth it due to the saving of so muchanimal suffering, and the moral impermissibilityof inflicting that for our own gains. All this isnotwithstanding the proposition point that much", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorTo look at lifesimply as a tool for producing greater goodreduces it to a numbers game. Humans are allvastly different and to suggest that one canaccurately measure the ‘good’ they experience orproduce misunderstands the complexity of whatit means to be human. Unfortunately simplysaying that killing one person to save fiveproduces more good does not deal with themoral issue at hand. If we abducted one personand used their organs to save five dying peoplewe would consider that to be wrong. Theprinciple is that same: kill one to save five.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorMore ‘good’ isproduced by saving five lives than savingone When any life is removed so too is thefuture good that life may produce; all of the goodthat person would have experienced as well asall of the good they could have brought to otherpeople’s lives will no longer occur. It is difficult tosay precisely how much good a person maybring. However, it is fair to assume that savingfive people brings with it a greater chance ofhigher levels of ‘good’. Considering the fact thatone does not know anything about the people onthe tracks one must assume that there will befive times more ‘good’ produced by saving theirlives than if the one person is saved.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorWe do notalways choose the most rational course of action.If we do not know anything about who we are inthe situation we still know that if the one personis killed then their life has been unfairly ended. Ifthe five people die then we know that this is anaccident. Therefore we might still choose to allowthe five people to die. This is because we can stilldecide the right or wrong of the situation andchoose not to make the decision based on selfinterest.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorAs humanswe try to save as many people as possible Thereexists a basic right to life which, as humans, wetry to follow. Killing others is outlawed becausewe generally believe that every person has theright to live their life and no one else has theright to take that life away. In the situation withthe train there are two possible outcomes whichboth lead to life being cut short. Due to the factthat we place such value on life we have a dutyto reduce the number of people who die. Oneought to commit the act that results in thefewest deaths, and this is to kill the one and savethe five.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorPeople sufferunfortunate deaths on a daily basis. The fact thatpeople die in accidents does not necessarilymean that their right to life has been violated.Therefore, if one lets the train run its course fivepeople will suffer an unfortunate accident. Thereal violation of rights in this situation is theaction of changing the course of the train. Thesingle person on the track is in no immediatedanger. However, by changing the course of thetrain one is actively participating in the removalof that person’s life. If we believe that a personhas the right not to be murdered then pulling thelever is a violation of that right.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorKilling oneperson is the rational choice The philosopherJohn Rawls came up with a thought experimentto discover the right way to organize a society.When people talk about how society should beorganized they generally take their own situationand interests into account. Rawls asked us toimagine a situation in which we do not knowanything at all about our own lives and then tryto organize society? Without knowing anythingabout our wealth, intelligence, personality, race,gender, religion etc., we would create the fairestsociety. This is because without knowing who weare we have no idea where we will be in societyonce it has been organized. So, in order to makesure we have the best chance to be treated fairlywe create a society in which all people aretreated fairly. The same experiment can beapplied to the train problem. If we do not knowanything about who we are in the experiment wewould chose to kill the one person. This isbecause there is a greater chance of us being", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorOur feelingsare clouded by the way the situation is presentedand so we cannot use feeling as a way to decidewhat to do. For example, most peopleinstinctively say that they would pull the lever tosave the five people. However, if the case ispresented differently and to save the five peopleyou have to push a man onto the track to stopthe train then most people will say not to do it.The two situations are morally identical; the onlychange is the physical act that needs to be done.Therefore it is clear that our feelings can changedespite the principle staying the same.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorChoosing notto act in the situation is still a choice and doesnot remove the responsibility in the situation. Ifsomeone stands by and watched as anotherperson drowns, even though they could haverescued them, then they are no better than themurderer who participates in a person’s death.The idea that active killing only relates to takingaction to cause death is wrong. When one hasthe ability to prevent death then one is activelyinvolved in the situation whether one chooses toaccept it or not.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorWe cannotmake any judgments about whose life is valuableand whose is not It is impossible to know whatany of the people involved in the situation will dowith their life. One might be a serial killer whileanother might be a life-saving doctor. Byattempting to use some sort of calculation in thescenario we are presuming that we have moreknowledge than we actually do. In reality we aretotally ignorant to the right course of action anddoing anything in the situation could be a terriblemistake that causes a lot of pain and suffering inthe future.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-con05a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorThe act ofkilling is emotionally damaging To actually beinvolved in the death of another person is anincredibly traumatic experience. Soldiers comingback from war often suffer from ‘post-traumaticstress disorder’ which suggests that being in asituation in which you have to take anotherpersons life has a long lasting impact on yourmental health. This is also true for people whoare not directly involved in the act of killing. Forinstance, the people who worked on developingthe atomic bomb described an incredible guilt forwhat they had created even though they werenot involved in the decision to drop the bombs.The same traumatic experiences would likelyaffect the person responsible for pulling thelever.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-con04a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorWe do notwant a society in which killing can beacceptable As soon as we agree that there aresituations where killing is acceptable we havereason to fear for our own safety. By acceptingkilling in certain situations society as a wholebecomes more open to the idea. It then becomeshard to draw the line as to where killing isacceptable and where killing is unacceptable. Itis much better to outlaw all instances of killing sothat we have a general moral standard to followin all situations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-con06b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorIn the trainexample there is no one else around and it isonly you that can save the five lives. With thecharity example there are many other ways inwhich the lives can be saved; governments cansave them or other people can donate money.Therefore the moral duty to act is dramaticallyreduced.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-con06a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorUtilitarianismis demanding If we choose to save the fivepeople just because we have the power to do sothen we also have to consider all the other livesthat are in our power to save. It is in our powerto donate all of our excess money to charity tosave lives and so we must also do this. Actionslike this are worthy of praise but no one wouldsuggest that we have a duty to do them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorWeinstinctively know killing is wrong Whilesometimes our feelings as to what is right andwhat is wrong are not accurate they are neededwhen thinking about morality. If a theory is wellargued and thought out but goes against ourfeelings as to what is right and wrong then wewill dismiss it. Most people have the feeling thatkilling is wrong and so to partake in any actionthat leads to the death of another is also wrong.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-con05b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorThe sametraumatic affect would also result from notpulling the lever. One must still cope with thefact that one could have saved the five lives.Post traumatic stress disorder can be brought onby experience with horrific death regardless ofwhether or not the sufferer caused the death.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorKilling isworse than letting someone die People die inaccidents and by natural cause all of the time.However, it is much rarer for a person to beactively involved in another person’s death. Ifone chooses to pull the lever and change thecourse of the train then one is activelyparticipating in the death of the one person. Theother option involves no action; it simply allowsa set of events to run their course. There is,therefore, a greater responsibility involved inbeing actively involved in the death of another.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-con04b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorThe specificcircumstances of every case need to be takeninto account. In this case someone will definitelylose their life and one’s decision is to decide howto minimize the damage done. It is wrong tosuggest that this is an act of killing; instead it isan attempt to reduce the number of deaths in atragic situation. Pulling the lever is not an actthat the person would do if the five people werenot tied down and so it is very different from anact of intentional murder.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-elkosmj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ethics life kill one save many juniorGiven that wedon’t know anything about these individuals allwe have to work with are the numbers. If youtake five random people and one random personthen there is a greater chance that among thefive people there is a life saving doctor. The onlytime this is not true is if the average person hasa negative effect on the world. However, if this isthe case we would always have to act in a waythat fewest people survived which is absurd.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedIf there is even a slightinjustice, then there is a problem worthaddressing. It is a fact that recent anti-terrorismlegislation, in nearly all western countries, hasbeen used for a variety of uses from internationalbanking [1] to petty thievery. This is obviouslybeyond the original intentions of thesemeasures; something that should not be takenlightly. [1] Wintour, Patrick, and Gillan, Audrey,‘Lost in Iceland: £1billion from councils, charitiesand police’, 10 October 2008, , accessed 9September 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedThe apparent loss of liberty isoverstated. Negative cases of security abuse arefew and have been greatly exaggerated by anemphatic civil rights lobby that has no empathyfor the victims of terrorism. Of course, with anywide-scale attempt to fight terrorism there arebound to be a few cases of abuse of securitymeasures. For example in the UK terrorismsuspects were originally detained without chargeunder the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Acthowever the detention was declared unlawful bythe law lords in 2005 so the governmentintroduced new scaled back policies such as‘control orders’. [1] Therefore government hasalways been willing to scale back its securitylegislation when the courts believe it goes toofar. Nonetheless it is not a good idea to shutdown all security measures under a pretext thatthey violate rights [2] . The majority of themeasures are intended to safeguard those civilliberties instead of abusing them. [1] Hewitt,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedThe opposition does notexcept the importance of legalisation like the USPatriot Act, as such legislation is always used foraims it was not originally intended for examplewhen it is being used to investigate mediacompanies dedicated to free speech - Wikileaks[1] . The fact that western countries are alreadyquite liberal should not be an argument for whythat has to change. Should we not be movingforwards towards even more freedoms forcitizens instead of backwards? [1] IBTimes StaffReporter, ‘Wikileaks: U.S. Seeks Assange InfoThrough Patriot Act’, 24 August 2011, ,accessed 9 September 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedThe argument is aboutpracticality and the balancing of risks. It wouldbe incredibly disingenuous of the opposition ifthey did not concede that the dangers are greatand that something must be done. Because,deep down, everyone knows that it is simply abalancing of risks – in practice all thegovernment is trying to do is save lives. It is ofcourse, the government’s primary duty to protectcitizens but this can only be done with the loss ofsome civil liberties. These liberties will of coursestill be completely protected by the courts. Whenit comes to the issue of life and death, it is theproposition’s hope that a few civil liberties wouldbe only willingly given up by any prudent citizen.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedNational security issomething that must be protected even at thecost of Terrorism is part of the modern worldand is inextricably linked with the rise of moderncommunications, the internet, and a globalcommunity. This is an age in which space andtime are bending to the tune of new media –information at your fingertips may sound nice,but for those who want to destroy, it only makestheir object easier to attain. And so more strictnational security measures must be employed inorder to keep up with the enemy. Escalation isthe name of the game imposed on governmentsaround the world by terrorists for example theMumbai terrorists used GPS systems to guidethem into Mumbai, attacks were coordinated oncell and satellite phones and Blackberrys wereused to monitor the international reaction [1] .In order to keep up states need new powers tostop, deter, and prevent terrorism. Thegovernment needs to secure state-security first;", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedNothing justifies some of thesecurity measures taken by westerngovernments. The ancient western conventionsof the accused being innocent until proven guiltyand his right to a fair trial have both beenundermined [1] by the recent Labouradministration in the UK. And all in the name ofsecurity. The trade-off has gone too far; liberty issomething that must be protected at all costs – itseems that governments the world over haveforgotten that the whole point of the state is tooprotect citizens liberty, not destroy it. [1] BBCNews, ‘A brief history of habeas corpus’, 9 March2005, , accessed 9 September 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedThe issue would indeed byeasy to solve if what the proposition spoke ofwas the whole story. Unfortunately, the legalmeasures put in place will always be open toabuse and so, as all power corrupts – and asabsolute power corrupts absolutely – the moreand more power we give to the authorities themore and more abuse and corruption we willwitness. We have seen what happens with big,powerful governments; this is a historical rule,without exception.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedGranted, the measures areimplemented with popular support; theopposition cannot argue against this. However,to claim that democracy has some inherent valuebeyond providing a stable society is naïve.Democracy is, in this example, simply thetyranny of the majority – populist measures likeunjust anti-terrorism legislation holds nocurrency in reasoned debate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedWestern countries alreadybenefit from extremely liberal laws. The USA isat present far better than most countries in theirrespect and regard for civil liberties. Newsecurity measures do not greatly compromisethis liberty, and the US measures are at the veryleast comparable with similar measures alreadyin effect in other democratic developedcountries, e.g. Spain and the UK, which have hadto cope with domestic terrorism for far longerthan the USA. The facts speak for themselves –the USA enjoys a healthy western-liberalism thelikes of which most of the world’s people cannoteven conceive of. The issue of the erosion of afew minor liberties of (states like the US’s)citizens should be overlooked in favour of themuch greater issue of protecting the veryexistence of that state. [1] [1] Zetter, Kim, ‘ThePatriot Act Is Your Friend’, Wired, 24 February2004, , accessed 9 September 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedIt is with the popular supportof the public that security measures aretaken. Let us not forget that is with the consentof the public that these security measures aretaken, CCTV for example was a populist measurethat has often been considered a threat to civilliberties [1] . It is in line with democratic ideals;the majority of the country wants greatersecurity [2] . For example in 2005 59% ofAmericans wanted the Patriot Act extended. [3]And because democracy embodies all thosevalues we are fighting for – freedom and equalityincluded- we must adhere to a democratic spiritwhen deciding on how to organise ourselves orelse risk falling into the same mind-set as thoseterrorists themselves. [1] Norris, Clive, McCahill,Mike and Wood, David, ‘Editorial. The Growth ofCCTV: a global perspective on the internationaldiffusion of video surveillance in publicallyaccessible space’, Surveillance & Society,2(2/4):110-135, 2004, (2)/editorial.pdf,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedIf the opposition’s argumentis correct then there is simply no way to win. Theargument is illogical; they would have theterrorists pick us off slowly until we were allvictims all because we simply let them. In short,governments have to do something instead ofbeing completely irrational and holding theimmature high ground – “letting them win” is achildish argument.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedThe proposition can point tothe clear acts of terrorism of recent years thathave proven difficult to combat and fatal to somany thousands. What the opposition is askingis to simply disregard all these facts on principle,and on principle only; this is overly idealistic andnaïve to the extent where people’s lives would beput at risk. To question the motives ofdemocratically accountable governments is aseparate question; this is about terrorism andhow to stop it; it’s about life and death, and howbest protect the former and stop (by all meansnecessary) the latter.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedThe loss of individual libertyis the start of a slippery slope. The propositionputs us in a dangerous place. That situation isthe thin edge of a totalitarian wedge – we musttake a principled stand for liberty and stop theincreasing number of anti-terrorist legislationand over powerful policing powers. Many evilevents in history started with good intentionsand few cases of injustice. Allowing even a fewabuses as an acceptable side effect of improvedsecurity will change the tolerance level of thepublic and lead to a belief that rights such as thepresumption of innocence and habeas corpus(which prevents the state from imprisoningsomeone without charging them with a crimeand then trying them) are a negotiable luxury.Furthermore, abuses of the system are likely tovictimise certain minority groups (e.g. Muslims,Arab-Americans) in the same way thatJapanese-Americans and many other groupswere persecuted in World War II, [1] something", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con05a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedIn the public’s eyes, thegovernment seems to suspecteveryone. Although the anti-terrorist measuresare supposed to be trying to catch certainpeople, it is the whole of the public who have tosuffer on a daily basis: an abundance of securitycameras, security checks, and anti-privacymeasures continually invade innocent people’slives and yet it is supposed to be the terroristswho are being punished. The issue of justice, andwhether it is actually being done, has to be fullylooked at properly. These measures are notsolving the problem of terrorism as it does notaddress the core grievances. Instead other wayssuch as negotiation to address grievances isnecessary, as happened in Northern Ireland [1]. [1] Bowcott, Owen, ‘Northern Ireland’, TheGuardian, 11 May 2007, , accessed 9 September2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedIt impedes economicprogress. Extra-security measures only impede,or halt the flow of trade [1] , make the countryharder to deal with - less internationally‘friendly’, and disrupt communities. Securitystates almost always have slower growth thanfreer states because there is extra red tape,transport networks are slowed down, forexample airport check ins take much longer. TheU.S. Travel Association, says on average, in theUnited States as a result of the airport securitymeasures each person avoids two to three trips ayear because of the hassles of airport-securityscreening. That amounts to an estimated $85billion in lost business for hotels, restaurants,airlines and other travel suppliers. [2] And this iseven before the losses caused by unproductivehours, and deterred investment. All these thingswill decrease incomes and GDP growth. [1]Verrue, Robert, ‘Tighter Security Must Not SlowDown World Trade’, The European institute,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedIt would be letting theterrorists win It is the aim of all terrorists toinfluence by violent means government policy. Ifwe changed how our country was run we wouldbe letting the terrorists win – they would begetting what they wanted. If we changed theway we lived [1] , greater security measures orsomething else, we would be shaping our societyto the tune of the terrorist. So more securitymeasures at airports limit the freedom to travel,turning the country into a surveillance societymakes everyone nervous; ultimately the countryis no longer the same as it was having lost thefreedoms which are the best way to combatterrorism. This is something perverselywrong. [1] Symanovich, Steve, ‘If you don’tread this, the terrorists win’, WashingtonBusiness Journal, 24 December 2001,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con05b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedThis is just like any otherinvestigation. Obviously the government has totake a broad approach because any loopholecould be exploited by the unscrupulous terrorist.It is a necessity, albeit one with unfortunateconsequences, but a necessity all the same. Asfor negotiations with terrorists, it is thepropositions view that this option does not existwhen dealing with terrorists of a fundamentalistbackground, who are, by definition, not willing tocompromise and therefore unable to benegotiated with.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedThe threat of terrorism andsecurity risks are overstated. The threat ofterrorism is greatly over exaggerated. Westerngovernments all over the world are effectivelyselling the threat of terrorism to their citizens inorder to increase their powers of control. Thethreat, however, has to be exaggerated in orderfor the electorate to believe that the securitymeasures are needed. The motives ofgovernments doing this vary; some just want thenew security measures to make their jobs easier;others however, see it as an opportunity toincrease state control and power over theaverage citizen. There is not enough evidence toshow that terrorism has evolved into somethingmore threatening since than it had been forseveral decades. For example there was thebombing of Pan Am 103 in 1988 killing 270people or the 1983 bombing of the US embassyin Beirut which killed 63. [1] While the scale issmaller than the 9/11 attacks they are just as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedAdmittedly, extra-securitymeasures do halt economic growth. But thenagain, so do a lot of things like inertia, or lack ofconsumer confidence. It is, however, a matter ofdegree; if the trade-off is between a lessening ofeconomic growth and lives saved, then it is nothard to decide in which direction reason isbehind. When lives are saved the economybenefits as those people will remain productiveworkers. And having lots of security is not allnegative, the security business does very well.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pphbclsbs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy house believes civil libertiesshould be sacrificedIf the opposition is citingexamples from history then there are just asmany examples, if not more, of westerngovernments resisting the corrupting effects ofincreased power and turning not from good intoevil intentions. The fact of the matter is thatmost of today’s western nations have a relativelygood track record. It seems the opposition isonce again forgetting the real enemy – theterrorists. In most Western countries we have afully independent and liberal judiciary, vigorouslyand vigilantly watching for human rights abusesand protecting civil liberties. For nearly allWestern countries, a slippery slope simply doesnot exist.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positiveThere is littleor no evidence of bias in universities admissionsprocedures. Universities admissions departmentsgo to great lengths to ensure fairness, not leastbecause it is in their own self-interest to takeonly the best applicants, to maintain theintellectual credibility of their institution. Anyovert or explicit discrimination would be illegal,and should be guarded against by using a widerange of admissions procedures and interview(where applicable) by more than one academic.Any charge of prejudice would be an argumentfor ‘colour-blind’ (or school-blind) admissions, inwhich the background of the applicant is hiddenfrom the admissions officer, so as to prevent anypossibility of discrimination, subconscious orotherwise. The presence of positivediscrimination would, if anything, raise theincidence of racism and prejudice on universitycampuses, with lecturers and fellow studentsresentful of members of the university perceived", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positiveOvercomesprejudice Affirmative action is required toovercome existing prejudice in universities’admissions procedures. There is clear prejudicein the job market, as shown in a study byMarianne Bertrand, an associate professor at theUniversity of Chicago Graduate School ofBusiness, and Sendhil Mullainathan ofMassachusetts Institute of Technology. [1] [2]Following this line of thinking, it is therefore nota far-fetched idea that admissions departmentsin top universities are likely to be discriminatingagainst applicants from minority backgrounds,even if this process is not deliberate. A senioracademic will look to see in applicants qualitiesthey see in themselves, so, given theoverwhelmingly white, affluent, male makeup ofthe academic community, minorities are at adisadvantage even if the admissions officer is notintending to discriminate against them. Prejudicetowards certain types of applicants is blatantly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positivePositivediscrimination will increase negative perceptionsof university. Far from changing attitudes aboutcampus life among disadvantaged groups,positive discrimination is likely to be seen aspatronising, belittling of the achievements ofethnic minorities and the working class, andserve to reinforce negative stereotypes15. Bymaking the statement that disadvantaged groupsare so far behind the rest that they needdiscrimination in their favour and quotas,universities will alienate themselves from thegroup they are seeking to help, and will comeover as elitist. Survey evidence suggests thataffirmative action is usually opposed by thetarget group, affirming the view that people wishto achieve things for themselves, without beinggiven a ‘leg-up’ by the state. Moreover, positivediscrimination devalues the achievements ofthose who would have been accepted intouniversity even without the assistance, and these", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positiveEquality ofopportunity Affirmative action is required forequality of opportunity. Under the status quo, itis easier for students who go to better schools toget into university. This is reflected in data fromthe UK - Oxford and Cambridge universities (thetop academic institutions) take more than 50%of their students from private schools, despite93% of UK schoolchildren state educated. [1] Inaddition, there is a clear underrepresentation ofethnic minorities in these universities. [2] Asimilar story is evident with regards to ethnicminorities in the USA - white students are morelikely to graduate from high school and go tocollege than black and Hispanic ones. [3] [4]These examples reflect the opportunities grantedto wealthier children from particularsocioeconomic and racial groups, whose superioreducation and less disruptive home lives givethem a leg-up. It is unfair that such randomaspects, which have nothing to do with talent or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positiveThoughaffirmative action wishes to create an equality ofopportunity for the poor and ethnic minorities, italso creates an unfair situation in which talentedstudents lose their places. Ability may ultimatelynot be rewarded as the whole point of affirmativeaction is to promote a less able applicant aheadof a more able one, measured by their testscores. It undermines the fairness of the systemif reasonable objective measures of a person’sability, such as exam performance and aptitudetesting, are overlooked. Under a system ofpositive discrimination, able students from themajority group or who went to private school arerequired to achieve more than others to get thesame reward. Furthermore, positivediscrimination is bad for the talented studentsfrom the target group who would get intouniversity even without affirmative action: thepolicy will undermine their achievement, makingtheir peers (and even them) believe that they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positiveQuotascreate stigmas and enforce negative stereotypesabout ethnic minorities. It means that studentsfrom these groups are incapable of enteringuniversities on their own. And during their timeat university, the students may face the stigmaof being known as a “quota student”. This maycause students to feel inferior and loseself-confidence, and this may ultimately affecttheir academic performance. In addition, quotasdo not solve the root cause of the problem. Thebest way to help the poor and ethnic minorities isthrough investments in public schools and basicservices so that at the end of the day, admissiontests are a true reflection of academic ability andnot as a result of economy and geography.[1] [1] Stahlberg, S.G. “Racial Inequality andAffirmative Action in Education in Brazil”. August2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positiveChangesnegative perceptions of universitylife Affirmative action is required to changenegative perceptions of university life. In thestatus quo, many talented potential students areput off applying for top universities (or universityat all) because of their negative perceptions ofelite institutions. This perception exists in partbecause of the makeup of the student population– black high school students may see auniversity filled overwhelmingly with whitelecturers and students as not being a welcomingenvironment for them, and may even perceive itas racist. [1] The only way to overcome thisunfortunate stereotype of university is to changethe student population, but this is impossible todo ‘organically’ while so few people from minoritybackgrounds apply. Therefore, it is necessary touse quotas and other forms of affirmative action,to change the student body in the short term,and encourage applications from more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positiveIncrease thenumber of Minorities College admissionprocesses are impersonal and favourably biasedtowards white, affluent students – therefore,quotas specifically for minority students need tobe established. College admissions processes areas such because they heavily rely on standardtests or college admission exams. This hascaused countries such as Brazil to create quotasfor brown (mixed) and black students in mostuniversities. [1] These students cannot affordthe better education enjoyed by their rich, whitecounterparts, and therefore do not perform wellin college exams and do not gain admission intouniversity. Quotas are needed to make theadmission process a little bit fairer and increasethe number of minorities in universitycampuses. [1] Stahlberg, S.G. “Racial Inequalityand Affirmative Action in Education in Brazil”.August 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-con03b", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positiveAffirmativeaction has never sort to be the cure forunderlying social problems. The goal of positivediscrimination is to level out the playing field foradmission procedures; and create opportunitiesfor disadvantaged groups. In a society in whichsweeping societal reforms that benefit minoritiesare not forthcoming, affirmative action may beregarded as an immediate solution whichcounteracts the continual injustice faced bycertain groups.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-con01b", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positiveBy havingmore students from disadvantaged backgroundsget into university and ultimately have access totop professions, and more likely to enter politics,law, or become the heads of major corporations,affirmative action will generate more role modelsfor the poor and ethnic minorities. As aconsequence, the aspirations of disadvantagedyouths will change – it will become more realisticfor them to see themselves in public life, and willthus have a better incentive to work hard atschool. Not only is this good for their owndevelopment, but it will also help wider societyby tackling social problems such as petty crimeand truancy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-con02a", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positiveAffirmativeaction can create social tensions Under thepolicy of affirmative action, there is a real dangerthat social tensions become inflamed. This isbecause in the process of benefiting minoritygroups it helps to disenfranchise the majority.For example in the 2001 riots in Oldham andother cities of Northern England one of the maincomplaints from poor white areas was allegeddiscrimination in council funding. [1] There was apossibility that the more privileged from minoritygroups such as upper-class blacks will befavoured at the expense of the marginalisedwithin majority groups such as lower-classwhites. Therefore, rather correct racial bias,affirmative action may inevitably deepen it. [1]Amin, A., 2002. ‘Ethnicity and the multiculturalcity: living with diversity.’ Environment andPlanning, 34, pp.959-980, p.963", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-con03a", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positiveAffirmativeaction will not work The underlying issue whichaffirmative action tries to gloss over is theembedded social problems which put the poorand ethnic monitories in continual disadvantagesgeneration after generation. This policy merelypapers over the cracks by masking the fact thatthe failures of state-funded schooling andattempts at integration have led to a situation inwhich ethnic minorities and the poor are sovastly underrepresented in universities. Thestate should do more to address theseunderlying problems, rather than covering up itsfailures with a tokenistic policy. Better funding ofstate schools, real parental choice in education,and accountability through the publication ofcomparable examination data would all drive upstandards and allow more underprivilegedchildren to fulfil their potential. [1] [2] [1]Gryphon, M. “The Affirmative Action Myth”. CatoInstitute Policy Analysis. No 540. April 13,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-con01a", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would usepositiveAchievements should be earned notgiven There is a great possibility thatbeneficiaries of positive discrimination may notbe regarded as good role models as theirachievements may be viewed as unearned. [1] Arole model is someone others can look up to andadmire for the things they achieved through hardwork and talent – by parachuting people intouniversity, their ability to act as a role model isundermined. It is also patronising to assume thatyoung people from ethnic minorities can onlylook up to people who have the same colourskin, or went to the same type of school – in asociety that admires diversity andcosmopolitanism, we should surely accept thatanyone can act as a role model. [1] The BritishPsychological Society. “The Hillary Clinton effect- how role models work for some people but notothers”.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npppmhwup-con02b", "title": "", "text": "niversity philosophy political philosophyminorities house would use positiveSocialtension, especial in poor areas and minoritygroups, does not come as a result of unfairaffirmative action policies, but as a result ofinadequate funds available to the communitieswhich result in individuals struggling for limitedresources. Affirmative Action creates anopportunity whereby more politicians andbusinesspeople rise up from humble backgroundsare given the chance to change the political andeconomic structure of society. By “giving back”to their community, they will be able to assistthe less well-off, for example by expandingwelfare systems and ensuring greater equality ofopportunities, or through different hiringpractices.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalNeo-functionalismbelieves in building a community Europe, butthen the question is raised, what is the purposeof this new entity? There is no common outlookand getting the major powers of Europe to agreewhat this should be will be near impossible.Intergovernmentalists would also argue thateconomic determinism regarding integration iswrong. As they believe national governmentshave to consciously make these decisions andwill not be economically driven alone, ‘Extensivecooperation is not at all ruled out: on thecontrary, such cooperation will benefit allparticipants as long as it corresponds to andenhances mutual interests’. It will always bepolitics that drive integration, while the motivemay be economic – to solve a crisis or even justto profit – the key decisions by all actors will bepolitical. [1] [1] Martell, Luke, ‘Globalisation andEconomic Determinism’, Paper given at GlobalStudies Association conference, Challenging", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalNeo-functionalismproposes a purpose to EUintegration. Neo-functionalism proposed buildinga community Europe, through the concept ofspillover the theory proposes economicdeterminism. Spill-over will eventually lead to acompletely integrated Europe with a strongcentral government. This has not yet beenproved true, as EU integration has become along and difficult process. This is understandablesince it is not exactly easy to integrate togetherall those policies, economies and people.However this would most probably be theeventual result, which is already visible: Theexperience of the European Union (EU) is widelyperceived as not just an example, but the modelfor regional integration. In recent years, the EUhas also been pursuing an increasing number oftrade agreements which may in turn lead tospillover. [1] Furthermore the recentenlargements of the EU in Eastern Europe, as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalIntergovernmentalismassumes states to be the core actors, this isdifficult to deny as most economic boundariesand policies are administered by the nationstate. It believes that the logic of diversity willprevail in areas of high politics (e.g. security),however it does accept the logic of integration inlow politics, that when interests coincideintegration is possible (when there is consensusamong elites, similar external situations anddomestic politics situations).Intergovernmentalism does not allow for theidealist aim of transforming the regional systemto a ‘better’ order as what qualifies as ‘better’?The logic of diversity denies the possibility ofstates agreeing on what is ‘better’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalSupranationalEntrepreneurs played a crucial role inintegration The role of supranationalentrepreneurs within the development ofintegration within Europe has been crucial.Characters such as Jean Monnet envisaged andworked continuously towards uniting Europe. Asthe head of France's General PlanningCommission, Monnet was the real author of whathas become known as the 1950 Schuman Plan tocreate the European Coal and Steel Community(ECSC), forerunner of the Common Market. Latera similar role was played by Jacques Delors withthe creation of the Single European Act (SEA)and the all-important 1992 project that wouldsee the single market and eventually fullyEconomic and Monetary Union complete. Thesecharacters act in support of integration withinEurope and represent an empirical example ofcultivated spill-over. Unmitigated pressure fromDelors in pushing for the single market ensured", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalNeo-functionalismexplains the cause of integration Spill-over isthe following concept – in order to enjoy the fullbenefits of integration of the first sector youneed to integrate the related sectors. Anexample of this is the ECSC (European Coal andSteel Community) evolving into other energysectors and forming Euratom. There are threetypes of spill-over – functional spill-over, politicalspill-over and cultivated spill-over. Firstly,functional spill-over, which regards spill-over inan economic context. For example, this mightinvolve integrating coal and steel, thenintegrating transport systems so that coal andsteel are moved around more easily. Secondly,there is Political spill-over, where political actorsshift their allegiance to a new centre, forexample from the national parliament toBrussels. Thirdly, there is cultivated spill-over,which is the idea that institutions drive furtherintegration by being in practice; for example the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalThe counter theory tospill-over is the logic of diversity.Neo-functionalism is flawed as it assumes thatintegration in low politics (economic) will lead tointegration in areas of high politics. This is notpossible as issues of high politics are integral tothe national interest; so integration will only bepossible when national interests coincide, whichis possible but unlikely. Neo-functionalismbelieves areas of high politics can be cultivatedinto integration, whereas intergovernmentalismbelieves that the fate of the nation-state shouldnever be subject to the decisions of others.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalThe role of elitesacting in their national interest better explainsthe logic behind integration. Key players such asCharles De Gaulle and his untiring opposition toBritish membership and Qualified Majority Voting(QMV) in the Council of Ministers and his successin gaining what he set out to achieve through theLuxembourg compromise demonstrates that thetrue power actually lay with him and the state.Another example to contradicting the role Delorsplayed was that of Margaret Thatcher. Herrelentless demand for a British rebate (1979)and general demeanour in the European Councildemonstrated a powerful state elite getting herway. The single market came about becauseThatcher wanted it more than most and was thuswilling to compromise on certain areas of theSingle European Act (i.e. on QMV in the Councilof Ministers). [1] It is because of this that therole of individual elites is far superior to that ofsupranational entrepreneurs. [1] Dinan,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalNeo-functionalism istoo simple, it does not account for externalforces well, as some states have better definedtheir international position more towards UShegemony than towards each other. “Whereas ineconomic issues (soft power) the EU has beenable to respond to the US in trade disputes, inpolitical and security affairs (hard power) thepanorama is mostly discouraging“. [1]Intergovernmentalism rejects economicdeterminism and therefore rejectsNeo-functionalism’s ability to predict.Neo-functionalism may provide a starting pointfor analysis but it requires much more to be ableto explain other pressures of integration. [1]Dominguez-Rivera, Roberto, ‘Dealing with theU.S. hegemony: soft and hard power in theexternal relations of the EU’, 8th InternationalConference of the European Union StudiesAssociation, 27 March 2003,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalNeo-functionalism -liberal theory of regionalintegration Neo-functionalism is an example of aliberal theory of regional integration. Its focus ison human welfare needs, not political conflictand law. Its focus is on individuals aggregatedinto interest groups as the main actors inintegration, so the focus is on low politics andthe areas which become integrated in theEuropean Union reflect that. As such there hasbeen much more progress on economicintegration than there has on creating a commonforeign and security policy. [1] It also acceptsthe independent role of internationalorganisations and that the transformation of theinternational regional system towards a betterorder is feasible so making the European Union aproject worth investing effort in. [1] Center forEuropean studies, ‘European Union –CommonForeign and Security Policy’, unc.edu,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalNeo-functionalismprovides a good starting point for EUanalysis. Neo-functionalism is an accessibletheory which provides a good starting point foranalysis. As a theory it has the advantages ofbeing able to predict the outcome of integrationand clearly explains which actors must bestudied in order to explain integration. Haas andLindberg’s “main thesis was that sectorialintegration was inherently expansive -integration of some functional tasks would tendto spill over into integration of other tasks(…) Inthe basis of this analysis, Haas argued that anacceleration of the integration process could be'safely predicted' and that it might lead to a'political community of Europe' within a decade”.[1] [1] Tranholm-Mikkelsen, Jeppe\"Neo-functionalism: Obstinate or Obsolete? AReappraisal in the Light of the New Dynamism ofthe EC Millennium - Journal of InternationalStudies, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp.1-22,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalThe Empty Chair Crisisof 1965 may lead some to presume that Nationalgovernments are all powerful, but it may havejust been a ‘speed-bump’ on the road ofspillover. Ben Rosamond (2005) [1] did areassessment of Haas and concluded that henever abandoned Neofunctionalism; he justchanged it and accepted more the view of‘Complex Interdependence’. The revival ofintegration since 1985 including the Treaty ofMaastricht 1991 led to co-decision procedureswhich are an example of Political spillover aspolitical decisions and procedure moved to thesupranational level. [1] Rosamond, Ben, 'TheUniting of Europe and the Foundations of EUStudies: Revisiting the Neofunctionalism of EnrstB. Haas', Journal of European Public Policy, Vol.12, No. 2, 2005, pp. 237-254,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalErnst B. Haas was thefounder of Neo-functionalism in 1951, JeppeTranholm-Mikkelsen identified the 3 types ofspill-over within the theory. However neitherauthor placed a time limit on how long theintegration process would take. The revival ofEuropean integration in 1985 shows it may bemany years between instances whenNeo-functionalism is an adequate theory forexplaining integration. This may be equallycoming true in the financial crisis as the Euro isnecessitating further reforms and may well leadto much greater integration in order to have thetools prevent members being forced out. Thepolitical spill-over concept makes account for thefact that national elites 'will undergo a learningprocess, developing the perception that theirinterests will be better served by seekingsupranational than national solutions'. [1] [1]Tranholm-Mikkelsen, Jeppe, ‘Neo-functionalism:Obstinate or Obsolete? A Reappraisal in the Light", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalThe Founder ofNeo-functionalism abandoned his own Theory(Haas). The Founder of Neo-functionalist theoryErnst B. Haas later abandoned his own theory;According to Tranholm-Mikkelsen (1991)- “Bythe mid-1970 s, Ernst Haas had effectivelyabandoned the neo-functionalist theory byassimilating it within general interdependencetheories of international relations”. [1] Thetheory proved a success in the economic realmbut a fiasco in high politics; “…at the time of the‘empty chair’ crisis [see next point]neo-functionalism was considered too incapableof describing the process of integration ingeneral because of its extreme Eurocentricnature. Rosamond states that it is emerged fromthe process of complex web of actors pursuingtheir interests within a pluralist politicalenvironment.” [2] Neo-functionalism remained apartial theory, good at explaining particular partsof integration but required supplanting by other", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalThe internationalsystem is characterised by anarchy and thedistribution of economic and militarycapabilities Stanley Hoffman used a Neo-Realistview of International relations to build the theoryof intergovernmentalism. In a neo-realistunderstanding the international system ischaracterised by anarchy and the distribution ofeconomic and military capabilities is of primaryimportance. States will not trust each other butcan still reach agreement, but the agreement willbe characterised by bargaining and negotiation(not an automatic process!) ‘Nations prefer thecertainty, or the self-controlled uncertainty, ofnational self-reliance, to the uncontrolleduncertainty of the untested blender’. [1] [1]Wikipedia, ‘Intergovernmentalism’,en.wikipedia.org,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalThe Empty Chair Crisis1965 In 1965 during the Empty Chair Crisisbrought integration came to a halt and shiftedthe institutional balance of power away from thecommission to the Council of Ministers, it showsthat spillover will not always occur. [1] It wascaused by President de Gaulle of France being inconflict with other member states, specificallyGermany and Italy. France wanted a deal on theCommon Agricultural Policy but was unwilling toagree to further integration through creatingmajority voting in the Council of Ministers. WhenFrance took on the Presidency the normal systemof mediation was lost. Bonn and Rome wereunwilling to give way. [2] De Gaulle pulled hisministers out of the Council of Ministers thusreasserting the power of national governments.This showed that states would not automaticallybe prepared to give up their national sovereigntyand might of helped lead to the abandonment ofNeo-functionalism in the 1970s. [1] Moga,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalThe assumption of theautomaticity of Spill-over is wrong. The core ofNeo-functionalism that spill-over being the maindriving force behind continuing integrationassumed the automaticity of integration. Onceintegration has started it will be a self-continuingforce that will eventually integrate the whole ofEurope - is clearly wrong. Supranationalfunctionalism 'assumed first, that nationalsovereignty, already devalued by events, couldbe chewed up leaf by leaf like an artichoke'. [1]The functional method of spill-over is verylimited, its success in the relatively painless areain which it works relatively well lifts theparticipants to the level of issues to which it doesnot apply well any more. For example nocommon defence or foreign policy within thecommunity project has been successful. Thisfailure in high politics is fundamental, without acoordinated foreign and security policy the roleof the EU in the world is open to question.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalNeo-functionalism hasa liberal view of the international system;whereby agreements can be easilyreached. Actually the European Union hasproven the exact opposite of the statement –“Nations prefer the certainty, or theself-controlled uncertainty, of nationalself-reliance, to the uncontrolled uncertainty ofthe untested blender” as they give more andmore power to the united institutions of theEuropean Union – the European Commission andthe European Parliament. The most recenttreaty, the Lisbon treaty, proves this as it givesmore rights to the EU on account of nationalpower Lisbon’ gives the European Parliament amuch greater say in the EU’s decision-makingprocess, it reduced national vetos, created apresident and a representative for foreign affairs.[1] [1] Europa, ‘Treaty of Lisbon: The Treaty ata glance’, Europa.eu,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-npegiepp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "nomic policy economy general internationaleurope philosophy politicalIntergovernmentalismtoo has proved 'out of date'. It fails to payenough attention to supranational institutions;its focus is too exclusively on big treatynegotiations and fails to understand to increasingimportance of economic issues.Intergovernmentalism as a theory collapses inthe view of actual integration taking place: therevival of integration from mid-1980s onwards.In the 1990s Intergovernmentalism wassupplanted by 'Liberal Intergovernmentalism'from the scholar Andrew Moravcsik in his work'Preferences and Power in the EuropeanCommunity: A liberal IntergovernmentalistApproach' (1993). [1] [1] Moravcsik, Andrew,‘Preferences and Power in the EuropeanCommunity: A Liberal IntergovernmentalistApproach’, Journal of Common Market Studies(30th Anniversary Edition) (December 1993).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someThere are proceduralways of mitigating this concern that are lesssevere than eliminating the jury altogether.Possible ways of dealing with juryintimidation/tampering include 1) having retrialsin cases where jury tampering occurred, 2)attempting to increase the degree of juroranonymity, for example by seating jurors wherethey cannot be seen, and 3) by having higherpenalties for jury tampering and intimidation.The second way is probably the most effective,and American courts have found that in caseswhere jury tampering poses a serious threat, itdoes not interfere with the defendant's right to afair trial.1 1Laura K. Donohue, \"Terrorism andTrial by Jury: The Vices and Virtues of British andAmerican Criminal Law\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someIt may be necessary tolimit trial by jury in cases where there is a realdanger of jury tampering or intimidation. It isvery difficult to carry out trial by jury if peopleinvolved in the case continuously attempt totamper with the jury, or unduly influence itsdecision. For example, the UK home office hasstated that trying to protect jurors fromtampering can be extremely disruptive to thejurors themselves, who may in extreme casesneed police protection 24 hours a day. Casesinvolving international terrorism, drug smugglingor organized crime are the most likely to presentsuch problems 1. In the infamous trial of Italiananarchists Vanzetti and Sacco, one of the jurorshad a bomb thrown at his house, despite a hugenumber of security measures taken by theMassachusetts government 2. Another exampleis the 2008 case of a large armed robbery atHeathrow. After three mistrials, which cost £22mand the last of which collapsed after a serious", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someNot only is trial by jurya very important check on the justice system,but evidence also suggests that juries are fairand effective. First of all, as explained in theOpparguments, trial by jury is an extremelyimportant check in the criminal justice system.Eliminating it would be a grave threat to justice.But second, to address the more practicalconcerns raised by the Proposition, studiesactually suggest that juries are fair and effective.Recent UK Ministry of Justice research found thatjuries tend to be objective and non-biased, andthat cases based on the strongest evidence arealso those cases resulting in the highestconviction rates.1 1Cheryl Thomas, \"Are JuriesFair?\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someIt may be necessary tolimit trial by jury in cases where it is impossibleto recruit an impartial jury. Especially in cases ofnationalist conflict or terrorist attacks, it may beextremely difficult to have a non-biased jury. InNorthern Island, for example, jurors maysympathize with violent offenders and acquitthem despite a preponderance of evidence.Similarly, it can be a struggle to appointnon-biased juries for terrorism trials post 9/11.In 2003, the \"Lackwana Six\" were accused ofaiding a foreign terrorist organization. Themagistrate noted that \"Understandably, theinfamous, dastardly and tragic deeds and eventsof September 11, 2001 have caused a maelstromof human emotions to ... create a humanreservoir of strong emotional feelings such asfear, anxiety and hatred as well as a feeling ofparanoia... These are strong emotions of anegative nature which, if not appropriatelychecked, cause the ability of one to properly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someIt may be necessary tolimit trial by jury in terrorism cases, or othercases surrounding large national securityissues. There are three reasons why this is thecase. First, terrorist groups may threaten jurymembers (see Argument 2 for more detail).Second, terrorism may politicize the jury (seeArgument 3 for more detail). Third, the statemay be limited in what information it can provideif jurors are present. The government may beunable or unwilling to present classifiedinformation for fear of intelligence leaks; forexample if it does not want to reveal intelligencemethods and sources to the public. Thisreluctance may make it very difficult toprosecute terrorists. The implication is that theunique national security issues terrorism trialspose may make juries untenable if we ever wantto convict terrorists of serious crimes.1 1Laura K.Donohue, \"Terrorism and Trial by Jury: The Vicesand Virtues of British and American Criminal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someFirst, eliminating trial byjury may make other countries less willing tocooperate with us, reducing the amount ofinformation we have about internationalterrorism. For example, the United States’decision to eliminate juries from terrorism trialsresulted in other countries being more reluctantto cooperate (e.g. Germany delayed theextradition of two suspected terrorists because ofthat decision). Second, eliminating trial by jurygives the democratic countries less of a moralhigh ground in advocating that other countries –often countries from which terrorists come –adopt liberal democratic structures (somethingwhich already established liberal democraciesgenerally regard as being in their self interest).Third, refusing to grant trial by jury to suspectedterrorists may make other countries less willingto grant our own citizens fair trials when they areabroad.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someFirst, there are checksin place to help prevent biased decisions andsecond, the less objective nature of juries is notnecessarily bad. First, in most jury systems, ajudge can overturn a guilty verdict if s/hebelieves that the jury made a faulty decision1.Judges can also order retrials in cases of guiltyverdicts, if they believe there were proceduralerrors. Furthermore, in most countries there is aphase of the jury selection process in which boththe prosecution and defence can object to ajuror; in many countries each side gets a specificnumber of these unconditional 'peremptorychallenges.' That allows blatantly biased jurors tobe excluded. Perhaps most importantly, at leastwith juries there are multiple people making thedecision, as opposed to a sole judge: there is noreason to assume that a lone judge will be lessbiased, just because of his 'professional training.'But second, having a subjective body making thedecision is not necessarily bad. We obviously", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someTrial by jury is tooimportant to sacrifice it for the sake of efficiency.As explained in the Opposition case, trial by juryis one of the cornerstones of just democraticcourts. There are other ways to free upresources: perhaps if we put fewer people inprison we could spend more time and moneyensuring that the right people got there. AsJudge McQuillan wrote, \"dedication, hard work,planning and resources are the means fordealing effectively and rationally with calendardelays.\"1 1Robert P. Connolly, \"The PettyOffence Exception and Right to a Jury Trial\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someJudges are better atdelivering justice than juries are. Juries are nottechnically trained in evaluating evidence.1Additionally, judges are trained to recognize andsuppress their own prejudices, evaluateinformation given to them, recognizeprosecutorial strategy etc., better allowing themto make objective decisions. Furthermore, somestudies suggest that juries actually work againstthe innocent; a 1979 study found that \"morethan 5 per cent of defendants found guilty byjuries were considered by professionals to havebeen convicted in questionablecircumstances.\"2This is hardly surprising giventhat jurors are ordinary citizens who are forcedto sit through what are often dull and protractedtrials, and who may have little interest in actuallylistening to what is being said (Joanne Frail, ajuror convicted for contempt of court stated thatshe 'drew more than she wrote [during thetrial]').3 Perhaps we should trust in the expertise", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someHaving trial by jury forpeople accused of very small offences is a wasteof resources. Juries are very expensive and timeconsuming, and courts may not be capable ofusing them for all trials. Indeed, in both the UKand the United States, minor or petty offencescan be tried without jury (such offenses aredefined differently in different places; in the USpetty offences are those carrying less than 6months prison time or a fine of $5000)1. That isbecause in densely populated areas, the courtsare simply not capable of handling all trials withjuries 2. But even beyond the limitations alreadyin place, there may be more small-scale trialswhich could function without juries, and free upresources. According to British government crimeadvisor Louise Casey, if all of the either-or cases(cases dealing with minor offences which can betried in either a crown or a magistrates court)were shifted entirely to the latter, Britain wouldsave £30m in the costs of setting up juries. Such", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someFirst, juries are notnecessarily fairer or more just than judges, andsecond, even if trial by jury is an important right,that does not make it an unlimited one. First,there are reasons to believe that juries are lesssuited than judges to make criminal convictions.See Prop Argument 5 for more detail. Butsecond, even if we do not want to eliminate trialby jury, there are still particular circumstanceswhere it makes most sense to defer to suchjudges' authority, as we explained in the Propcase. There are already plenty of checks toprotect the innocent: for example most systemshave right to appeal clauses, safeguards againstdouble jeopardy, presumption of innocence etc.While juries may generally present an addedbenefit, we believe there are circumstanceswhere having a jury presents too many concernsfor it to be a viable option.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someTrial by jury is notnecessary to uphold principles of justice. Asstated in response to Opp Argument 1, there areplenty of other checks in favour of the defence.We do not agree that removing trial by juryerodes at this principle: trial by jury may beimportant, but a judge can still presumeinnocence, treat evidence fairly etc. If juries arenot necessary to uphold the principle of innocentuntil proven guilty, then removing them inspecific circumstances should not undermine theintegrity and justness of the court. Again, weoften do not have trial by jury in the case ofpetty offences, suggesting that this right is notregarded as absolute.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someThrough jurynullification, juries make the law moreaccountable to the people. Although juries arenot technically supposed to nullify the law, orchoose to acquit even if the evidence suggeststhat the defendant is guilty, they sometimes do.This usually happens when the jury believes thelaw is unjust: for example when the punishmentis disproportionate to the crime1 (for examplesome activists encourage juries to nullify in casesof non-violent drug crimes). We believe this isgood because it allows the public to check thegovernment in a way for which rare elections andcomplex legislative processes do not allow. Onlyconsider how many 'democratic' countries haveupheld policies of segregation or discrimination,and it becomes clear that 'free and fair' electionscan lead to outcomes that are anything but. Thusjury nullification can a) protect individuals fromblatantly unjust laws, and b) provide impetus toactual legislative change. For example, some", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someLimiting trial by jury insome cases sets the stage for limiting it in other,unjustified, cases. Humans are fallible, and sosometimes it is better to have absolute rulesagainst certain actions, even if we recognize thatin a perfect world, it might be better to allowsuch actions in very specific circumstances.1 It isfor this reason, for example, that we never allowevidence obtained by illegal measures to bepresented in court, even though such evidencewould sometimes make it possible to convict.Similarly, even if removing trial by jury might begood in individual circumstances, it is too great apower to give to a fallible government which maymisuse that authority. If there is a precedent ofthe right to trial by jury being removed in somecircumstances, even if that removal is justified, itbecomes much easier for corrupt governments toremove it for unjustified reasons, and it becomescorrespondingly more difficult for us to condemnthat decision as illegitimate. 1Brad Hooker,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someTrial by jury is afundamental right and should never beabridged. Trial by jury is an essential check onabuse in the court system for three mainreasons. First, it prevents governmentaloppression by ensuring that non-state actorsdetermine guilt 1. It is dangerous to allow thegovernment—the same body which makes andenforces the laws—to also decide who is guilty ofbreaking the laws. Second, it checks againstcorrupt judges and prosecutors2. Judges are onlyhuman, and are susceptible to the sameweaknesses, like prejudice and corruption, as therest of us. Consequently, it is very dangerous toput the future of defendants in their hands. Arepresentative group of jurors, approved by bothsides, is far less likely to reach an unjustdecision, since they are generally required toreach unanimous decisions to convict, and it isunlikely that an entire jury will be made up ofbiased, corrupt, or negligent people. Third, trial", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someProtections offered in acourt must be absolute in order for the court tobe just. A just adversarial court system ispremised on absolutes: that the defence hascertain absolute rights which check it againstgovernment corruption, and which ensure fairtrials even at the expense of conviction. Indeed,it is for this reason that we say it is better to letten guilty men go free than to punish oneinnocent man. The protections in place thatensure fair trials must always be upheld, or elsethe guarantee of fairness no longer exists. If thegovernment can sometimes remove this right,even in clearly delineated circumstances, thenthe right is no longer absolute, and thepresumption in favour of the defence is farweaker, undermining the justness of the entiresystem.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someIf the situations inwhich trial by jury can be limited are clearlydelineated, governments cannot justify limiting itin unjustified circumstances. Saying that thegovernment can sometimes limit trial by jury isnot equivalent to giving it a pass to do sowhenever it chooses. Obviously there would needto be clear criteria as to when the governmentcould use its power to remove a jury: factorssuch as the level of security threat posed by thetrial, the magnitude of the crime, the imminenceof danger etc. would all need to be considered.Perhaps there could be an extra-governmentalbody to approve such decisions. It is a slipperyslope fallacy to argue that allowing the removalof trial by jury in some cases will lead to theerosion of that right in general. Indeed, manycountries already do limit the right to serious, asopposed to petty crimes, and the Opp has notpresented any evidence that doing so has hadnegative results.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-eppphwlrtjs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "eral philosophy political philosophy house wouldlimit right trial jury someJury nullification is abad thing, and just another reason why trial byjury is not always the best way to deliver justice.When juries nullify, they bypass the electoralprocess, invalidating laws that society hasalready approved by democratic elections. This isunjust, because it means that a small, randomgroup of individuals can ignore laws which havebeen approved by the majority of society. Even ifa juror believes a law to be unjust, it is integralthat he enforce that law, because that lawrepresents the will of a constitutionally checkedmajority, as well as trained and educatedlegislators. If a law is truly unjust, there arebetter avenues to change it: voting in newlegislators, legally protesting, appealing the lawin court etc. Furthermore, there is no guaranteethat jury nullification will be used to protectrights; indeed racist juries frequently acquittedKKK members in the 1950s and 60s.1 The factthat there is no way to prevent jury nullification", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beTerrorism, in the longterm, has far less chances of success than other,peaceful means. It antagonises and angers thecommunity that it targets. It polarises opinionand makes it more difficult for moderates onboth sides to prevail and compromise. A lastingand peaceful settlement can only be won withthe freely given consent of both parties to aconflict or disagreement. The examples given inthis argument are of countries and areas thatstill counter much instability, and in countriessuch as Israel and Palestine a sustainablepeaceful solution still seems far away. Moreover,the Oslo peace process is the result of long-term,diplomatic efforts on an international scale, andterrorism does not seem to have contributeddirectly to this process.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beTerrorism can lead todiscussion In some cases, terrorism can result inthe acknowledgement of certain groups.Therefore, terrorism is justified by its success inachieving results when peaceful means havefailed. In many countries terrorists havesucceeded in bringing governments to negotiatewith them and make concessions to them. Wheregovernments have not been willing to concede torational argument and peaceful protest,terrorism can compel recognition of a cause.Nelson Mandela moved from terrorist toPresident. In many other countries we see thistrend too – in Israel, Northern Ireland, in SriLanka, and in the Oslo peace process that led tothe creation of the Palestinian Authority. [1] [1]Palestine Facts. (n.d.). Details of the OsloAccords. Retrieved August 3, 2011, fromPalestine Facts:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beNot all attention thatfollows terrorism is positive. After the 9/11attacks, aid workers in Afghanistan were forcedto cut off food supplies in the country, eventhough 7 to 8 million civilians were dependent onthem. [1] The kind of terrorist attacks thatattract the most attention are the violent ones,and they are likely to be met with reactions ofdisgust and grief. This means that theinternational community is less likely tosympathize with their cause, which results in lesssupport. [1] Chomsky, N. (2001, October 18).Terrorism Works. Retrieved August 3, 2011,from Media Monitors Network:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism canbeConsequentialism Actions can only be justifiedby their outcomes, and if the outcome of an actof terror is an overall increase of justice, freedomand welfare, this action is therefore legitimate.Many people around the world suffer on a dailybasis from poverty, injustices and violence.Generally, these people did not choose to suffer,nor was it a result of their actions; therefore itcan be seen as a logical conclusion that it is agood thing that this suffering is diminished.However, authorities might not always agree toredistribution or an acknowledgement of rights,and more drastic measures are needed to obtainthe goal. If, in this case, the use of acts of terroris needed to obtain greater goods such as justiceand equality, and this would mean that onbalance, more people would gain more utility,the action would be justified. In this way,terrorism can be seen as an effective weapon ina revolutionary struggle that results in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beLegitimacy In extremecases, in which peaceful and democratic methodshave been exhausted, it is legitimate andjustified to resort to terror. In cases ofrepression and suffering, with an implacablyoppressive state and no obvious possibility ofinternational relief, it is sometimes necessary toresort to violence to defend one’s people andpursue one’s cause. Every individual or(minority) group has the right to express itsdiscontent. The state, being a representation ofthe people, should facilitate this possibility. Evenmore, the state should support the rights ofminorities, in order to prevent the will of themajority suppressing the rights of people withother interests. If this does not happen, the statehas failed to serve its purpose and loses itslegitimacy. This, in combination with the growinginequalities and injustices amongst certaingroups, justifies committing acts of terror inorder to defend these rights, that were denied in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beTerrorism is neverjustified. Peaceful and democratic means mustalways be used. If this cannot happen inside thestate, there are international courts such as theInternational Criminal Court in the The Hague,which handle cases such as war crimes andoppression. Even when democratic rights aredenied, non-violent protest is the only moralaction. And in the most extreme cases, in whichsubject populations are weak and vulnerable toreprisals from the attacked state, it is especiallyimportant for groups not to resort to terror.Terrorism merely exacerbates a situation, andcreates a cycle of violence and suffering.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beThe end does not justifythe means. Even in cases of oppression, it isbetter to persecute your interest throughnon-violent and legal means. There may becases where only an act of terror will lead to adirect improvement of overall utility, but thesecases are very rare. Often terrorist attacks areperformed by extremist groups who have viewsthat differ from the majority of the communitythey claim to represent. Most people prefernon-violent means, and the repercussions ofviolent terrorist acts, such as the invasion ofAfghanistan to eradicate the Taliban, will largelyworsen the position of the marginalized insociety.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beStates who ignore theGeneva Conventions, for example by mistreatingprisoners or deliberately attacking civiliantargets, are guilty of terrorism and this cannotbe justified. Nor are the Conventions onlyapplicable to warfare between sovereign states -their principles can be clearly applied in otherkinds of conflict and used to distinguish betweenlegitimate military struggle and indefensibleterrorism. Nor is it reasonable to argue thatthere are grey areas, and that civilians aresometimes legitimate targets - once such a claimhas been made anything can eventually be\"justified\" in the name of some cause. All toooften the political leaderships of protestmovements have decided that limited \"physicalforce\" is necessary to advance their cause, onlyto find the violence spiralling out of control. The\"hard men\" who are prepared to use force endup in control of the movement, whichincreasingly attracts criminals and others who", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beTerrorism can bringattention Terrorism can raise the profile of aneglected cause. The hi-jackings of the 1970sand 1980s brought publicity to the Palestiniancause, helping to bring it to the attention of theworld. [1] States can use their wealth and mediato put across their side of the story; theiropponents do not have these resources andperhaps need to resort to terrorism to publicisetheir cause. In this way, limited and focused useof violence can have a dramatic internationalimpact. [1] Tristam, P. (n.d.). The 1970Palestinian Hijackings of Three Jets to Jordan.Retrieved August 3, 2011, from About.com:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beTerrorism isrelative The definition of terrorism depends verymuch upon your point of view - the propositiondoes not need to defend every atrocity againstinnocent civilians to argue that terrorism issometimes justified. A broad definition would sayterrorism was the use of violence for politicalends by any group which breaks the GenevaConventions (which govern actions betweenarmies in wartime) or ignores generally acceptedconcepts of human rights. Under such a broaddefinition, states and their armed forces could beaccused of terrorism. So could many resistancegroups in wartime or freedom fighters strugglingagainst dictatorships, as well as participants incivil wars - all irregular groups outside the scopeof the Geneva Conventions. A narrowerdefinition would say that terrorism was the useof violence against innocent civilians to achieve apolitical end. Such a definition would allowfreedom fighters and resistance groups with a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beIn extreme cases,communities already live in very poor conditions,and terrorism can bring attention to their causeand provide an escape of their situation. Bybringing attention to the poor conditions peopleare living in, and the oppression a community issuffering, you provide an opportunity forimprovement. It can be that their condition canworsen on the short term, but that is justified ifthis means that there is a solution to theirsuffering on the long term.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beIn extreme cases, it isjustified to harm others. It can be argued thatthe population of a nation is complicit in thecrimes that their government commits, becausethey support the regime by paying tax. Osamabin Laden's 'Letter to America' justifies attackingcivilians by stating that they are a complicit partin the American military actions abroad becausethey have chosen their governmentdemocratically, and pay taxes to fund theiractions. [1] Secondly, attacks on authorities canget rid of dictators or repressive regimes.Thirdly, commodities such as infrastructure canbe used by the government for the promotion ofcertain groups and to marginalize others. DuringSouth African Apartheid, townships were createdwhere black people were forced to live, andwhich had very little amenities, while the areaswhere white people lived had much betterprovisions. [2] [1] Laden, O. B. (2002,November 24). Letter to America. Retrieved", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beTerrorism creates anegative abusable portrayal Acts of terror willnot lead to a deeper mutual understanding, butto alienation from the international community.People see acts of violence as a threat, andespecially in the context of internationalterrorists attacks, the fear of escalation prevails.Even more, acts of violence are open to multipleinterpretations, which can be used in favour ofthe oppressing state, that has much moreresources to spread its message. Not only can itsay it uses violence against these terroristsgroups to defend itself, but it can also paint animage of the terrorists as irrational, violentcreatures. This plays easily into existingstereotypes of non-Westeners as being violent.In order to counter this scenario, it is wiser toresort to non-violent actions. This has the benefitof conveying a very clear message to the outsideworld that the people protesting are the victims,and not the perpetrators. For instance, the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con04a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beCorrupt states Statesor institutions created in concession to terror areoften corrupt, dominated by men of violence withlinks to organised crime. Nothing is achieved toimprove the lives of the people in whose nameterror has been used. Terrorist organisationshave often a military and violent character. Thesort of people who attracted to committing actsof terror often glorify illegitimate acts of violenceand justify the possible harm done to civilians byproving their complicity or the outcome of theactions. More precisely, they have only theinterest of their ideology or the minority they aresupporting. When these people are put in aposition of power, they are likely to follow thesame lines as before, especially when they donot have a political background. They are likelyto be ignorant of how political processes work,and will appoint people that have the ideology inother powerful positions. This will make thewhole political system inefficient and biased", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beExacerbation of poorconditions Terrorism creates a perpetualsituation of poverty and anxiety within thecommunity. Terrorism creates an unsafesituation for the local community, which hasseveral consequences: firstly, people are lessable to continue their daily actions, such as goingto work or school of they are afraid of attacks.Secondly, people are less likely to save or to takerisks such as setting up a business when theyare uncertain about the their future. Thirdly,international companies are less likely to set upbusiness in a location which is seen as unstable,and with the local market which has little tospend. This all lead to a continuation of poorconditions where many people live in povertyand anxiety, and see little opportunity thancontinuing the violence themselves. In NorthernIreland, the political violence which is present,combined with the high rates of poverty, createsa vicious circle where the unstable situation is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beHarm to others is neverlegitimate Even in cases of suppression anddeprivation of human rights, it is not justified toharm others outside the law. Considering acts ofterror, there are three possible targets: civilians,political, military or other powerful authoritiesand their representatives, and structures such as(government) buildings, cars etc. without anycausalities. In the case of the first, it isillegitimate to kill innocent civilians because notonly have these people not contributed to theterrorists' marginalization, which means thathurting them will not undo the cause of harm,but this also perpetuates the harm that was thecause for violence in the first place. In the caseof the second target, the attack on authoritiesresponsible for the marginalization might beremoved in some cases (if there is one), but itmore often results in backlash where supportersof the authorities act against the insurgents,resulting in more harm. This happened with the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con04b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beStates or institutionscreated in concession to terror can work, if theprocess of creation is handled with care and isdone with the interests of the whole populationat heart. It is true that some terroristorganisations have no political experience, butsome have, and these organisations should havea say in the political process, in corporation withrepresentatives of other groups. Modern SouthAfrica is a state created as a result of terrorism,yet it is not a state that would be accused ofconducting a violent foreign policy or excessiveinternal repression, especially when compared toother parts of the continent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-pppthbtcb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "political philosophy politics terrorism housebelieves terrorism can beTerrorism can bringattention to certain causes and bring discussion.Images of violence will make much more of animpact than those of peaceful protest. With themodern media, the power of oppressive states tohide or twist the truth has significantlydiminished, as anyone with a cellphone can telltheir story. Also, with people taking their faith intheir own hands, acts of terror such as sabotagecan be seen as clever and resourceful.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentStates in the GlobalNorth already deal with other states with capitalpunishment in the Global North. Broader basedchanges to criminal justice system would beneeded - if it is desirable for states to makethose changes in the first place. The solution forextradition is clear - diplomatic assurancesbefore extradition that capital punishment willnot be sought.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentJusticeco-operation Crime does not stop at nationalborders. Therefore efforts to fight crime cannot,either. A country that abolishes capitalpunishment will be in a much better position tocooperate on justice issues internationally. Manystates, particularly ones in the Global North,have policies of not extraditing people tojeopardy of capital punishment. Not only couldmore people be extradited, foreign states may bemore willing to provide broader based assistanceand co-operation if they see that a state hasmade steps forward in criminal justicepolicy. Some states have a policy of notextraditing to states where there is a risk ofcapital punishment: a particular clause on this isincluded in the US-Mexico extradition treaty, andit is the position of the European Court of HumanRights. [1] [1] Soering v United Kingdom -available at", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentIt should be for astate to independently determine its criminaljustice policy. At any rate, there are somedeveloped states that maintain capitalpunishment; they are hardly likely to imposediplomatic penalties on other states that do thesame. Capital punishment also doesn’t stopstates being seen positively. Despite having evenworse human rights violations (if you considercapital punishment as a human rights violation) -the US and US-aligned nations in Europe havevery strong and positive relations with SaudiArabia, despite Saudi Arabia’s gendersegregation and lack of religious and politicalfreedom.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentEncourages a cultureof respect for human rights Capital punishmentis, in general seen as a significant human rightsviolation by the international community - notonly most liberal democracies, but much ofinternational civil society. Abolition will help leadto the development of a culture of human rightsand the rule of law by acting as a benchmark ofprogress, and a symbol of a commitment tothese principles. It is notable that Guinea Bissauis the only abolitionist nation in the bottom tencountries in Africa for the rule of law – accordingto the Ibrahim Index of African Governance’ssafety and rule of law category, compared to sixabolitionist countries in the top ten [1] . [1] MoIbrahim Foundation, “Ibrahim Index of AfricanGovernance”, Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentIf anything, abolitioncould be a seen as a distraction of progress.Even in retentionist criminal justice systems,only a small number of those who go through thecriminal justice system are sentenced to death orexecuted. Behind the smokescreen of reform,things can be hidden. While Russia abolishedcapital punishment shortly after the end of theSoviet Union, politically motivated prosecutionscontinue, such as those of the members of PussyRiot. As for the rankings, correlation is notcausation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentDiplomaticrelations European states in particular put aparticular emphasis on capital punishment whendetermining human rights issues for foreignpolicy. The UK for example has a policy ofpromoting and lobbying for the abolition ofcapital punishment with foreign governments.[1] This will help generate goodwill for thenation. This could have a whole myriad ofbenefits - from aid and trade, to being seen asthe “good guy” in any international disputes.When using capital punishment the opposite isthe case; controversy has been created by theuse of UN resources in drugs cases in Vietnamthat could lead to executions for drug offences[2] . [1] Foreign & Commonwealth Office,‘HMG Strategy for Abolition of the Death Penalty2010-2015’, gov.uk, October 2011, [2] “UNurged to freeze anti-drug aid to Vietnam overdeath penalty”, Reuters, 12 Feb 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentA human rightsviolation, however many people it happens to, isa human rights violation. Capital punishment isthe ultimate human rights violation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentThose well troddenarguments lead to an anti death penalty position,not a pro death penalty one. Deterrence cannotbe measured, mistakes are made too often andissues of punishment (if punishment, rather thanrehabilitation or incapacitation is a legitimategoal of a justice system, which it is not) aredifferent between cultures. Evidence on costshows it is more expensive than prison in theGlobal North. With regards to crimes againsthumanity, the International Criminal Court - theworld’s leading authority on internationalcriminal law - does not use capital punishment.Neither did the International Criminal Tribunalfor Rwanda.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentAfricanvalues Human rights are a concept that take ondifferent conclusions and priorities when appliedin different cultural contexts. Protecting thecommunity as a whole, by removing dangerousoffenders from circulation, and by a deterrenceeffect, capital punishment is a manifestation of aform of “African Values” that place moreemphasis on the community over the individualthan western legal tradition. Capital Punishmenthas traditionally used for the most serious crimessuch as murder as well as some serious religiousoffenses which it was feared might bring seriousconsequences for the entire community. [1] [1]Balogun, Oladele Abiodun, ‘A PhilosophicalDefence of Punishment in Traditional AfricanLegal Culture: The Yoruba Example’, The Journalof Pan African Studies, Vol.3, No.3, September2009, , p.47", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentParticular need inAfrica Capital punishment for particularlydangerous offenders is a practical solution forAfrican nations with low quality prison systems,which, through either deliberate policy or basicunderfunding, can have poor conditions, or poorsecurity. In 2013, over a thousand prisonersescaped from a prison near Benghazi in Libya [1]. A similar escape with particularly dangerousoffenders would be dangerous - a corpse can’tescape. [1] Zway, Suliman Ali, “Amid protests,Inmates escape from Libyan prison”, New YorkTimes, 27 July 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentCapital punishment isa comparatively small issue Whatever themerits, capital punishment in Africa is a smallissue. Capital punishment opponents shouldfocus on China, which uses capital punishment ina secretive manner for all variety of offences andexecutes far more people than the rest of theworld put together. [1] If Western human rightsgroups genuinely want to improve human rightsin Africa, there are a myriad of issues that affectmany more people relating to good governance,political rights and socio-economic rights, ratherthan just focusing on a small number ofindividuals, generally convicted of particularlyserious criminal offences. [1] ‘Death Sentencesand Executions 2012’, Amnesty International,April 2013, , p.6", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishment“Benefits” of capitalpunishment apply universally The samearguments about capital punishment apply inAfrica - deterrence value, potential cost savings,and principles of justice. [1] This could be moreacute, with growing issues of international crime,such as drugs, growing in Africa [2] . Africa hashad many issues of conflict and crimes againsthumanity – these are the kind of crimes thatmany who are less enthusiastic about capitalpunishment would still support it for. [1] See“This House Supports the Death Penalty” - [2]See Cockayne, James, “Africa and the War onDrugs: the West African cocaine trade is not justbusiness as usual”, African Arguments, 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentPracticality is not anexcuse - capital punishment is still a humanrights violation, whatever thecircumstances. The Libya prison escape, ofcourse, was an unusual case - it was during acivil war.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-philosophy-ippelhbcp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ights punishment philosophy ethics life housebelieves capital punishmentThe idea of a unified“African values” is as manifestly absurd asunified “European values”, or the “Asian values”used as an excuse by anti-democratic leaderssuch as Matahir Mohamed and Lee Kuan Kew,(heads of government of Malaysia and Singaporerespectively in the 1980s), to reject politicalfreedoms. Even so, capital punishment can beseen as opposed to the “African value” of ubuntu- a broader concept of treating people withhumanity. Religious leaders are often alsoagainst, the Catholic Bishops Conference ofNigeria described capital punishment assavagery and expressed its desire to join the“civilised world in ending the death penalty”.[1] [1] Uduma, Uche, ‘Nigeria: Much Ado Aboutthe Return of Death Penalty’, Leadership, 14 July2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government house believesThe wrongs ofcolonial powers are by now far in the past. Thegreat majority of people living in former colonies,or indigenous peoples in countries like the US orAustralia, have no experience of that time andhave not been directly affected by the injusticesof colonialism. Making sure that everyone insociety has equal rights and opportunities isnothing to do with self-determination. improvethis Self-determination offers a way to resolveotherwise intractable disputes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government housebelievesSelf-determination and independence isrecognition of the fact that indigenous peopleswere unfairly treated by colonial powers, andtheir proprietary rights abused. In somecontexts, separation may not be a realistic optionfor minority peoples. However, that does notmean that self-determination is not meaningfulfor such groups. For indigenous peoples,self-determination may take the form ofrestitution for land that was stolen from them, orcompensation and reparations. Furthermore,self-determination may take the form of politicalautonomy, or greater rights to decide howchildren are educated, or parallel systems ofjustice such as sharia courts. Self-determinationis about representation and identity and choice -not about outcomes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government house believesThe principleof self-determination might seem astraightforward one but in practice it is rarelythat simple.Firstly, in many countries, majorityand minority groups live side-by-side, ratherthan in distinct territories. Upholding the right ofsuch a minority to self-determination may not bepossible without affecting the rights of the otherinhabitants of that area. This damage might bedirect – for example, if the people of Cataloniadecide to secede from Spain, what will happen tothe Spanish inhabitants of Catalonia? – or it maybe indirect, as in the example of Palestine,whose independence has long been resisted byIsrael on the grounds that it would constitute athreat to Israeli security. Second, it is oftendifficult to agree, particularly in disputed areas,who falls under the definition of a “native” whoseright to self-determination must be respected.For example, should people in Ireland have a sayover the future of Northern Ireland, given that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government housebelievesSelf-determination is necessary toprotect minority cultures. Many states in themodern world do not respect the rights ofminorities or actively seek to dilute and subsumethem into the majority culture. Others offerlimited protections to minority peoples but stopshort of allowing them to choose their ownfutures. We need to reassert their right toself-determination to ensure that these minoritycultures are not lost. Failure to defend theprinciple of self-determination now willeffectively close off the choices of futuregenerations. For example, Australiangovernment policy for many decades was toignore Aboriginal rights, denying them fullcitizenship1 and removing children from theirhomes and relocating them with white families(the so-called \"stolen generation\"2). As a resultmany indigenous Australians no longer have astrong link to their native cultures and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government house believesForcibleassimilation, as in the Australian case cited, isclearly wrong, but that does not mean that weshould abandon the goal of integrating minoritiesinto society without forfeiting their cultural, racialor religious differences. Placing undueimportance on the right to self-determinationmay make such situations worse. Furthermore,in some situations, governments manipulate theidea of self-determination to suit their own ends.Many governments have pursued a policy ofsending settlers from the majority race orreligion into minority-dominated areas and thenpoint at the difficulty of allowing such areas toimplement political reforms or secede withoutmassive social upheaval. One example of this isTibet, where the Chinese government hasstrongly encouraged ethnic Han Chinese settlersto relocate to that province with the aim ofgradually reducing the impact and strength ofTibetan demands for self-government1. 1", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government house believesIt is true thatmany modern states have somewhat artificial orarbitrary boundaries. However, this applies tosome or other extent to all states everywhere inthe world; indeed, the nation state as we know itis a relatively modern construct, and no nationstate is completely ethnically or culturallyhomogenous. There are certainly places in theworld where minorities are oppressed, butinsisting on self-determination as a universalhuman right often merely encouragesseparatism, racial tension andconflict. Furthermore, self-determination isoften used by states as a casus belli and used tojustify interference in neighbour's affairs andeven invasion – as in the conflict between Russiaand Georgia in 2008, ostensibly over thetreatment of ethnic Russians in South Ossetia 1,or Hitler’s invasion of the Sudetenland in 1938on the pretext that ethnic Germans in that areashould belong to the German Reich 2. If we place", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government housebelievesSelf-determination embodies thefundamental right of peoples to decide their ownfutures. Modern liberal democracy is founded onthe idea that people should be free to decidetheir own leaders and their own futures, but notall states give their minority peoples such aright. However, this is a right guaranteed underinternational law. The International Court ofJustice has held that this right applies not just tonational governments but also people1. The twoimportant United Nations studies on the right toself-determination set out factors of a peoplethat give rise to possession of right toself-determination: a history of independence orself-rule in an identifiable territory, a distinctculture, and a will and capability to regainself-governance2. If these criteria are in place,such peoples should have the right to determinetheir own constitutional and politicalarrangements. 1 Western Sahara Case, 1975", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government housebelievesSelf-determination offers a way toresolve otherwise intractable disputes. Manymodern nation states are the product ofhistorical accident or hurried decolonisationprocesses that did not properly take account ofethnic or religious differences between peoples inthe states that resulted. Examples can be seenall over the world but especially in Asia, Africaand the former Soviet Union, where postcolonialor post-Cold War boundaries separate peoplefrom their kin against their wills. Other territoriesmay be disputed between one or morenation. Allowing ethnic or religious groupsself-determination may help to reverse theharmful effect of artificial, poorly-drawn borders.If self-determination is universally accepted (andapplied) by the international community as a keyprinciple in such disputes, they may in future beeasier to resolve. Two examples; Kashmir,which straddles the line of partition drawn up by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government house believesIn many cass,it is not self-determination that causes tensions,but the lack of opportunity for minorities tochoose their own future. Conflicts and civil warsgenerally take place not because people wantself-determination but because they are notallowed it. In the Yugoslav example, if theMilosevic government had recognised the right ofthe country's component ethnic groups toself-determination, rather than seeking forciblyto suppress it, then there would have been noarmed conflict. In contrast, by the timeMontenegro sought to secede from Serbia, thenow-democratic Serb government accepted theirright to do so, and the split was carried outwithout bloodshed1. 1 \"Montenegro declaresindependence\", BBC News, 4 June 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government house believesMinorities areoften economically disadvantaged and politicallymarginalised; formal guarantees of equal rights,even where they exist, do not necessarilytranslate into real opportunities for citizens. Andrespect for individual rights, as important as it is,does not address issues of concern to the entirecommunity, such as the teaching of minoritylanguages in school, provision of facilities forreligious worship, and so on. The best way toimprove the situation of these minoritypopulations is by respecting and promoting theirright to self-determination. If not, they willremain second-class citizens in their owncountries.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government house believesThe rise ofuniversal human rights makes self-determinationincreasingly irrelevant. Across the developedworld, modern nation states are bound into acomplex network of treaties and internationalorganisations which together go a long way toguaranteeing citizens very similar rightswherever they live. These supra-national rulesmake it less and less important on what side ofan international boundary you happen to live.What matters is not so much self-determinationas whether or not an individual citizen is able toenjoy the same rights and privileges as those ofthe majority culture. For example, EU citizensenjoy many common rights, common Europeancitizenship, freedom of movement betweenmember states and so on. Minorities who fiftyyears ago might have taken up arms to \"free\"themselves from an oppressive nation state –such as Catholics in Northern Ireland – don’tneed to do this now, because they have new", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government housebelievesSelf-determination can destabilise nationstates, sometimes with very destructiveconsequences. If we accept self-determinationas such an important principle that it trumps allothers, this will encourage people to self-identifyalong nationalistic, racial or religious lines, at atime in human development when we are movingaway from racist and nationalist ideologies.Nationalism is about difference, which flies in theface of the idea of the global citizen. Taken to itsextremes, it encourages increased conflict,separatist terrorism. For example, the ethnicconflicts that led to the breakup of Yugoslavia inthe 1990s were fuelled by nationalist ideologiesand the stressing of the differences betweenethnic and religious groups that made up thatcountry.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government house believesWhat mattersare individual democratic rights, not necessarilycollective self-determination. Simply being aminority in a nation should not be enough toclaim the right to self-determination. As long aspeople have democratic rights, such as the rightto protest, to lobby and to vote , they enjoy thesame rights and protections as those of themajority community in that country; thereshould be no obligation on the state to go furtherin granting them self-determination. Forexample, during the Franco era in Spain,minority nationalities such as Basques andCatalans were for a long time discriminatedagainst and excluded from real political power,and backed political parties that explicitlyrepresented their community. As their position insociety has improved, however, so the hold ofidentity-based politics has loosened, and the pullof secession has weakened1. 1 Macko, Kalyna:\"The Effect of Franco in the Basque Nation\",", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ilppppghb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "international law philosophy political philosophypolitics government house believesManyminorities live in states where internationalhuman rights law is applied inconsistently orindeed not at all. It may not make alife-changing difference to a French-speakingBelgian which side of the France – Belgiumborder they happen to be born, but to aPalestinian in the West Bank or a Tamil in SriLanka, their right to self-determination isabsolutely crucial, because other rights may wellbe denied to them through direct or indirectstate discrimination. It is relatively easy forstates to explain away individual human rightsbreaches, since these occur in all nations fromtime to time. It is much harder for them tojustify denying an entire people their right todetermine their own futures.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceThis is only anobjection to particular cases of suicide; it cannotbe made into a general case because somesuicides really do only affect the individual –those in which there is no extended family orfriendship group. And that an act is, on occasion,selfish is not sufficient grounds to prohibit it.Indeed, ostracising one’s friends or walking outon one’s family can upset people but we arehardly likely to deny people the liberty to makesuch individual, private life choices. Nobody hasthe right to force people to live in circumstancesthat cause them unhappiness. Suicide should beviewed in exactly the same way. Moreover itshould be remembered that an attempt toprosecute survivors or in some way to punishrelatives of those who succeed is clearly notgoing to help leaving grieving relatives in aworse position. [1] [1] Holt, ‘When Suicide wasillegal’, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceSuicide is a selfish actthat causes suffering to others Suicide is anentirely selfish act that causes immense pain andsuffering for those loved ones that are leftbehind. It is also cowardly; rather than facingyour problems and being strong, you insteadtake the easy way out and kill yourself. It isimportant, therefore, to instil a strong sense ofresponsibility to one’s family and for one’s affairsand to do this by punishing those who try andfail to perpetrate this selfish and cowardly act.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceSociety can perfectlywell spread the message that suicide is not avalid life choice without criminalizing andpunishing those that have tried and failed toperpetrate it. Moreover, we have grave doubtsabout the practical use of anti-suicide legislation.It is highly dubious that people who are driven tocontemplate suicide will be dissuaded by theknowledge that they would be breaking the law.The spectre of punishment only awaits those whofail to commit suicide. These people have alreadydecided that their lives are not worth living;branding them criminal and punishing them ishardly likely to make them reconsider theirdecision.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceSuicide is a waste oflife Suicide is a waste of life. It is an immoral actthat ignores the sacrosanct nature of human life– something that is universally considered to bethe case as shown by being something nearly allreligions consider to be the case. [1] Failure tocriminalize such a flagrant violation of thesanctity of human life condemns any society asirreligious and immoral. Nowadays we heareveryone talking about human rights; we hearprecious little about human obligations. If webelieve in the moral worth of human rights we doso because we think that human life is awonderful thing and something with which weshould not interfere. Whether the interference isby others or by ourselves, any action thatdenigrates human life is morally wrong forprecisely the reason that we support humanrights. We have an obligation to preserve all life,including our own. [1] Perrett, Roy Wo.,‘Buddhism, euthanasia and the sanctity of life’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceThe question whetheror not human life is \"sacred\" should not intrudeon the issue of suicide legislation because noclear proof is possible one way or the other. Werespect human rights because we value theliberty and autonomy of individuals; we want tobe able to make our own decisions and welikewise affirm the right of others to make theirown decisions. The free, autonomous decision totake one’s own life should be respected as alegitimate exercise of one’s individual liberty.Human liberty is sacrosanct and should only belimited where clear social harm is caused; suicideaffects only the individual and so it should bepermitted", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceSuicide is differentfrom abortion or cloning or euthanasia in theimportant respect that it involves only oneindividual and his choice about the way he lives(and by extension, when he dies). So we candeny any link to these other phenomena. Inaddition, we can defend suicide on the samebasis as one might plausibly and robustly defendall the others: on the basis of the value ofindividual autonomy. Human dignity is a valuethat is inextricably linked to the free exercise ofindividual autonomy; it is the absence ofautonomy and the domination of another manover the slave that makes slavery a clearviolation of basic human dignity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceProhibiting suicidesends the message that it is not an acceptablebehaviour Individual action is shaped by whatnorms and standards are set by society. Byprohibiting suicide, society sends out a messagethat it is not an acceptable action. Legislation is auseful social tool, in that it proscribes the limitsof individual action. And by failing to prohibitsuicide, society fails to add the ultimate sanctionof its laws into the balance of any decisionwhether or not to commit suicide. Many of thosewho have tried and failed to commit suicidenever attempt it again. This suggests that manywho kill themselves do so because of theirparticular short-term circumstances, perhapswhile ill, suffering financial problems or underemotional stress, rather than through aconsidered and rational decision. More than 30%of suicides are precipitated by intimate partnerproblems, more than 10% by jobs problems and10% by financial problems. [1] Given this, even", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceSuicide underminesthe sanctity of the human body Like abortion,euthanasia, cloning and genetic engineering,suicide undermines the sanctity and inviolabilityof the human body. It is legitimate to legislateagainst such actions because the sanctity of thehuman body is an intrinsic constituent part of therespect for human dignity, which is the sine quanon of social life in any country.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-con03b", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceThe fact of suffering iswhat makes it impossible to consider suicide alegitimate choice. Someone under the duress ofintense pain and/or discomfort is not going to beable to make a fully voluntary and informedchoice to end their life.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-con01b", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceThe law and is toprotect the state and the people from each otherand to help guide people into making the rightdecisions for the whole of society. The importantthing is that society should make a stand forwhat it believes is right and against what itbelieves is wrong. And suicide is clearly awrongful, misguided and wasteful act from thepoint of view of society and the state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-con02a", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceThe right to life meansa right to death When we speak of the right tolife it means more than merely the right to bealive, it encompasses the right to self-ownership,the notion that one’s life is one’s own and thatyou are not beholden to anyone else by the merefact that you are alive. It follows from this thatthere can be no duty on anyone to live beyond apoint of their own choosing, and there should beno attempt to interfere with suicidal behaviourwhether by individuals or by the law. [1] [1]Chobli, Michael, ‘Suicide’, The StanfordEncyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward n. Zalta(ed.), Fall 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-con03a", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceWe are alldying Death is an inevitable fact of life. We willall die. Suicide is therefore not a matter ofchoosing between life and death per se, but ofchoosing the time and manner of death onewishes. We would all prefer a painless death overa slow and agonising one, and it is better to beable to prepare oneself and if possible anyoneelse who will be affected, so why should thedifference between the two be a matter of luckand not one of choice?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-con01a", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceThis is not the role ofthe criminal law Criminal legislation is not thevehicle for society’s pronouncements onquestions of how one should live one’s life. Itinstead involves the entirely practical exercise ofensuring that individuals are able to live freelyand enjoy their freedom without fear of externalinterferences like theft, violence or murder.Criminal legislation should guarantee a safespace for autonomous individual action - likesuicide.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lgplhbssbco-con02b", "title": "", "text": "law general philosophy life house believes suicideshould be criminal offenceThe right to life is apositive protection against the stateextinguishing that right and is limited largely tothat context. A person can no more choose togive up their right to life than they can choose togive up their right to freedom from slavery.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingIt is acceptedas a position of international criminal law thathead of state immunity does not apply beforeinternational tribunals [1] . Any such immunitythat Kenya had was waived by them joining theICC, which they did voluntarily. Even so, justbecause someone has a position of power doesnot mean they should have impunity fromliability for very serious crimes. [1] CaseConcerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000(Democratic Republic of the Congo v Belgium),14 February 2002,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingHead of stateimmunity Traditionally, heads of state have hadimmunity in foreign courts. This is for the normalfunctioning of diplomacy – so heads of state canengage in business at other states and travel tosummits without the risk of harassment byvexatious claims in foreign courts, or foreigngovernments trying to attack the decisions ofother governments in their own courts. The ICCtrying sitting heads of state would set a terribleprecedent of a method of regime change – noteven by foreign militaries, but by the ICCprosecutor. Regimes should change according todemocratic mandate not foreign courts.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingA previousKenyan government, operating with a democraticmandate, ratified the Rome Statute. Therefore,there is no interference with Kenyansovereignty: a Kenyan government legally andlawfully submitted Kenya to the jurisdiction ofthe ICC. Besides, a “democratic mandate” wouldnot stop the prosecution of a prosecution ofsomeone for an offence committed prior togetting into office, which is what happened inKenya. Neither is a “democratic mandate” adefence to perform crimes against humanityeither in or out of office.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingA delay isnecessary for national security Kenya is at riskof terrorist attack. Al-Shabab, a group linked toAl Qaeda have launched a number of attacksagainst Kenya. In addition to the Westgatemassacre, there have been grenade attacks onbus terminals [1] and suicide bombings inrefugee camps [2] . Kenya’s waters are alsoused by Somali based pirates as a ground forattacks on international shipping, includingpossibly targeting ships travelling towards theport of Mombasa. It is more important to theinternational community to have credible actiontaken in order to protect the Kenyan people fromterrorism. This needs a strong Kenyangovernment – which means that there cannot bea change due to an international trial. [1]Associated Press, “Two grenade blasts rattleNairobi; 1 dead”, USA Today, 25/10/2011 [2]Ombati, Cyrus, “Terror suspects die after bombsexplode on them”, Standard Digital News,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingKenya is anadvanced state with a functioning system of therule of law – except for those in power. Withmodern video technology, Ruto and Kenyattacould oversee the governance of the countryfrom The Hague, or, alternatively, participate inthe trial through videolink. Even so, Al-Shababare unlikely to be defeatable within the terms ofKenyatta and Ruto. Such a delay would only beuseful if there was government reform or freshelections necessary, rather than anti-terroristaction.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingInterferes witha democratic mandate Unlike many of the otherICC defendants, Uhuru Kenyatta and WilliamRuto have a democratic mandate from electionsthat “represented the will of the voters” [1] –electoral mandates given to them after theirindictment by the International CriminalCourt. This must be respected by the ICC andthe international community as a whole: eventhough they are suspected of crimes againsthumanity by a foreign court. [1] European UnionElection Observation Mission To Kenya, GeneralElections 2013 :Final Report,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-con03b", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingKenya does notneed or want government by those who hand outillegal title deeds [1] and threaten the freedomof the press [2] as Kenyatta’s governmentdoes. In addition to that, the allegations that thepresident used a banned occult gang, theMungiki, in order to perform acts of mass murderis enough to end his credibility as a leader in thecountry – the best interests of good governancein Kenya mean that Kenyatta should go. [1]Chanji, Tobias, “Raila Odinga says title deedsissued by President Uhuru Kenyatta illegal”,Standard Digital, November 25th 2013, [2]Shiundu, Alphonce, “President retains punitivefines against media in new law”, StandardDigital, November 27th 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-con01b", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingNot everydefendant is a head of state. While justice shouldaim to treat all defendants alike, there are somecases where things have to be changed in orderto allow states to function.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-con02a", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingKenya needsthe trial now Without justice, there cannot bepeace. Following the total failure of the Kenyanjustice system to take action, exemplified by theParliament’s complete and utter rejection of theWaki Commission, the ICC, which Kenyavoluntarily signed up to, has to step in. Ethnicviolence still goes on in Kenya [1] , and if thereis impunity in this case, no message will be sentout: justice must be done and seen to be done toprevent similar abuses and prevent justice beingtaken outside of the courts. [1] Wachira,Muchemi, “Cattle raids and tribal rivalries toblame for perennial conflict”, Daily Nation,November 18 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-con04a", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingJust hold thetrial by videolink It has already been agreedthat defendants can appear at the court byvideolink [1] for parts of the trial. This is notproblematic, unless the defendants want to startrepresenting themselves. Bearing in mind thatRuto and Kenyatta have been continuing toco-operate with the trial throughout the process,there is no reason to think that they would fleethe international criminal court. Either way, ifthey change their mind, they could simply nottravel to The Hague for the trial. [1] Corder,Mike, “International court changes trialattendance rule”, The Wichita Eagle, November28th 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-con03a", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingKenya wouldbe better off without them Kenya does not needor want government by those who hand outillegal title deeds [1] and threaten the freedomof the press [2] as Kenyatta’s governmentdoes. In addition to that, the allegations that thepresident used a banned occult gang, theMungiki, in order to perform acts of mass murderis enough to end his credibility as a leader in thecountry – the best interests of good governancein Kenya mean that Kenyatta should go. [1]Chanji, Tobias, “Raila Odinga says title deedsissued by President Uhuru Kenyatta illegal”,Standard Digital, November 25th 2013, [2]Shiundu, Alphonce, “President retains punitivefines against media in new law”, StandardDigital, November 27th 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-con01a", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingCriminaldefendants don’t get to pick and choose trialdates Irrespective of who they are, Kenyattaand Ruto are nothing special – they’re justanother two criminal defendants. A person whois on trial murder or any other offence, whoeverthey are, can’t pick and choose their trial date fortheir own convenience or for their own businessinterests – why should these two particulardefendants get a special privilege? SilvioBerlusconi was prosecuted by the Italian courts;the slow speed was due to the glacial pace of theItalian legal system rather than him particularlyagitating for a special hold-up. The court caseswere not done at his convenience.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-con04b", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingEven though allparties agree to this, it is not appropriate for theICC to be trying a sitting head of state anyway.The ICC is accepting this by holding the trial byvideolink – no other court would do such athing. While it sounds tempting to allowKenyatta and Ruto to participate in their trial bySkype, they may not continue to participate andsimply refuse to leave Kenya if they areconvicted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-ralhrilglv-con02b", "title": "", "text": "rnational africa law human rights internationallaw government leadership votingKenya doesn’tneed a trial. The Kenyan parliament votedagainst such a thing – the Kenyan peopledecided in 2013 that they want to give Kenyattaand Ruto a democratic mandate. While there isa terror threat – something that Kenyatta andRuto can deal with in their role as head of state –Kenya did not have post election violence in2013, and ethnic conflict is not going on at amajor level. Even if there is no justice, there ispeace, which is more important.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-thgglcplgphw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "th health general global law crime policing lawgeneral punishment house wouldSimply arguingthat because something is a 'tradition' that itshould be legalized is a nonsensical argument.Traditions need to stand on their own merits,beyond the simple fact that people have done itin the past, as anyone would recognise that agreat many things done in the past were notdesirable, and therefore longevity does not equaldesirability. Moreover, substances have neverbeen legalized simply because some religionsplace spiritual connotations upon their use. Forexample, many members of the RastafarianMovement and some Muslim Sufi groups claimthat using cannabis has spiritual value and isimportant to understanding mystic truths, butcannabis has not been legalized as a result. [1]This is because, on balance, the harms oflegalization outweigh our perception of itsclaimed benefits, and the same is true of thecoca leaf. It is also important to note that theprized position of coca in Andean culture owes", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-thgglcplgphw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "th health general global law crime policing lawgeneral punishment house wouldCoca productioncan be justified on cultural grounds Cocachewing is hugely prevalent amongst the peoplesof the Andes, and their social relationship with itis akin to that of ours with coffee in Westernnations. This is why so many nations in thisregion cannot and simply will not ever conformto any international ban that calls for phasing itout. The custom of chewing coca leaves maydate back as far as 3000 BC in the region, and sohugely pre-dates cocaine consumption, and thusshouldn't be bundled with it or banned on thegrounds that cocaine is banned. [1] Coca hasalso been a vital part of the religious traditions ofthe Andean peoples from the pre-Inca periodthrough to the present, being used 'tocommunicate with the supernatural world andobtain its protection, especially with offerings tothe Pachamama, the personification and spiritualform of the earth.' [2] All South Americancountries have signed several declarations by the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-thgglcplgphw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "th health general global law crime policing lawgeneral punishment house wouldMedical uses ofthe coca leaf are already legal under the 1961Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. [1] . Thecoca plant has also never been proven to be abetter ingredient in these varied domesticproducts than other plants, and other plants mayeven perform even better as ingredients. [2]There is therefore no compelling reason tobelieve that its global cultivation would result inany meaningful economic boost or betterproducts on the market. Saving lives from beingruined by cocaine is more important than nayminor boost we might get from other cocaproducts. [1] United Nations. “SingleConvention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961”. UnitedNations. 1961, amended 1972. [2]Transnational Institute Debate Papers. “Cocayes, cocaine, no?”. Transnational Institute. No.2006/2. No. 13. May 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-thgglcplgphw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "th health general global law crime policing lawgeneral punishment house wouldCoca chewing isnot equivalent to the consumption of hard drugs.It is no more harmful than drinking coffee. Thecoca leaf, in its natural state, is not even anarcotic, even though the 1961 SingleConvention on Narcotic Drugs considers thenatural leaf to be so. However it only trulybecomes a narcotic when the paste or theconcentrate is extracted from the leaf to formcocaine. [1] The simple coca leaf, by contrast,only has very mild effects when chewed and isdifferent from cocaine. In 1995 the World HealthOrganisation found that the “use of coca leavesappears to have no negative health effects andhas positive therapeutic, sacred and socialfunctions for indigenous Andean populations.”[2] It may even be useful in combating obesity,and there is no evidence that coca use isaddictive. At worst, it is comparable to caffeine interms of its effect on its consumer. [3] Thereforethere are no significant health reasons behind", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-thgglcplgphw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "th health general global law crime policing lawgeneral punishment house wouldCompulsiveCoca chewing may compromise oral health. Thewider cultivation of coca plants may makecocaine itself more readily available, and cocainehas clear health risks to its consumption. Thisdebate must be seen in terms of the wider healthrisks and problems that actually occur ifcultivation is legalized, not just a narrowunderstanding of the health risks in a theoreticalvacuum.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-thgglcplgphw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "th health general global law crime policing lawgeneral punishment house wouldLegal cocacultivation would enhance economic growth indeveloping states Millions of people in SouthAmerica chew coca leaves, so this practicecannot simply be wished away. [1] Moreover, itcurrently acts as a vital income source in manyimpoverished areas of the Andes. PasqualeQuispe, 53, owner of a 7.4-acre Bolivian cocafarm, explained to the New York Times in 2006:“Coca is our daily bread, what gives us work,what gives us our livelihood.” [2] Previousattempts to eradicate coca cultivation in Boliviaharmed the poorest farmers there and led tosignificant social unrest. [3] When it is allowed,however, coca cultivation can actually haveeconomic benefits. Peasant cultivators in theAndes have indicated their belief that cocachewing helps increase production in agriculture,fisheries and mining. [4] The legalization of cocacultivation globally would allow for the expansionof these economic benefits. The coca leaf may", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-thgglcplgphw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "th health general global law crime policing lawgeneral punishment house wouldThe burden ofevidence lies on the side trying to prove itsharm, not on the side asserting that it is notharmful, and so the lack of categorical proof ofits harm is in itself an argument for legalizing itscultivation and chewing. If proof of health risksarise then they can be addressed, but until thenthe ban is inappropriate and should be lifted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-thgglcplgphw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "th health general global law crime policing lawgeneral punishment house wouldIf cocacultivation were legalized, there would probablybe mechanisms and policies to allow the plantand its derivatives to co-exist without thisnecessarily signifying an increase in harmfulconsumption, and to limit it being grown in thehuge amounts needed for cocaine production.[1] The legalizing of coca cultivation fornon-cocaine use could also undermine the supplybasis of cocaine itself, as farmer would shift theirproduction of coca from cocaine-purposed cocato open market coca production, as legalproduction would be much more secure fromgovernment action. Therefore legalizing cocaproduction could actually help make cocaine lessreadily available. [1] Transnational InstituteDebate Papers. “Coca yes, cocaine, no?”.Transnational Institute. No. 2006/2. No. 13. May2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-thgglcplgphw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "th health general global law crime policing lawgeneral punishment house wouldLegalising cocaproduction would undemine the wider war on thedrugs economy The UN International NarcoticsControl Board (INCB) said in 2011 thatexceptions for Bolivia would undermineinternational narcotics control efforts: “[Allowingcoca] would undermine the integrity of the globaldrug control system, undoing the good work ofgovernments over many years.” [1] A US officialsaid in January of 2011: “there is evidence tosuggest that a substantial percentage” of theincreased coca production in Bolivia over thepast several years, registered in U.N. surveys,“has indeed gone into the network and themarketplace for cocaine.” [2] These examplesthus show that legalizing coca cultivation wouldundermine the wider war on drugs, because itshifts the policy away from one of eradicatingcrops which could be turned into narcotics andinstead turns towards making them acceptableon the global market. It encourages countries to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-thgglcplgphw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "th health general global law crime policing lawgeneral punishment house wouldCoca chewing isharmful and should be proscribed The originaldecision to ban coca chewing was based onevidence that this was indeed harmful to humanhealth. A 1950 report elaborated by the UNCommission of Inquiry on the Coca Leaf with amandate from ECOSOC states that: \"We believethat the daily, inveterate use of coca leaves bychewing ... is thoroughly noxious and thereforedetrimental.\" [1] Therefore the risk of healthharms should not be dismissed or undermined.Coca is also different to caffeine and othersimilar products in in its capacity to be divertedto highly potent, dangerous, and damaging usein cocaine. Therefore it has unique healthconsiderations which make its prohibitionacceptable. [1] Jelsma, Martin. “Lifting the Banon Coca Chewing”. Transnational Institute,Series on Legislative Reform of Drug Policies Nr.11. March 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-thgglcplgphw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "th health general global law crime policing lawgeneral punishment house wouldUnrestrictedCoca production would increase the availability ofcocaine Cocaine can be readily extracted fromthe coca leaf. In 1992 the World HealthOrganization’s Expert Committee on DrugDependence (ECDD) undertook a ‘prereview’ ofcoca leaf at its 28th meeting. The 28th ECDDreport concluded that, “the coca leaf isappropriately scheduled [as a narcotic] under theSingle Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, sincecocaine is readily extractable from the leaf.” [1]The active ingredient in coca leaf is the same asin cocaine, just more concentrated. Because theraw material of coca and its more potent relativecocaine are so closely aligned, it is impossible todisassociate the two, and so any attempt toconsider cocaine a narcotic and stop its spreadmust also forbid coca. Globally, cocaine is alsomost produced where coca is legal, and this is aclear correlation. In Bolivia, coca eradicationefforts in the 1980s and 90s helped reduce", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-thgglcplgphw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "th health general global law crime policing lawgeneral punishment house wouldWith no othernarcotic drug are the components parts of thatdrug banned in of themselves. For example, theraw component parts of crystal meth are notbanned. These components are a variety ofhousehold cleaning compounds. [1] It is wrongtherefore to suggest that it is impossible to havean effective anti-narcotics effort unless thecomponent parts are banned, as this exactapproach is successful taken in other areas. [1]Associated Press. “New 'shake-and-bake' methodfor making crystal meth gets around drug lawsbut is no less dangerous”. NYDaily News.Tuesday, August 25th 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousThe verdict of anindividual trial should not be predicated on trialswhich have already been carried out andconcluded. The evidence which is being ‘withheld’here is in fact irrelevant to the case at hand.While these countries recognise that juries havegreat value as a representative of the people [1], it is also important to recognise that people arevulnerable to bias – as shown by the hugeincrease in convictions when previous offencesare disclosed [2] . The benefits of disclosing pastconvictions is outweighed by the benefits of thejury remaining impartial as far as possible, asthis is the best way to reach a fair and justverdict. [1] Tickner, Joel and Ketelsen, Lee,‘Democracy and the Precautionary Principle’, TheNetworker, Vol. 6 No.3, May 2001 [2] TheEconomist, ‘Tilting the balance’, 2 January 2003", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousJuries need tohave all the information possible in order toreach a fair verdict. It is nonsensical to withholdevidence from a jury that might be necessary forthem to reach an accurate verdict. Just becausetheir verdict might be more prone to convictionrather than acquittal does not necessarily meanthat this is an unfair or even inaccurateconclusion; given that violent offenders are likelyto re-offend [1] , it may illuminate the truthrather than confuse it. Jurors should be allowedto weigh the relevance of previous convictionsand compare them with the accusations of thetrail at hand. A criminal justice system whichcurrently relies on the ability of the jury to makea decision [2] cannot legitimately choose towithhold evidence from them without innatelybiasing the trial itself. As the UK Government’sWhite Paper states, ‘we want less evidence to bewithheld from the courts, on the principle thatrelevant evidence should be admissible . . .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousIf anything, this isan argument to prevent the media frompublishing and details of a case or its defendantbefore the trial has been carried out, or frombeing more proactive and disqualifying jurorswho ‘research’ their case before it comes tocourt. We should not endorse this kind ofbehaviour, which jurors know is not allowed, bylegitimising it within court and announcingprevious convictions. The harm of bias,particularly among those who would go out oftheir way to read about the personal history of adefendant, could be incredibly dangerous to theprinciple of a fair trial.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousOccasionaldisclosure of convictions leads to an inconsistentjustice system. At present in Britain, someprevious convictions may be disclosed if theybear a striking resemblance to the case at trial, ifthe defendant falsely claims to be of goodcharacter, or if they attack the character of aprosecution witness [1] . However, differentjudges invariable interpret these criteria indifferent ways, which leads to a waveringstandard of trail where previous convictions mayor may not be revealed. It would be much moreefficient and transparent to allow this motion andmake court procedures more accessible. [1] TheEconomist, ‘Tilting the balance’, 2 January 2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousThe currentsystem is unfairly weighted in favour ofcriminals. It is unfair that those who repeatedlyre-offend should be treated in the same manneras those who have committed one offence; asingular offence could mark a mistake oraccident in the defendant’s choices, but repeatedcriminal acts mark a habit and a lack of regretfor past crimes. Failing to take past convictionsinto account can lead to many dangerousoffenders being underestimated by the jury, andso released. This is particularly pertinent in casesof child molestation, where child molesters havea particularly high rate of re-offending –expected to be even ‘larger than the reported 50per cent’ - but ‘only a small proportion of sexualoffences against children result in a conviction’.This conviction rate, however, does rise for‘those with a history of prior sexual offences’ [1]. Under the current conditions, this system isunfairly weighted against the innocent victims of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousWhile recidivism isobviously a problem, this motion fails to takeinto account any situation where an individualhas previously committed a crime but is innocentof the crime going to trial. Given that convictionrates soar when previous convictions aredisclosed [1] , this motion doesn’t rebalance thejustice system to cater for the victims, but risksseriously prejudicing those who are innocent ofthe crime going to trial. A wrongful conviction isjust as bad as a wrongful acquittal; theprejudicial effects on the jury’s ability to make averdict [2] undermines the objectivity of thejustice system, and seriously risks the possibilityof a fair trial. [1] The Economist, ‘Tilting thebalance’, 2 January 2003. [2] The Economist,‘Tilting the balance’, 2 January 2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousThe more obviousand efficient solution to this problem is to ensurea clearer standard of when previous convictionsmay or may not be disclosed, so that judges mayact by the same standards. There is a simplesolution to this particular complication; it wouldbe an overreaction to suddenly change the entirecourt process by allowing this motion.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousRevealing pastconvictions could actually be detrimental inproviding an accurate character profile of thedefendant or prosecution witness, particularly ifthe defendant has previously been convicted buthas also had successful rehabilitation. Thisdisclosure undermines a key principle of thejustice system – rehabilitation and reintegration[1] – by undermining any possibility that theycould have changed their lifestyle or altered theircharacter. As such, while it might serve onepoint of court, it seriously undermines otherprinciples of justice which should not becompromised for such a small benefit. [1]law.jrank.org, ‘Rehabilitation – What isRehabilitation?’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousJurors are alreadyaware of information which might ‘bias’ theirverdict. Jurors are frequently affected by mediacoverage of particular cases, which makes italmost impossible for them to remain impartial inthe idealistic way which opposition naivelybelieves possible. This creates a situation wherethe jury may be more affected by informationwhich they have found out elsewhere – forexample on the news or in newspapers – thanthe information which is presented to them incourt. There have been some cases where jurorssearch the internet to find the backgrounds totheir cases, despite the fact that this is notallowed [1] . This evidently reflects that jurorsfeel that they have not been adequatelyinformed and so seek facts elsewhere. Given thatthis need has been reflected by the jurorsthemselves, the court should give jurors allpossible information and bring previousconvictions into the open to ensure that they can", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousDefendants whoare innocent will be protected This motion couldallow innocent defendants to mount a strongercase. This is because, if allowed, the previousconvictions of prosecution witnesses would beadmitted as evidence. In this case, if aprosecution witness falsely claims good characterin opposition to the defendant, any falsity couldbe more easily seen and weighed by the jury.This solves a problem under that status quowhere ‘the threat of introducing his [thedefendant’s] previous convictions will frequentlyinhibit him from introducing character evidenceabout the prosecution witness’ [1] ; fear that thedefendant’s convictions may weigh against themwhere the prosecution witness remainsuntouchable creates a discrepancy in the justicesystem. However, if convictions on both sideswere to be revealed anyway, then neither canfalsely claim the character of the other andattempt to convince the jury of false information", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousIt is patronising tostate the jurors cannot understand the differencebetween a conviction and an acquittal. However,knowledge of the defendant’s background mighthelp to shed light on the case at hand and allowthe jurors to view the wider picture whenweighing up their verdict.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousUnfortunately,empirical evidence shows that past offenders aremore likely to commit further offences [1] .Revealing past convictions could be a goodindicator of how likely it is that the defendantcould have committed a crime, particularly if it isa similar crime to one committed in the past.Acquitting a defendant of a crime which they hadpreviously committed could easily create publicoutrage and discredit the justice system; it isonly fair that past convictions should be takeninto account alongside the rest of theevidence. [1] Edwards, Richard, ‘Half of allcriminals re-offend within a year’, The Telegraph,5 September 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousWe alreadyrecognise that we cannot place complete trust injuries. Although we recognise that juries canprovide valuable insight and represent the will ofthe general public in court cases [1] (andespecially the communities in which the crimesoccurred [2] ), there is also recognition thatjuries can be subject to bias [3] . Britain haseven suggested plans to restrict the right to trialby jury in order to prevent undue bias fromaffecting court cases [4] . Elsewhere, experts aredebating over whether jurors should learn about‘a victim’s sexual history in rape cases where thedefendant asserts that the accuser consented tosex, or a victim's propensity for violence inmurder cases where the accused claimsself-defense’ [5] because of fears that it mightcause juror bias. We do not grant ultimateknowledge to jurors, nor should we; it endangersthe potential for an unbiased trial. [1] LawsonNeal, and Simms, Andrew, ‘A People’s Jury of a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousAllowing thismotion would lead to a miscarriage ofjustice. This motion removes the incentive forpolice to conduct vigorous investigations. Giventhe increasing pressure on policemen andwomen to gain convictions [1] , this motion willmean that their best chance of obtaining thoseconvictions is simply to accuse those whosebackgrounds could feasibly lead a jury to believethat they are not only capable of crime, but havecommitted the crime in question. Subsequently,the real culprits may be left to go free assuspicion is routinely pointed towards those whoalready have a criminal record. Given that poorpolice investigation [2] and poor casepreparation by the prosecution [3] are currentlya large source of dissatisfaction with the justicesystem, it is important to prevent either police orthe prosecution from becoming dependent on thenegative records of the defendants rather thanproperly fulfilling their roles. [1] Bushywood,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousThe disclosure ofprevious convictions could falsely characterizethe defendant. This motion is incrediblydangerous in a variety of ways as not onlyconvictions but also acquittals and other pastconduct could then be raised in a court trials.This means that a jury could be informed thatsomebody had questionable behaviour, such as asexual interest in children, even if they hadnever been tried or much less convicted of anactual offence. This would allow the prosecutionto unduly blacken the character of thedefendant, and easily prejudice the jury againstthem for no valid reason, and without theevidence which formal proceedings wouldrequire. Studies into jury verdicts have foundthat a jury was ‘50% more likely to convict if itwas told that the defendant had a conviction fora similar previous offence than if it was given noinformation’, particularly in regard to sexualoffences [1] . This is proof that jurors are highly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousThe motioncompletely undermines the assumption ofinnocence which accompanies a fair trial. Byprojecting past convictions on to a new case, thisdisclosure greatly weakens the presumption ofinnocence which is the defendant’s right [1] . Itis the jury’s duty to form a verdict based on therelevant case, and it should not be dependent onevents from the defendant’s past life which maybe completely irrelevant to the case in hand.Many people who mistakenly committed a crimeat one point in their life realise that it was amistake and do not go on to re-offend,particularly if they have received help ortreatment from the state [2] . Even if thedefendant has repeatedly committed crimes intheir past, it does not necessarily follow that theyare guilty of the particular offence which hasgone to trial. [1] Criminal Defense Department’Every person is PRESUMED INNOCENT untilProven Guilty Beyond a Reasonable Doubt’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousThis point placestoo much importance on the defendant’s history.In any case, records of their previous convictionsmust be heard alongside of the facts of theprimary crime; any history will always betempered by discussion of the actual crime.Satisfaction from the justice system will begreater if the public are aware that juries are notsimply allowing past offenders to walk free; andif police and prosecution forces are found to befailing at their jobs, then this should beseparately addressed and regulated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplgpshwdp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general punishment societyhouse would disclose previousBetter training forjurors could easily override this problem. If wecontinue to use juries as an essential part of thejustice system, it is important to make sure thatthey are as well-informed as possible. Ensuringthat they are blind to the truth is not a legitimateway to achieve a fair or unbiased verdict; rather,it innately limits the accuracy of any verdict andconfines it to only a portion of the truth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-umtlilhotac-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ure media television law international law houseopposes televising all criminalGiving evidence isa traumatic experience, TV coverage orotherwise. TV broadcasts can already havemeasures brought in to protect witnesses – forinstance it could be agreed that they are notdirectly filmed. Anonymized witnesses at the ICCcurrently give evidence by video-link, of whichthe audio is distorted and the image pixelatedout, save for those who are permitted to see it,such as the judges and counsel. The ICC alreadyenters in to arrangements with other states forthe protection of witnesses in their physicalsafety.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-umtlilhotac-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ure media television law international law houseopposes televising all criminalWitnesses might beidentified and placed in danger Televisingcriminal trials may cause a number of problemswith witnesses. It may make individuals lesslikely to give evidence, make them more likely toplay to the television audience, or make thealready intimidating process of giving evidence incourt more so. Also, television broadcasts makeit more likely that the identities of anonymizedwitnesses would leak out – something that hasalready happened at the ICC in the Ruto-Sangcase [1] . The ICC already has problems withwitnesses, including allegations of bribing andintimidating prosecution witnesses in the Rutocase [2] , which has led to Walter Barasa, aKenyan Journalist, being subject to an arrestwarrant [3] . Ending the televising of trials maygo some way to remedy those problems. [1]Lattus, Asumpta, ‘Evenson: ‘First time arrestwarrant has been issued in Kenya case’,Deutsche Welle, 2 October 2013, [2] Stewart,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-umtlilhotac-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ure media television law international law houseopposes televising all criminalThe Hussein trialidentified the solution to problematic rantsdisrupting the trial - the TV feed cut to the judgeand faded out Hussein’s sound [1] . This is partof the reason why the ICC broadcasts are on a30 minute delay, on web and TV access –outbursts, material that should be redacted andother things can be redacted before it reachesviewers. These antics have been used in trialsbefore the rolling news era, such as in theChicago Eight case in the US, the trial of eightactivists (one of whose trials was separated) forconspiracy and incitement to riot for offencesregarding demonstrations at the 1968Democratic National Convention in Chicago. Oneof the defendants, Bobby Seale, launched in to avicious vocal tirade against the judge, and waseventually bound and gagged in the courtroom.During the trial of the other seven, thedefendants tried various antics including blowingkisses to the jury, wearing judicial robes which", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-umtlilhotac-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ure media television law international law houseopposes televising all criminalTelevising turnsjustice into entertainment Broadcasting trialswould be likely to turn the court in toentertainment. The Simpson trial showed howharmful a televised high profile trial can bedegenerating into a freak show. The ICC trialsare among the most high profile in the world soare likely to be susceptible to this. Much of theinterest in the SCSL Charles Taylor trial camealong when Naomi Campbell gave evidence sogiving the trial celebrity interest that had little todo with the legalities involved [1] . Jurisdictionswhere cameras are not permitted in courts stillcan and do have accurate, informative andtimely reports of cases, however high profile,without filming them. Courtroom sketches,written transcripts and other tools allowreportage without the use of original footage in atawdry manner. [1] Bowcott, Owen, ‘CharlesTaylor and the ‘dirty-looking stones’ given toNaomi Campbell’, theguardian.com, 26 April", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-umtlilhotac-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ure media television law international law houseopposes televising all criminalCourt proceedingsthemselves aren’t, in general, entertaining. Livebroadcasts would largely involve lawyersdiscussing intricate details of issues, includingcomplex points of law. If there was a realprospect of an ICC trial becoming a matter ofentertainment, it probably would have occurredwith the existing trials. Even high profile courtcases will not get large viewing figures – the UKSupreme Court case in to the extradition ofJulian Assange only got 14,500 viewers [1] .Existing regulations for the use of Supreme Courtfootage in the United Kingdom allow excerpts ofthe footage to be used in news and currentaffairs programmes, or educational uses, butbars the use of the footage in light entertainmentor other programmes. [1] Ministry of Justice,‘Proposals to allow the broadcasting, filming, andrecording of selected court proceedings’, gov.uk,May 2012, at p10", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-umtlilhotac-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ure media television law international law houseopposes televising all criminalUnruly defendantscan play up to the cameras Televising the trialcan create extra incentives for defendants toattempt to disrupt the process. During his trial,Saddam Hussein regularly made outbursts andwent on political rants – based on Iraqi law, hewas able to examine witnesses after his lawyer.This was not new – Slobodan Milosevic triedvarious antics in front of the (televised) ICTY [1], and Ratko Mladic used those tacticspost-Hussein [2] . Milosevic’s approval ratingsgrew, and he even won a seat in the Serbianparliament while on trial. A televised trialcreates more of a risk of a political hijacking ofthe trial – something that has been shown to bea successful tactic by Milosevic. This bothpotentially damages the successor governmentby giving those on trial a platform and the courtitself. [1] Scharf, Michael P., Chaos in theCourtroom: Controlling disruptive defendantsand contumacious counsel in war crimes trials’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-umtlilhotac-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ure media television law international law houseopposes televising all criminalTranscripts andother forms of notation would also set ahistorical record. While the Nuremberg trialswere filmed, live television broadcast was nottechnically possible, footage was used fornewsreels at the time. The lack of continuoustotal film footage has not stopped theNuremberg trial from setting a historical record –the written judgements and transcripts areenough.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-umtlilhotac-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ure media television law international law houseopposes televising all criminalWhile there is nojury that could be identified, or influenced, bythe broadcast, there is still the other problemsattached to televised trials – issues of legitimacy,lawyers and defendants acting up etc.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-umtlilhotac-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ure media television law international law houseopposes televising all criminalOpen justice –crimes with large numbers of victims Theprinciple of open justice, including the right to apublic trial [1] , is enshrined in many legalsystems. The best show of commitment to openjustice is to allow everyone to watch it, the bestmethod of doing so is for the trial to be televised.This is all the more the case when the victimscan't all be in court, either because of thenumbers or because of the distance. Televisioncoverage will help bring the trial closer to thevictims. International criminal trials regularlytake place outside the location of the offences,either in The Netherlands such as the ICTY, ICCand Charles Taylor trial, or elsewhere, such asthe ICTR sitting in Arusha, Tanzania. It would behelpful in terms of providing closure to thevictims, who should be witnessingproceedings. [1] See the 6th Amendment to theUS Constitution, Article 6 of the EuropeanConvention on Human Rights", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-umtlilhotac-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ure media television law international law houseopposes televising all criminalBroadcastingprovides a public record Unlike many othercriminal trials, since Nuremberg a key principleof International Criminal Law is that it aims toset a historical record. The events that it dealswith are important as they are heinous crimesthat change regions forever. A trial helps to getto the bottom of events that happenedpreventing there being multiple conflictingversions of events. This record also can help toact as a deterrent to others considering similarmeasures. Broadcasting the trial will bolster thisrecord by providing footage of the trial itself(which may reduce myths about it being unfair,for example) and providing a voice to the victimsthrough their evidence, in their own words, beingrecorded for posterity and future study.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-umtlilhotac-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ure media television law international law houseopposes televising all criminalICC does not havesame problems as other legal systems The ICCas a court does not have many of the things thata domestic criminal trial would have in terms ofdisadvantages of televising. Like all otherinternational tribunals, there is no jury, only apanel of professional judges. Judges are going tobe less intimidated by there being televisionbroadcasts even if broadcasts of trials typicallyaim to obscure the identity of the jury. Similarly,there is a competent system of witnessprotection, and other safeguards.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-umtlilhotac-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ure media television law international law houseopposes televising all criminalFew people wouldactually watch the entirety of the trialproceedings, most would probably just see clipsof the footage of news reports; television newscoverage of criminal trials can already take placewithout actual footage. While televising trialswill engage the victims and their families,televising a criminal trial may inflame tensions aswell. During the trial of Saddam Hussein,Hussein made a number of calls to violenceduring his televised trial. Many of those who areon trial have a significant number of followers(see the widespread support for Uhuru Kenyatta)– television broadcasts would give them a meansof communication", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplglghwbhwd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general local governmenthouse would ban handguns washingtondcOpposition agrees that handguns have uniqueadvantages over other weapons; however,banning handguns in this area would lead toworse problems which are mentioned here aswell as in the first point of opposition. Thebiggest issue with banning handguns, especiallyin a city, is that handguns will still be available tocriminal classes willing to simply import theweapons from elsewhere. Due to theirconcealable nature it is very easy for them tosmuggle handguns into an area where ahandgun ban has been imposed. This isproblematic because law abiding citizens in thisarea will now not have guns to defendthemselves with. As such an asymmetry ofpower has been created where the people whobear guns, mainly criminals have weapons whichgive them significantly more power than thecitizens in that area. Under the status quo, thelegality of handguns means that although they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplglghwbhwd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general local governmenthouse would ban handguns washingtondcHandguns are uniquely dangerous whencompared with other weapons Handguns arespecifically worse than most other weapons.They are weapons which are both concealableand portable. Shotguns and Rifles can easily beidentified from a long distance making it easierto avoid those who are carrying them orconversely for the authorities check their motivesfor carrying arms. Handguns, being rangedweapons (as opposed to knives), prevent peoplefrom opting to run away if they are confrontedby an attacker and being concealable preventany attempt at avoiding those carryingthem. Because of these unique capabilities theymake excellent weapons for gang members whowish to remain inconspicuous to avoid beingsearched by the police. Further, they are alsouniquely useful for other criminal actors such asdrug dealers who need to be able to protectthemselves, but also need to appear unassuming", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplglghwbhwd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general local governmenthouse would ban handguns washingtondcStudies have been conducted on cities where ahandgun ban has been implemented. It foundthat cities such as New York and DC continued toexhibit high rates of crime and proved to besome of the most dangerous cities in the world,regardless of the ban on guns.6 As mentioned,this is because criminal gangs and criminogenicneighbourhoods in these cities have becomeentrenched. Anyone desperate enough to seekout a handgun- either for use in a crime or as ameans of defending themselves in a crime-riddenneighbourhood- is likely to be able to acquire oneregardless of the legal control that city councilsmay attempt to put in place. In the case of stopand search laws, it proves that criminals areadaptable and change their methods based onthis lower burden of proof. For example, manygangs opt to keep guns in armouries and onlyloan them out as and when they are necessary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplglghwbhwd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general local governmenthouse would ban handguns washingtondcIndividuals Should Not Have the Right to BearArms in DC Under the status quo the stateexists to protect the security of its citizens. Itdoes so by maintaining a monopoly of violencewith the consent of its citizens. US citizens havebeen allowed to bear small arms as a symbolicrepresentation of their ability to rise up againststate oppression should it ever occur. That is, tokeep a check and balance upon the monopoly ofviolence that the state has. It is important tonote that the state has the monopoly of violencesuch that it can protect its citizens in the bestpossible way. In the same way, the right to beararms exists such that citizens can protectthemselves and prevent harm. This means thatshould the state visit harm upon the citizens ofthe state then its right to claim a monopoly onviolence is revoked and the citizens can fightagainst the state. In a similar fashion to theabove, should the citizens of the state use their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplglghwbhwd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general local governmenthouse would ban handguns washington dcTheissue with Washington DC and certain states inthe U.S. is that the police and the state areunable to protect people. The opposition believesthat people who visit violence upon one anothershould be prosecuted to the full extent of thelaw. However, within certain areas of DC, thestate consistently fails to protect its citizens andenforce its monopoly of violence in a just andeffective fashion. In doing so the state is failingto uphold its part of its agreement with itscitizens. Further, if police in these areas arecorrupt in any way, then the state is activelyvisiting harm upon its citizens. If the state isfailing to maintain its monopoly on violence thenthe citizens of that area have to take over inorder to provide for their own security. Thecitizens of DC have a right to bear arms in orderto protect themselves. The failure is thus on thepart of the state for deaths in DC. Citizens withinthe state should not have their rights curtailed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplglghwbhwd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general local governmenthouse would ban handguns washington dcAhandgun ban reduces crime and deaths Asidefrom the fact that handguns are uniquelydangerous weapons, when the handgun ban wasin place in DC, there was a reported decrease incrime in the area. In 1977 the year immediatelyfollowing the ban the U.S. Conference of Mayorsreported robberies, assaults and homicides usinghandguns had fallen in DC sharply. Further, in1991 the University of Maryland published astudy in the New England journal of Medicinesuggesting the gun ban had saved lives in thedecade before 1991, claiming that the ban hadprevented 47 deaths in DC per year.5 It istheorised that the handgun ban does thisbecause it makes other police tactics, such asstop and search, significantly more effective. Ifcriminals wish to get the tactical advantage ofpower that opposition mention then they have tocarry hand guns in order to do it. However, itmeans that if they are caught with a gun they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplglghwbhwd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general local governmenthouse would ban handguns washingtondcDemocracy is designed to be a flexiblemechanism that can change based on differentcircumstances and at different times. TheAmerican constitution should provide a legalbasis for all citizens of the U.S. However, thereason such a legal basis exists is such thatcitizens in the U.S. are fairly treated under thelaw and thus benefit through the stability thatsuch fairness creates. However, it is alsofeasible that at certain points, part of theconstitution could work out very badly for thestate in some areas. This is why a system ofamendments to the constitution exists. As such,it is feasible that the constitution should also beable to deal with transitional periods wherecertain areas should be allowed different rightsunder the constitution because each arearequires different laws in order to work properlythat cannot be created on a state level. Whilstthis might cause some tension, most people in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplglghwbhwd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general local governmenthouse would ban handguns washington dcFirstly,the deterrence effect created by guns disappearsif the use of guns is considered normal behaviouramong the populace. Many violent andopportunistic crimes are committed out ofnecessity. They are not based on a rationalcalculus of the sort that side oppositiondiscusses. In a society where gun use isnormalised, criminals are more likely to viewdeath as a hazard of their occupation, similar toarrest and imprisonment. In thesecircumstances, the deterrent effect ofwidespread gun ownership will quickly abate,overridden by desperation. Further, if crimes arebeing committed by gangs then often, need forrespect from the gangs or fear of reprisal willsimply override any beliefs regarding deterrence.Finally, criminals are very careful to pick actorswho aren’t likely to be well armed and to do so insecluded places. As such, it is incredibly unlikelythat they will be deterred from crime. Secondly,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplglghwbhwd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general local governmenthouse would ban handguns washingtondcHandguns are Required For Symbolic ReasonsAs A Defence Against the State Monopoly ofPower Handguns are legal in the U.S. forsymbolic reasons. In Justice Scalla’s oralargument he stated “isn't it perfectly plausible,indeed reasonable, to assume that since theframers knew that the way militias weredestroyed by tyrants in the past was not bypassing a law against militias, but by takingaway the people's weapons -- that was the waymilitias were destroyed. The two clauses gotogether beautifully: Since we need a militia, theright of the people to keep and bear arms shallnot be infringed.”9 Guns are necessary toprevent the disarming of the people and as astatement that the citizens of the U.S. areallowed to stand up against the state. In theformation of the state, the citizens of the stategive up their freedoms and their ability to doviolence upon each other in favour a state", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplglghwbhwd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general local governmenthouse would ban handguns washington dcTheDC Handgun ban is inconsistent with otherlegislation in the U.S. A change in legislation inDC that is markedly different from everywhereelse in the U.S. is harmful. Whilst theconstitution might be amended to give a specificchange for DC, the rest of the U.S. will still beable to bear arms. The point of the Americanconstitution is that it is meant to give an evenfield to all citizens under the law. Minordifferences between people within differentstates is acceptable; owing to specific needs ofspecific states and all state legislation must beproved to be constitutional anyway. Thisdifference is specifically problematic because ofthe nature of its interactions with both theconstitution and the law. This change is harmfulbecause the state is dependent upon consistencywithin the law and perception of the law as beinga fair mechanism for all people. Largeinconsistencies within the law should not be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplglghwbhwd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general local governmenthouse would ban handguns washington dcHandGuns Are Required For Self Defence. Under thestatus quo handguns are legal. This means thatshould a criminal initially wish to considermugging someone he has to consider thepossibility that he might be shot should hechoose to take this action. A visceral fear ofdeath and injury means that a significant numberof criminals will be deterred from engaging inburglaries, violent robberies or muggings if theysuspect that they might face armed resistance.As such the presence of handguns within acommunity contributes to the general deterrenceof crime within that community.7 Secondly,should someone try to attack someone else witha handgun, if the other person is armed thenthey are in a much better position to negotiatewith their attacker and prevent harm to eitherparty. Creating a public culture in whichhandguns are held and used sensibly, and inwhich firearms training is widely available, allows", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cplglghwbhwd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing law general local governmenthouse would ban handguns washington dcTheright for Americans to bear arms used to beimportant for symbolic reasons. However, nowsuch a symbol does not serve to act in the sameway that it once did. It was once realistic thatAmerican citizens would be able to counteractthe monopoly of violence that the state has.However, in this age of modern warfare, suchpower simply does not exist in any real form anymore. Weapons as symbols in this way are justsymbolic of the loss of power that the citizens ofthe U.S. have undergone over time and furtherare symbolic of a fruitless endeavour inresistance of the state through violent means.The fact that the citizens of America feel theneed to resort to violence as a symbol for theability to stand up to the state harms what thestate stands up for now, which is change throughpeaceful and democratic protest. Further, evenif the right to bear arms was still symbolic in apositive way, the good feeling such a symbol", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedom expressionAdemocracy’s first duty must always be to thecitizens that elect it, not to foreign dissidents.Their duty therefore is to be engaging with theseregimes to the benefit of their own citizens;through encouraging trade relations for example.Offering amnesty to individuals oppressiveregimes consider to be criminals will serve onlyto alienate those regimes from the process ofnegotiation so actually runs counter to theinterests of the electorate. Such alienation wouldresult in even more repression, and a greaterunwillingness to adopt reforms. If democracieswant to promote their mode of governmentabroad they would be best advised not to pickfights with those they wish to influence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedomexpressionDemocracies have an obligation toshield these people and to encourage furtherdissent The universality of human rights, of thefreedom of speech and of due process is alltouted as crucial by the world’s democracies.Democratic countries are frequently vocal on thesubject of liberty, on the superiority of theirsystem of government that provides for the bestprotection of human dignity. By offering amnestyto bloggers, the people standing at the forefrontof the democratic cause in oppressive regimes,Western countries take a largely low-cost actionthat provides for the security and safety of somethe bravest people in the public arena. The Westmust stop kowtowing to oppression and make astand to offer an umbrella of protection to thosewho need it. That protection is absolutely crucialto the development of more dissent in theblogosphere and on the ground. Only bynurturing dissent can it ever take root and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedom expressionThispolicy will not be a public statement of anythingother than Western attempts to interfere in theinternal affairs of others. It is also a powerfullyhypocritical message; many democracies havelibel laws that prevent libel andmisrepresentation and authoritarian statesshould be allowed to have the same laws whichwill sometimes impact on bloggers. [1] [1] Li,Eric X, “The Life of the Party”, Foreign Affairs,January/February 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedom expressionThesepeople are under serious threat for their pursuitof justice The internet has become theparamount means of voicing dissent withinrepressive regimes. As the technology regimeshave to keep control of their people increases,with access to high-tech surveillance technologyadding to their already formidable arsenals ofphysical oppression, the internet has become theonly platform to express meaningful dissent. TheJasmine Revolution in Tunisia, for example,wherein people mobilized to overthrow theirdictator has even been dubbed the TwitterRevolution. [1] Bloggers have become a majorvoice of dissent in other repressive regimes,including Cuba and China. Yet the blog platformis far from safe. Governments have sought tocrack down on bloggers’ ability to dissent, usingdraconian methods like imprisonment to cowthem into silence. In China the arrests ofbloggers like Zhai Xiaobing, who was arrested", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedomexpressionOffering amnesty will not serve thecause of justice, it is responding to the symptomnot the cause. It is unfortunate that individualbloggers suffer at the hands of governments, butseeking to give them amnesty will only serve toanger the regimes, leading to even furtheroppression and stifling of dissent. Thisunfortunately means that an individual is savedeven as their actions may result in furtherreductions in the liberties of those who remain.As seen in China, the process of reform is slowand gradual. Upsetting that process could wellincrease the repression Western peoples feel tobe so reprehensible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedom expressionThisoffer of amnesty serves as a powerful publicstatement in favour of free speech and rule oflaw In offering amnesty Western governmentsmake an exceptionally powerful public statementin the international arena, an area in which theyalready hold great sway as norm-setters. It is astatement that shows that they will not simplyignore the abuses of power used by repressiveregimes to stifle dissent and the voices ofreform. [1] Ultimately, the power of oppressorsto act with impunity is the product ofdemocracies’ unwillingness to challenge them.Authoritarian regimes often claim to valuefreedom of the press, for example article 35 ofthe Constitution of the People’s Republic of Chinaguarantees it, [2] and this policy challengesthem to make their practice more like what theypreach. A policy of amnesty for those threatenedwith the lash of tyranny serves to activelyprotect those people while at the same time", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedom expressionPeoplein oppressive regimes are smart enough to knowwhen they are being duped. They will listen if thebloggers have a good point and are beingunjustifiably persecuted. In the case of theJapan-China territorial dispute, there is thetangible fact that the islands are being foughtover for nationalists to attach to irrespective ofideology. Offering amnesty is simply an offer torescue people facing imminent unjustpunishment. While governments will no doubtseek to paint them as foreign agents, their ideaswill be able to continue to battle in the publicsphere, rather than be shut off forever with theclosing of a prison-cell door.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedom expressionAllcountries, even authoritarian ones, desire to beconsidered legitimate and valued in theinternational community. The weight ofcondemnation that a policy of amnesty creates isone that bears down heavily on repressiveregimes and can galvanize them to reform.Furthermore, it is essential that Westerngovernments nurture dissidents and give themshelter so they can continue their mission toattain justice rather than be thrown into jail.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedom expressionTheliberal democratic paradigm is not the onlylegitimate model of government, a fact thatdemocracies should accept andembrace Ultimately, states’ laws have to berespected. Liberal democracy has not proven tobe the end of history as Fukuyama suggested,but is rather one robust system of governmentamong many. China has become the example ofa state-led capitalist model that relies on acovenant with the people fundamentally differentfrom that between democratic governments andtheir citizens. [1] Chinas ruling communist partyhas legitimacy as a result of its performance andits role in modernising the country. [2] China’speople have accepted a trade-off; economicgrowth and prosperity in exchange for theirliberties. When dissidents challenge thisparadigm, the government becomes aggrievedand seeks to re-establish its power andauthority. If the dissidents are breaking that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con04a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedomexpressionDemocracies should be wary ofmeddling in the internal affairs of othercountries Authoritarian countries tend to guardtheir sovereignty jealously and will not takekindly to what they would consider to beinterference in their internal affairs. In manycases this is exactly what the governmentoffering an amnesty would be doing. Shouldforeign countries really be deciding that thejustice system of a country was wrong in this orthat case so amnesty should be provided? Wherethere are legal proceedings against a bloggerthat end up with the blogger being sent to jailthose outside the country may think thesentences unjust but as countries that publicallysupport the rule of law they should accept theresult. It may well be the case that sometimesthe judicial system has been used to persecute ablogger but it is difficult to see why an outsidepower with little interest in the case should", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedom expressionTheoffer of amnesty allows home governments todiscredit bloggers and paint them as foreignagents of disruption When Western states anddemocracies offer amnesty to bloggers underthreat from their home governments, theblogger’s views and comments immediatelybecome coloured in the eyes of the public. Thegovernment is able to point to the Westernpowers offering this amnesty and can easilyclaim that their offers are the result of collusionbetween bloggers and their foreign patrons tospread propaganda, so the blogger is thereforeguilty of treason. As unfortunate as it may be inindividual cases, the result is that offeringamnesty will only weaken the cause ofdemocracy. Being sent to prison for their beliefswill do far more to serve their cause than seekingsuccour in the arms of another state, one thathas demonstrated antagonism toward theirhomeland. The ability for governments to stoke", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedom expressionAnamnesty policy will serve only to alienateregimes, shutting down the possibility ofdiscourse or reform It is a natural conclusionthat a repressive regime, which operates largelyby force and the control of its population, willreact rather negatively to an action by the Westthat appears to be a calculated, public, andon-going subversion of their power in favour ofcriminal dissidents. The result of such action byWestern democracies will not be any positivediscourse between the targeted regime and theWest, but will rather cause a breakdown incommunication. They will be reticent to engagefor the very reason that the states seeking toinfluence them are clearly not interested indealing on an equal footing, but rather wish toundermine their way of life in favour of assertingtheir own superiority. The best way to actuallyget talks about reform started, and to empowerthose who wish for more democracy and press", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con04b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedom expressionAnamnesty would clearly only be offered undercertain circumstances. In cases where there arejudicial proceedings then the offer of an amnestycould only take effect when the individual beingoffered it is released and able to take advantageof the offer. It is also wrong to consider that anoffer of an amnesty is unwarranted interferencein internal affairs; the country in question clearlyobjects to what the blogger is doing so this isopening an avenue where both the state andblogger get what they want.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdiflhrdffe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate internet freedom law humanrights digital freedoms freedom expressionLiberaldemocracy is in a clash of ideologies with othercompeting systems, they promote their ownsystems through other means such as aid toregimes that are considered to be backsliding byliberal democracies with no strings attached. It iscritical that the democratic paradigm not submitto the demands of other systems that wouldundermine the rights and values that democracyhas come to view as universal. While liberaldemocracy may not be the only legitimate formof governance there are universal right, such asfreedom of expression, which must be acceptedby all states and should be protected both athome and abroad. China’s vibrant dissidentcommunity is example enough that thealternative rights framework that the CommunistParty offers is deficient. Rather than let thosefresh shoots of democratic advocacy besmothered, the West should nurture them, andgive them protection when they face vicious", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westFirst,it is unclear if this is even true. A 2010 pollshowed support for dismantling settlements inexchange for Peace at an all-time high in Israel.[1] Secondly, even if it is true that settlementscomplicate the internal Israeli political picture,the impact on the Peace Process is limited to theextent to which one accepts that the West Bankborders are sacrosanct. Beyond that, thedifference in political cost between uprooting180,000 and 300,000 settlers is marginal at best– both are likely impossible concessions for anyIsraeli government to make except underenormous international pressure in which casethe numerical difference is of limitedimportance. Far more important is acceptingthat the assumption that the West Bankboundaries are sacrosanct has done far moreharm than good. It gives neither side room tocompromise on the issues of vital importance tothem. For Israel, providing defence in depth for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westTheSettlements commit future Israeli governmentsto a harder stand in future negotiations Whetherdeliberate or not, the settlements are changingthe “facts on the ground” by changing thepolitical calculus for future Israeligovernments. While most Israeli politiciansaccept the need to abandon some smallersettlements, the vast majority are unlikely to beevacuated. It was politically divisive to the pointof breaking the Likud party in two when ArielSharon, a man with more credit than anyoneelse on the Israeli right pulled out of Gaza in2005, and there were only a little over 7000Israeli settlers there. By contrast there are nowmore than 300,000 settlers in the West Bank,and this number is rising fast. [1] There wereless than 200,000 in 2000. [2] Of these settlers,many are religious and vote for the Haridam(Orthodox) parties like the National ReligiousParty . [3] Because the party has served in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westThesettlements at the current time occupy less than3% of the West Bank, [1] and even if one wereto take into account the land needed for theirsecurity in any settlement, most have predictedthat at most 9-11% of the region would beaffected, much less than the area currentlycontrolled by the settlements, [2] and this wouldbe subject to compensation elsewhere. The vastmajority of this growth is taking place existingsettlements or adjacent to them, so even largeamounts of proportional growth are not shiftingthe percentages sharply. Furthermore, a timefactor is far from a uniform negative. A largeportion of the Palestinian strategy from themid-1990s onwards has arguably been to dragout negotiations while hoping that a betterinternational climate would lead other countriesto exert pressure on Israel for concessions. Thisstrategy has seen their negotiating positiondeteriorate and undermined support for an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westTheSettlements are illegal, and demonstrate theimpotence of the international community TheSettlements, constructed on land that is neitherrecognizably Israel’s nor which Israel has evenclaimed to annex are illegal, encroaching on theterritory of a future Palestinian state. It isabsurd for the international community todemand the creation of a Palestinian state in theWest Bank, and yet allow Israel to establish itspopulation on that land in settlements that viewthemselves and are viewed by Israel as Israeliterritory. [1] Furthermore, their continuedexpansion is something that each and everyPalestinian can see every day. As a result, thecontinued expansion both: 1. DestroysPalestinian confidence in the ability andwillingness of the International community toenforce its own promises, especially afterrepeated American and European promises tostop their construction. 2. Convinces Palestinian", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westThesettlements are a sideshow that provide aconvenient excuse for the Palestinians and theirforeign friends to ignore the real (and difficult tosolve) issues such as Jerusalem and what sort ofsovereignty a Palestinian state would have. Forone thing, international law is very unclear onwho owns the West Bank. Jordan gave up allclaim to it in 1988, but its unclear as to whethertheir annexation in 1949 was legitimate in thefirst place. [1] Only Pakistan and Great Britainever legally recognized Jordanian sovereigntyover the West Bank. Secondly, the currentborder of the West Bank are arbitrary, theresults of the military conflict of 1948-49 forwhich they represent the cease-fire line. As aconsequence, even if one accepts the principlethat there should be a Palestinian state in theWest Bank, it does not follow that the finalinternational border should follow the regionsborder exactly. It might for instance to make", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westFirstof all, the security precautions are not aperquisite of settlements in and of themselves,but a consequence of the violent condition of theWest Bank. Similar settlements in the Negev donot require anywhere near the degree ofinvestment in security and protection. Suchprecautions will almost certainly be removed notonly in a final settlement but also in anyintermediate ones. Israel has already shown apreparedness of to lift travel restrictions onPalestinians in exchange for reductions inviolence. [1] [1] Hass, Amira, ‘Israel to liftrestrictions on Palestinian Jordan Valley travel’,Haaretz.com, 26 April 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westTheSettlements are seen by Palestinians as a sign ofbad faith on the part of Israel, and thereforeweaken the hand of Pro-Peace elements Asimportant as the existence of the settlementsthemselves is their continued growth. The veryfact that Israel has continued to ostensiblynegotiate for the independence of a Palestinianstate in the West Bank on one hand while rapidlyexpanding the population and the size of Israelisettlements can be interpreted as a sign of badfaith. For one thing, it raises questions of theseriousness with which Israel is attempting toreach an agreement. Even if the programs ofSettlement expansion are intended as atemporary policy in lieu of a settlement, the veryfact that Israel’s plan B is arguably as popular aspeace, and being pursued with far more vigourcould lead many Palestinians to conclude thatIsrael is attempting to run out the clock. Theconsequences of this are inauspicious for the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israelswestSettlements remove Palestinians from theirown land, and they produce a self-perpetuatingcycle in their sear The settlements themselvesare self-perpetuating in a manner that makesthem pernicious to the rights and very existenceof neighbouring Palestinian communities. Forone thing, a settlement cannot function inisolation. It needs a road for its residents tosafely travel to and from work in Israel. Securityneeds subsequently require that this road beprotected from attacks by creating a largemilitary presence along its route, and in manycases moving existing Palestinian settlements. Atthe very least Palestinian areas are bisected byimpassable thoroughfares. [1] In turnsettlements require their fields to be protectedby high walls and electric fences to protect themfrom attack, and the construction crews buildingthem also require protection. The result is thateven a settlement of a few hundred families", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westIt isabsurd to argue that because someone ishypocritical that they lose their rights. The fact isthat the Palestinians today are not guilty of thecrimes of their ancestors anymore than theIsraelis are. Rather than being evaluated basedon history, they should be evaluated based onwhat is justified now. And settlements make bothsides less secure, and render peace less and lesslikely.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westThePalestinians themselves did not enjoy self-ruleafter 1948 and the blame for the expulsionsshould not be placed on them but on theJordanian authorities, and they are the ones whoshould be obligated to provide compensation ifany is due. And the Palestinians played no role inthe expulsion of Jews from states like Iraq andEgypt and therefore to impose compensation attheir expense is deeply unfair. Furthermore,while many of the settlement may have beenbuilt near the sites of abandoned Jewishcommunities, most have expanded far beyondthose locations and the need to provide securityfor them has led to the confiscation of historicallyArab land.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israelswestSettlements provide economic investment inthe Occupied Territories The fundamental fact isthat the West Bank, whatever its status, is notan economically viable entity on its own. Itproduces few goods, while Gaza produces next tonone, and independence without a major influxof capital will not change this situation. The bestsource for a supply of capitol in the region lies inIsrael, which has an enormous demand for alow-wage work-force. Millions of Palestiniansworked in Israel until after 2000, and with travelinto Israel proper restricted, settlementconstruction and cultivation provide economicdevelopment opportunities for the region andcreate jobs for Palestinians. [1] This is animportant prospect when the unemploymentfigures for the Palestinians are at nearly 30%.[2] Furthermore the very need for such labor islikely to further incentivise Israel to loosenrestrictions on Palestinian workers in the West", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israelswestThere is nothing legal or sacred about theWest Bank’s borders – it was an ad-hoc armisticeline never recognized internationally The WestBank is not some sort of recognized entity withlegally or internationally recognized boundaries.Its borders were the 1948 cease-fire linebetween Israeli and Jordanian forces, andJordan’s annexation of the region, and hence theborders were only recognized by two countries –the United Kingdom and Pakistan. [1] This isimportant, because the entire challenge to thelegality of the settlements, i.e. Why they areunacceptable in Hebron but not in the Negev, isdue to the belief that Israel is somehow annexingPalestinian territory. While some of the WestBank was intended to be part of a Palestinianstate in 1948, and some will be incorporated intoa new one in the future, Israel is under noresponsibility to the international community orany comprehension of International law to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westThePalestinians were full participants in the 1948War against Israel Before the discussion of thePalestinians as the innocent victims of Israelioppression can be established, it should be notedthat the Palestinian leadership were fullparticipants in rejecting the 1948 partition planand the war that followed. The Grand Mufti ofJerusalem rejected any form of compromise, andurged the removal of the region’s Jewishpopulation, while massacres of Jewish settlers atPalestinian hands and the complete eliminationof the Jewish presence in the areas of Palestinethat the Israelis did not secure in 1948 speaks toa certain degree of popular enthusiasm.[1] Following 1948, Israeli law provided forcompensation or the return of land for any exiledPalestinians who returned to Israel proper andtook an oath to the state. This does not justifythe actions of Israel in their entirety, but thetragedy of the Palestinian people is partially of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westTheSettlements are justified based on the expulsionof Jews from Arab lands after 1967 Settlementconstruction, and in fact the whole settlement ofJews in the West Bank has to be viewed in thewider context of the Middle East conflict as awhole. Jews lived in the West Bank forthousands of years before the creation of Israel,and it was only after the 1948 war when Jewswere fully ethnically cleansed from the region.While a Diaspora took place among the Arabs ofIsrael it was neither as deliberate nor asthorough – a large Arab population remained. NoJews remained in the West Bank under Jordanianrule. As such many of these settlements are notartificial constructions but built on the ruins ofpre-1948 Jewish communities. Furthermore, thesame 1967 War that brought on the Israeliconquest of the West Bank was also followed bya new round of pogroms against the nearly800,000 Jews living in Arab countries more than", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westIf defacto boundaries exist for a long enough timethey gain legal force. The border between Northand South Korea is a legal armistice line, ratherthan an official international boundary, butanyone attempting to make that argument uponcrossing it would be likely to receive a coolreception. The boundaries of the West Bankwere de facto recognized, first when Israel andJordan agreed to abide by them for twenty yearsafter 1948, second when Jordan ceded all claimto the territories, and third implicitly by Israelitself which has made no claim to annex theterritory, even in areas where settlements arelocated. They have not bothered with this sort ofdiplomatic care when it comes to the GolanHeights which they annexed. [1] As aconsequence it can be implied that at least Israelbelieves that its claims to the West Bank arequestionable, and would like to ensure themthrough negotiation and this makes the claim", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-rmelhrilhbiw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "rnational middle east law human rightsinternational law house believes israels westIt isironic that when the agricultural basis of thePalestinian economy is being strangled bysettlement construction and the seizure ofgroves involved, that Palestinians should begrateful for the job opportunities provided inlow-wage service positions in the Israelisettlements. [1] Furthermore, even if oneaccepts the economic premises of thegovernment’s argument, one is left with the factthat Israel’s policies are creating a climate ofeconomic dependence that will ensure that anyfuture Palestinian entity is economically andtherefore politically dependent on Israel. ThePalestinian movement is as much a resistanceagainst colonial exploitation as it is a revoltagainst a legal denial of independence, and it isunlikely their grievances will be settled whensimilar arrangements have left Israeli Arabsmore alienated from the Jewish state than everbefore. [2] [1] Alwazir, Atyaf, ‘Uprooting Olive", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementStates arecapable of their own enforcement, even in thedifficult cases – for example, Radovan Karadzicwas arrested by the Serbian authorities for histrial by the ICTY, and would not necessarily havebeen arrested faster by an outside force ratherthan the Serbian police. A large number of stateshave been pouring resources in to capturing theLord’s Resistance Army fugitives such as JosephKony – if they cannot do capture him, there is noreason to believe that an ICC Police would beable to. Recently the Ugandan Army has beenwilling to cross borders to chase Kony, so farwith little to show for it. [1] [1] VanWoudenberg, Anneke, ‘How to Catch JosephKony’, Human Rights Watch, 9 March 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementAn ICCenforcement arm would be quicker Ifinternational criminals are to be caught it needsto be clear that there is an organisation with theresponsibility and authority to catch them. This isespecially important when the criminal inquestion is able to slip across borders to avoidthe national authorities in one state as JosephKony has done as the ICC would be able to crossborders itself and coordinate the response frommultiple countries. The importance of anorganisation that is able to catch internationalcriminals can be highlighted by the experience ofthe International Criminal Tribunal for theFormer Yugoslavia where despite a Memorandumof Understanding relating to the detention of warcriminals in Bosnia NATO denied it had the powerto make arrests so leading to patrols activelyavoiding wanted men to avoid a situation inwhich they might have to engage in arrests. [1]A lack of clarity over whether an organisation can", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementAnenforcement arm would still have finiteresources. There is no guarantee that an ICCin-house enforcement system would arrest moresuspects than the existing system of statebilateral co-operation. This is particularly thecase in relation to the most thorny problems theICC faces – how to catch those who have thebacking of their state. An independent forcewould not enable the ICC to snatch Omaral-Bashir out of Sudan unless the proposal wasto create a special forces style force and anysuch action would have large diplomaticrepercussions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementAn ICCenforcement is a necessity if there is to beinternational criminal justice The remit of theICC is unlike the remit of any national court. Itdeals exclusively in crimes so unacceptable thereis an international consensus behind theirillegality and the need for prosecutions. Theparties that signed up to the Rome Statute’sreason for the creation of the ICC was “that suchgrave crimes threaten the peace, security andwell-being of the world” the perpetrators of suchcrimes clearly need to be brought to book, and todo that they need to be apprehended. The sameagreement said the signatories were “Resolvedto guarantee lasting respect for and theenforcement of international justice” if this is thecase then there should be agreement onenabling that enforcement by creating an ICCenforcement arm. Again the Rome statute makesclear that the agreement “shall not be taken asauthorizing” intervention by another state. This", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementWhile theICC is a multinational body, it is designed tohave a respect for individual nations courtsystems. It is mainly a “backstop” court, it ishappy to see nations prosecute those offences –the Rome Statute mandates that they be addedto the domestic criminal law. This is the principleof complementarity. As such there is no need foran international force as the enforcement ofinternational criminal law is provided by themember state’s police forces who will catch thecriminals that the ICC wishes to prosecute andsend them to the court.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementJust creatinga force to bring suspects to trial would notnecessarily be enough to make the ICC a morecredible organization. That would have to comethrough more measures and building multilateralsupport in areas where situations have beenreferred to the council. This increase in credibilityof the ICC also comes at the expense of thesovereignty of the states that call the ICC forcein. Many nations would much prefer the currentsystem where it is clearly solely within theirpurview to arrest criminals on their soil, creatinga competitor with its own police force will beconsidered by many to be undermining theirsovereignty so damaging not improving thechances of a state being willing to involve theICC.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementAn ICCEnforcement arm would bring in a higherproportion of defendants in to trial Eight out ofthe thirty people indicted by the ICC (four in theDarfur situation, including Omar al-Bashir, threeLord’s Resistance Army leaders in Uganda andone in the DR Congo investigation) are still aliveand avoiding justice. An in-house enforcementarm would be more effective at capturingindictees than many of the forces of the stateparties, as it is likely to be more competent thanmany of the under-resourced or under-trainednational forces. An in house force would be solelyfocused on capturing the wanted war criminalsso would both be focusing resources and muchless likely to be sidetracked by other priorities(many of which may be influenced by politics)than national forces. One of the suggestedsolutions to the failure to capture Joseph Konyand leaders of the LRA is to have greaterinvolvement of peacekeepers; an ICC force", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementAn ICCenforcement arm would make the ICC morecredible as an organization To its critics, the ICCis an organization that can be mocked withStalin’s dismissal of the influence of the Pope:“how many divisions does he have?” An ICCcapable of arresting its own fugitives wouldbecome a more credible organization, not onlydue to the show of competence through thearrests – it would lead to more trials, and moreconvictions, that would help contribute to theacceptance of the ICC as a serious court that iseffective at bringing international criminals tojustice. A legal institution needs to be effective toremain credible. [1] This would make countriesmuch more likely to cooperate because the ICCwould be doing more to help them by providingsome of the necessary resources. HenryKissinger apparently said “Who do I call if I wantto speak to Europe?” (he is not sure he said it)because there is no single European leader, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementThosearguments are similar ones to those used againstthe ICC. An ICC police force, comprised ofofficers from individual state and supervised byan independent authority appointed by a similarmechanism to the judges, would use the existingframeworks in place for the use of the ICC. Ifstates are happy to have their nationals indictedfor international crimes then it stands to reasonthat these nations should welcome a force thatcan enforce such indictments and bring thesewar criminals to trial.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementAn ICCpolice would be able to provide independentassistance to these states to aid those that donot have enough resources. The ICC has a poortrack record of capturing suspects. This is notdue to a lack of trying by the ICC – in somecases, it is due to the lack of trying of statessuch as those that have played host to OmarAl-Bashir. While individual states do, and should,have a role to play in enforcement, in somecases they are unwilling or unable to arrestsuspects. Just as the ICC is there if a state isunable or unwilling to try an individual, they canhave a role if they are unable or unwilling toarrest them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementAn ICCenforcement arm would be unduly expensive Ina climate where the ICC’s budget is determinedexclusively by contentious negotiation betweenstates (at a time where the ICC itself hasthreatened to close down investigations due to alack of funds [1] ), many of whom areundergoing austerity, an enforcement arm is notthe best use of scarce funds when its role can betaken by the state parties. The ICC is alreadyexpensive enough – it cost over €100M in2009. [1] Nzau Musau, “Kenya: ICC Threatensto Drop cases for Lack of Funds”, The Star(Kenya), 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-con04a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementICCenforcement would create resentment There aregood reasons for why an ICC enforcement armwould be ineffective on its own. It may have allthe necessary equipment and training but itwould be a foreign force, that may or may not beseen as legitimate, attempting to arrest a nativeof that country. The result would be resentmentin the community at the intrusion. This regularlyoccurs to national police forces when policing inminority areas. In London the Brixton race riotswere seen by one inquiry as “essentially anoutburst of anger and resentment by youngblack people against the police” as the police didnot represent them. [1] The result with the ICCas elsewhere would likely to at the least be a lackof cooperation, and with most of the force unableto speak the native language altering perceptionswould be difficult. Such a force may bring evenfewer results than using local forces and wouldprovide a scapegoat for local politicians. [2] [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementAn ICCenforcement arm would be highly detrimental tothe relations between the ICC and stateparties Currently the ICC functions based on arelationship of trust and understanding with thestate parties to the ICC – a bottom-up ratherthan a top-down approach. This is backed up bythe court’s respect for the for the principle ofcomplementarity – it is hoped that nationalcourts are capable of prosecuting the crimes, andthe ICC only takes a role if the state is unwillingor unable to do so. Being willing to use aninternational force to catch criminals would makea mockery of this determination to leave powerand responsibilities at the national levelwherever possible. Having ICC forces on acountry’s territory would be humiliating, showingthat the international community does not trustthat nation to catch war criminals itself. Whilethis model did not provide for attempting tosnatch government officials who have been", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementAn ICCenforcement arm is unnecessary To create anenforcement arm for the ICC would be to acceptthat state parties are incapable of enforcingdecisions themselves, that is not necessarily thecase. State parties have supplied the ICC withmany of the defendants that it desires to facetrial, including Bemba and the Gbagbos. Some,such as Uhuru Kenyatta have appearedvoluntarily. The current system is working inmany cases. While it does not in all, there aresome that will be extremely difficult to captureby anyone.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-con04b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementApart fromthe visibility due to the diversity of the force theICC force may well be very similar to nationalforces in this regard. Often a problem witharresting wanted international criminals is theirsupport in the community – that they have oftenbeen claiming to be fighting for. The nationalgovernment’s enforcement arm may be asunwelcome as the ICC. In such circumstancesthe ICC at least has the advantage of being anew quantity with a blank slate rather than beingknown for any excesses, human rights violationsor bribery. The ICC force will be able to treat thelocal populace fairly and win their trust.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cpilhbishioe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing international law house believesicc should have its own enforcementWhat pricejustice? The ICC has been supported by a largenumber of states who accept that, while it doescost money, the ICC is the only effective way tobring war criminals and those who commitcrimes against humanity to trial, provide themwith a fair trial and sentence them appropriately.If that is the goal, states should be willing tofinance means towards it. While the ICC’sexisting budget of over €100M is substantial, it isdwarfed by, for example, the £4bn budget ofLondon’s Metropolitan Police. In such context€100M is not a large amount to pay to bringinternational criminals to justice. The people theICC pursue often engage in widespreaddestruction, apprehending them quickly mayactually save rather than cost money bypreventing such damage.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tlcplghwfne-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "th law crime policing law general house wouldfund needle exchangesNeedle exchanges canresult in areas of open drug use around theneedle exchange. Given the level of criminality ofdrug users it often causes these areas todegenerate into dangerous places which thepublic cannot go to. This is effect causes harmto local business, not only because of the actualpotential for harm, but also because peopleinherently fear drug dealers and addicts. As wellas this, the area around the needle exchange willhave large numbers of stray needles, oftencausing as much damage as they prevent inother areas.4 1. Toni Meyer. \"Making the casefor opposing needle exchange\". New JerseyFamily Policy Council. November 16, 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tlcplghwfne-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "th law crime policing law general house wouldfund needle exchangesNeedle exchanges protectthe public Needle exchanges allow drug addictsa convenient and safe place to throw away usedneedles. This directly protects the public fromstray needles that are sometimes put in rubbishbins or left lying around. Specifically this protectschildren who often don’t know to avoid needlesbut it also protects sanitation workers and otherstaff from being accidentally struck by aneedle. Further, the families of those who aredrug addicts can also be helped. Partners andloved ones are much more likely to come intocontact with the drug addict and fluid exchangeis possible. Given that this is the case, thebenefits of needle exchanges also extend tothese people.1 1. Franciscus, Alan. “NeedleExchange - A Matter of Public Health So why isthe government playing politics with this tickingtime bomb?” Hepatitis Mag, April 2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tlcplghwfne-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "th law crime policing law general house wouldfund needle exchangesSome studies have shownthat there are relatively few referrals to drugtreatment clinics from needle exchanges. Thismight be due to the fact that drug addicts whoattain clean needles assume that they are now‘safe’ taking drugs and as such see no need toget into rehab for their addiction. Further, manyneedle exchanges are often unenthusiastic andineffective at changing the behaviour of drugaddicts. With the number of people who relapsedespite the best care it can often be demoralisingfor staff and as such lead to lacklustre servicethat does not result in drug addicts gettingclean. Ultimately it can also be argued thatmore funding should simply be focused upontreatment if the rehabilitation of drug addicts issuch an important part of this scheme.1, 2 1.Noffs, David. “Should Needle ExchangeProgrammes Be Publically Funded?” Close toHome Online, 2. “Report: Needle ExchangeProgram Finds Mixed Success in Atlantic City.”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tlcplghwfne-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "th law crime policing law general house wouldfund needle exchangesNeedle exchanges preventthe transmission of disease A needle exchangeas mentioned in the introduction allows drugusers to trade in dirty needles for new ones. Thiscan prevent disease simply by preventingtransfer of fluids from one drug user to another.As such, if one drug addict has HIV and has notyet been diagnosed it becomes less likely that hewill transmit the disease to another person.Further, many drug addicts fail to even considerthe possibility of infection via dirty needles, themere presence of a needle exchange in thenearby vicinity causes drug addicts to be moreaware of the dangers associated with dirtyneedles. Further, the liberalising effect thatneedle exchanges have on public opinion canoften cause societal change that allows needlesto be bought over the counter. This is especiallygood in targeting drug users who do not wish toreveal that they have an addiction and allowsthem use of clean needles. To back this up it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tlcplghwfne-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "th law crime policing law general house wouldfund needle exchangesSome studies have foundthat needle exchanges are not related todecreases in HIV transmission. It is theorisedthat the overall increase in drug use that needleexchanges cause, which is described in the firstpoint of the opposition case, offsets the benefitsthe exchanges provide in terms of diseaseprevention. Further, in providing needleexchanges to prevent disease, it is possible thatstates and people think the problems of drug useare solved and fail to do any more to prevent theproblem, which explains the continued deaths ofdrug addicts due to causes other than infectiondue to dirty needles.1 1. Noffs, David. “ShouldNeedle Exchange Programmes Be PublicallyFunded?” Close to Home Online,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tlcplghwfne-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "th law crime policing law general house wouldfund needle exchangesNeedle exchanges canhelp social services to locate addicts who are inneed of treatment Needle exchanges allow drugaddicts to see formal parts of the state that theyoften associate with negatively as institutionsthat can help them. This allows them to morepositively associate with other state mechanismssuch as rehabilitation clinics in the future. This isfurther helped by clinic staff being able torecommend drug addicts to rehabilitation centresshould they be looking for help and due to themore anonymous nature of clinic staff, drugaddicts might ask for help from them as opposedto a closer person who they fear might judgethem. In addition, social services for addicts canbe centred on needle exchanges. Rehabilitationclinics as well as simpler facilities such aswashrooms can be centred there as well asclinics for disease diagnosis. Further, in theclinics themselves, posters and informationpertaining to drug awareness can be circulated in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tlcplghwfne-con03b", "title": "", "text": "th law crime policing law general house wouldfund needle exchangesIt is possible that needleexchanges increase crime in areas. However,needle exchanges serve to allow for therehabilitation of drug addicts. Whilst there mightbe greater crime owing to needle exchanges inthe short term, in the long term they serve totreat one of the biggest causes of crime in acommunity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tlcplghwfne-con01b", "title": "", "text": "th law crime policing law general house wouldfund needle exchangesNeedle exchanges do notcondone drug use and in fact they activelydiscourage it. However, it is important to notethat drug addicts are not rational actors andgiven that they are already taking drugs in avery hostile legal environment, it seems thattaking a hard line to them is unlikely to have anyreal affect. What is more likely to work is winningthe trust of the addict and then offering themhelp as and when they need it. Further, the lawexists to help those who commit crimes andincarceration exists principally to allow for therehabilitation of criminals so they may bere-released into society. As such the principalbehind the law and punishment is harmreduction and needle exchanges simply exist asan extension of this principle.1 1. Franciscus,Alan. “Needle Exchange - A Matter of PublicHealth So why is the government playing politicswith this ticking time bomb?” Hepatitis Mag, April2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tlcplghwfne-con02a", "title": "", "text": "th law crime policing law general house wouldfund needle exchangesNeedle exchanges willincrease the incidence of drug use Beyondincreasing drug use through condoning thepractice, needle exchanges also facilitate druguse by gathering all the drug addicts in a singlearea. This allows drug dealers to operate moreefficiently and as such gives them more time toexplore new markets for their drugs. As well asthis, people are encouraged to keep on takingdrugs as they feel the risk to them from doing sohas been significantly decreased by theexchange. Given the lower risk, those drug usersthat are still somewhat rational actors will bemore likely to take drugs because of the lowerpotential harm. Further, in the long run, needleexchanges through these mechanisms make itharder to eradicate drug use entirely in thefuture. By causing addicts and the public toaccept drugs needle exchanges ingrain drugs insociety as any removal of the facility in thefuture will be seen as the state coming down too", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tlcplghwfne-con03a", "title": "", "text": "th law crime policing law general house wouldfund needle exchangesNeedle exchanges causecrime Needle exchanges gather a large numberof drug addicts into a single area. Many drugaddicts are forced into criminality because oftheir addiction. Given that this is true, the needleexchanges serve to concentrate a large numberof potential criminals in a small area. Not onlydoes this increase crime in the area itselfsignificantly, what is also manages to do is causecriminals to meet other criminals who they maynot have interacted with before. This can eitherlead to the aforementioned criminals workingtogether and causing more problems, or it canlead to violence between rival criminals and theirgangs. Further, the simple gathering ofcriminals in a single area can also serve toattract other criminals to the same area topossibly reap benefits. This often comes in theform of prostitution, which thrives in areas ofhigh crime and weaker police presence.1 1. ToniMeyer. \"Making the case for opposing needle", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tlcplghwfne-con01a", "title": "", "text": "th law crime policing law general house wouldfund needle exchangesCreating needle exchangemay normalise drug-taking behaviour Needleexchanges increase drug use. The state implicitlyaccepts that drug use is an acceptable practicewhen it aids drug users in practicing their habit.As such drug users feel less afraid of takingdrugs. This can extend to first time users whomight be encouraged by friends to take drugsusing the morally grey area created by needleexchanges as an argument. Further, it isprincipally wrong that the state should help thosewho choose to take drugs to begin with. In doingso these people are choosing to firstly harmthemselves and secondly cause harm to societyas well as contravene the law. The state shouldexist in such a way that should someonecontravene the law they be punished, notrewarded with extra supplies from the taxpayerwith no further strings.1 1. Toni Meyer. \"Makingthe case for opposing needle exchange\". NewJersey Family Policy Council. November 16,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tlcplghwfne-con02b", "title": "", "text": "th law crime policing law general house wouldfund needle exchangesMost studies indicate thatneedle exchanges do not increase drug use. Thisis corroborated by studies in Amsterdam andNew Haven, Connecticut. In fact, oneprogramme in San Francisco resulted indecreased drug use in the community owing tothe links that were tied with the drug usingcommunity. Further reasons for this are alsooutlined within the third argument onproposition.1 1. \"Interventions To Prevent HIVRisk Behaviors\". National Institutes of Health,Consensus Development Conference Statement\".February 11-13, 1997.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-phwmfri-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "punishment house would make fines relativeincomeThis motion will have no impact on thatproblem. Fines must be set at a low percentageof income so that the people earning the least donot find themselves going without essentials (afine for speeding that caused you not to be ableto heat your house in winter would seem, withgood reason, disproportionate!) Consequently,whether the fine is £60 or £6000, there willalways be some to whom paying the fine is not aproblem, and who will happily pay in order toflout the law.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-phwmfri-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "punishment house would make fines relativeincomeThe rich are now also deterred Anotherpurpose of fines is to provide a deterrent. If finesare applied at one rate regardless of income,they must be low enough not to be un-payablefor those who do not earn much money.Consequently, they are set so low that they failto have a deterrent effect on the richest insociety, who are easily able to afford to breakthe law. This is especially the case when youconsider the sorts of crimes that are punishableby fines, e.g. illicit parking and littering. Thesecrimes have an indirect harm, and thus it is easyfor the rich to consider that once they have paidthe fine they have paid for the damage done,even though in reality this is not the case.1 1Gneezy, U., Rustichini, A., 2000. ‘A Fine is aPrice’. Journal of Legal Studies., vol. 29 pp1-17", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-phwmfri-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "punishment house would make fines relativeincomeWhilst this may well appease somesections of society, it comes at the cost ofresentment from the rich. This resentment willbe magnified by media response: somenewspapers and news outlets will choose toreport this as an attack on the rich. The problemis therefore very similar to the questions posedby taxing the rich more; it may be consideredfairer by the rest of society but it is pointless ifthe rich all simply move elsewhere as they nowperceive the justice system to be unfair.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-phwmfri-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "punishment house would make fines relativeincomeRich and poor now face equality of impactof punishment The purpose of a fine is to ensurethat the offender faces the consequences of theiractions. The extent to which a financial penaltyfeels like a negative consequence is relative tothe amount of income someone has, not to thesimple amount that the fine is. That is, ifsomeone earning £200 per week is fined £100,that will feel more severe than a £100 fine wouldfeel to someone earning £2000 perweek. Therefore, if you make fines proportionalto the income someone has, all people feel theimpact of the punishment equally, rather thanthe poor facing a punishment with a harsherimpact on them than on the rich.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-phwmfri-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "punishment house would make fines relativeincomeEven if a fine is made proportional toincome, you will not get the equality of impactyou desire. This is because the impact is notproportional simply to income, but must takeinto account a number of other factors. Forexample, someone supporting a family will face agreater impact than someone who is not,because they have a smaller disposable income.Further, a fine based on income ignores overallwealth (i.e. how much money someone actuallyhas: someone might have a lot of assets but nothave a high income). The proposition does notcater for these inequalities, which may well havea much greater skewing effect, and therefore theargument is being applied inconsistently.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-phwmfri-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "punishment house would make fines relativeincomeCreates the perception that the rich arenot immune to the consequences of theiractions Fines that are not proportionate toincome may create the perception that the richare immune to the consequences of their actions.This is because people see those earning theleast struggling to pay a fine, whilst the rich areable to pay that fine easily, without making anysignificant sacrifices. Canada is an example ofthis being the case with two thirds ofrespondents on surveys saying that the Canadianjustice system is unfair because it providespreferential treatment to the rich compared tohow harsh it is towards the poor.1 Making finesproportionate to income would change thatperception. People would then see the law beingapplied in such a way as to punish all, not justcertain sections of society. This will improveperceptions of (and consequently, relations with)the justice and law enforcement systems. It isimportant that justice is seen to be done, as well", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-phwmfri-con03b", "title": "", "text": "punishment house would make fines relativeincomeGiven, particularly, that it is those withthe most money who are most likely to deem thefine ‘worth it’, this would be mitigated by theincreased deterrent: the rich will now facesubstantially greater penalties.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-phwmfri-con01b", "title": "", "text": "punishment house would make fines relativeincomeWhilst it is true that a crime ought to beproportionate to the severity of the crimecommitted, there is no reason why that must bethe only factor. This motion does not remove theproportionality about which you are concerned,but merely adds an additional factor. If twopeople earn the same amount, but person A hascommitted a more serious crime, person A willstill receive a larger fine. Further, it is unclearwhy people would find this more unfair than asystem in which all were impacted equally by thefines they receive.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-phwmfri-con02a", "title": "", "text": "punishment house would make fines relativeincomeThe rich will resent this The rich will feellike they are receiving an unfair, ‘greater’punishment. This resentment will be magnifiedby media response: some newspapers and newsoutlets will choose to report this as an attack onthe rich just as is the case with progressivetaxation which is often attacked as an assault on‘wealth creation’.1 This may well increase theextent to which they break the law, because ifyou perceive the law to be applied unfairly, youare less likely to consider it to be making anaccurate assessment of whether an action isright or wrong in any given situation. That is, insituations where you are unlikely to be caughtcommitting a crime, the deterrent is clearly notthe possible punishment (which you won’t face,because you won’t be caught). Rather, thedeterrent is the extent to which you believe theillegal action to be morally wrong. If you believea law is applied unfairly, you are less likely toconsider the prohibited action to be actually,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-phwmfri-con03a", "title": "", "text": "punishment house would make fines relativeincomeCreates the perception that fines are liketaxes, rather than a punishment If we detachfines from the crimes committed, people aremore likely to see fines as unrelated to justice.Rather, they will see fines as another mechanismby which the government makes money, this willbe especially the case if as in New Zealand themoney goes into government coffers withoutbeing hypothecated.1 This is similar to the wayin which some people in the UK see speedcameras as less about preventing speeding, andmore about getting money from motorists withone poll showing 49% of people believe they areprimarily about revenue raising.2 This is harmfulbecause it decreases the probability of peoplewho deem the fine ‘worth it’ neverthelessabstaining from the criminal act. 1 ‘FrequentlyAsked Questions’, New Zealand Police, 2‘Drivers conflicted over cameras’, IAM DrivingRoad Safety, 11 August 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-phwmfri-con01a", "title": "", "text": "punishment house would make fines relativeincomeA flat rate is more just A fine ought to beproportionate to the severity of the crimecommitted, not the income of the offender. It isfundamental that the justice system should treatall offenders equally; if two people commit thesame crime in the same circumstances but one isricher than the other then they have caused thesame amount of harm so should pay the sameprice for that harm. Having a richer person paymore implies that crimes by the rich arenecessarily more harmful to society regardless ofwhat the crime actually is. Further, this systemwill cause anomalies, where rich people fined forsmall offences (e.g. littering) will have muchlarger fines than poorer people fined for moreserious offences (e.g. speeding). This will makepeople question the fairness of the fines, whichwill negatively impact their relationship with thejustice system.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-phwmfri-con02b", "title": "", "text": "punishment house would make fines relativeincomeOnly a small number of people will act likethis. Some people, though rich, are neverthelesscapable of seeing beyond self-interest, and willconsider the fine to be fair. This small harm istherefore easily outweighed by the improvedperceptions of the justice system by those whocurrently believe it unfair that the rich can soeasily buy their way out of trouble.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrpepthwuto-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorismhouse would use torture obtainWhen battlingthose who would seek to replace the rule of lawand democratic governance with religiousdecree, it is more important than ever todemonstrate that the principles of a civilisedsociety are paramount. In the light of thatreality, for the state to use the very tools of fearand violence that they are fighting against sendsout the wrong message. It means, in effect, thatnations have put themselves on the same morallevel as the terrorist organisations they arefighting. Instead it is important to demonstratethat actions undertaken quite legally are aneffective bulwark against terror. Moreover, it isnecessary to demonstrate that these values arepart of a system of rule of law; that values ofjustice, fairness and accountability are seen asvaluable both by a states’ leaders, but also byarbiters (judges) and its people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrpepthwuto-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorismhouse would use torture obtainTerroristorganisations such as Al Qaida do not respect therights of individuals and the only way to fight fireis with fire Terrorist networks use fear, pain andsuffering as their stock in trade. By definition,terror organisations are not bound by legal dueprocess or rights of appeal and review. Insteadthey deal out death to innocent members ofsociety who have no power to alter the eventsand policies that motivate terroristsatrocities. By contrast, the first role ofgovernments is to protect their citizens’ safetyand they should use all tools possible to ensurethat innocents are not threatened with randomdeath and destruction. In the light of these tworealities, it is appropriate for governments totake extreme measure, such as torture, toprotect their citizens.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrpepthwuto-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorismhouse would use torture obtainThe primarydifficulty with the use of torture is not one ofprinciple but one of practice – it doesn’t work.You simply have no way of checking whether theinformation is accurate. By using force or thethreat of force, suspects are under pressure tosay something- anything- that will stop the painthey are experiencing. However, informationacquired this way will not necessarily be true Inthe light of this, the use of torture actually slowsthings down the process of investigating andpreventing terrorist threats. This is particularlytrue of terror suspects for whom death has nofear and for whom it may, in fact be a goal. Amuch safer approach to rooting out terrorist whoseek to martyr themselves is old fashioned, andperfectly legal, investigation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrpepthwuto-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorismhouse would use torture obtainIn the event of animminent attack it is only reasonable to use forceto find information If authorities have goodreason to believe that there is a realistic threat ofa nuclear explosion in downtown Manhattan orTel Aviv then it is vital that as much informationas possible can be gathered as quickly aspossible. If that requires pain to be inflicted onan individual to save the lives of millions then itis simply practical to do so. The harmrepresented by the pain caused to a singleindividual is outweighed by the possibility thatinformation gathered from a forcefulinterrogation might save thousands of lives", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrpepthwuto-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorismhouse would use torture obtainWhat about abiological bomb in a small town killing a fewthousand. Or a lunatic with an M16 in a villagekilling fifty? Or preventing a single murder orrape? Anyone attempting to support theresolution must give a clear explanation of thepoint at which torture can be justified. How manyindividuals must information acquired throughtorture be able to save before the state ispermitted to use pain and coercion againstcriminal and terrorist suspects in its custody? Ifit is right to use torture in an attempt to preventthe death of a single individual, when thatindividual is a member of a crowd, then whyshould the use of torture to protect the life of asingle individual be considered unjustifiable? Itmakes no difference to the individual or to theirfamily. Torture must either be treated as beingunacceptable in all circumstances, or its use in allcircumstances must be permitted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrpepthwuto-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorismhouse would use torture obtainTime is of theessence in a crisis. When confronted withextremists who see a virtue in their own death,extraordinary methods may be required. Theuse of force and fear in enhanced interrogationgives quick results. In the event of a bombhidden somewhere in Manhattan, it’s vital tohave information quickly. Nobody, even the mostdiehard proponents of enhanced interrogation,would suggest that it is pleasant or should beused on a routine basis; the point is thattechniques such as waterboarding are effectiveand fast. Responding to terrorist threats issomething that needs to be dealt with in minutesor hours. Unfortunately, it is in the nature of dueprocess and legal procedure that they trials andquestioning take place in a framework of days orweeks.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrpepthwuto-con03b", "title": "", "text": "human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorismhouse would use torture obtainNo amount oflegal niceties would bring any comfort to thefamilies of those slaughtered in terroristatrocities around the world. When you arefighting an enemy that has no time for theEuropean Convention on Human Rights, the USBill of Rights, English common law or the GenevaConvention it is simply impractical to apply thosestandards. The basic principle of terrorism is tocause as much fear, panic and destruction aspossible. Terrorists do not have a set goal inmind, they are not functioning as rationalindividuals, and affording them the luxury oftreating them as such ignores what they arelikely to do. The great wars of the twentiethcentury were fought within the confines ofpost-Enlightenment thought, however extremethat may have become. The wars of the 21stseem set to be Mediaeval in nature, with thepromise of paradise rather than provinces as thereward for martyrdom. The defense of the values", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrpepthwuto-con01b", "title": "", "text": "human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorismhouse would use torture obtainIt is perfectlypossible to put legal structures in place thatallow for judicial overview of the interrogationtechniques used. In most Western countries –the most common targets of modern terrorism –there are already legal frameworks for judicialapproval of the extension of detention periodsand so forth on an emergency basis. The sameform of oversight could be used here and exactlythe same principle of retrospective appeal couldapply to ensure that the capacity was notmisused.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrpepthwuto-con02a", "title": "", "text": "human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorismhouse would use torture obtainIntroducing theuse of violence into the justice system meansthat liberties that have taken centuries to secureare lost The principle that all people arepresumed innocent and, as a result, should notbe abused either physically or mentally byofficers of the state is one that took centuries-not to mention a great deal of blood and sweat-to establish. In the words of British Chief JusticePhillips this respect for human rights is, in and ofitself, “a vital part in the fight against terror”, asif terrorism is to be defeated states that ascribeto such principles must show that they remaintrue to them in order to win the ideologicalbattle. Using torture on suspected terroristwould be to tear apart that basic principle inresponse to crimes, which, it has been noted, areon nothing like the scale of the industrialisedwarfare of the twentieth century, would be amassively damaging step. Regardless of thescale of the crime the individual must have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrpepthwuto-con03a", "title": "", "text": "human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorismhouse would use torture obtainIf legal principlesare abandoned then there is little point indefending the liberties that democraticgovernments say they are so keen to defend Ifwe accept that this is a war, then its focus is notso much political control of territory as thepreservation of a way of life. It is ridiculous tofight to defend principles of equality and decencyusing the tool of abandoning them the momentthey become inconvenient. The forces ofreligious extremism wish to undo 1,400 years ofdemocratic development. We should not assistthem in that process by allowing the majorpowers of the West throw out the most basicprinciples of the rule of law. Such a move,ultimately, has the potential to be vastly moredestructive than the actions of a few fanatics", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrpepthwuto-con01a", "title": "", "text": "human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorismhouse would use torture obtainAllowing tortureunder any circumstances will allow the prospectof its routine use The advantage of a completeban on torture is that it leaves no room fordoubt, no possibility for confusion, no need toapply personal judgement. Under the status quo,it is simply illegal to use force or the threat offorce to solicit information from a suspect,regardless of the charge. The moment thatbecomes something other than a complete banthen it puts an intolerable pressure on securityofficials to decide when it is justified and when itis not. The experience of Abu Grahibdemonstrates how the use of abusive treatmentcan become routine, even trivial, all too quickly.If it is acceptable to use torture to preventmass-murder, then why not murder? If formurder than why not rape? And so on.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrpepthwuto-con02b", "title": "", "text": "human rights philosophy ethics politics terrorismhouse would use torture obtainThe era ofbattlefield warfare has passed. The war on terrormay be a new form of combat, but the resultsare no less serious. Were a terrorist flying amilitary bomber aircraft to deliver a payload ofdeath and destruction on one of the world’smajor cities, nobody would think twice aboutshooting it down, killing the crew and preventingthe bombing. There is no meaningful way inwhich the example above is morally differentfrom leaving a bomb in a station or on a subwaytrain. Societies have the right to defendthemselves by all means necessary. Thecombatants involved in this process considerthemselves to be at war and revel in thefatalities they cause. It is only sensible for statesto treat these individuals as though that warwere a reality in the more traditional meaning ofthe word.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesA stenographeralready records every word spoken during thecourse of the trial, which already serves to helpwith potential appeals [1] [2] . Furthermore,appeal court judges rarely interfere with theverdicts of lower courts because they were notpresent at the original trial. Using a video recordto overturn the verdict of a previous court wouldessentially eradicated the role of a jury; which isto reach a decision based on the fact presented,guided by the judge’s knowledge of the law [3][4] . Far from making court proceedings moredemocratic and transparent, using cameras incourtrooms would actually be damaging becauseit undermines the position of normal people toreach a verdict of ‘guilty’ or ‘not guilty’. In thiscase, a judge’s choice to hang a new verdict onvideo information would make the law a veryexclusive practice where very few individuals candetermine the fates of others, and the role ofjury would become irrelevant. [1] In the UK: ,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesVideo footage ofa court case would provide valuable informationfor both defendant and judiciary. If thedefendant is convicted of a crime, they have aright to appeal in the UK [1] and US [2] .However, this is made difficult for another courtto re-assess the conviction if they cannot knowhow reliable evidence was in the first trial.Without film recordings of court trials, judgeswho have the duty to re-examine the case areunable to see witness testimonies; though newevidence does sometimes come to light duringthe course of an appeal [3] , it would be easier toassess this new evidence if the judges also hadknowledge of how the first trial went. If thejudges could watch a video of the first trial, theycould judge the demeanour, body language andgeneral impression given by each witness in thefirst trial. Body language can affect a court’sperception of a witness [4] , but this informationcould not be gained by a transcript. However,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesPutting this kindof pressure on the judiciary and lawyers does nothave the same kinds of benefits that it might inthe House of Commons. Politicians often focuson, and are expected to uphold, the generalinterest of the public, which is why having publicaccess to televised debates is an incentive forthem to push those interests through as far aspossible. However, the rule of law does notalways correlate to public opinion. Particularly inhigh-profile cases, the public may wish to see theaccused given the harshest sentence possible;however, this might not be the legally correctsentence to give in those circumstances. Publicoutrage has been known to tamper with judicialverdicts in places such as India [1] , and isdamaging to the principle of a fair trial. [1] ,accessed 06/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesPeople shouldhave a right of access to justice. Given thatpeople are already allowed to watch courtproceedings from the public gallery – includingthe Judicial Committee of the House of Lords inthe UK [1] , and the Supreme Court in the US [2]– there is little reason why this should not beextended to give better access across the nationto anybody who wants to watch. Those withfull-time jobs or who live far away from thecourts are currently unfairly limited in thisrespect, and those who do wish to attendwell-publicised trials often have to arrive hours inadvance to get a seat. Individuals should nothave to give up so much time and money just tobe able to watch a democratic proceeding, whichis a cornerstone of democratic nations. Giventhat many closed trials such as the trial of theGuantánamo Bay terrorism suspects [3] havestill led to intense media coverage, we would bebetter off showing the courts to be transparent", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesWhen peopletake the time and effort to visit the law courtsand watch a case, it is a formal, regulatedatmosphere. If this were televised, it wouldbecome closer to ‘entertainment’ than to fair,legal proceedings. It becomes a human intereststory rather than a legitimate court case, wherethe focus is on moral retribution rather than fairapplication of the law. Given that high-profilecases can go on for weeks, or even months, evenif you were to broadcast every step of the courtcase it is likely that viewers would only tune infor the climax of the trial. This means that theywould miss important (but perhapscomparatively boring) steps which led to thatconclusion; it obscures the whole picture of thetrial.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesCamerasencourage efficiency and high standards. Placingcameras into courtrooms encourages thejudiciary and lawyers to increase their efficiencyand have high standards of behaviour, becausethey are aware that it will be carried outside ofthe courtroom by public viewing. Theintroductions of cameras to the Houses ofParliament in the UK resulted in significantlyimproved standards of debate, greaterpunctuality, and greater attendance of MPs [1] .We can expect this same principle to continue incourtrooms when cameras are put inplace. [1] , accessed 06/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesFor the familiesof defendants, incriminating evidence of thedefendant comes out anyway – the emotionalproblems are still there under the status quo,whether or not the trials are televised. For thevictims, often a reason why cases are dropped orthe victims decide not to testify is the idea thattheir case is not seen as important, or will notmake a difference [1] . Giving a public focus tothis cases, and emphasising public outrageagainst rape, sexual assault and other seriouscrimes, endorses victims’ rights and makes themsee that justice for this crimes is incrediblyimportant. Perhaps this is the best step towardsencouraging more people to make a differenceby coming forward to testify. [1] , accessed19/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesIt is unlikely thatpeople will use court cases as a form ofentertainment; if the entire case is televised,then a lot of the case will be ‘boring’ discussionof applying law and legal theory [1] , rather thandoling out punishment Judge Judy-style. Even ifa few people do try to use it as entertainment,the potential benefit to wider society as they canliterally see how their legal system works toprotect them outweighs the very small numberof people who might group court cases andreality television shows together. Furthermore, ifsomebody is convicted of a serious crime likemurder, their chances of rehabilitation arealready slim (and convicts often re-offend),whether it is televised or not [2] . Indeed, somewould argue that they have forfeited their rightto rehabilitation by committing murder in thefirst place [3] . However, if they were acquittedof a serious crime on television, future employerscould be more likely to accept them as they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesInvoking publicreaction can damage the lives of thoseconcerned in the court case. Proposition maywell argue that televising court cases gains asense of ‘sympathy’ and justice for the victims ofthe case. However, this is double-edged. Firstly,particularly emotive and controversial courtcases concerning crimes such as sexual assaultcould blind the public (or ‘audience’) to anyuntruthfulness from the ‘victim’, by virtue ofbeing perceived as vulnerable and wronged.Secondly, any sympathy which is gained for oneperson often arises out of increased hatred oroutrage against another – namely the defendant.This could lead to public condemnation of anindividual who is never actually convicted of acrime; they will be exposed to public reactionthat might be wholly unjustified if he issubsequently acquitted. One example of this iswhen Milly Dowler’s father was questioned incourt as a suspect of his daughter’s death and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesWitnesses andjurors could easily become involved in the mediacoverage of the case and place the trial atjeopardy. Newspaper interviews with witnesseshave already caused trials to be cancelled in thepast [1] because the judiciary recognises thatmedia coverage can change people’s incentivesand warp their priorities. This interference mayaffect the reliability of the witness’ evidence orthe jurors’ verdict. Following the televised trial ofO. J. Simpson, several witnesses and jurors gaveinterviews to the media, or wrote their memoirsof the case [2] . If witnesses and jurors knowthat their public lives could be affected by howthe rest of society perceives them through acourt case, they might have an incentive to bemore harsh or more lenient; public outrage whenthe criminal sentence does not match their owninterpretations is likely to be laid on those whocaused that sentence. This is particularlydangerous for America, where they have trial by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesTelevising courtcases undermines the right to privacy for thevictim and the defendant’s family Courtproceedings can be extremely stressful for thefamilies of the accused, and publicising them inthis way only makes this worse. Again, a goodexample of this is the Milly Dowler case, whenher father’s pornographic magazines were usedas evidence against him [1] . Not only did hethen have to try and come to terms with hisdaughter’s disappearance, but also theknowledge that the media – and his family – nowknew intensely personal details about him whichwere not even relevant to the case, but used totry and condemn him anyway. Meanwhile,although the family members have done nothingwrong, they are forced to listen to criticalevidence of another family member which issuddenly now broadcast into peoples’ homesdirectly from the court. Their public and privatelives would be irrevocably transformed by this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesThis turns courtcases into entertainment, rather than legitimatelegal proceedings. Several television shows,such as ‘Judge Judy’, assert the style of a legalcourtroom [1] . These shows are based onentertainment value from scrutinising theaccused and defendant; it would be dangerous toremove a barrier which currently separatesgenuine legal proceedings from entertainment bytelevising them. The risk that the public wouldsee them as one and the same is increased by anincident where a man really did believe that theJudge Judy trial was a real trial [2] . The trial ofCasey Anthony in Florida, where cameras areallowed, escalated into a media frenzy wherelegal justice became unimportant in comparisonto television ratings [3] . Court cases, then, areat risk of not being taken seriously and usedinstead for the public to satisfy their curiosityinto other peoples’ lives. Televising court casesalso immediately undermines some fundamental", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesJurorinvolvement is made less likely by theproposition line that jurors’ faces will be blankedout during the broadcast. For witnesses, thepotential to warp and distort the truth alreadyexists; they could be trying to avoid a sentence,or to make sure that justice is done if they havebeen wronged. They are already emotionallyinvolved. If anything, video footage of the trialcould encourage them to temper their responsesand make absolutely sure that they are accuratein order to avoid questioning by the media orincrimination for giving an inaccurate statement.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghwpcctcc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "law general house would place camerascourtrooms televise court casesWithholding videoevidence of a court trial will not stop people fromautomatically siding with the victim anddenouncing the accused; it will just stop themfrom being able to see the body language andother actions which can balance out the media’sassertion that one party is definitively a ‘victim’while the other is a ‘criminal’. These labels arealready in place – televising court cases justhelps us to understand the details and nuancesof a case, and garner a more sophisticated viewof the case in question.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate free challenge law human rightsphilosophy political philosophy houseArgumentsthat invoke censorship of materials for minorsare just that - arguments for the censorship ofmaterials for minors. They do not concede thegeneral principal that censorship is good becauseuntil the age of majority the state has a duty torespect (and to take limited measures to ensureothers respect) the parental responsibility ofthose bringing up children.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate free challenge law human rightsphilosophy political philosophy houseProtectionof Minors We need to protect minors (thoseunder the age of majority) from exposure toobscene, offensive or potentially damagingmaterials. While this would be a restriction onthe freedom of speech it should be somethingthat the government is responsible for and wewould all agree needs some kind of restriction orregulation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate free challenge law human rightsphilosophy political philosophy houseThe ends donot justify the means. The government may wellwish to suppress publication of information thatwould be prejudicial to its success in the nextelections or its war campaign, but it’s in thepublic interest to know about their dirty dealingsor illegal activities. Moreover secrecy in thename of security often leads to injustice; therendition of British residents and secret evidencegiven at control order hearings are but a coupleof examples.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate free challenge law human rightsphilosophy political philosophy houseThecharacter of every act depends upon thecircumstances in which it is done \"The moststringent protection of free speech would notprotect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theatreand causing a panic.\" [1] Shouting fire in acrowded cinema when there is no fire, and youknow it, is wrong because doing so creates aclear and present danger of harm toothers. Likewise, in the US (and many othercountries) there is no protection for ‘falsecommercial speech’ (i.e. misrepresentation) andthe contents of adverts can be regulated in orderto ensure that they are truthful and do notdeceive consumers. [2] On that basis,restrictions can be placed on how tobaccoproducts may be advertised, and people may beprevented from promoting illegal and fraudulenttax advice. [1] U.S. Supreme Court, Schenck v.United States, 249 U.S. 47, 1919, [2] U.S.Supreme Court, Lorillard Tobacco Co v Reilly, AG", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate free challenge law human rightsphilosophy political philosophy houseTheargument leads to a slippery slope. It is onething to regulate speech on matters that areobjectively verifiable, quite another to restrictthe permissible scope of opinion and expression.Even then, the state should be extremelycautious about declaring a state of objective fact.People taking advice on matters such as taxalways take the risk that that advice may turnout to be bad, the amount of risk a person iswilling to take is entirely a matter of personalresponsibility and not a matter that thegovernment should intervene in.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate free challenge law human rightsphilosophy political philosophy houseSociety isself-regulating. The link between speech actsand physical acts is a false one - people whocommit hate crimes are likely to have read hatespeech, people who commit sex crimes are likelyto have watched pornography but not necessarilythe other way around. Viewers of pornographyand readers of hate speech are therefore notincited to commit anything they otherwise wouldnot do. If the advocates of these views havehidden agendas, all the more reason to exposethem in public. The fact that Holocaust denialleads to neo-Nazism will, for most people, be onemore compelling argument against it;creationism’s necessarily literalistic approach toscripture can easily be shown to be ridiculous.Again, the truth has nothing to fear, and the evilimplications of falsehood should not be coveredup by refusing to engage with it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate free challenge law human rightsphilosophy political philosophy houseIt may benecessary in the interests of nationalsecurity The Government must protect itscitizens from foreign enemies and internalenemies - thus freedom of speech can beacceptably curtailed during times of war in orderto prevent propaganda and spying which mightundermine the national interest. This hashappened in almost all states during times ofwar, during the second world war the UnitedStates even had a government departmentdedicated to it; The Office of Censorship. [1] [1]Hanyok, Robert J., ‘Secrets of Victory: The Officeof Censorship and The American Press and Radioin World War II’, Studies in Intelligence, Vol 46,No. 3,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdfclhrppph-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate free challenge law human rightsphilosophy political philosophy houseHolocaustDenial Speech acts lead to physical acts. Thuspornography, hate speech and political polemicare causally linked to rape, hate crimes, andinsurrection. Both scientific creationism andHolocaust denial have serious, and dangerous,hidden agendas. Deniers of the Nanjing Massacrebelieve that the Japanese did nothing wrong inthe Second World War and continue to claim thatit was a war of liberation against westerncolonialism - feeding Japanese militarism today.Holocaust deniers, in claiming that a Jewishconspiracy is responsible for the widespreadbelief that six million Jews were murdered by theNazis, are closely allied to anti-Semitism andneo-Nazism. We should not allow such views thelegitimacy which being debated gives them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdfclhrppph-con01b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate free challenge law human rightsphilosophy political philosophy houseSociety isentitled to define itself on certain issues –otherwise what does it stand for? Community isonly possible among like-minded individuals. It islikewise entitled to tell those who refuse toaccept the consensus on those issues to ‘lump itor leave it’. It is also absurd to suggest that allchallenges to orthodoxy are legitimate. Denial ofatrocities is usually a mask for racial intolerance.Denial of established scientific truths in thepublic world is not usually about progress butrather about ignoring the evidence to promotetheologically based worldviews. Society has avested interest in suppressing those movements.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdfclhrppph-con02a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate free challenge law human rightsphilosophy political philosophy houseIndividualLiberty outweighs any potential harms Whateverthe potential harms that may arise fromunrestrained free speech; they pale incomparison to the harm that arises from banningan individual from freely expressing his ownmind. It is a matter of the upmost individualliberty that one’s thoughts and feelings are one’sown, and that individuals are free to expressthose thoughts and feelings openly. A prohibitionon this liberty is a harm of incalculable value – itstrikes right to the core of what it means to be inindividual person.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdfclhrppph-con01a", "title": "", "text": "speech debate free challenge law human rightsphilosophy political philosophy houseFree speechallows challenges to orthodox beliefs Freespeech is not merely a ‘nice thing to have’, it is amechanism which brings real, tangible benefitsto society by allowing people to challengeorthodoxy. States that do not allow orthodoxbeliefs to be challenged stagnate anddecline. Reducing restrictions on free speech to‘special exceptions’ frustrates the whole pointbecause it is precisely those special exceptionswhere established truth needs to be challenged.This is not restricted to matters of pure opinion –the modern scientific process relies uponprofessionals being able to vehemently disagreeon matters of crucial fact. “Real science dependsfor its progress on continual challenges to thecurrent state of always-imperfect knowledge.”[1] [1] Sarewitz, Daniel, ‘The voice of science:let’s agree to disagree’, Nature, Vol 487, No.7, 5October 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-sdfclhrppph-con02b", "title": "", "text": "speech debate free challenge law human rightsphilosophy political philosophy houseLiberty is anintangible right – restrictions on liberty can beequally intangible and entirely transitory basedon the circumstances. What we know though isthat real harm is derived from defaming anindividual’s reputation, broadcasting racist abuseand shouting ‘fire’ in a crowded theatre. It iswrong to ignore real, tangible harm in favour ofpreventing fanciful and intangible harms.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsProhibition maynot be working in the UK but that does not meanthat prohibition is not working everywhere. Inthe US, the Drug Enforcement Agency states that“Overall drug use in the United States is down bymore than a third since the late 1970s. That’s9.5 million people fewer using illegal drugs.We’ve reduced cocaine use by an astounding70% during the last 15 years.” [1] [1] U.S. DrugEnforcement Administration, ‘Fact 1: We havemade significant progress in fighting drug useand drug trafficking in America. Now is not thetime to abandon our efforts’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsProhibition doesnot work; instead, it glamorizes drugs Thosewho want to use drugs will take them whetherthey are legal or not – and more are doing sothan ever before. In 1970 there was somethinglike 1,000 problematic drug users in the UK, nowthere are over 250,000. [1] Legalization will alsoremove the glamour which surrounds anunderground activity and so make drug use lessattractive to impressionable teenagers. Forexample, statistics suggest that cannabis use inthe UK declined after its classification waslowered from ‘B’ to ‘C’. [2] [1] Home AffairsSelect Committee, ‘The Government’s DrugPolicy: Is It Working?’, parliament.uk, 22 May2002, [2] Travis, Alan, ‘Cannabis use downsince legal change’, The Guardian, 26th October2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsThe law ishypocritical In most countries where drugs areillegal, tobacco and alcohol, which arguably haveequally devastating consequences in society, arelegal. In a UK study, alcohol was shown to havethe worst effects of any drug, yet the current lawrecognises that people should be able to choosewhether they drink or not. [1] The same shouldbe true of drugs. [1] Professor David Nutt, ‘DrugHarms in the UK: a multicriteria decisionanalysis’, The Lancet, Vol 376, Issue 9752, pp.1558-1565, 6th November 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro07b", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsIf the state is tomake money from taxing drugs, this undercutsthe (supposed) advantages of lower-priced drugsand will just encourage a black market tocontinue. In the UK, there is large black marketfor tobacco; it is suspected that tax has not beenpaid on 21% of cigarettes and 58% of handrolling tobacco consumed. [1] Furthermore, forthe state to take revenue from this practise ismorally wrong, whatever use the money is putto. The point of drug treatment is to help abusersoff drugs, but under the proposition’s system thestate would have a financial interest inprolonging addiction. [1] TobaccoManufacturers’ Association, ‘Tobacco Smugglingand Crossborder Shopping’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsPart of thereason that drugs are illegal is because of thehealth ramifications, which exist even if a drug ispure. To give a brief summary of some healthharms that come from unadulterateddrugs: “Cocaine can cause such long-termproblems as tremors, seizures, psychosis, andheart or respiratory failure. Marijuana andhashish can cause rapid heart rate and memoryimpairment soon after use. Long-term effectsinclude cognitive problems, infertility, weakenedimmune system, and possible lungdamage. Narcotics such as heroin can bring onrespiratory and circulatory depression, dizziness,impotence, constipation, and withdrawalsickness. Overdoses can lead to seizures anddeath.” [1] [1] Bowles Center for AlcoholStudies, ‘Effects of Alcohol and Drugs on yourHealth’, University of North Carolina,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsDrugs currentlyfund terrorism and regional instability TheTaliban gets most of its revenue from poppies,which provide the opium for heroin. They do thisby intimidating local farmers who wouldotherwise sell their harvest at market. They thendemand “protection money” as well, or elseeither another local warlord or the ‘protectors’themselves would rob the farmer. Something like22,700 people have died in Mexico since January2007 from gangsters who want to protect theirrevenue and almost the entire continent of SouthAmerica, from Brazil to Colombia, has had theirgovernments destabilised by drug lords. [1] Thehugely-costly but unsuccessful war on drugscould be ended, starving terrorists of the profitsof drug production. As a result peace anddevelopment could be brought to unstabledrug-producing states such as Colombia andAfghanistan. [1] Mexico under siege, The drugwar on our doorstep, Los Angeles Times , 27", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsPeople shouldbe free to take drugs Individuals are sovereignover their own bodies, and should be free tomake choices which affect them and not otherindividuals. Since the pleasure gained from drugsand the extent to which this weighs againstpotential risks is fundamentally subjective, it isnot up to the state to legislate in this area.Rather than pouring wasted resources intoattempting to suppress drug use, the state wouldbe better off running information campaigns toeducate people about the risks andconsequences of taking different types of drugs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro07a", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsLegal drugswould increase tax revenue In 2009-2010, thetax revenue from tobacco in the UK was £10.5billion. [1] If the state legalizes drugs, it can taxthem and use the revenue from this practise tofund treatment. At the moment such treatmentis difficult to justify as it appears to be spendingordinary taxpayers’ money on junkies. [1]Tobacco Manufacturers’ Association, ‘TaxRevenue From Tobacco’, accessed 16th June2011 -", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsThis pointmakes the assumption that drug use only affectsthe individual concerned; in reality, drug usagecan have a significant effect on people close tothe user, as well as wider society. People whocan be affected include family who have to carefor a user and victims of drug-related crimes. Inaddition, in countries with welfare states, there isan additional significant societal cost as manydrug users cannot hold down jobs. [1] Studies inthe USA have shown that parents often put theirneed for drugs above the wellbeing of theirchildren. [2] This being the case, it is clear thatthe harms of drugs far outweigh governmentalduty to protect individualfreedoms. Furthermore, doing drugs may be afree choice at first, but after a certain period thedrug user is no longer to choose forhimself/herself because addiction overruns theirjudgement. [1] BBC News, ‘Drugs cost society£18.8bn’, 12 February 2002, [2] National Drug", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsWhether legalor illegal, drugs will still be a source of incomefor warlords and terrorist groups. Instead ofstarving them off, the dealers become morecompetitive and lower their prices. The only wayto stop these people using drugs as a source ofincome is to remove poppies from Afghan fields,to destroy coca plantations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsPerhaps alcoholand tobacco should also be illegal. However, oneof the reasons why alcohol ranks so badly in suchstudies is because of its legality; if other drugswere legal, we would see their usage go up andtherefore the negative social effects theyproduce rise as well.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsDrugs affecthow people think, and they take away theirability to control their actions rationally, and sopeople on drugs are more likely to commitcrimes. The US Drug Enforcement Administrationstates, “Crime, violence and drug use go hand inhand. Six times as many homicides arecommitted by people under the influence ofdrugs, as by those who are looking for money tobuy drugs. Most drug crimes aren’t committed bypeople trying to pay for drugs; they’recommitted by people on drugs.” [1] [1] U.S.Drug Enforcement Administration, ‘Summary ofthe Top Ten Facts on Legalization’, 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsDrugs are saferwhen legal Currently in the UK, purity of illegalAmphetamine is normally under 5%, and sometablets sold as ecstasy contain no MDMA at all.Instead, drugs are adulterated (“cut”) withsubstances from chalk and talcum powder tocompletely different drugs. [1] At least whendrugs are legalised the state can regulate theirsale to make sure that they are clean and not cutwith other dangerous substances. This willminimise the risk to users. [1] Drugscope, ‘HowPure Are Street Drugs?’, updated January 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsLegalisationreduces crime The illegality of drugs fuels ahuge amount of crime that could be eliminated ifdrugs were legalised. Price controls would meanthat addicts would no longer have to steal tofund their habits, and a state-provided drugservices would put dealers out of business,starving criminal gangs of their main source offunding. For example, an Italian Mafia familywere making around $44bn a year from cocainesmuggling. [1] This represents something like3% of Italy’s entire GDP – and that from onlyone crime syndicate. [1] Kington, Tom, ‘Italianpolice raids reveal how an 80-year-old gangsterheld sway over the feared Calabrian mafia’, TheObserver, 18 July 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-con03b", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsIn a capitalistsystem reliant on supply and demand, the cost ofa particular drug will always correspond to whatpeople are willing to pay for them. So, there isno reason why a black market should spring upunder a legalised system of drug sale.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-con01b", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsMany thingsthat can be dangerous are legal, from drugs suchas alcohol, to activities such as skydiving, oreven rugby. However, millions of people are ableto drink or play sports without harmingthemselves or society. It would seem draconianand extremely paternalistic for the governmentto ban everything that has the potential to bedangerous; instead, they should educate peopleabout the dangers, but trust them to makedecisions about their own lives. The State hasno authority to force its own morality on thegeneral populace unless these drugs can beproven to harm others. The State is thefacilitator of the voters’ desires in a democracy.So, a State enforced, morality goes against theobligations of the State to its people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-con02a", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsMore peoplewill take drugs if they are legal Considering thatdrug use has so many negative consequences, itwould be disastrous to have it increase.However, the free availability of drugs once theyare legal will make it far easier for individuals tobuy and use them. In most cases, under 1% ofthe population of OECD countries regularly useillegal drugs; many more drink alcohol or smoketobacco. [1] This must at least partly to do withthe illegality. Indeed, in an Australian survey,29% of those who had never used cannabis citedthe illegality of the substance as their reason fornever using the drug, while 19% of those whohad ceased use of cannabis cited its illegality astheir reason. [2] [1] UN Office on Drugs andCrime, World Drug Report 2009, [2] NSWBureau of Crime and Statistics, ‘Does ProhibitionDeter Cannabis use?’, 23 August2001, $file/mr_cjb58.pdf", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-con03a", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsDrugs willeither be too cheap or too expensive Low pricesfor drugs will hugely increase consumption ofdrugs, amongst all groups - addicts, previouslycasual users, and those who were not previouslyusers. If drug provision is strictly regulated, anillegal black market may remain.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-con01a", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsDrugs aredangerous, and the governement shoulddiscourage its use The government has aresponsibility to protect its citizens; if asubstance will do people and society significantharm, then that substance should be banned.There is no such thing as a safe form of a drug.Legalization can only make drugs purer, andtherefore perhaps more deadly and addictive.Many illegal drugs are closely related topotentially dangerous medicines, whoseprescription is tightly restricted to trainedprofessionals, but the proposition wouldeffectively be allowing anyone to take anythingthey wished regardless of the known medicaldangers. However entrenched in modern culturedrugs may be, legalising them will only makethem appear more acceptable. The state has aduty to send out the right message, and itshealth campaigns will be fundamentallyundermined by the suggestion that drugs are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-tahglcphsld-con02b", "title": "", "text": "th addiction health general law crime policinghouse supports legalisation drugsWhen drugs areillegal, this does not stop people from usingthem. A Canadian report on the matterconcluded, \"The licit or illicit status of substanceshas little impact on their use.\" [1] In addition,even though drugs are illegal, it is not hard toaccess them. In a Spanish survey, 92.9% ofSpanish students said that it was very easy toaccess illegal drugs – even though only 11.6%used cannabis, which was the most used. [2]Even using the survey quoted by opposition, it isclear that the majority of people surveyed didnot view the illegality of cannabis as a reason notto use it. [1] Parliament of Canada House ofCommons, Special Committee on Non-MedicalUse of Drugs, report issued November,2002, [2] Eurocare, ‘92.9 % of Spanishstudents say that access to drugs is very easy’,26 March 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cppshbcjsfm-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing punishment society house believescriminal justice should focus moreCrime is notpathology, it is not the product of circumstance,and it is certainly not the product of coincidence.As the case of Husng Guangyu shows, despitebeing Chinas richest man he still committedcrimes involving illegal business dealing, insidertrading and bribery and was then sentenced to14 years. This was rightly given in order as a justpunishment for the cost of the crimes he hadcommitted and to deter others from suchpractices. [1] Crime is the result of choices madeby the individual, and therefore the justicesystem must condemn those choices when theyviolate society’s rules. To say otherwise (i.e. tosay that criminals are merely the product of theirunfortunate circumstances) would be an insult tohuman autonomy - the liberalist idea that ourjudicial system is based on, in saying thatindividuals are given the power to make theirown decisions freely and this should beinterfered with in as little as possible. It would be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cppshbcjsfm-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing punishment society house believescriminal justice should focus moreRehabilitationHas Greater Regard For theOffender Rehabilitation has another importantvalue – it recognises the reality of socialinequity. To say that some offenders need helpto be rehabilitated is to accept the idea thatcircumstances can constrain, if not compel, andlead to criminality; it admits that we can helpunfortunate persons who have been overcomeby their circumstance. It rejects the idea thatindividuals, regardless of their position in thesocial order, exercise equal freedom in decidingwhether to commit a crime, and should bepunished equally according to their offence,irrespective of their social backgrounds. Prisonsare little more than schools of crime if therearen't any rehabilitation programs. Prisonsisolate offenders from their families and friendsso that when they are released their socialnetworks tend to be made up largely of thosewhom they met in prison. As well as sharing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cppshbcjsfm-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing punishment society house believescriminal justice should focus moreRehabilitationIs A Better General Justifying Aim forPunishment Rehabilitation is the most valuableideological justification for imprisonment, for italone promotes the humanising belief in thenotion that offenders can be saved and notsimply punished. Desert (retributive) theory, onthe other hand, sees punishment as an end initself, in other words, punishment forpunishment’s sake. This has no place in anyenlightened society. An example can be takenfrom the aftermath of the London rioters, where170 riot offenders under 18 are now in custodywithout firstly understanding the causes of theriots nor the reasons of why these peopleoffended. [1] The rehabilitative ideal does notignore society and the victim. In fact it isbecause retribution places such great value onthe prisoner’s rights that it tries so hard tochange the offender and prevent his reoffending.By seeking to reduce reoffending and to reduce", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cppshbcjsfm-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing punishment society house believescriminal justice should focus moreA sanctionshould not merely be helpful – it should treat theoffending conduct as wrong. The purpose ofpunishment is to show disapproval for theoffender’s wrongdoing, and to clearly condemnhis criminal actions. This is what was and isbeing done with the offenders of the Augustriots, the most common example is of an the twomen who attempted to organise riots usingFacebook, both were sentenced to four years andshows societies disgust in the events of the riotsand acts as a message for future. [1] A prisonsentence is as much a punishment for theoffender as a symbol of the reaction of society.Society creates law as an expression of the typeof society we are aiming to create. This is whywe punish; we punish to censure (retribution),we do not punish merely to help a person changefor the better (rehabilitation). We still have topunish a robber or a murderer, even if he is trulysorry and even if he would really, really never", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con03b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing punishment society house believescriminal justice should focus moreThe expense ofre-offenders re-entering the system is also anexpense that our prison system cannot afford. Asystem such as counselling for released prisonerswould prove to be inexpensive when weighedagainst the benefits of decreased crime, and allthe costs involved in that (public damage,judicial costs and prison costs). Given that manyorganisations work in rehabilitation programs inprisons for very little, if any, payment such asystem could easily be established forcounselling. A complete system of rehabilitationand post-release counselling, to access theseprograms, should be paired with increasedawareness programs in schools and welfaresupport. However, this system of combatingcrime is not complete without a comprehensivesystem of rehabilitation. If we truly want toprotect society and reform criminals then wemust invest more time, effort and funding into asystem that can achieve this. Incarceration on its", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con01b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing punishment society house believescriminal justice should focus moreThe needs ofsociety are not being met by those who reoffenddue to lack of rehabilitation. The fact that twothirds of offenders subsequently re-offend withtwo years [1] suggests that the prison systemdoes little to encourage people to stay on theright side of the law. Clearly, the threat of prisonis not enough alone and needs to besupplemented by other schemes. Prisons canprovide an opportunity to develop importantskills: it is especially clear in the case ofnon-violent offenders that criminal behaviouroften stems from a perceived lack ofalternatives. Offenders often lack educationalqualifications and skills. Prisons can provide anopportunity to develop necessary skills for futureemployment through the provision of coursesand education. The UK offers courses inbricklaying, hairdressing, gardening and teachingsport and fitness. [2] These people can thencontribute back into society rather than a purely", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con02a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing punishment society house believescriminal justice should focus moreRehabilitationDoesn’t Actually Work While some rehabilitativeprogrammes work with some offenders (thosewho would probably change by themselvesanyway), most do not. Many programs cannotovercome, or even appreciably reduce, thepowerful tendency for offenders to continue incriminal behaviour. In Britain, whererehabilitation has long been purported to stopre-offending, 58 per cent of those over-21 findthemselves in trouble with the law within twoyears of release. [1] The rehabilitation programssimply do not work. ‘Rehabilitation’ is therefore afalse promise – and the danger with such anillusory and impossible goal is that it is used as afront to justify keeping offenders locked up forlonger than they deserve and sometimes evenindefinitely (‘if we keep him here longer maybehe might change’). We cannot justify passing anyheavier or more onerous a sentence on a personin the name of “rehabilitation” if “rehabilitation”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con04a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing punishment society house believescriminal justice should focus moreRehabilitationConstitutes an Unjustifiable FurtherExpense The evidence from all over the worldsuggests that recidivism rates are difficult toreduce and that some offenders just can’t berehabilitated. It therefore makes economic senseto cut all rehabilitation programs and concentrateon ensuring that prisoners serve the time theydeserve for their crimes and are kept off thestreets where they are bound to re-offend. As itcan be seen that some deserving of a longersentence only receive short sentences due tolack of time and space and some who havecommitted shorter sentences are given longsentences aimed at making a point or sending amessage. Currently, the government willcontinue to be gambling tax payers’ money onprograms that will not give anything back intothe society that it took from. Britain spends£45,000 a year on each of its prisoners and yet50% will go on to re-offend, ‘which translates", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con03a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing punishment society house believescriminal justice should focus moreHow WouldOne Know a System of Rehabilitation Is ReallyWorking The question “does it work” must bejoined by the second question: “even if it doeswork, how can you tell, with each individualoffender, when it has worked?” How would wecheck if this system is really working? Taggingprisoners? Free counselling for the prisoner forthe rest of their life? These measures wouldrequire huge administration costs and then thequestion follows would it even be feasible toenforce such a system? The root of criminalityexists before exposure to the prison system;otherwise criminals would have no reason to bethere in the first place. What may be moresensible is to analyse the root causes of whatmakes criminals offend in the first instance andintroduce reform to counteract it, for examplethe economic crisis. [1] Some have cited theeducation system as failing to instil a sense ofmorality in people. Others suggest that a lack of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con01a", "title": "", "text": "crime policing punishment society house believescriminal justice should focus moreRehabilitationDoes Not Serve The Needs of Society Theprimary goal of our criminal justice system is toremove offenders from general society andprotect law abiding citizens. Many criminals arerepeat offenders and rehabilitation can be a longand expensive process. In Jamaica, police claimrepeat offenders are responsible for over 80% oflocal crime despite rehabilitation programmes inprisons. [1] Ideally therefore, retribution andrehabilitation should work hand in hand toprotect citizens in the short and long term. Thereare some successful examples of this happening,where prisons encourage inmates to take part ingroup activities such as football. Some prisonshave started cooking programmes whereinmates learn to cook in a professionalenvironment and leave with a qualification.However the first priority is the removal of theconvicted criminal from society in order toprotect the innocent. Rehabilitation should be a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con04b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing punishment society house believescriminal justice should focus morePhilosopherPeter Landry believes that it takes a whole groupof specialists to determine what kind ofpunishment to mete out to criminals. [1] There isno hard and fast rule. Money spent onrehabilitation may cost a lot, but is well worth it,when you consider cuts to the rate ofreoffending, leading to reduced expense relatedto those who reoffend and less crowded prisons.In Britain, it costs £140,000 a year to jail ayoung criminal, imagine if that money was spenton his or her rehabilitation instead? [2]Furthermore, in America, where measures likethe ‘three-strike policy’ were introduced andrehabilitation discouraged, ‘more than four out often adult American offenders still return to prisonwithin three years of their release’. [3]Retribution simply does not work, and it iscertainly not saving the government anymoney. [1] Landry, P. ‘On The Theory ofPunishment’. Blupete, 2011 . [2] Doyle, J.,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-cppshbcjsfm-con02b", "title": "", "text": "crime policing punishment society house believescriminal justice should focus moreIf we had theopportunity to stop some offenders re-offendingwhy do we not seize this opportunity?Rehabilitative programs provide such anopportunity. Such programs includecognitive-behavioural programs (say, trying toget a violent offender to think and reachdifferently to potential ‘trigger’ situations),pro-social modelling programmes, and somesex-offender treatment programs. Of course,certain styles will suit some better than others,but this is someone that will have to determinedcase by case. As some methods with work betterthan others depending on attitudes, valuesetc. The most credible research (done by atechnique called meta-analysis) demonstratesthat the net effect of treatment is, on average, apositive reduction of overall recidivism(reoffending) rates of between 10% and 12%,which would promote a reduction in crime thatis, by criminal standards,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedIf it were the casethat legal advice were not privileged peoplewould not tell their attorneys the full truth andtherefore such evidence would not exist anyway.The removal of Attorney-Client Privilege wouldonly remove such evidence from the forum. Thiswould lead to a further distorted system wherebyAttorneys are arguing upon the falserepresentations made to them by their clients.This provides even less evidence of truth than asystem which includes Attorney-Client Privilege.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedIt blocks asignificant amount of evidence A system of justlaw is not based on opinions or ideologies. It isabout finding evidence and using that evidenceto prove or disprove either to 'beyond reasonabledoubt' for criminal cases or 'on the balance ofprobabilities' for civil and commercial matters.The burden is on the importance of the evidence.It does not make sense for a legal system to onone hand place so much emphasis on evidenceand lock away documents which will contain avast array of empirical evidence with the other.Instead, attorney-client privilege should beabolished and all evidence should be in justicesdomain in order to ensure that the law achievesa just result.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedThe privilege thatsubsists between solicitors and their clients iswell documented. Therefore, when people goabout becoming solicitors they go into it knowingthe potential moral pitfalls. Having entered thecareer they accept the moral burden and shouldseek to comply with the Solicitors Code ofConduct. In addition, the moral burden ismitigated by those such rules. It is stated that inexceptional circumstances, situations involvingchildren or the potential serious bodily harm onany individual the duty of confidentiality can bedeparted from.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedAttorney clientprivilege need not be sacrosanct in allsituations Most obviously it seems unnecessaryfor there to be attorney client privilege when thedefendant’s interests cannot be adverselyaffected. For example when the confidentialinformation just does not incriminate the clienthimself but it might clear somebody else, orwhen the client is dead. Few people will bediscouraged from being candid with their lawyersif there is merely the possibility that thecommunications may be disclosed after theirdeath. In addition there are situations where theclient’s interest may indeed be hurt but wherethis should be outweighed by some other veryimportant public interest. In other words perhapsthere should be ‘necessity’ or ‘public interest’ or‘in the interests of justice’ balancing exceptionsto the privilege. This would be the case whenpublic safety is at risk, for example if the clientholds some very vital information but is not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedIt makes it morelikely that attorneys will lie for their clients Ifcommunications between an attorney and theirclient are confidential, then it allows for lies to beput forward to the court in order to defendsomeone who is guilty. In the case of a criminalmatter, it could mean that even though adefendant has stated they are guilty to theirattorney, they will not be found to be guilty.Every attorney wants to win their case, and ifthey are likely to conceal the confession of theirclient if it means their client will be released. Asthe communication is confidential, suchconfession will not be informed to the court andthe attorney would not be exposed for their lies.The confidential nature of the communicationsbetween attorney and client open the possibilityfor a system of justice based upon lies. This isnot just and so the Attorney-Client Privilegeshould be abolished.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedIt is a breach of afundamental rule of an attorney's professionalconduct rules to lie to the courts. In England andWales the risk of Attorney's lying has beencatered for by the Rule 11.01 of the Solicitors'Code of Conduct. This rule makes it a seriousbreach of the conduct rules to lie to or knowinglydeceive the courts; as witness statements andpolice interviews are presented in courts asevidence these are also included. [1] This meansthat a solicitor is not allowed to put forward orallow to be put forward any information to beadduced to the court which is incorrect. Theconsequences for a solicitor are high – they areliable to have their professional license revoked.Given the high consequences, a solicitor wouldnot be willing to risk it and will therefore not bewilling to lie for their client to the court. [1] Rule11: Litigation and advocacy, Solicitors’ Code ofConduct 2007, accessed 18/5/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedIt is very unusual tohave a case where it would be certain thatdisclosure would in no way affect the client.Clients want confidentiality for a wide variety ofreasons, not only for reasons connected topersonal criminal liability. Even if theseconfidences are not any sort of admission ofcriminal wrongdoing, they may nonetheless bematters that the client, for one reason oranother, would not wish divulged. Abolishing theprivilege not only violates a person’s right toprivacy, but a person who knows that hiscommunications may be later revealed (evenafter his death, or even with ‘use immunity’)may well decide that it is better not to go to alawyer in the first place – in other words, leadingto an access to justice problem. This becomeseven more of a problem if the privilege may beoverridden when it is in the public interest as theclient is not going to know when this may beconsidered to be the case. Better to keep the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedThis does not meanthat client-attorney privilege should be doneaway with altogether. When it comes toEuropean law and their investigations under theTreaty of Lisbon for uncompetitive practices,they do not count in house lawyercommunications as privileged [1] [1] AkzoNobel Chemicals Limited C-550/07 accessed18/05/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedIt places excessivemoral burden on solicitors With theattorney-client privilege in place, there is anexcessive burden on the solicitor to cope withany information their client may give to them ona confidential basis. This means they have todeal with the information alone. This is anexcessive moral burden for any individual tohave and should not be justified on the basis thata solicitor is there to advance the interests oftheir client. It should not be the solicitors role todeal with moral conflicts alone.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedThe principle behindattorney-client privilege is declining inrelevance One of the principles behind allowingcommunications between a solicitor and theirclient to be privileged is that a solicitor isindependent of their client and so will not breachlaws themselves in order to attain their clientsobjectives. However, after the recession of 2008and the Legal Services Act 2007 the position ofin house lawyer is more prevalent [1] . In houselawyers are not financially independent. They arein fact employees of their 'client'. This eradicatesthe principle behind client-attorney privilege andtherefore the privilege itself is now irrelevant andshould be eradicated. [1] In-house counsel onthe rise, New Law Journal, 28 April2010, accessed 18/05/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-con03b", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedThe circumstancesunder which Note 9 allows such a break in therule of client-attorney privilege is for the HMRevenue and other bodies that act for the benefitof the Government. It is rather archaic that aprinciple such as that of attorney-client privilegeis loosened only for bodies that act for thebenefit of the Government. This does not showthat attorney-Client privilege is necessary butthat it is not. If the Government is willing to doaway with it for their monetary benefit, why canwe not do away with it in the interest of justicefor society? There should be a system thatencourages the adversarial system, andattorney/client privilege but yet allows a varietyof circumstances to override this principle, suchas public interest and public security. Theseprinciples are often used to justify potentialHuman Rights breaches, so we should also beable to use them to justify the breach ofattorney/client privilege.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-con01b", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedSurely the best wayto ensure justice is to let the truth be known. Byallowing the communication between an attorneyand their client to be privileged, the system iscatering for a system of arbitrary loopholes andcleverly worded arguments. These are the toolsthat a solicitor/ attorney would have in order toprotect the interests of their client in the face ofinformation they may not wish to divulge to theopponent. This only caters for an adversarialsystem whereby two parties oppose each otherand they each have lawyers to assist them.Surely a better system would be one thatencouraged open communication of the truth inorder for the court to establish the most justoutcome.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-con02a", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedIt better enablesAttorneys to advance their client's case Anattorney's main duty is owed to their client.Under Rule 1.04 of the Solicitors' Code ofConduct a solicitor “must act in the best interestsof each client”. [1] It is part of the adversarialsystem that we have that two opposing parties inlitigation argue for their best interests. Thewhole working of the adversarial system ofjustice is that each party knows the facts butargues the facts that most support their case. Totake away client-attorney privilege is toundermine this way of achieving justice. [1]Rule 1: Core duties, Solicitors’ Code of Conduct2007, accessed 18/05/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-con03a", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedClient-AttorneyPrivilege is already qualified appropriately Inexceptional circumstances, solicitors are told thatthey may depart from the rule of confidentialitycontained in Rule 4 of the Solicitors' Code ofconduct. Note 9 states that there are someregulatory bodies that are entitled to be informedof apparently confidential client communications.[1] In cases of suspected money laundering,solicitors have a duty under the MoneyLaundering Regulations 2007 [2] to informrelevant bodies of any suspected moneylaundering or any handling of the proceeds ofcrime. This means that there is flexibility in therule of client confidentiality and client-attorneyprivilege which allows for justice to take itscourse in serious circumstances. [1] Rule 4:Confidentiality and disclosure, Solicitors’ Code ofConduct 2007, accessed 18/05/11 [2] TheMoney Laundering Regulations 2007,legislation.gov.uk, No2157, 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-con01a", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedIt supports theprinciple that everyone is entitled to adefence In criminal, civil or commercial matters,it is important that everyone has equal access tothe law. This ensures a fair and just system. Inorder to facilitate this principle, even those in thewrong need to know that what they say to theirlegal representative will not be used againstthem at a later date. It is this principle thatprovides equality in the court room and thereforethe principle of client attorney privilege needs tobe maintained.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-lghbacpsba-con02b", "title": "", "text": "law general house believes attorney clientprivilege should be abolishedAll this shows is thatour 'adversarial system' is flawed. Rather thaneach party trying to pull the wool over the courtseyes and only see their version of the factssurely the system of justice would operate betterif each attorney had the duty to the court infinding the truth. Perhaps it is for this reasonthat mediation is often seen as the better way tosolve disputes. In mediation, the parties areeach trying to reach an out of court settlementthat balances both of their needs. Justice wouldbe achieved more easily in this mediation settingif the client-attorney privilege did not apply.Solicitors then would truly be looking to advancejustice, not the clients best interests. Justice issupposed to be unbiased in this regard.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseTheICC does not offer lasting peace to victims, butcan instead re-open old wounds. 'It is by nomeans clear that 'justice' as defined by the Courtand Prosecutor is always consistent with theattainable political resolution of serious politicaland military disputes' argues John Bolton. TheICC deals with individual criminals and specificcrimes in a vacuum, it is unable to appreciatethe, albeit paradoxical, notion that it may be inthe best interests of the resolution of conflict forthe perpetrators to go unpunished and victims toforego reparations. 'Circumstances differ, andcircumstances matter'1 the ICC in offeringlasting peace to victims of war crimes is unableto weigh the circumstances in the manner of anad hoc tribunal tailored to the specific conflict. 1Bolton, J. (2002, November 12). The UnitedStates and the International Criminal Court.Retrieved May 11, 2011, from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseTheICC offers justice to victims of war crimes. TheICC offers a multilateral means by whichinternational law can be brought to bear on theperpetrators of war crimes. As AmnestyInternational argues, 'the ICC ensures that thosewho commit serious human rights violations areheld accountable. Justice helps promote lastingpeace, enables victims to rebuild their lives andsends a strong message that perpetrators ofserious international crimes will not gounpunished'. Furthermore, and for the first time,the ICC has the power to order a criminal to payreparations to a victim who has suffered as aresult of their crimes. Such reparations mayinclude restitution, indemnification andrehabilitation. Judges are able to order suchreparations whether the victims have been ableto apply for them or not. Though reparations willoften not be sufficient on their own for lastingpeace, they are a step in the right direction and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseTheUS holds a unique position in the fabric of theprotection of international peace and security.Whilst it might be appropriate for other States toconsent to the jurisdiction of the ICC, theseStates do not bear the responsibilities andattendant risks beholden to the 200,000 UStroops in continuous forward deployment. Thearmed forces of the US that have responded tothree hundred per cent more contingencysituations during the previous decade thanduring the whole of the Cold War. It is clear thatthe world more than ever looks to the US for itssafety. Furthermore, the military dominance ofthe US increases the likelihood of prosecution.When rogue regimes are incapable of defeatingthe US by any military means, they are likely toresort to 'asymmetric challenges' to their forces.Challenging the authority of the US in the ICCwill be more damaging to US interests andwillingness to intervene than any conventional", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseTheICC allows for the prosecution of warcriminals. Law-abiding states like the UnitedStates that have yet to ratify the ICC shouldhave nothing to fear if they behave lawfully. TheProsecutor of the ICC is only concerned with themost grave offences and it defies belief that theUS would approve a strategy of genocide orsystematic mass violations of human rights thatcould attract the jurisdiction of the ICC. Further,the discretion of the Prosecutor is not unchecked.The Statute requires that the approval of threejudges sitting in a pre-trial chamber be obtainedbefore an arrest warrant can be issued orproceedings initiated. Moreover, there is no harmto the interests of the US in being subjected to amere preliminary investigation. In fact, it ispreferable that spurious accusations are brieflyexamined and shown to be baseless, than thatthese accusations be allowed to raise doubtsabout the credibility of a State's actions and the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseTheICC's ability to prosecute war criminals is bothoverstated and simplistic. It has no force of itsown, and must rely on its member states to handover criminals wanted for prosecution. This leadsto cases like that of Serbia, where wanted warcriminals like Ratko Mladic are believed to havebeen hidden with the complicity of the regimeuntil finally handed over in 2011. The absence ofa force or any coercive means to bring suspectsto trial also leads to situations like that in Libya,whereby Colonel Gaddafi is wanted by the ICCbut the prosecution's case is germane if hemanages his grip on power. Furthermore, itrelies on external funding to operate, and canonly sustain cases so long as financial supportexists to see them through.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseThedeterrent effect of the Court ensureswide-spread and equal adherence tointernational law. Upon signing the RomeStatute in 1996, U.N. Secretary General KofiAnnan stated that 'the establishment of theCourt is still a gift of hope to future generations,and a giant step forward in the march towardsuniversal human rights and the rule of law'1.Such statements demonstrate the impact theCourt could potentially have, as a body thatsimultaneously cherishes sovereignty andprotects national courts whilst offering a meansby which criminals in states unable or unwillingto prosecute will still be brought to justice. Asthe natural and permanent heir to the processstarted at Nuremberg in the wake of World WarII2, the ICC ensures that the reach of law is nowuniversal; war criminals, either in national orinternational courts, will be forced to trial as aresult of the principle of universal jurisdiction1.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseTheICC does not have too much authority, merelythe necessary authority to be useful as aninstitution. It is the very pre-eminence of the USthat demands it adhere to the international ruleof law, the ICC's existence will not alter that norlead to charges for legitimate actions. It isperfectly possible to conduct a campaign forbona fide reasons of saving lives and protectinghuman rights that involves the commission ofwar crimes. The ICC can reasonably demand thatthe US, or any other State, pursue their lawfulends by lawful means. Moreover, it matters notto the victim of a gross human rights violationwhether the perpetrator was the regime of arogue state or the service member of a Stateseeking to protect the population. Further, otherStates with significant military commitmentsoverseas, such as the UK and France, haveratified the Rome Statute without equivocation.These States accept that intervening in other", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseThebudget of the ICC is not particularly excessiveand can be maintained without US finance. Thewithholding of US funds from the UN budget is afamiliar tactic for expressing disapproval. In1998, the total US arrears on assessedcontributions that had been approved by theSecurity Council amounted to over $1.3 billion1.Whilst the operation of UN institutions andoperations, in particular peacekeeping, mighthave suffered, the UN was still able to function.Likewise, there is no reason to suggest that therefusal of the US, or even Japan, to ratify theRome Statute, would preclude the operation ofthe ICC. The Statute allows the donation ofadditional funds and resources from other StateParties. With regard to the ICTY, the EU hasconsistently contributed personnel, in addition tothe payment of the assessed contribution of eachof the 15 States. $100 million might seem asignificant expense. However, it is both trite and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseItmay be in the best interests of victims and theirstate for war criminals not to be brought totrial. The ICC may well lead to the politicalprosecution of war criminals, but that is notnecessarily the most effective means to peace,or lasting peace for victims. As U.S. policypapers have pointed out, despots like Pol Pot andSaddam Hussein did not consult lawyers overpotential legal ramifications before theycommitted their respective human rightsviolations1. Furthermore, the impact on anoppressed population of a long, protracted trialof their fallen dictator is not always therapeuticfor it can dredge up events of particularlymelancholic qualities and grants the dictator aplatform to continue his psychological controlover his population. 1 Elsea, J. K. (2006). U.S.Policy Regarding the International CriminalCourt. Congressional Research Service, p. 22.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con05a", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseTheICC fails to prevent atrocities. The ICC will notdeter the commission of war crimes or genocide.The Third Reich augmented the crimes of theHolocaust when it became clear that the Allieswould defeat them in Europe. The onlyexpectation of the Nazi leadership wasimmediate execution, rather than trial in ajudicial forum. Similarly, Slobodan Milosevic andthe Bosnian Serb army conducted a campaign ofethnic cleansing in Kosovo whilst theInternational Criminal Tribunal for the FormerYugoslavia (ICTY) was sitting in the Hague. Thecalculation of whether to commit gross humanrights violations is not that of the reasonable andrational individual. The existence of a court,however well intentioned, will have no effect onthe commission of these crimes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseThenovel crime of aggression leads to theprosecution of those seeking to protect humanrights. The likelihood of political prosecution isonly augmented by the creation of the novelcrime of 'aggression' under the Rome Statute.Any intervention in a State for the protection ofhuman rights of some or all of its people mightconstitute a crime. The US or any NATO Statecould be prosecuted, at the request of thegenocidaires, for successfully preventinggenocide. Moreover, by a quirk of the drafting ofthe Statute, States that refuse to accept thejurisdiction of the ICC can nevertheless requestthe prosecution of individuals of other States forcrimes alleged committed on its territory. ThusMilosevic could have demanded the investigationof NATO forces for the events of Operation AlliedForce, but have precluded any investigation ofthe actions of the Bosnian Serb army on thesame territory.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseTheICC has too much authority. The ICC will lead topolitical prosecution. American service membersand senior military and political strategists will besubject to charges for legitimate military action.Any State has the power to refer an issue forinvestigation to the Prosecutor and theProsecutor also has the power to commence aninvestigation ex proprio motu. There is no UNSecurity Council veto over the discretion of theProsecutor. Moreover, the phantom of politicalprosecution has already materialised in thepreliminary investigation mounted by the Officeof the Prosecutor of the ICTY into the NATObombing of Kosovo and the Federal Republic ofYugoslavia in the course of 'Operation AlliedForce'. The Prosecutor chose to investigate acampaign that had been undertaken with clinicalprecision, that had received the ex post factosupport of the Security Council, and that hadbeen directed against a military infrastructure", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con05b", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseIt isludicrous to claim that the ICC will fail to deteratrocities when such an international institutionhas never before existed. Moreover, the ICC isnot designed to be a prophylactic ; for thevictims of these terrible crimes it is crucial thatthese offenders are apprehended, tried andpunished. Retribution and protection of societyare objectives not only for the domestic criminaljustice system but also for the new internationalversion. Therefore, even if the ICC failed toprevent the atrocities in the first place, amechanism is now in place to punish thoseresponsible. Justice is not sufficient where warcrimes are concerned, but it is a start.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseTheICC generates crippling expenses. Cautiousestimates suggest an operating budget of $100million per year1. The costs of the ICTY and ICTRhave already spiralled out of control, and thelatter tribunal has a legacy of maladministrationand internal corruption. The US contributes 25%of the budget for both the tribunals, whichamounted to $58 million in the fiscal year 20002.It is dubious whether the ICC could survivewithout US financial support. The UN as a wholeis obligated only to fund investigations andprosecutions initiated at the request of theSecurity Council. Every other investigation mustbe funded by assessed contributions from theStates that have ratified the Rome Statute.Although the UN could authorise the transfer ofadditional funds, the procedure would require aUN Security Council resolution that would ofcourse be subject to the US veto. Alternatively, itis accepted that State Parties to the Statute", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseThecrime of aggression is not remarkably novel.Intervening in the domestic affairs of a sovereignState is contrary to norms of conventional andcustomary law. The UN Charter prohibits boththe unauthorised use of force against anotherState and any intervention in its domesticjurisdiction. Moreover, the fact that the crime ofaggression has not yet been defined means thatthis objection to the ICC is purely hypothetical.The US should in fact be encouraged to ratify theRome Statute in order to allow its negotiators toplay an active role in the Assembly of StateParties. The Assembly is currently responsible fordrafting the definition of this crime.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-law-hrilpgwhwr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "human rights international law politicsgovernment warpeace house would recogniseIt isalways in the best interest of victims for warcriminals to be brought to justice, even if in theintermediate period there is a great deal ofstress and suppressed grief. The ICC has thepower not only to punish war criminals withincarceration, but order reparations to be paid tovictims. Though financial reward cannot coverthe loss of life or injury, it is a start and could notdirectly come from the criminal themselveswithout the influence and power of the ICC.Furthermore, it establishes a precedent thatdemonstrates to the wider public that victimswill, however long it takes and however hard theICC must work, get justice for their suffering.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ufsdfkhbwu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "university free speech debate free know housebelieves western universitiesA bargaining chip,by definition needs to be part of a bargain. Usingit to demand a change in the structure of thestate as a whole is hardly reaching a bargain –it’s dictating a fiat. An invitation from a countryto a university is a big step in expressing aninterest in how that institution works and thevalues it promotes. Using that as an opening todemonstrate the strength of those ideas is anopportunity that should not be dismissed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ufsdfkhbwu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "university free speech debate free know housebelieves western universitiesEmployers measuredegrees by the academic results they indicate.The level of political engagement of theindividuals is not critical – or even relevant – tothat measure. In a global market of tens ofmillions of students graduating every year [i] anincrease of a few thousand in those graduatingfrom top universities will do little to dilute theiriconic brands while taking advantage ofcommunications technologies to justify theirglobal reputation. University Senates determinewhether degrees can be awarded in their nameand it is scarcely in their interest to damage theirown reputation. [ii] [i] There are approximately150 million students in the world and for thepurposes of this debate, that number has simplybeen divided by three. Source material can befound here . [ii] Jones et al., ‘The AcademicSenate and University Governance in Canada’,The Canadian Journal of Higher Education,Vol.XXXIV, No.2, 2004, pp.35-68, p.50, 57", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ufsdfkhbwu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "university free speech debate free know housebelieves western universitiesUniversities alsosurvived the inquisition, the French revolutionaryterror and the tyrannies of twentieth centuryEurope. The issue being discussed here is not inthe same league as any of those. There is, as aresult, clearly nothing innate that requires anappreciation of free speech for universities tooperate. Furthermore universities do not locateor relocate en masse depending on the directionof the political wind.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ufsdfkhbwu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "university free speech debate free know housebelieves western universitiesThere is gradualismand then there is inertia. Refusing to cooperatewith governments where individuals can bebanned from addressing a group of studentswould seem to be setting the bar relatively low.In this particular instance, the bar doesn’tappear to have been set anywhere. The examplegiven by opposition is of one between states, thisis between state actors and organisations whorely on the free expression of ideas as part oftheir raison d’etre.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ufsdfkhbwu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "university free speech debate free know housebelieves western universitiesSingapore in thisparticular instance is securing far more than a‘service provider’ from a university whosefoundation precedes that of the state by over acentury. Yale is an internationally identifiablebrand, as would any other major university be,and Singapore and NUS benefit from thatassociation. Yale is in a strong position here toargue for things that stretch well beyond thelecture theatre.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseMOOCsprimarily reach already educated and thusprivileged people. Roughly 80% of people whotook Coursera courses already have a Bachelor'degree [12]. This statistic shows that theless-advantaged do not prefer online coursesover the traditional university nor do they findthem more convenient to take. At the least itshows MOOCs are just reaching the same peopleas universities. Even if universities drop tuitionfees, which does not seem likely, the argumentis entirely based on the idea that poorer peoplewould find it easier to do courses from home.However, many of the poor do not even haveaccess to internet at home, including anestimated 100 million poor Americans [13], notto mention much larger numbers of poorerpeople from less developed countries.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseOnline coursesbroadens access to education Online coursescan expand access to university education.University education is based on the idea ofmerit - that the brightest people should beenabled to learn - however in real life manydifferent circumstances play a role in one's abilityto attend university. The result is that lots ofstellar people from less-affluent backgrounds donot even apply to the best universities due tocosts and anxiety involved in leaving home. Inthe United States the bottom 50 percent of theincome distribution comprise just 14 percent ofthe undergraduates at top universities [10].Online courses allow more bright people to go toa university by definitely removingaccommodation and travel costs, and, as somepredict, even by lowering or dropping tuition fees[11]. This argument is made even stronger byinherent flexibility of online courses, whichmeans that people can combine studies with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseOnline coursesenables universities to accept virtually unlimitednumbers of students regardless of presence oftuition fees. If universities keep tuition fees, itmakes sense to admit more students becausethey are no longer limited by availability ofphysical space; if they drop tuition fees, they stillshould accept more students because theirrevenues would depend on how popular they are.What this means is that instead of picking justthe brightest of the applying lot, universities cannow accept pretty much everyone who meets thebasic standard criteria. Not only this decreasesthe quality of professionals and academia, itdecreases the value of a university degree.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseOnline coursesencourage sharing of academic information Oneof the technical features of MOOCs is thatcontent of courses can easily be shared betweenuniversities and learners (as content is freelydownloadable). This is useful in two ways. First,people who are not earning credit from thecourse can have full access to educationalmaterials, which expands knowledge of those notenrolled in the university. Second, lessprestigious universities can benefit by learninghow to design courses better, so they can offerbetter services. MOOCs even offer opportunitiesfor universities to cooperate together to offershared courses that would decrease duplicationand increase quality of education [16], whichwould be of even greater benefit to financiallystressed institutions. Shared educationalresources would expand access to educationeven further and drive educational standardshigher through university cooperation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseOnline coursesare more convenient for students than traditionaluniversity The vast popularity of MOOCs can beexplained by the fact that people are finding iteasier to learn this way. The best feature ofonline learning that it can be done in the privacyof one's home, which is more convenient thanhaving to move cities or even countries for auniversity degree. Moreover, online courses areinherently more flexible. Lectures can bewatched and tests taken at any time a persondesires (within the deadlines), unlike withscheduled lectures and tests at the traditionaluniversity. Not only this means a more personalapproach to studying, it also provides peoplewith more flexibility to manage their othercommitments, such as work and childcare. Suchpersonal and flexible approach to learning willovertake the rigidity of the traditional university.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseOnline coursesare popular not because they are flexible, butbecause they provide an opportunity to expandone's knowledge on a variety of subjects. Forexample, the most common reason for peopletaking Coursera courses are professionaldevelopment and lifelong learning, the latterbeing essentially pleasure learning [9]. Whilethere is nothing wrong with people takingcourses to expand their knowledge or add towhat they already know, it nevertheless indicatesthat MOOCs are not really used for furtheringone's academic knowledge. This objective is andwill remain the field of traditional universities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseThough it isgood for personal development opportunities toaccess educational material don’t mean anythingin the labour market that requires verification ofunderstanding through grading. As regards touniversities cooperating; that might actuallyresult in the same course being offered by manysmaller universities, which decreases the roomfor free thinking and interpretation, which is anintegral part of academic development [17].Moreover, if with MOOCs prestigious universitiescan accept more students, this might mean anend to many less prestigious universitiesaltogether as they would not be able to compete.This could actually diminish access to universityeducation for many people who cannot make thecut for the prestigious universities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseIt isquestionable whether universities would be ableto substantially cut administrative costs andfacilities. They will have to spend substantiallymore on IT support for running courses, as wellas adapting courses for the online format. Then itis likely that universities would have to spendsubstantially more on hiring teaching andresearch assistants to manage increasednumbers of students enrolled. While studentaccommodation support is going away, thenormal academic student support for questionsabout studies is not, and its workloads actuallyincrease due to higher student numbers. At theend of the day, administrative expenses justhave to be spent on different administrativetasks.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseOnline coursesare a way to higher academicexcellence Relocating to the best universities isa budgetary concern, but also family and socialrelations concern for many people, whichprevents all the best people from even applyingto universities that would suit them the best.Online courses can recruit students fromanywhere in the world much easier thantraditional universities can because studentsdon't need to travel far away for the besteducation. This then ensures that universitieshave better access to the brightest people. Forinstance, Stanford University's online course onArtificial Intelligence enabled people from 190countries to join, and none of students receivinga score of 100 percent where from Stanford [14].Improving the pool of students wouldautomatically result in better academics,professionals and science, which would benefitthe society better.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseOnline courseswould allow universities to use more resourceson teaching and research Traditional Universitiesare forced to spend a lot on administration andfacilities, such as renting and maintainingbuildings and parking lots, providing studentsupport for accommodation, renting studenthalls, subsiding transports costs and meals,supervising university areas and so on. Across 72US public universities the average administrativecost was about 8% of spending with the highest,at the University of Connecticut at 17% [15]. Allthese costs can be cut or abandoned all togetherif universities move to online teaching. Therewould be no need for lecture halls and studentaccommodation as students would just workfrom home, and even professors could mostlywork from home. Even if some of administrativecosts remain, that would still substantiallyincrease the amount of resources to be spententirely on teaching and research. This allows", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-con03b", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseIt is not truethat online communications cannot be as good asreal life communications. MOOCs platformsalready are addressing student and professorinvolvement via such means as discussions ininternet forums, Google hang-outs etc. Thiscommunication can be expanded to other meansthat the internet provides, such as Skype chats,conference calls, instant messaging, and evenbroadcasting live podcasts where people can askquestions online. Plus, it is not true that studentswould not be able to communicate amongthemselves given the possibilities of socialmedia. Sure, they probably won't meet otherstudents in real life, but that does not mean theycannot try to get to know each other online,especially since this is the only option. Theinternet has the capability to promote inclusivedialogue between students and professors, thiscapability just is not used to the fullest at themoment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-con01b", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseIt is false toassume that MOOCs platforms would be the onlyor even the main way to provide universitycourses. The Open University uses its ownresources for online and distance learning. Thisproves that, given advantages of online learning,universities can switch to digital learningthemselves without any intermediaries. This alsomeans that there is no reason for states to cutfunding for universities as university learningwould simply go digital, everything else stayingthe same. Even though some universities at themoment offer online courses for credit that arevery cheap, these are not degrees, and it isunlikely to imagine that universities would offercheap online degrees that would threaten theirown existence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-con02a", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseOnline coursesmake it impossible to ensure academichonesty With online courses, unlike with actualtests and lectures, there is no way to ensure theperson is not cheating on the other side of thescreen. There is no way to ensure that essaysand papers are written by people who will begetting degrees, and especially that tests andexaminations are taken by the people who will begetting the degrees. But even if they are thesame people, there is no way to prevent cheatingduring tests and examinations, as people canjust have the cheat sheets in front of them andthere are no supervisors to stop them from doingso. The crucial point about university degrees isthat they ensure that the person is theprofessional. With online courses, that is notpossible, which undermines the whole idea of theuniversity degree.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-con05a", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseTraditionaluniversities are a rite of passage to independentlife For many students leaving for a university isa passage to an independent life, as they oftenmove out out of their parents’ home and eventheir countries. This means they have to startlearning or practically using lots of skills ofindependent adults, such as financialmanagement, cooking, being crime-aware,networking, and solving communicationproblems on their own. With online coursesstudents do not leave homes, and essentially donot start using these skills. This takes away animportant practice in being an independent adultbefore the real life, which might leave studentsless equipped for the real life.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-con04a", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseOnline coursesundermine society life of theuniversity University is not just a place forlearning. A big part of student life is participatingin societies and other activities, such as sports,debating, political, philosophical or other interestgroups. These provide them with opportunity toexplore their talents, do the things they like andalso build connections that could be useful afterthe university. But you cannot do most of thesethings online as they, unlike studying, are notbased on studying materials you can upload. Thisis why students with online courses would bedeprived of these opportunities to developthemselves, build useful connections and getideas for their further life. This is important forsociety too as students historically have oftenbeen an important political and social actor (e.g.see 1968 France, Athens Polytechnic uprisingetc.).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-con03a", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseOnline coursesundermine live communication with professorsand other students Online courses impair livecommunication between students and professorsand among students. For instance, Courseraprofessors ask students not to email thembecause due to high numbers of students takingthe course meaning they cannot reply [22].Moreover, due to pre-recorded lectures, there isno option of asking professors questions. Thereare no live class discussions. Sure students couldemail each other, but it is more difficult to freelycommunicate with people you do not know andnever met. It is also difficult to imagine that,given their numbers, students could get personalfeedback on their progress from professorsthemselves, and not, say, teaching assistants (asCoursera does) or even from computers. Lack ofpersonal feedback and engagement withprofessors and other students in discussions ofthe material decreases the quality of education.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-con05b", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseThis is exactlyas saying that people who did not go touniversities are not independent enough. Weknow this to be wrong in practice and this is sobecause independence is not obtained in a fixedset of circumstances. There are different ways tofoster independence (e.g. part-time work,personal relationships parents don’t necessarilyknow about, etc.) that are also very muchdependent on the persons' character rather thantheir circumstances. Besides, rites of passagesare a subjective and culturally defined – if peopleno longer leave for universities, a new type ofpassage into independence is likely beconstructed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-con01a", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseFinancial modelof online courses is unsustainable At themoment some MOOC platforms are non-profit,while even for-profit ones do not payuniversities, nor do universities pay MOOCplatforms, they might only divide revenue if arevenue stream appears [18]. This essentiallymeans that MOOCs have to rely on traditionalfinancial models of universities to survive – theyneed the universities to provide materials andthe academics and traditional models that arebased on the fact that lots of students do nottake online courses. However, MOOCs mightundermine traditional university funding. Forinstance, Princeton professor Mitchell Duneierwithdrew from Coursera claiming that states useMOOCs as a justification to withdraw statefunding from universities [19]. Moreover, someMOOCs consider providing chargeable courses forcredit but for a substantially lower price (around100 dollars for a course), which might draw", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-con04b", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseWhile therewould no longer be a traditional universitycampus to carry out these activities, it does notmean these activities would disappear. Given thepopularity of societies with students, it isexpected that other platforms would spring up tofill in the gap. For instance, student clubs can beestablished in cities or regions, provided eitherby for-profit entrepreneurs (as in MOOCsplatforms) or self-managed by studentsthemselves. The only difference would be thatthese new platforms might no longer be affiliatedto a university but rather be geographicallybased. This, however, is not a bad developmentas students would still have an opportunity tojoin societies. Students can easily be recruitedinto them via social media and the internet.Maybe not every student will have an option ofthe society they'd like to join, but that is also thecase in lots of traditional universities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egtuscpih-con02b", "title": "", "text": "education general teaching university sciencecomputers phones internet houseIt is highlyunlikely to believe that people can easily findother people to go through the degree for themon the massive scale, no matter how dedicatedof a friend that person is. And even if that friendor a relative is a professional in the degree area,it does not mean they could successfully pass thedegree as universities update their examinationsand degree materials yearly. Besides, there areways to prevent such fraud. For instance,Coursera charges fees for certificates that verifya person's identity by using a webcam while theperson is taking the course [21]. In terms ofhaving essays and papers written by someoneelse, this problem is no different from thetraditional universities, as they cannot easilyverify that the person themselves wrote thoseeither.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeCountries need educatedpeople, including a certain amount of universitygraduates, but the idea proposed, that everyonehaving a degree would benefit societyeconomically, is unfounded. There is noeconomic benefit when people with degrees aredoing jobs that do not require universityeducation, and represents a substantialmisallocation of resources on the part of thestate.4 As to developing future leaders, thosewho are gifted or particularly driven can still riseto the top, even if university is not free, asscholarships tend to be mostly aimed at suchindividuals.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeThe state benefits fromthe skills of a university educated populace Auniversity educated society is of great value toany state, and provides three main benefits.Firstly, it provides extensive economic benefits.There is a profound advantage to countries thatactively promote a culture of “smart economy”3,with a highly educated and technically ableworkforce. They are more likely to be innovativeand highly productive. Secondly, highereducation leads to an increase in culturalawareness via subjects like the arts, history, andthe classics. The third benefit is the developmentof leaders in society. The barrier created byuniversity fees will prevent some potentially highworth individuals from ever reaching theirpotential.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeThere is no fundamentalright to a university education; it is a service,and people should pay for it, not freeload on thetaxpayer. Rights exist to provide people with thenecessities of life. Some people may never havethe “opportunity”, ie. wealth, to visit Hawai’i, yetthat is not unfair and the state should not beexpected to fund every citizen’s tropicalvacation. Yet even in the presence of fees,access to scholarships and loans make it possiblefor people from disadvantaged economicbackgrounds to find their way into university. Inthis way the state can provide equality ofopportunity while the wealthier pay.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeIndividuals have a rightto the experience of higher education Universityoffers personal, intellectual, and often spiritual,exploration. In secondary school and inprofessional life, no such opportunities exist asthey are about instruction and following orders,not about questioning norms and conventions inthe same way university so often is. [1] A lifewithout the critical thinking skills provided byuniversity will be less useful to society, ascitizens will be unable to engage with politicaldebate effectively – citizens need to be critical ofwhat politicians tell them. The state has aresponsibility to provide citizens with the skillsetto take partake in the democratic process. [2]Free universities benefit both the citizen, as anexploration for his/her own development, and tosociety, for an educated and activepopulace. [1] Key Degree. 2010. “How to Reapthe Benefits of College”. Keydegree.com.Available: ofcollege.html [2] Swift, Adam.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeThere is no right to theuniversity experience. University life is not usedas the previous argument would suggest.University life is often about alcohol first,education second. Selfknowledge and genuinewisdom come from study and reflection. This canbe done anywhere, not just in a university. Thereis no fundamental right of individuals to beallowed to take four years free of charge to learnnew skills that will benefit them or teach themhow to be better citizens. The state’s duty is toprovide a baseline of care, which in the case ofeducation secondary school more than provides.If individuals want more they should pay for itthemselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeEvery action has anopportunity cost. If people are willing to takeloans it shows they consider the education worththe cost. It can actually be quite beneficial tosociety at large that university graduates seekswift employment due to debt, since it forcesthem to become productive members of societymore rapidly than they might have done. Forexample, in Ireland where higher education isfree graduates often take a year or two to traveland “find themselves” while giving little ornothing back to the state that has financed theirdegrees. It is good that people begin contributingto the economic life of society after graduatingfrom university, rather than frittering away theiryouths in unproductive pursuits.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeIndividuals have a rightto equal opportunities that free universityprovides. The employment prospects created bya university degree are substantial, and manylines of work are only available to universitygraduates. True merit should define the ability toattend university, not the accident of birth. Withthe institution of fees, access becomes moredifficult, and will certainly lead to lowerattendance by poorer groups. This serves to lockpeople into the economic situation when they areborn, as getting out is much more difficult whendenied access to most highincome jobs.5 5Tribune Opinion. 2005. “Education Paves WayOut of Poverty”. Greeley Tribune . Available:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeThe burden of fees andloans are too great to expect young people toshoulder University fees are usually quite high.When fees are put in place in countries, manypeople find it extremely difficult to find the fundsto pay for it, leading many people to seek schoolloans. In the United States, obtaining loans foruniversity is the norm. These loans can putpressure on students to perform well. [1] Butcan lead to students dropping out. Debtencourages individuals to take jobs for whichthey are not necessarily best suited in order toget started on debt repayment immediately afterleaving higher education. Furthermore,repayment of loans can take many years, leavingindividuals with debt worries for much of theirworking lives. [2] With free university educationeveryone can go to college without crushing debtburden allowing them to study what theywish. [1] Kane, Thomas. 1999. The Price ofAdmission: Rethinking How Americans Pay for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeState funding of highereducation is actually beneficial to universities. Itallows universities to get on with their researchand teaching without worrying about competingand spending money on getting students toattend. The money wasted in pursuit of highnumbers of students is thus saved, as the statecan tend to the needs of universities.1 The ideathat the state will simply neglect its universitiesis silly, because society and therefore the state,relies on having capable professionals whosequalifications have value. [1] Greatrix, Paul.2011. “University Isn’t Just a Business—and theStudent Isn’t Always Right”. The Guardian. Available: educationnetwork/highereducationnetworkblog/2011/mar/14/studentsasconsumers", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeIt is far from impossibleto pay for free university education. States wastemoney in many activities, and if they were to cutback on other discretionary (optional) spendingthen the cost of free higher education would beentirely possible. Cuts to defense spending incountries with overinflated militaries, or endingfarm subsidies in many European states, are justsome of things states can do.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeMaintaining a system offree university education leads to an inefficientallocation of state resources. First, tax money iswasted on paying civil servants to deal withuniversity bureaucracy. Second, when the statefunds all university education for free, fundingwill be allocated to unprofitable courses. Thirdlya moral hazard problem emerges among suchstudents attending for free. They are allowed toreap all the benefits of education, while needingto incur none of the costs so won’t feel they needto work at their degree. The fourth problem offree university education is saturation ofdegreeholders in the market. [1] When everyonehas a degree, the value of such a qualificationplummets. Thus, a system of fees is superior tofree education as it allows for more efficientallocation of resources to universities determinedby which universities produce the best educatedstudents and research. [1] Chapman, Bruce.2001. “The Higher Education Finance Debate:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-con05a", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeState control ofacceptance/curriculum criteria has negativeeffects When the state has control of the pursestrings, it wields a great deal of power overuniversities. In the case of Ireland, for example,the government has so much influence overhigher education that it altered the governingstructures of the major universities in 2000through legislation and has representation on theBoards of each university. This degree of controlis negative to the academic independence ofuniversities.1 Universities operate best whenthey are independent of outside control andagendas. For the sake of free scholarship, freeuniversity education should not be instituted. 1Government of Ireland. 1997. “Universities Act,1997”. Available:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-con04a", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeFree universityeducation unjustly benefits one subset of societyat the expense of everyone The state fundsessential services, but higher education is notsuch a service. The specific subset free universityeducation tends to benefit not thedisadvantaged, but rather the middle and upperclasses who would have paid fees, but are nowrelieved of this burden. This pattern has beenseen in Ireland where poorer communities stillview higher education as something for the richeven though it is free. These groups continue toenter the workforce in similar numbers as theyhad before the ending of fees, and they still tendto prefer trade schools to universities if they doseek qualifications beyond the secondary level.[1] [1] Brady, Hugh. 2008. “We Must InvestNow in Our Universities or Pay Later”. UniversityCollege Dublin News. Available: 14 Governmentof Ireland. 1997. “Universities Act, 1997”.Available:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeThe quality of educationsuffers when university education isfree Without university fees, universitiesbecome dependent on the state for funding. Thisleads to larger classsizes and less spending perstudent. [1] Yet with fees, the quality ofuniversities increases for three reasons. First,funding improves, as university may charge inaccordance with need. Second, quality ofteaching is improved. Because a university wantspeople to attend and to pay fees, the programsand degrees they offer have to be good signalsof quality requiring hiring the best lecturers.Third, the average quality of students attendinguniversity will improve. This is because studentsfeel they need to get the most from theirinvestment in education. An example of higherquality education from feepaying is that of theUnited States, which has eighteen of the top fiftyranked universities in the world. [2] Quality isclearly improved when university is not free. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-con05b", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freePublicly fundeduniversities in practice do not become parrots ofthe state’s agenda; far from it, in fact. Often it ispublic institutions that are the most outspokenagainst government activities. The University ofCalifornia, Berkeley, for example, is one of themost politically active campuses in the UnitedStates and is a public institution. States tend tolet universities govern themselves, acceptingthat they are generally better throughself-governance. Similarly, the state controlsboth primary and secondary education, so wouldthe privatisation of these too further benefitindependent thinking?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeThe cost to the state isfar too great to sustain universal free universityeducation The system of paying for universalhealthcare, education, pensions, etc. threatensto bankrupt countries. The cost of paying for freeuniversity education is ruinously high. [1] In theOECD 1.9% of GDP, a third of educationexpenditure, is spent on tertiary education. [2]For countries to survive, they must rethink whatthey can afford to provide freely to citizens. Itseems fair that all states should offer access totheir citizens to primary and secondary educationopportunities. University, on the other hand, isnot essential to life in the same way. People canbe functional and responsible citizens without it.For this reason, the state must consideruniversity in the same way it does anynonessential service; people may pay for it ifthey wish to partake, but it is not an entitlementowed by the state. [1] Ullman, Ben. 2007.“Should Higher Education Really Be Free For", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-con04b", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeMany state services arefurnished that benefit a few and are not used byothers. That is often just the way such servicesoperate. So long as everyone has access to theservice, then it is just to provide it out of taxrevenues. Every individual, when highereducation is free, can attend university withoutcost. That is a right every taxpayer can enjoy. Ifsome choose not to do so, that is fine, but itdoes not delegitimize the government outlay.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-ughbuesbf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "university government house believes universityeducation should be freeWhile there will ofcourse be people who do not try to get the mostout of their university educations, what mattersis that everyone has access to it. It is a fair tradebetween inefficiencies created by inattentivestudents and diligent students who would havelacked the facility to attend without it being free.More degreeholders thus do not automaticallydiminish the value of having degrees; they makethe grades gained and degree subject moreimportant.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-usuprmhbu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ucation secondary university philosophy religionminorities house believes useAffirmative action isnot the best way to deal with these issues. If it istrue that there are cycles of poverty caused bypast discrimination, the most precise way ofrighting this wrong is to offer assistance to allpeople in poverty to get themselves out of itscyclical grasp as opposed to blanket policiesbased on race or gender that may or may notnecessarily help those who have been adverselyaffected by past discrimination.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-usuprmhbu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ucation secondary university philosophy religionminorities house believes useAffirmative actionremoves the cyclical disadvantages ofdiscrimination Affirmative action evens theplaying field for those who have suffered pastdiscrimination. Discrimination in the past notonly leaves a feeling of rejection by one’scommunity, but also a legacy of disadvantageand perpetual poverty. Discrimination is not onlypsychologically damaging, but tangibly. Thedenial of opportunities for education andemployment in the past has left families insituations where they are stuck in a poverty trapand cannot afford to achieve the basicopportunities that others can as they are stuck ina cycle of poverty [1] . A good example of thiscan be seen in the example of Brazil, wherepoverty is much more wide-spread in Africancommunities who were previously used as slaves[2] . There is no equality of opportunity in casesof past discrimination. Affirmative action helpslevel the playing field for selection by assisting", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-usuprmhbu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ucation secondary university philosophy religionminorities house believes useAffirmative actiondoes not reduce societal prejudice, but actuallyincreases it. By creating a situation whereindividuals receive state help in gaining the jobsand success they have, this simply confirms theprejudice in peoples’ minds that individuals ofthis group cannot gain anything on their ownmerit, but rather require external assistance.(Refer to opposition arguments two and three)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-usuprmhbu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ucation secondary university philosophy religionminorities house believes useThere is a moralobligation to provide affirmative actionprograms Society has a moral obligation to rightits wrongs and compensate those they havetreated unjustly. Discrimination, whether overtor convert, is an unacceptable practice thatarbitrarily disadvantages certain people ongrounds that they have no control over.Discrimination not only is theoretically a badthing to do to people, but also has tangiblenegative impacts. Discrimination against groupssuch as the African American community in theUSA has left them without the education oremployment opportunities to even have a chanceat achieving the success and happiness theydeserve [1] . Discrimination is unacceptablepractice for any society to engage in and victimsof discrimination deserve compensation for thephysical and psychological harms they sufferedfrom being rejected by their very owncommunity [2] . Past discrimination has left", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-usuprmhbu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ucation secondary university philosophy religionminorities house believes useSociety may owe anobligation to the victims of past discrimination,but offering advantages to descendants of peoplewho suffered discrimination does not do this. Ifdiscrimination occurred several generations ago,the individuals who simply happen to be of thesame gender/race as those who were previouslydiscriminated against generations ago are notentitled to preferential treatment as they are notthe victims of discrimination. By not targetingthose who actually suffered from discriminationdue to the generational gap, you are simplygiving unfair preferential treatment to people ofa particular gender/race and thereforecommitting an injustice by discriminating againsteveryone else who was not given the sametreatment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-usuprmhbu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ucation secondary university philosophy religionminorities house believes useAffirmative actionreduces social prejudice Past discriminationlingers on in society through subtle prejudicethat must be righted. Past discrimination againstparticular groups lingers today through theperception of those groups and how theyperceive themselves. By using affirmative action,a demonstration effect is created whereindividuals are previously discriminated groupsprove to society and other members of theirracial or gender group that they are capable ofgaining power and functioning in the samepositions of power, responsibility and success asthose of other groups in society. This challengessociety’s perception of these groups as the poorpeople in society and proves to them that theindividuals of this race/gender are equallycapable and deserving members of society andcan and should function in the same positions ofsociety as them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-usuprmhbu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ucation secondary university philosophy religionminorities house believes useThis resentmentalready exists in society, and as explained incounterargument two, in many specificenvironments, affirmative action is its owncure. On a wider societal level, this prejudicewill not be created by affirmative action, butalready exists. Simply because people may notparticularly like the idea of affirmative action andget a bit resentful about it is not a good enoughreason to let these minorities be denied theopportunities and lives they deserve.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-usuprmhbu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ucation secondary university philosophy religionminorities house believes useThis issue is notwhether or not meritocracy is good, but rather ifsociety is meritocratic without intervention bythe public or private sector. The system is notmeritocratic without affirmative action; with theendemic psychological and tangibledisadvantages as discussed in proposition pointstwo and three, people of previously discriminatedgroups do not get judged on their own merit.They do not receive the same basic opportunitiesand they are given no inspiration to strive toachieve the things that would indicate their meritbecause they believe it to be impossible forsomeone of their group. Meritocracy only workswhen everyone is entering a fight from the sameplaying field, which does not currently happen.Affirmative action adjusts this to a meritocraticsystem by adjusting for the fact that individualsof previously discriminated groups will not havethe same indicators of merit such as academicachievements due to a lack of opportunity as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-usuprmhbu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ucation secondary university philosophy religionminorities house believes useAffirmative actioncreates bad workplaces for allminorities Affirmative action creates a negativeworkplaces for all minorities whose groupreceives affirmative action support. Theexistence of affirmative action creates a de-factoassumption that anyone of that particularminority must have gotten where they are not ontheir own merit, but simply because they arethat particular minority. This causes people toresent the minority group for getting for “free”what people feel they had to work hard for. Thisfurthers the perception of the minority as beinginferior, and removes their capacity to be treatedas an equal in the workplace and provethemselves. This assumption is not only harmfulto those minorities who did receive assistancefrom affirmative action, but also anyone of thatminority group regardless of if they were hiredusing affirmative action because there is simplyan assumption that they are less qualified and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-usuprmhbu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ucation secondary university philosophy religionminorities house believes useAffirmative actionperpetuates prejudice Affirmative action causesprejudice against minorities in society. Theexistence of affirmative action creates a de-factoassumption that anyone of that particularminority must have gotten where they are not ontheir own merit, but simply because they arethat particular minority. This causes people toresent the minority group for getting for “free”what people feel they had to work hard for.People feel as though that minority is getting a“free-ride” and are inherently less worthy ofwhat they achieve. This is damaging on asocietal level because minorities who receiveaffirmative action are assumed to be lessqualified and less valuable than others in societysimply because many of them are aided byaffirmative action policies. This not only createsdamaging stereotypes, but also causesresentment and backlash from others in societywho view affirmative action as simply", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-usuprmhbu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ucation secondary university philosophy religionminorities house believes useMeritocracy is theonly fair system by which society should beordered Any system that does not rewardindividuals on the basis of their merit is one thatis unjust to those not in the group that is“preferred” and therefore benefitted byit. Meritocracy is the only fair system to run asociety on. Any system that does not rewardindividuals on the basis of their skill and effort isone that is unjust. The use of any criteria otherthan merit to select or benefit an individual is thedefinition of discrimination itself. Simply puttingthe word “positive” in front of it does not make ita beneficial or just system. For every act of“positive” discrimination enacted, an act of“negative” discrimination occurs against theindividual that was denied a position orachievement they earned on their own merit forthe person that received the “positive” end of thediscrimination. Affirmative action is simplyreversing the discrimination in society so", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-usuprmhbu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ucation secondary university philosophy religionminorities house believes useThe prejudice thatindividuals in the workplace hold for theseminorities already exist through their currentperception of these people as being less qualifiedas them due to their conspicuous absence fromthe workplace as it is. The best way to deal withsuch resentment and prejudice is to useaffirmative action and bring more of theseminorities into the workplace where they workside-by-side as co-workers and provethemselves as equally competent and qualifiedas every other person in theworkplace. Although affirmative action mayinitially cause this assumption to occur, it is itsown cure as affirmative action allows theseminorities to prove themselves in the workplaceand dispel such a baseless assumption.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationThe mainproblem with the proposition argument is thebelief that a graduate will be earning £40,000immediately after leaving university, this isclearly not the case, particularly in the currenteconomic climate, the average starting wage fora graduate was in 2009 £23,500 with only one inten exceeding £36,000. (Milkround, 2009) Theargument does in part accept this weaknesshowever what it does not point out is that manycareers which require a university degree maynever pay greater than £40,000. What agraduate tax focuses on is getting a job afteruniversity, this is not always the reason thatpeople wish to go to university, take for examplea mature student who just wants to self-betterthemselves, could they still get access toeducation when the system would be built upongetting young people into work? Universityshould not be commoditized, it should beconsidered sacred in its own right; introducing a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationA graduate taxwould make university funding moresustainable A graduate tax would potentiallygive universities more than they get fromtraditional funding, as a contribution woulddepend directly on a person’s salary rather thanjust being a flat rate fare for services renderedover a short time. For example a person earning£40,000 would pay about £125 per month.(Shepard, J. 2009) That over 20 years couldamount to £30,000, more than enough to coverthe costs of a university education in a waywhich is manageable. Admittedly that sum isbased on a person rising like a rocket but it stillhints at the possibilities of the tax and how itcould bring in more money than simplyuniversities rising their fees. Secondly, it wouldchange as a person’s salary rises or falls over atwenty year period, being more sustainable andincreasing the chance of the costs beingrecovered. Thirdly, rather than giving a person a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationAs higherearners, graduates already pay a lot more onaverage in taxes over their lifetime, whileconsuming less in welfare payments, thus morethan repaying their “debt to society”. In addition,the whole of society gains from higher educationthrough increased economic growth andprosperity, and from the social mobility andintegration that open access to universitypromotes. If the cost of higher education is aninvestment in the country’s future, it isappropriate for the government to fund it out ofgeneral taxation. In any case, the argument thatan individual doesn’t use a particular governmentservice, so why should they pay for it, couldapply elsewhere and undermine most aspects ofgovernment activity and the taxation that paysfor it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationDeliveringfunding via a graduate tax is the best way toencourage more students to enter highereducation A graduate tax is the best way toincrease access to higher education withoutmassively burdening the government with anopen-ended financial commitment. It is not adeterrent to the poorer students in the way feesand loans-based schemes are and which simplyappear to block access, yet it still deliverssufficient extra capital to fund the increase ofstudents entering university. Australia’sintroduction of a graduate tax has beensuccessful enough to allow university places togrow rapidly following its introduction withparticipation from both high and low incomegroups increasing by approximately one third.(Chapman, B. 1997). Therefore, a graduate taxremoves the expensive barriers to entry that hadpreviously kept out low-income groups, whilstnot discouraging the high-income groups from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationThe prospect oflife-long higher-tax status will in fact act as adeterrent to many weaker students who doubttheir abilities to make a success of a universitydegree, or those from poorer backgrounds withno family tradition of higher education.Introducing a graduate tax will simply comeacross as penalizing those who want to go intohigher education rather than encouraging it. Thereal key to improved access to higher educationlies in both better secondary education, as atpresent many potentially able students are failedby poor schools and are unable to achieve thequalifications needed to go on to university andby providing more bursaries for those fromdisadvantaged backgrounds.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationA graduate taxwould make access to higher education fairerand more equitable A graduate tax would befairer for everyone in society. Graduates earnconsiderably more than non-graduates, onaverage over £100,000 more in a lifetime(Channel 4 News, 2010.), experience lower ratesof unemployment and greater job security, theytherefore benefit hugely from higher education.They should therefore be expected to pay for theprivilege of having an education which has putthem in that position rather than having the restof society fund there degrees, going to universityshould be an honor and not a privilege. Whilehaving a degree is useful it is not necessary forgetting on with life, if someone wants to go touniversity they should have that opportunityregardless of their background but they shouldbe expected to contribute to that educationwhich is why the graduate tax works as studentsof all social classes can join university, not be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationA graduate taxput into an independent trust fund could in factconversely help universities gain more academicfreedom than they have now. They would bemore free from market constraints which mayrestrict them, for example universities could beable to offer courses which may only be taken allbe a very small fringe and would not usually befinancially viable to run but which are culturallybeneficially to have experts in if not usefuleconomically. The argument that the state couldinterfere with the running of universities under agraduate tax system is erroneous, universitieswould still retain current levels of freedom fromthe government as the trust fund would beindependent from government decision makingand would be controlled by the stakeholdersincluding universities meaning that they couldworry a bit less about funding and exercise moreindependence on academic issues leading tobetter universities which are concentrating on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationIn the long terma graduate tax would save the state money byshifting the burden of costs to the mainbeneficiaries of higher education. It would alsohelp to make the costs of expanding access tohigher education more predictable andcontrollable, improving long-term planning. Thismeans the early costs of setting up the systemcould be spread into the future by a bond issue,for example. The money saved can be spentbetter elsewhere in the education system,perhaps by improving secondary schooling sothat more school leavers have the academicqualifications needed to attend university. Usingthe argument that change is not needed simplydoes not with students which a being saddledwith debts before they even have work.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationAlternative- andmore efficient- methods of funding universitiesare available There are a number of viablealternatives to a graduate tax as a means ofpaying for Higher Education: Full state fundingoperates in many EU countries as part of anextensive and popular welfare state paid for outof general taxation; the value the state clearlyplaces upon Higher Education has made it acommon aspiration across all social classes.Other countries make individual students pay forall or most of the cost of their universityeducation, which is widely seen as an investmentin increased future earning potential. In the USAthis has produced very high levels of enrollmentand broad access to higher education asmotivated students readily work to pay their waythrough college. Most also take out commercialloans, which are later paid off once the student isin employment; unlike a graduate tax theserepayments are not open-ended and will one day", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-con04a", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationGraduates maymove abroad to avoid tax payments As taxesare collected nationally there is no reason why aUK graduate could not simply upon graduatingleave the country and avoid paying the educationtax. If enough people exploited this obviousloophole in the system the Government couldend up severe deficit in the education budgetwhich ultimately could lead to lower investmentwhich would have a detrimental effect on thequality of education on offer. The proposedsystem then is simply not a practical one seeingas this massive and clear to see loophole existswith it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationA graduate taxwould reduce teh autonomy of universities If agraduate tax were introduced the money wouldgo to the national treasury which would result inuniversities competing for the same money ascolleges. At the moment the money generatedfrom tuition fees goes straight to where it shouldgo, straight to the universities bank accountswho provide the education. Under graduate taxproposals from the UK’s National Union ofStudents, raised revenue from the tax would gointo a centralized higher education fund whichcould be distributed by the government throughvarious means which could result in someuniversities getting unfair levels of fundingrelative to both their standing and studentbodies. (Barr, N. 2009) This is impractical foruniversities to plan investments as they willnever be entirely sure what funding they willhave and furthermore and for many arguablymost importantly universities will ultimately lose", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationSetting up agraduate tax system would be damaginglyexpensive A graduate tax would be a veryexpensive scheme to put into effect, as it wouldrequire high levels of government spending onstudent grants before the first graduates beganto repay anything through taxation. If all the2011 English applications for university we’reaccepted at the new top price of £9,000 it wouldcost the Government in the first year just over£3 million, and this figure does not take intoaccount all the other grants universities receiveand as time goes on and more years enter thesystem the figure will grow greatly. (Guardian,2011.) It is likely then to be two decades ofinvestment or more before the system beginsproperly to pay for itself. Furthermore a costlyincrease in government bureaucracy would benecessitated by the need to keep track of somany graduates and by the complications thesystem introduces to the general taxation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-con04b", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationAs taxes arecollected nationally there is no reason why a UKgraduate could not simply upon graduating leavethe country and avoid paying the education tax.If enough people exploited this obvious loopholein the system the Government could end upsevere deficit in the education budget whichultimately could lead to lower investment whichwould have a detrimental effect on the quality ofeducation on offer. The proposed system then issimply not a practical one seeing as this massiveand clear to see loophole exists with it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pteuhwfphe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ployment tax education university house wouldfund provision higher educationThe alternativesto a graduate tax are worse: Full state fundingencourages many without clear motivation orability to enter university, leading to highdropout rates, while removing incentives tocomplete courses in a timely manner. The USAhas a philanthropic culture absent in many othercountries, meaning private colleges have largeendowment funds offering a very large numberof bursaries and scholarships to poorer students.Nonetheless, the individual states do funduniversities and few students pay the full cost oftheir higher education. Elsewhere in the worldthe absence of state funding tends to limit accessto university to the children of a prosperous elite.Even in the USA students from some ethnicminorities are much more reluctant to take onhigh levels of personal debt, and are thereforevery underrepresented in higher education. TheUSA’s high level of personal bankruptcy is linkedto the high levels of debt built up while at", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachOf course scientificopinion changes over time. It does so becausethe process of scientific enquiry requires thesearch for new data. Theories are not rigidlyadhered to, but are rather accepted when thereis evidence for them. When evidence mountsagainst a theory it is rejected. The examplescited show this very well. The idea that the worldwas flat was proposed as a theory without proofbut by the end of the classical world Pliny wasable to say \"Every one agrees that it has themost perfect figure. We always speak of the ballof the earth, and we admit it to be a globebounded by the poles.\" [1] as scholars hadprovided evidence of the earth being spherical.This process of change can harm some scientists'careers, but it can also make others. There is nomonolithic scientific establishment setting policy,denying younger researchers from exploring newhypotheses and avenues of inquiry. It is clearfrom this that Creationism is not a science,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachScientific opinionoften changes; evolution may be accepted in thescientific community now, but it could well berejected in future. The opinion of the scientificcommunity with regard to facts and theories hasa great propensity to change with time. Oncescientists adamantly maintained that the Earthwas flat. For centuries it also maintained thatthere were two kinds of blood flowing throughthe human body. Science is not infallible and theprevailing theory is no more than the opinioncurrently in vogue among scholars. In light ofnew evidence, theories can change over time,giving way to better explanations [1] . For thisreason, the evolutionists' dogmatic adherence totheir position in spite of contrary evidenceprovided by Creationists is hard to understand.However, it becomes clear why the scientificestablishment takes such a confrontationalposition toward Creationism when one considersthat many eminent scientists and researchers", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachThere is no design inbiology. People tend to anthropomorphize theirenvironment, trying to assign human-likequalities to animals and nature. All of thecomplexity of life on Earth can be attributed tonatural processes; life, diversity, and complexityare all the product of physical and chemicalinteractions and biological processes. There is nomystery in the basic process. Also, complexity isnot at all indicative of design. In fact, evolutionhas been observed to occur from simplesingle-celled organisms into multi-cellularorganisms under laboratory conditions. Thatdegree of evolution completely refutes anyclaims about complexity requiring design.Furthermore, there are no irreducibly complexorganisms. Every example offered by theists ofirreducible complexity has been foundinaccurate. The bacterial flagellum, for example,when several key components are removed losesits functionality as a motor, but becomes a form", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachCommunities shouldhave a say in what is taught in schools, andmany communities want to teachcreationism. Society is made up of communitieswith their own views on politics, religion,education, etc. School boards should be able toset curriculum based on the desires of the public,not just on what the scientific elites command tobe taught. Children deserve to hear that theirbeliefs and those of their community arerespected in the classroom. This is whyCreationism, a belief held to varying extents inmany countries, should be taught in theclassroom. This is particularly true in the UnitedStates, where in several states the majority ofpeople does not accept evolution, but haveinstead adopted Creationism, considering theevidence for the latter to be more convincing. [1]In a poll in 2009 a majority (57%) said thatcreationism should be taught in schools eitherwithout evolution or alongside it. [2] The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachThere is a very realcontroversy regarding the origin anddevelopment of life, and children deserve to hearboth sides. Many scientists do not accept theconclusions of the evolutionists. People like Dr.Michael Behe have dedicated themselves toexposing the flaws in evolution and showing thatthere is very real disagreement within thescientific community. This controversy ishighlighted in the many court cases, books, andtelevised debates occurring in countries all overthe world [1] . Children deserve to hear aboutthe controversy, and not to simply be fed onestory set for them by the prevailing majority inthe scientific community, even if that communitycannot claim anything near consensus. Untilconsensus is reached and indisputable proof ofone theory or the other given, both sides shouldbe taught in schools. [1] Linder, Doug, 2011.“The Evolution Controversy”. University ofMissouri-Kansas City School of Law.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachThere is nocontroversy. It is not even a matter of mostscientists agreeing with evolution, but virtuallyall of them. This is demonstrated very clearly inthe scientific literature, as thousands of papersare submitted for peer review every year on thetopic of evolution, all bolstering and upholdingthe theory. On the other hand, on average zeroare submitted supporting Creationism, becausesuch papers would not meet the necessarycriteria of being scientific research at all. [1]Some papers at best question evolution, butattacks on one theory are not supports ofanother. Furthermore, the reason there arepublic debates and court cases is thatCreationists seek to capitalize on the relativescientific illiteracy of the general public, knowingthey can only win by spreading disinformation,rather than facing off against real scientists inthe academic realm. [1] Kuhn, Thomas. 1962.The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachSchools should teachwhat is true. Evolution is one of the most robusttheories in contemporary science; it is not theplace of communities to propagate lies, even ifthey are more in keeping with their religiousbeliefs. Indoctrinating children and denying themaccess to real science, which happens even ifCreationism and evolution are given \"equaltime\", is to fundamentally compromise the valueof education [1] . It is an inculcation of falsebelief to suit a communal goal of maintaining aset of beliefs that may not stand up to scientificscrutiny. The Creationists cannot win in thescientific arena because they are not scientistsso they have decided to try to subvert thepolitical system. Their goal is to underminescience and reason, and they must bestopped. [1] Rooney, Brian and Melia Patria.2008. “Because the Bible Tells Me So?”. ABCNews.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachCreationism is notscience. It makes no predictions that can betested in the laboratory or field. Adherents ofCreationism do not accept it because ofevidence, but rather they shape disparate factsto fit their beliefs. That is the opposite ofscientific enquiry; Creationism begins with aconclusion and works backward. Furthermore, allevidence does indeed point to a natural origin oflife and its diversity. Experiments are gettingconsistently closer to creating new life, and thereare no evident bounds to evolution. Thearguments of Creationism are based on gaps inknowledge; rather than trying to find realanswers through scientific enquiry, they fill themwith \"the designer did it\". Such answers are therefuge of the ignorant.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachMuch of thecomplexity of life cannot be explained byevolution, but is perfectly explained byCreationism. Nature is marked by clear design.The complexity of the human body, ofecosystems, and even of bacteria, attests to theexistence of creative agency. It is impossible thatsuch things as, for example, interdependentspecies could come to exist without the guidanceof a designer. Likewise, certain organisms can beshown to be irreducibly complex, meaning that ifone were to remove any part of it, it would loseall functionality. This refutes the gradualistargument of evolution, since there is no selectivepressure on the organism to change when it isfunctionless. For example, the bacterialflagellum, the \"motor\" that powers bacterialcells, loses all functionality if a single componentis removed. [1] Besides design, the onlyexplanation of its development is blind chance,which is nonsensical. Creationism serves to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachCreationism is asvalid a scientific theory as those of evolution andabiogenesis, and should therefore be given equaltime in the classroom. Creationism can bedrawn as an entirely reasonable scientifichypothesis, and it forms a coherent theory of theorigin and development of life that opposes thenaturalist theories of abiogenesis and evolution.Abiogenesis describes the development of lifefrom nonliving materials and evolution seeks toexplain the development and diversity of lifethrough a gradual process of mutation andnatural selection, yet no one has everdemonstrated either process sufficiently in thelaboratory. In the case of abiogenesis, allexperiments to create an environment similar tothe supposed prebiotic soup whence life firstsprang have resulted in no new life forming. Inthe case of evolution, evolutionists consistentlyfail to show the development of new kinds oforganisms [1] . While there is no doubt that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachEvolutionists point toall kinds of evidence \"proving\" their case, yetthey still fail to offer a practical demonstration oftheir theory that would prove that all life couldhave evolved from a common ancestor. That stillrequires a great deal of faith on the part of thescientists. As to positive proof for Creationism,there are many co-dependent speciesrelationships, as well as irreducibly complexbiological structures which evolutionists haveconsistently been at a loss to explain.Creationism offers the explanation evolutioncannot.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachThe scientificcommunity was once convinced the world wasflat. It was also once sure that women's brainswere smaller than those of men. The scientificcommunity \"knows\" lots of things only to beproved wrong. The scientific elitist establishmentis built on the theory of evolution; manyprominent academics' careers were madeaffirming it. Many people have a lot to lose ifscience changes and evolution is overturned asthe prevailing paradigm in biology. That is whythere is such resistance to the evidence piling upthat contradicts evolution and affirmsCreationism. The unwillingness of the scientificcommunity to hear Creationists out in thescientific forums, where the old guardpredominate and have all the power, is what hasled them to pursue their objectives in the courtsand through politics. The only reasonCreationism is not accepted in the mainstream isbecause scientists fear the loss to themselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachEducation should beabout truth and facts, not dogma andfaith. Scientific enquiry is, at its core, a searchfor truth [1] . It is about shining light in darkplaces. Dogmatic adherence to beliefs in spite ofevidence, and even trying to cover up facts thatcontradict those beliefs is academically dishonestand intellectually facile. Evolution is proven fact,a theory so sound that it is the cornerstone of allbiology. Nothing in biology makes any senseunless considered in the context of evolution.Schools should teach this fact, not thepseudoscience of religious demagogues. It is afundamental attack on children's rights tosubject them to false information for the sake ofupholding outdated and disproved beliefs. It is aright of all people to have a valuable education,because good education is required to be able totake part in the democratic process, to be able tomake informed decisions. That right iscompromised when the educational system gives", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-con04a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachCreationism is areligious, not a scientific, explanation ofreality. Creationism is, by definition, notscience. It is not based in any empiricalevidence. Rather, Creationists start with apresupposed answer and work back from it. Theyassume there is a designer, so they look forholes in evolutionary theory and claim only adesigner can explain the gaps. When newevidence arises that gives a natural explanationof the phenomenon in question, the Creationistsbackpedal and start looking for new holes. Noamount of evidence could convince a Creationistbecause his belief is not based on evidence, butrather on a usually religion-driven opposition toevolution on a political and belief level. A scienceproves itself through experimentation andsubmitting research for peer review. Creationismfears scrutiny by real scientists. Insteadsupporters of creationism attempt to further itsagenda through politics and courts, where", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachThere is no empiricalevidence supporting Creationism, whereas allevidence supports abiogenesis andevolution. Creationists have never once offereda positive evidence for their claims. Whenchallenged, they respond with vitriolic, and oftendeliberately false, criticisms of evolution andabiogenesis. They behave as if delegitimizing analternative theory necessarily gives credence totheir own. Unfortunately for Creationism, that isnot how science works. Positive claims requirepositive evidence. Even if the Creationists wereable to provide evidence that actually refutesevolution it would do nothing to support a theorythat intelligent agency is behind the existenceand development of life. For Creationism to betrue, there would need to be demonstration ofliving organisms that are unambiguouslydesigned, and not the product of evolution bymeans of mutation and natural selection.Proponents of Creationism have consistently", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachThe scientificcommunity as a whole overwhelmingly rejectsCreationism. 95% of all scientists acceptevolution, and only a fraction of those that donot accept Creationism. [1] The numbers areeven smaller among biologists, the people mostqualified to discuss the relative merits ofCreationism and evolution, as the study of lifeand biological processes are their specialty.There is, in fact, greater consensus in biologythan in virtually any other discipline. Evolution isoften called one of the most thoroughly proventheories, more so even than such things as theobservable laws of physics, which break down atthe subatomic level. Evolution is a constant,which is why it has survived as a theory for 150years. [2] The scientific community always fightsany effort to institute Creationism in schoolsthrough the political process. [3] This is why,when court cases are brought on the issue ofteaching Creationism, the panel of scientists is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-con04b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachCreationism is alegitimate scientific endeavor. Researchersstruck by the apparent design in organisms lookfor evidence of that design. There is nothingpseudoscientific in that. There are many issuesthat evolution cannot explain, but whichCreationism can (Behe 1996). Evolutionists cansay the gaps in their theory will be filled overtime, but that is not a scientific propositioneither.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pstrgsehwt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary teaching religion god scienceevolution house would teachTruth is a complexthing. Scientists claim to know what is true andthat schools should only teach their truth. Buttheir truth changes with time. Communities canhold, and desire to hold, beliefs with moreconstancy. States everywhere recognize thevalue of communities and often give themspecial rights and exemptions for the sake ofthose beliefs. The Amish in America, for exampledo not need to attend education past the primarylevel, because the communities do not desire it.Communities give structure and lend stability tobroader society, so they should be allowed tobehave with a degree of leeway in terms ofissues like education. Creationism is a truth forthose who adhere to it and see that evidence fitsthat paradigm more than does evolution. Untilirrefutable proof of evolution is given, as thescientific community has yet to do, bothparadigms are equally valid and should beavailable to students in the classroom.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-xeegshwfeu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "x education education general secondary housewould fund education usingIncentives like thiscan be (and in the UK, are) created by centralgovernment through the use of targets. Failingschools can receive extra funding and guidance,and threatened with closure if they do notimprove. The voucher scheme’s harsh freemarket system of incentivisation takes awayextra funding and support – indeed, failingschools without full classrooms will facediminished levels of funding – and so makes iteven harder to run schools in tough areas.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-xeegshwfeu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "x education education general secondary housewould fund education usingImproving the qualityof state managed education State schools will,like the private schools, have to offer a highquality service in order that parents do not taketheir children elsewhere. This incentivises inparticular high level management, who, if theschool fails, will be out of a job with a blot ontheir record.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-xeegshwfeu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "x education education general secondary housewould fund education usingVariety within theeducation system is not always a good thing.National curricula exist to facilitate transferbetween schools and comparisons of differentpupils and schools, as well as enforcing basicstandards. Thus, not only might variety lead tosome sub-standard schools, but it might trapchildren in a particular school that fails to matchthe child’s ambitions as it grows up, and ceasessimply to reflect its parents’ desires, because thechild lacks qualifications or even just knowledgerequired by a more appropriate school in thearea.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-xeegshwfeu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "x education education general secondary housewould fund education usingEquality ofopportunity between richer and poorerchildren State education in some areas of theUK is continuing to fail, despite increasedinvestment. This will allow those pupils who arecurrently locked into sub-standard stateeducation access to the private schools enjoyedby their more privileged peers (because you canspend the vouchers anywhere). Even if privateschool fees can only be subsidised by thevoucher scheme, most private schools arecharitable organisations that do not run a profit,and so in the vast majority of circumstances thevoucher will make private schools accessible topoorer families.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-xeegshwfeu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "x education education general secondary housewould fund education usingThe best schools willcontinue to differentiate themselves (there iscompetition amongst the top schools in an areato attract the brightest pupils), and as thevoucher scheme will subsidise those currentlypaying for private education the market will beable to support higher fees. The result of this isthat the voucher scheme will subsidise betterfacilities for the best schools, whilst poorerchildren will remain trapped in the schools withlower standards.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-xeegshwfeu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "x education education general secondary housewould fund education usingIncreasing parents'freedom of choice Different parents havedifferent values and priorities, and it is entirelylegitimate for them to wish to pass these on totheir children. The state does not know anybetter than them with which values the ideal lifecan be lived. Further, children are individualswho respond in very different ways to differentstyles of teaching. Parents know their childrenbetter than central government possibly could,and so are the best placed to decide what sort ofschool their child should go to. Currently, there isvery little state provision for non-mainstreamstyles of learning, whereas in the private sectorthere is a big incentive for educationalinnovation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-xeegshwfeu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "x education education general secondary housewould fund education usingMost governmentgoals that are pushed forwards in schools arealso valued by the parents: consequently, evenunder a free market they would be taught inschools. Further, if the majority of parents do notwant such things taught in schools, then theyshould not be: to do so would be to use schoolsas a tool for state propaganda.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-xeegshwfeu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "x education education general secondary housewould fund education usingIt is currently thecase that some children, with unfortunate homecircumstances, don’t get optimal educationalprovision as a result of their parents’ failure.However, there are many parents who are ableto make good decisions on behalf of theirchildren, and who are currently blocked fromdoing so only by the unaffordable prices of someschools. These parents should not todiscriminated against on the basis of theincompetent minority.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-xeegshwfeu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "x education education general secondary housewould fund education usingOnly well-off familieswill benefit from increased freedom ofchoice Under the current system, many schoolsthat are “failing” are struggling as a result offactors such as deprivation in their area, or highlevels of children for whom English is not theirnative tongue. There will be no incentive forcompanies to set up schools in such areas: thevoucher scheme dictates that each child gets thesame amount of funding, and thus in schoolswhere a lot of extra facilities (like extra teachers,specialist language tutors etc.) are needed thepotential profit to be made will be lower. On theother hand, children in well-to-do middle classareas will be highly profitable (it is not difficult tomake children with a wealth of parental supportdo well in their exams). Thus rich children willhave a range of subsidised schools from which tochoose, whilst the poorest in society are stillfailed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-xeegshwfeu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "x education education general secondary housewould fund education usingThe state retaincontrol of schools - freedom, in this context, isillusory The state funds education using taxestaken from everyone in society, not just thosewho have children. Therefore the state has aduty to benefit the whole of society, not justparents and children, when funding education. Itis therefore entirely legitimate for the state touse schools to fulfil other societal purposes. Agood example of this is the question of teachingcitizenship in schools: it does not necessarilyhelp children to pass exams, and so schools donot have a strong incentive to insure thatchildren are taught it. However, it fulfilsgovernment goals of helping to ensure thatpeople become functioning members of ourdemocracy. When schools are privatised itbecomes increasingly difficult for the governmentto ensure that such agendas are followed inschools.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-xeegshwfeu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "x education education general secondary housewould fund education usingThe most vulnerablechildren would be left behind by thescheme Even if a voucher scheme is used,parents still need to have considerable input inorder that their children are able to access thebest educational opportunities. Thus, thosechildren who are most vulnerable, i.e. those withinadequate home support structures, will findthat they are unable to access the best schoolsas their parents may lack the desire orknowledge to find out which schools are the bestin their area. Further, this problem will beexacerbated by the subsequent dearth of fundingat the worst schools.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-xeegshwfeu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "x education education general secondary housewould fund education usingAdmittedly, it maytake extra measures to help children in the verypoorest areas. This is required under the statusquo and could still be provided under a voucherscheme (e.g. extra funding for children indeprived areas). However, there are manychildren in between the poorest of the poor andthe richest of the rich who are currently excludedfrom the opportunities afforded by some of thebest schools. These children, as you accept, willsee an increase in the choice of schools. The factthat this motion does not solve all of theproblems in education does not prove that itdoes not solve any.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allPublic funding doesnot mean that everything should be free andopen to use by the public. We do not expect tobe allowed to use buildings that are built asgovernment offices as if they were our own. Thegovernment builds large amounts ofinfrastructure such as airports and railways butwe don’t expect to be able to use them for free.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allMost universities arepublically funded so should have to be open withtheir materials. The United States Universitysystem is famously expensive and as a result it isprobably the system in a developed country thathas least public funding yet $346.8billion wasspent, mostly by the states, on higher educationin 2008-9. [1] In Europe almost 85% ofuniversities funding came from governmentsources. [2] Considering the huge amounts ofmoney spent on universities by taxpayers theyshould be able to demand access to theacademic work those institutions produce. Evenin countries where there are tuition fees thatmake up some of the funding for the university itis right that the public should have access tothese materials as the tuition fees are being paidfor the personal teaching time provided by thelecturers not for the academics’ publications.Moreover those who have paid for a universitycourse would benefit by the materials still being", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allOpen access makeslittle difference to research. If an academic needsto use an article they don’t have access to theycan pay for it and gain access quickly andefficiently. The benefits to the economy mayalso be overstated; we don’t know how muchbenefit it will create. But we do know it would bebadly damaging to the academic publishingindustry. We also know there are risks withputting everything out in the open as economiesthat are currently research leaders will behanding out their advances for free. There is animmense amount of stealing of intellectualproperty, up to $400 billion a year, so research isobviously considered to be economically worthsomething. [1] With open access the proposal isinstead to make everything available for free forothers to take as and when they wish. [1]Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence,“Backgrounder on the Rogers-RuppersbergerCybersecurity Bill”, U.S. House of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allOpens upeducation Higher education, as with other levelsof education, should be open to all. Universitiesare universally respected as the highest form ofeducational institution available and it is a matterof principle that everyone should have access tothis higher level of education. Unfortunately noteveryone in the world has this access usuallybecause they cannot afford it, but it may also bebecause they are not academically inclined. Thisdoes not however mean that it is right to simplycut them off from higher educationalopportunities. Should those who do not attenduniversity not have access to the same resourcesas those who do? This can have an even greaterimpact globally than within an individual country.90% of the world’s population currently have noaccess to higher education. Providing access toall academic work gives them the opportunitiesthat those in developed countries already have.[1] [1] Daniel, Sir John, and Killion, David, “Are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allMaking theseacademic materials available to the generalpublic does not mean they are useful to anyone.Many of the materials universities produce arenot useful unless the reader has attended therelevant lectures. Rather than simply puttingthose lectures that are recorded and coursehandbooks online what is needed to open upeducation is systematically designed onlinecourses that are available to all. Unfortunatelywhat this provides will be a profusion of oftenoverlapping and contradictory materials withlittle guidance for how to navigate through themfor those who are not involved in the course inquestion.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allMost students mostof the time stick to the core areas of their courseand thus are not likely to encounter difficultieswith finding the relevant information. For thosewho do require resources that the universitylibrary does not have access to they can useinterlibrary loan for a small fee to cover the costof sending the book or article betweenuniversities. [1] The universities in mostcountries can therefore effectively split the costof access by specialising in certain subjectswhich limits the number of journals they need tobuy while making the resources available to theirstudents if they really need them. [1] Anon.,“Inter-library loans” Birkbeck University ofLondon. Within the UK Cambridge charges £3 to£6, in Europe the University of Vienna charges€2 while the United States is higher with Yalecharging between $20-30", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allOpenness benefitsresearch and the economy Open access can beimmensely beneficial for research. It increasesthe speed of access to publications and opensresearch up to a wider audience. [1] Some of themost important research has been made muchmore accessible due to open access. The HumanGenome Project would have been an immensesuccess either way but it is doubtful that itseconomic impact of $796billion would have beenrealised without open access. The rest of theeconomy benefits too. It has been estimated thatswitching to open access would generate£100million of economic activity in the UnitedKingdom as a result of reduced research costsfor business and shorter development as a resultof being able to access a much broader range ofresearch. [2] [1] Anon., “Open access researchadvantages”, University of Leicester, [2] Carr,Dave, and Kiley, Robert, “Open access to sciencehelps us all”, New Statesman, 13 April 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allStudents would beable to benefit from being able to use resourcesat other universities Having paid for access touniversities and the materials they provide forresearch students have a right to expect thatthey will have all the necessary materialsavailable. Unfortunately this is not always thecase. University libraries are unable to afford allthe university journals they wish to have accessto or need for their courses. Therefore anystudent who wants to go into areas notanticipated by the course they are enrolled withwill find that they do not have access to thematerials they require. They then face the cost ofgetting individual access to an online journalarticle which can be up to $42, despite therebeing almost zero marginal cost to the publisher.[1] This even affects the biggest and bestresourced university libraries. Robert Darntonthe director of Harvard University’s library whichpays $3.5million per year for journal articles says", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-con03b", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allThe vast majority ofpeople who go to University are not doing sosimply because they are interested in a subjectand want to find out more. Instead they are afterthe qualification and improved job prospectsuniversity provides. Even those few who are inlarge part studying out of curiosity and interestwill likely be doing so at university because theylike the student life and want theexperience. However having courses andmaterials out in the open can even helpuniversities with recruitment. Providing openaccess boosts a university’s reputation abroadwhich helps it in the international studentmarket. Open access to academic work alsohelps give potential students a much better ideawith what they will be studying which is veryuseful for students who are unsure where tochoose. The benefits are obvious as shown by35% of the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology’s students choose the university after", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-con01b", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allAcademic work is notabout profit. For most researchers the aim is tosatisfy curiosity or to increase the sum ofknowledge. Others are motivated by a desire todo good, or possibly for recognition. None ofthese things require there to be profit for theuniversity. Moreover we should remember thatthe profit is not going to the individual who didthe research, there is therefore no moraljustification that the person has put effort in andso deserves to profit from it. The university doesnot even take the risk, which is born by thetaxpayer who pays the majority of the researchbudget. Much of the profit from publishing thisknowledge does not even go to the university.Instead academic publishers make huge profitsthrough rentier capitalism. They have profitmargins of 36% despite not doing the research,or taking any risk that goes into funding theresearch. [1] [1] Monbiot, George, “Academicpublishers make Murdoch look like a socialist”,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-con02a", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allMaking everythingfree to access will damage universities ability totap private funding For most universities even ifthe government is generous with funding it willstill need for some projects require privatefunding. When providing money for researchprojects the government often requires costsharing so the university needs to find othersources of funding. [1] Third parties however areunlikely to be willing to help provide funding forresearch if they know that all the results of thatresearch will be made open to anyone andeveryone. These businesses are funding specificresearch to solve a particular problem with theintention of profiting from the result. Even ifuniversities themselves don’t want to profit fromtheir research they cannot ignore the privatefunding as it is rapidly growing, up 250% in theU.S. from 1985-2005, while the governmentsupport is shrinking. [2] [1] Anon. (November2010), “Research & Sponsored Projects”,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-con04a", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allWho will write andedit the work? You can’t take the end result outof the system and assume all the rest of it willcontinue as usual. Journal articles don’t writethemselves; there will still be costs for editors,typesetters, reviewing etc., as well as the timeand cost of the writer. The average cost ofpublishing an article is about £4000. [1] Therehave been two suggested forms of open access‘Gold’ in which authors pay publishers articlepublication charges and ‘Green’ under which theauthor self-archives their papers in open accessrepositories. The gold option that the UK intendsto implement could mean universities having tofind an extra £60million a year. [2] In either casethe cost is being put on the author. This isexactly the same when asking academics to puttheir lectures, lecture notes, bibliographies etconline. They are being asked to put in morehours grappling with technology without beingpaid for it. [1] Moghaddam, Golnessa Galyani,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-con03a", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allLess incentive tostudy at university If everything that Universityprovides is open to all then there is less incentiveto study at university. Anyone who is studying inorder to learn about a subject rather thanachieve a particular qualification will no longerneed to attend the university in order to fulfiltheir aim. The actual benefit of universityeducation is less in learning content per se thanengaging with new ideas critically, somethingthat is frequently more difficult in an onlineenvironment. Moreover if only some countries orinstitutions were to implement such open accessthen it makes more sense for any students whoare intending to study internationally to goelsewhere as they will still be able to use theresources made available by that university.Open access if not implemented universally istherefore damaging to universities attempts toattract lucrative international students who oftenpay high tuition fees.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-con01a", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allUniversities deserveto profit from their work Universities areproviding a service just like almost any otherbusiness. They provide a service in terms ofeducating students who are enrolled with themand secondly they conduct research on a widerange of subjects. In both of these cases theuniversity deserves to make a profit out of theirwork. When acting as an educator universitiesare in an educational free market, this is thecase even when the cost is provided by the state.All universities are aiming to attract as manystudents as possible and earn as much aspossible from fees. If the university is successfulit will be able to charge more as it will attractstudents from further afield. While Universitiesmay make a profit on research or even teachingthis profit is for the benefit of society as a wholeas the profits are usually simply reinvested in theUniversity’s education and infrastructure. [1] [1]Anon. “What does the money get spent on?” The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-con04b", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allThis is trying to pullthe wool over the eyes of those who fund theresearch in the first place; the taxpayer. Thetaxpayer (or in some cases private funder) paysfor the research to be done and so is paying forthe paper to be written. It then does not makesense that the taxpayer should pay again inorder to access the research that they paid tohave done in the first place. Yes there are smallcosts associated with checking and editing thearticles but these could easily be added intoresearch budgets especially as it would meancutting out an extra cost that occurs due to theprofit margins of the academic publishers. AsNeelie Kroes, European CommissionVice-President for the Digital Agenda, says“Taxpayers should not have to pay twice forscientific research”. [1] [1] Kroes, Neelie,“Scientific data: open access to research resultswill boost Europe's innovation capacity”,Europa.eu, 17 July 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-udfakusma-con02b", "title": "", "text": "university digital freedoms access knowledgeuniversities should make allIf business wantscertain research to use for profit then it is free todo so. However it should entirely fund thatresearch rather than relying on academicinstitutions to do the research and thegovernment to come up with part of the funding.This would then allow the government to focusits funding on basic research, the kind ofresearch that pushes forward the boundaries ofknowledge which may have many applicationsbut is not specifically designed with these inmind. This kind of curiosity driven research canbe very important for example research intoretroviruses gave the grounding that meant thatantiretrovirals to control AIDS were availablewithin a decade of the disease appearing.[1] [1] Chakradhar, Shraddha, “The Case forCuriosity”, Harvard Medical School, 10 August2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests university admissionEveryother indicator is also skewed in favour ofhigh-income students. They tend to have parentswho are better educated and are interested andmuch more involved in their children’s education,as well as greater access relevant materials suchas books and computers. Tutoring academically,while it may not involve having tutors test for astudent, is probably much more impactful in thelong-run, they may not be able to doextra-curricular activities but can help withhomework (as can engaged parents), so wouldbe just as likely to have an impact on courseworkor another method of assessment as it does onthe SATs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests universityadmissionStandardized Tests are skewed infavour of the wealthy Standardized tests areinherently skewed in favour of high-incomestudents. Tutoring is and industry unto itself andthe resulting rise in scores among high incomestudents skews the scale against students whosefamilies cannot afford it. By contrast, even if themoney is available, the impact that tutoring canhave on a student’s academic performance islimited. A tutor cannot write papers or take testsfor them, and nor can they answer questions inclass, or participate in sports or otherextracurricular activities. As a consequence,eliminating easily tutored standardized testshelps even the playing field between richer andpoorer students.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests university admissionLanguagewill be as much of an issue in understanding incollege as it will be for the tests and is likely tobe as much of a difficulty in any other method ofdetermining college admissions. Otherwisethese are objections to individual questions onthe test, and not to the system itself. The veryfact they have made have ensured that the sameproblems have not re-occurred. Indeed theanalogies were dropped in 2005 and scores forthe poorest students increased as a resultshowing that SATs can simply be changed whenproblems are found with the testing. [1] Theproblems with a purely grade based system arehowever intrinsic, and much harder forindividuals to improve. [1] Cloud, ‘What’s Goodabout the New SAT Test’, 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests universityadmissionStandardized tests result in teachers“teaching the test” The importance attached tosuch tests leads to teachers actively “teachingthe test.” The result is that many teachers,rather than instilling useful skills or providing abalanced curriculum, end up trying to focus onthings that occur on given tests. While this is nota huge problem with the SAT itself, it is a seriousproblem with subject tests like the SAT 2s, APExams, and the British A-Levels. Thisundermines the provision of education in thecountry.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests universityadmissionStandardized tests arearbitrary Standardized tests are inherentlyarbitrary. They reduce an applicant’s entireacademic career to a single one-day session. Theresult is an inherently unrepresentative testwhich fails to paint an accurate picture. What if astudent has a bad day? What if they do poorly onthe specific test questions? In the SAT’s there isan error of measurement of about 30 pointseither way out of 800, this is the potentialdifference between where the student really isand what his or her score on the day was. [1] Bycontrast, looking at their entire academic recordensures that admissions officers will get a farmore comprehensive picture of their actualability. The law of averages means that bad daysand tests will be balanced out with good ones,with the result that their academic record, theresult of years of work, will reflect their trueperformance. [1] Cloud, John, ‘What’s Good", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests university admissionAstudent’s academic record tends to measure verydifferent things from what a standardized testdoes. GPA tends to be based on repetitiveassignments such as homework, and in manycases students receive at least some academiccredit for simply attending class. By contrast,standardized tests reward ability, by seeingwhether or not at the end of the processstudents actually learned the material inquestion. Performance under pressure is animportant skill to measure, especially for topinstitutions, while sifting through the differingstandards for what goes into the grades indifferent school districts is simply not possible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests university admissionThere is adegree of hypocrisy in arguing that the tests areclassist and racist and then complaining thatschools take too long in preparing students forthem. Ideally the tests should be on relevantsubjects that will be useful to the student and isneeded as part of a well-rounded education thatprepares the student for life, and if they are notthey are flawed. Many of the skills required for asuccessful performance on A-Levels or on the APEssays are remarkably similar to those neededfor University level written work. As aconsequence it is wrong to argue they are of norelevance.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests university admissionAllmeasurements are to one degree or anotherarbitrary. If necessary the scale can beincreased, or there can be movement towards amore essay-based exam like the British A-Levelsrather than the current multiple-choice format.These changes in fact have already been madewith the transformation of the SAT in 2006 whichincreased the maximum score from 1600 to 2400and added an essay. [1] [1] Cloud, ‘What’sGood about the New SAT Test’, 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests universityadmissionStandardized tests discriminate againstminorities Minority students perform less well ontests like the SAT, even when correction is madefor income. The test with its readingcomprehension test and being done in English isobviously biased against students fromhouseholds where English is not the dominantlanguage as they are much less likely tounderstand the questions. Even when Englishlanguage skills are not a problem the questionchoice can contain a cultural bias. One analogyquestion on the 2003 SAT used the word“regatta” which minority students were unlikelyto be familiar with. Having this kind of bias isobviously unfair and can never be fullyaccounted for in a diverse country such as theUnited States of America where those who setthe wording of the questions will never know allpossible perspectives.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests universityadmissionStandardized tests exaggerate smalldifferences in performance Most tests weredesigned in an earlier era when far fewerstudents took them. The large number ofstudents who now take tests like the SATsresults in a situation in which the scoring scalemagnifies small differences in performance intolarge differences in scores. Two questions wrongout of 80 on the math section of the SAT maywell produce a score of 760 while three questionswrong will result in a 720. 40 points can meandifference between admission and rejection formany candidates, while telling us nothing aboutthe different abilities of the students involved.Indeed on average for 88% of applicants theirSAT score will predict their final college graderank no more accurately than a pair of dice.[1] [1] Elert, Glenn, ‘The SAT Aptitude ofDemographics?’, 5 May 1992,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-con01b", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests universityadmissionApplicants are not the same. Theycome from different backgrounds, attenddifferent schools, and have differentopportunities. It is “false meritocracy” tocompare them with students from an entirelydifferent background. Students should beexamined individually, and their performancecompared with other students with a similarbackground. The best way to do this is to allowindividual schools to grade their student body,and to then have Universities compare how thosestudents did vis-à-vis their peers within thatschool.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-con02a", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests universityadmissionAlternative factors that can beconsidered in the admissions process SATs aremathematical and it is therefore possible toobjectively evaluate them. This is why they areso popular, they provide a benchmark ofcomparison across the whole education systemin a way that any non-standardized assessmentnever could. This does not only benefituniversities in providing an objective measure tocompare admissions candidates but it also givesthe government statistics with which to measurethe progress of schools. Any other form ofassessment would mean switching to much moresubjective factors. Traditionally such factors,such as extracurricular activities, volunteer work,and even access to references are all more easilyavailable to high income students. Opportunitiesmay not even be offered in poorer schooldistricts. Complaining that poorer and minoritystudents do less well on the SAT ignores the fact", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-con01a", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests university admissionIt is theonly single standard that everyone ends uptaking All measures applied during Universityadmissions processes are arbitrary to one extentor another. Grades depend on the whims onindividual instructors, curriculum choices, andschool quality. Every single one of the flaws theproposition applies to the SATs or otherstandardized tests may well be true, but the factis that they are true for everyone who takesthem. The SATs are the only part of theapplication to a university that every singleapplicant will likely have been taken, andtherefore the only one where all applicants canbe objectively compared.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-tuhwastua-con02b", "title": "", "text": "teaching university house would abolishstandardized tests university admissionTheobjectivity of SATs does not matter to individualstudents, many of whom are discriminatedagainst by the tests. Subjective factors can becomparative if students’ backgrounds are takeninto account. By contrast, the SAT, by its veryuse and existence, legitimizes its results as an“objective” measure of ability and capacity,which in turn legitimizes schools in discriminatingagainst the vast majority of poor students whodo worse on the exam, even if it helps a few outon an individual level. It would be much better tooffer preferences in admission to poorer studentsthan to legitimize discrimination. Subjectivecriteria can also be successful in determininghow successful someone will be in university. Ina 1972 study by psychologist Jonathan R. Warreit was found that “Motivation was the qualitymost frequently cited by over 3400 collegeteachers” when asked what it takes to succeed incollege. [1] Motivation cannot be objectively", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egscphsrdt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "education general secondary crime policinghouse supports random drug testingNone ofthese benefits apply if the peer pressure simplyswitches to harder drugs which are harder to testfor or less likely to be tested for. Moreover, peerpressure can exist outside of schools, andamongst older teenagers who have the choice tovary their attendance of sixth forms, FE collegesor senior high schools. Random drug testingcould lead to older children being pressured tocut classes for prolonged periods of time, inorder to take drugs, in order to be thought of ascool. Teenagers are also notorious for believingthat “nothing bad can happen to me”, even ifthat bad thing becomes more likely (such asbeing caught with a random drugs test). This isdemonstrated by the fact that many teenagersalready engage in illegal drug use despite thereasonably high chances that an adult will seethem using drugs, smell smoke or notice thedrug's effects on them in the status quo. [1] [1]Grim, Ryan. “Blowing Smoke: Why random drug", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egscphsrdt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "education general secondary crime policinghouse supports random drug testingSchool'sduty of care Peer pressure drives most drug useamong children and teenagers. [1] The fact thatthe state requires all children to be engaged ineducation means that most of them will begathered into large groups in schools for most ofthe day, five days a week, essentially creatingthe necessary conditions for peer pressure totake place and be powerful. This occurs as somechildren face ostracism or exclusion from theirpeers in the social environment that the statecompels them to be in if they refuse to takeillegal drugs, if drug use is deemed necessary tobe 'cool' or 'popular'. It is, generally, the statethat operates a western liberal democracy’seducation system. Under circumstances in whichchildren are placed into the care of the state, andare made vulnerable to peer pressure the statehas a duty to ensure that children are notcoerced into using drugs. This means thatconcerns of 'privacy' are secondary to protecting", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egscphsrdt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "education general secondary crime policinghouse supports random drug testingStudentswho do not use illegal drugs do have somethingto fear - the violation of privacy and loss ofdignity caused by random drug tests. They maywell feel that they are being treated as undersuspicion with no evidence or cause, and resentthis imposition upon their privacy. Indeed, theindignity of drugs testing may compel childrenwho are already in a position of vulnerability as aresult of social marginalisation or personal orfamily problems to drop out of school entirely.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egscphsrdt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "education general secondary crime policinghouse supports random drug testingPrevent druguse There is a clear and present problem withdrug use among children and teenagers in manycountries. According to the UK Department ofHealth, in 2002-2003 38% of 15 year olds hadused illegal drugs, as had 8% of 11 year olds [1]. The fact that all of these children would havebeen in schools at the age of 15 shows thatcurrent policies of targeting the supply train ofdrugs (for example by arresting drug dealers andintercepting drug shipments) is failing to protectchildren. Therefore a more direct approach thatintervenes at the point of consumption isneeded, most crucially for children andteenagers, as their years in education are crucialfor both their personal development and theirrealization of their future education andemployment potential. Drug use at a young agemay lead to lifelong use and addiction. Randomdrug testing in schools will allow for vulnerablechildren's drug problems to be discovered, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egscphsrdt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "education general secondary crime policinghouse supports random drug testingDrug users'decisions are influenced by an irrational desire tofulfil the chemical need they feel (to get their'high'). As a consequence many drug users inschools will simply look for ways to evade drugtesting regimes that are put in place. This is aproblem as drug testing is most likely to catchcannabis users (the most widely-used drugamong teenagers) [1] , as cannabis endureslonger in the body than other more dangerousdrugs such as heroin and cocaine. This canpotentially lead would-be cannabis users toswitch to these harder drugs, most of whichgenerally have significantly shorter detectiontimes and/or are less likely to be tested for. [2]This harm clearly outweighs the benefits ofcatching or deterring a few more cannabisusers. [1] Department of Health. “Statistics onyoung people and drug misuse: England,2003”. [2] Rosenbaum, Marsha. “Safety First: AReality-Based Approach to Teens and Drugs”.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egscphsrdt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "education general secondary crime policinghouse supports random drug testingNo harm tonon-drug users Random drug tests will pose noharm to students who do not use illegal drugs, asthey have nothing to fear from this fact beingcertified. If anything it serves as a vindication oftheir law-abidance and good character. Randomdrug tests will only catch those who are activelytaking drugs, as tests can be used which areunlikely to make a 'positive' reading fromsecondary exposure (for example, being nearsomeone else smoking cannabis). Those activelytaking drugs need help in getting off drugs farmore urgently than they need their right to'privacy', as addiction at a young age could havea significant negative impact upon the remainderof their time in education. Therefore, non-drugusers have nothing to fear from testing. As aresult random checks are in the best interests ofdrug users.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egscphsrdt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "education general secondary crime policinghouse supports random drug testingRandomdrug tests may actually help remove mistrustbetween teachers and students. Individualsuspicion will no longer be the cause of drugtests for students, but rather these tests will besomething al students will face at one time oranother. This means students may actually feelfreer to approach their teachers, and they mayfeel the need to more keenly, as they know theymay be tested at any time.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egscphsrdt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "education general secondary crime policinghouse supports random drug testingThe studentsin question may not realize the long-term harmsof drug use or fully understand the risks ofaddiction, and as they are not yet fully adult andresponsible for themselves, the state has theright to ensure that they do not exercise their'right to privacy' in a way that could be harmfulto them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egscphsrdt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "education general secondary crime policinghouse supports random drug testingKeepingteenagers in education Studies in Michigan inthe USA have found that random drug tests inschools do not deter drug use, as schools withand without random tests have similar levels ofdrug use among their pupils. [1] It seemsunlikely that random drug tests will, in fact,deter students from taking drugs. What suchtests will result in, however, is a greater numberof exclusions and disciplinary actions resultingfrom catching student drug users, which as thestudies have shown has no guarantee of loweringdrug use overall. Faced with a situation ofcontinuing to be caught and reprimanded fordrug use in school due to random drug tests,many older teenagers who reach the agewhereby they may choose to leave school maychoose to do so in greater numbers. This maywell be compounded by an adolescent desire torebel and reject authority when it tries toprevent them doing what they want, and so a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egscphsrdt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "education general secondary crime policinghouse supports random drugtestingSafeguarding the teacher-studentrelationship Random drug tests change thestudent-teacher relationship from one of trustinto one of suspicion, whereby the teachers andthe school establishment become a body whichmany students will perceive as being out to catchthem, and suspicious of all. The destruction ofthis trust makes it far harder for teachers toimpart useful information on illegal drugs and theconsequences of their use to students, andstudents may be less willing to seek teachers outon this information. This would lead to studentsrelying increasingly on their peers and theinternet for information on illegal drugs, and thisinformation is far more likely to be ofquestionable policy or influenced by notions ofdrug use as 'cool' or glamorous. Thus schools'anti-drugs message may be harmed by randomdrug tests.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egscphsrdt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "education general secondary crime policinghouse supports random drug testingRight toprivacy Even if a right to privacy (which wouldprevent random drug testing with no reason forsuspicion) does not exist in law in every country,many students being affected by drugs tests willperceive that the notional right to privacy whichthey believe they possess is being violated.Because they would perceive this violation as aharm, it should not be imposed without goodreason. This problematizes the nature of'random' testing, which by definition meansforcing drug tests on individuals on whom thereis no reasonable suspicion of drug use. Firstly,the majority of those being tested will most likelytest negative (as the previously cited statisticssuggest) and so a majority will be harmed for nofault of their own, but rather as a consequence ofthe crimes of others. This may be seen as theequivalent of searching all homes in aneighbourhood for an illegal weapon on thesuspicion that one of them was hiding it -an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-egscphsrdt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "education general secondary crime policinghouse supports random drug testingUsingrandom drug tests would mean that a greaternumber of teenage drug users would be caughtand put into drug rehabilitation programs, whichwould surely help at least some of them. Theschool's duty of care means that they must atleast be given this chance to give up drugs, evenif they refuse it, as opposed to simply allowingthem to keep using, which will most likely disrupttheir education severely anyway.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0Schools alreadyhave enough pressures just to educate theirstudents, they do not need additional pressurefrom having to ensure their nutrition as well. Inthe UK kitchen improvements cost £200 millionand many local councils found they needed totake money from other budgets such as schoolmaintainance budgets showing the increase inpressure on schools. [1] [1] BBC News,‘Q&A; Free school meals for infants’, 2September 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0Schools are bestplaces to ensure good nutrition Education isuniversal from 5 or 6 to 16 years old in mostcountries, 58% of children worldwide attendsecondary school, [1] with even poor countriesproviding education for all from 5 to 12 yearsold. As a result giving breakfast at school willmean that all children between these agesreceive it. [1] Unicef, ‘58: The percentage ofchildren of secondary school age worldwide whoattend secondary school is 58’, Unicef globaldatabases, 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0Exactly, the role ofthe school is to teach children, not to beproviding food and using periods of time for thisthat could be used for lessons.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0A school breakfastgives all students an equal start to the day Allchildren should have equal opportunities, abreakfast for all helps provide this. With schoolsproviding breakfast for everyone the start to theday will be the same for all. No one will startingschool hungry or thirsty. Everyone will have hada chance to wake up before their lessons startallowing them to get as good a start to the dayas possible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0This will not be trueequality. Some people naturally wake up earlier,yet many will still be feeling sleepy at 10:00. Aschool breakfast may have forced these studentsto be up even longer before their natural wakeup time than would otherwise be the case.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0There is no need foreducation about a healthy diet to be combinedwith free breakfasts for all. The teaching can bedone separately just as effectively. Teaching atthe same time as, or immediately before or afterwill simply mean students are concentrating onthe food they have, not upon the lesson. Mealtimes are lively and social, not a good time forteaching.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0A healthy breakfastimproves students concentration Children are inschool to learn. To do this they need toconcentrate. To be able to concentrate they needto have a balanced meal – one without too muchsugar – that will ensure they are not hungry untillunchtime. A child who is hungry is not going tobe concentrating on their studies. A study by theIndian National Institute of Nutrition has shown aregular breakfast to result in a 2% increase intest scores in addition to other health benefits.[1] [1] Gajre, N.S., Fernandez, S., Balakrishna,N., and Vazir, S., ‘Breakfast Eating Habit and itsInfluence on Attention-concentration, ImmediateMemory and School Achievement’, NationalInstitute of Nutrition, 31 March 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0Breakfast teachesabout health Children need to learn about howgood nutrition keeps them healthy. Providing aschool breakfast means that the meal can be aneducational experience and have teachingalongside. This education will ensure that whenthese children grow up they continue to eathealthily with future benefits for the nation’shealth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-con03b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0The upfront cost willbe paid back. In the future there will be lesshealth care costs. And there will be a more highlyeducated and skilled population which will meanmore economic growth and tax for thegovernment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-con01b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0The split inresponsibility under this proposal is clear; schoolprovides breakfast, parents other meals. Thissplit ensures that even if the parent is shirkingtheir responsibility the child will receive somenutrition.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-con02a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0Government shouldfocus on the most needy A primaryresponsibility of the government is for reducinginequality and ensuring that everyone has abasic living standard. A basic living standardincludes food. As a result providing breakfastsshould be for those who are most in need of ahelping hand from government. Those who arewealthier and can afford their own breakfast donot need this help so any such breakfast policyshould be means tested to only apply to thosewho need it. This is the case with the UnitedStates School Breakfast Program.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-con04a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0Can we be sure aschool meal will be healthy? Even if the schoolsprovide breakfast can we be sure that it will behealthy, and even if it is will the students eat it?Without individual supervision that havingbreakfast with parents provides it is difficult toensure that the children are eating what theyshould be rather than throwing away the bitsthey like. In the UK there has been a campaignagainst the poor quality of school meals. [1] Inthe US there has been concern at the amounts offresh fruit and vegtables being thrown away fromschool means. One study by the University ofVermont found food waste increased 56%.[2] [1] Evening Standard, ‘Unhealthy schoolmeals are on the menu for over a millionchildren’, 12 January 2013, [2] Welch, Ashley,‘School lunch fruits and veggies often tossed intrash study finds’, CBSnews, 25 August 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-con03a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0A school breakfastfor all is a greater cost on schools Everythingcosts. Providing free school to all breakfasts willcost the government money for ingredients,cafeteria staff, administration, even possibly newfacilities. In the USA the Breakfast Program costs$3.3 billion to provide free or reduced pricebreakfasts to 10.1 million students. [1] There isa limited total amount of money so the cost willmean there is something else the governmentwill not be able to do. This proposal may mean,for example, that the government cannot affordto hire more teachers to reduce class sizes. [1]Food and Nutrition Service, ‘The SchoolBreakfast Program’, September 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-con01a", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0Nutrition is theparents responsibility Parents are responsiblefor their children, and this includes responsibilityfor their meals. The parent has had to providemeals up until the start of school. They knowtheir own child’s preferences there is little reasonfor this to change. Splitting responsibilitybetween parents and schools means the burdenof responsibility will no longer be clearly don'tplaced.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-con04b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0If the school isproviding unhealthy meals then guidelines canbe tightened to ensure they improve. If thestudents are throwing away food then there canbe greater supervision by teachers. A study byHarvard University has also shown that foodwaste, and the amount of healthy food eaten canbe increased by having more time allocated toeating. [1] [1] Wanjek, Christopher, ‘AreHealthy School Lunch Programs a Waste?’,Livescience, 7 October 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-education-pshhghwpba0-con02b", "title": "", "text": "primary secondary health health general housewould provide breakfast all 0Focusing on needrequires that the need be defined and those inneed identified. It runs the risk that some peoplewill be missed. A child having a wealthy parentdoes not mean that they are getting a goodhealthy breakfast at the start of the day. Thatparent may never be home in the morning, mayconsider breakfast unimportant, or simply beneglecting their child.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "national law politics defence warpeace housebelieves us should ban use clusterTheinternational legal system already has many greyareas and often things that should be banned arenot because of objections by certain countriesdespite their similarities to other items that arebanned. A change regarding cluster bombs is notrealistically going to make more people acceptthe international legal system. Further,according to the exact wording of the 1997 banon land mines, the ban exists for those itemsthat exist to “Primarily” act as land mines.Cluster bombs act as landmines as a secondaryeffect and are not intended to do so. As such, itwould be more inconsistent under the law toaccept cluster bombs as landmines than it wouldbe to ban them.5", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "national law politics defence warpeace housebelieves us should ban use clusterCluster BombsAre Inconsistent With International Law Theinternational legal system is dependent on beingrobust and transparent in order for it to berespected by countries and states that accept it.The refusal by the U.S. to ban cluster bombsprevents the international community from doingthe same within international law as the U.S. hasenough political power that should it choose toignore the law, the law itself is considered to beirrelevant. In failing to ban cluster bombs theU.S. maintains an inconsistency withininternational law. Since dud cluster bombseffectively act as land mines for all intents andpurposes, they are well hidden and causeindiscriminate damage, the fact that they aren’tbanned is inconsistent with existing bans on landmines already. This inconsistency withininternational law makes the international legalsystem seem less credible, owing tocontradictions as well as illustrating its weakness", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "national law politics defence warpeace housebelieves us should ban use clusterThe U.S. iscurrently developing cluster bomb technologythat will prevent cluster bombs from remainingarmed over a long period of time. Given that theU.S. is a pioneer in this area, it knows moreabout the development of the technology thanother countries that might have signed up to thetreaty. If the efforts of the U.S. prove to befruitful then their decision to avoid the ban willprove them as being the more politically shrewdof other liberal democracies. Further, politicalstatus with other countries is unlikely to beentirely determined by treaties regarding clusterbombs. In fact these treaties are relatively minorand have almost no political affect by comparisonto more pressing issues such as economics orother parts of international policy.7", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "national law politics defence warpeace housebelieves us should ban use clusterCluster BombsCause Unacceptable Harm to Civilians In amodern warfare scenario, the vast majority ofcombat takes place in civilian areas, such ascities. Whilst cluster bombs are obviously notused for peacekeeping purposes they are used ininitial assaults on these areas, particularlyagainst larger formations of enemy troops. Thismeans that due to the indiscriminate nature ofcluster bombs, in the same way as with landmines, often both military and civilian targets areencompassed in the blast radius. This is whathappened in Zagreb as Martic was targetingCroat forces but the attack due to the use ofcluster weapons also killed civilians. Further,cluster bombs often have a few bomblets whichare duds and do not go on initial impact. Theissue with bomblets is that they are oftenbrightly coloured and when used in cities orpopulous areas they can often attract theattention of children who are very unlikely to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "national law politics defence warpeace housebelieves us should ban use clusterCluster bombs,when used sensibly are used in uninhabitedareas to take down military personnel. They areonly intended for military targets and collateraldamage when attacking military targets issomething that is accepted as a regrettableproblem in war. Further, cluster bombs aresimply a very effective weapon in battlesbetween standing armies in most war. Given thatcluster bombs help sides achieve victory quickerand with less resistance, they justify their use inthe prevention of strife in the future by causingwars to end quickly as well as enabling assaultson well-defended sites to be performed moresmoothly. Due to their niche, cluster bombs willsimply be replaced by the military withsubstitutes that are just as harmful.4", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "national law politics defence warpeace housebelieves us should ban use clusterRejecting theBan on Cluster Bombs Hurts the internationalimage of the U.S. The U.S. is one of the onlyremaining Western Liberal democracies to allowthe U.S. of cluster bombs. The continued refusalof the U.S. to tow the same line as fellow liberaldemocracies makes it look bad internationally;especially considering that one of the maininstigators behind the cluster bomb ban is theU.K. traditionally a great ally of the U.S.politically. The U.S. is often seen as the greatestrepresentative of Western liberal democracy as itis the most economically powerful. Part of thispolitical clout however, comes from thecontinued cooperation of other Western Liberaldemocracies with the U.S. in failing to the signthe cluster bomb treaty despite pressure fromother countries, the U.S. fails in this capacity andloses the support of the countries that it relies onto maintain its political status. Moreover, giventhat the U.S. currently does not help with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "national law politics defence warpeace housebelieves us should ban use clusterTheimprovement of cluster bombs in the way thatopposition describes has not happened yet andthese bombs have not been deployed. It wouldbe fairly easy to class these new cluster bombsdifferently to older models should they come intoeffect. However, the potential for new types ofcluster bombs does not mean that the oldertypes are any less inhumane. A ban on clusterbombs could easily exist to simply encompassolder models whilst leaving newer ones alone.11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "national law politics defence warpeace housebelieves us should ban use clusterCluster bombsare an ineffective weapon that often deal moredamage to the side deploying the weapons thantheir opponents. Given modern warfarescenarios, the need for cluster bombs is notgreat given that in asymmetric warfare theconflict will be over relatively quickly, owing tothe massive level of firepower that the West andits allies can bring against the targets that theyattack, often dictators only in control of militarilyweak countries. Dud cluster bombs harm anyoccupation following invasion and warm byharming troops that happen to stumble acrossthem as well as harming demining personnel.This prevents effective occupation in the long runand costs lives through preventing the armedforces from achieving stability in the region asquickly.9", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "national law politics defence warpeace housebelieves us should ban use clusterThe Ban isUnfeasible The problem with the ban on clusterbombs is that it is unfeasible in the prevention ofthe use of cluster bombs on the battlefield. Manycountries aside from the U.S. will continue to usethe weapons and will likely do so lessresponsibly. There is no way to persuade thesecountries to abandon the weapons. Countriessuch as China and the US are unconcerned bythreats that their use can be a crime againsthumanity and might result in internationalcriminal prosecutions as they are not signed upto the ICC and as Security Council members canprevent investigations of themselves or theirclients. The U.S. and Western powers continuingto manufacture cluster bombs allows them toengage with the other users of cluster bombs onthe battlefield. Many countries import weaponsfrom Western powers and as such, continuingthe manufacture of cluster bombs allowsWestern powers to keep a check on their use by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "national law politics defence warpeace housebelieves us should ban use clusterThis HouseBelieves That the U.S. Should Ban The Use ofCluster Bombs Currently the U.S. is working onimproving the reliability of cluster bombs. Theweakness of cluster bombs, being that thebomblets often do not explode is something thatU.S. military has understood for a long time. It isinefficient for the military to allow this problemto continue. As such a large amount of militaryfunding goes into improving cluster bombs. TheU.S. is hoping to improve cluster bombs in twoways, the first is ensuring that when the clusterbombs are deployed that all bomblets explode onimpact or explode very quickly after the initialbarrage. However, the U.S. is also working ontechnology that would allow bomblets to disarmthemselves after a short period of time, hencepreventing accidental discharges in the future. Ifthese improvements work, then cluster bombscease to cause civilian damage and will likely bean incredibly effective tool in warfare. Hence a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "national law politics defence warpeace housebelieves us should ban use clusterCluster BombsHave Significant Strategic Value As mentionedearlier in the opposition counter arguments,cluster bombs are incredibly effective at dealingwith large formations of troops and armouredvehicles and can cause a significant amount ofdamage to an opposing force in a relatively smallamount of time. This niche is not filled ascheaply or as easily by other weapons that canbe released from a bombing aircraft. As suchcluster bombs have a significant level of militaryand strategic value when used in conflict. In thecase where cluster bombs were banned, it wouldsimply fall to the military to find an effectivereplacement weapon for these scenarios and it islikely that these would be as problematic if notmore so.8", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-nlpdwhbusbuc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "national law politics defence warpeace housebelieves us should ban use clusterWhilst the banprevents engagement with countries that usecluster bombs, it also limits the supply of clusterbombs to these countries significantly. The Westceasing the manufacture of cluster bombs meansthat many countries will cease being able to gettheir through second or third hand sources.Whilst the Chinese might be able to fill the gap,their cluster bomb technology is not on the samelevel as that of the West and as such the lack ofreliability with the Chinese weaponry will causefewer countries to employ the use of clusterbombs on the battlefield. Further, the ban oncluster bombs by Western countries sends out astrong moral message that many other smallercountries are likely to obey and follow. With theUS accepting the ban international prosecution,or potentially even sanctions is considerablymore likely. The U.S. holding out however,shows the West to be divided on the topic and assuch prevents other countries that might be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipPutin’s initialsupport was based mainly on strong promises, aseries of arrests of corrupt businessmen andtough action towards Chechnya that at firstseemed to give positive results. His supportbase, however, has been significantly damagedfollowing his increasing tendencies to control themedia and to replace elected governors withpresidential appointees, and by scandalssurrounding the disappearance and murder ofseveral important journalists. He has lost thesupport of the NGO community and most of theintelligentsia and also the originally strongbacking of the USA and President Bush.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipA strong leaderhas more benefits than harms Putin is thestrong leader that Russia has been waiting for.His electoral success and consistently highapproval rates show that the people of Russiaare ready for someone who can rid their societyof increasing corruption and restore a sense ofcalm and equality. His ability to maintain a highlevel of support despite what some have calledauthoritarian tendencies shows that people areready to sacrifice a certain degree of freedom forthe promise of stability. Enthusiasm for Putinamong the young also shows that he does notonly appeal to those looking back to pastcertainties.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipPutting your hopesand trust in a single person can be fairlydangerous, particularly in a transition period.Putin is not the state and his ability to controland represent the state and the population atlarge is questionable. Putin is also not a saintand an example to be followed. His authoritariantendencies do not have insignificant effects: atthis point most Russian media is controlled bythe state, decisions continue to be made behindclosed doors without consultation, Russia hasonce again become the pariah of theinternational community, the Chechen conflicthas spilled into new attacks against civiliansresulting in the death of thousands of peopleincluding children (one only has to mention thehorrible attacks in Beslan and the Moscowtheatre), etc, etc. Putin’s stubborn refusal toaccept international help in the case of the stucksubmarine Kursk also resulted in theunnecessary death of tens of people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipStability is moreimportant than reform Since the fall ofcommunism, Russia has plunged into a deepeconomic recession. The introduction of marketreforms and privatization has led to a swiftincrease in inequalities coupled with an increasein corruption. The chaos of economic and politicalreform, along with the chaos of the break-up offormer USSR, has left the majority of thepopulation both disillusioned and distrustful oftheir government. In a period of such chaos,stability seems to be much more important thanreform. A strong leader is the only solution toproviding such stability, setting a clear directionand pulling a country at risk of falling aparttogether again. This is also proven from variouspolls among the Russian population – “…Themost eye-catching statistic is the overwhelmingmajority of respondents who say that order ismore important for Russia than democracy – 72per cent, with 16 per cent responding", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipAll periods oftransition have been chaotic by definition andreforms are by their nature disruptive. At thesame time, it is only through these reforms thata future of freedom and prosperity is possible.While a long transition process can certainlycloud minds and turn people into distrustful anddisillusioned individuals, one must keep in mindthat it is precisely at these moments that the riskof authoritarian tendencies re-emerging ishighest. The people of Russia agree in polls overand over again that democracy is and should betheir future. We must not let the immediatechaos of reform scare us into a fake stability.Even if still Russians prefer stronger leadershipthe number of these people is decreasing and thetendency shows that more and more are startingto evaluate the true value of democracy - “…Butthat number is actually down from the last timeVTsIOM conducted a similar survey in 2000,when 75 per cent of Russians said they favored", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipHistory is notdestiny and a highly-selective view of Russia'spast should not lead us to prefer authoritarianrule today. The Tsars and their communistsuccessors killed millions of people throughbrutal rule and failed policies - made possible bythe same lack of consultation and accountabilitythat we see in Russia today. Only a vigorousmulti-party democracy, fully independent legalsystem and free media can ensure that thedisasters of the past are not repeated. Nor isthere any reason why such a system could nottake root in Russia - it is no more diverse thanmany other countries and moderncommunications mean that mere distance is nota problem. And there is nothing in the culture ortemperament that makes Russians uniquelyunsuited to democracy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipA strong leader isworking in the state’s best interest Putin’sauthoritarian style is not a threat to democracybut rather a requirement for a successful andquicker transition. Having Putin control themedia is probably healthier than having it becontrolled by a corrupt few that promote theirpersonal interests rather than the interest of thestate and thus those of the population at large.Democracy is a goal and while certain countriesbelieve themselves to have achieved it, they areconstantly struggling to maintain it. As a youngdemocracy, Russia is still working towardsdefining its own version of democracy andfinding what works best in its case.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipRussia as a stateand Russians as a nation need strongleadership Historically, Russia has alwaysneeded strong centralised leadership for it tomake progress. This was true both in imperialtimes under tsars such as Peter the Great (whomade Russia a European power and built StPetersburg) and Alexander II (who freed theserfs), and since 1917 under Lenin and Stalin.Russia is too big, too diverse and toothinly-populated for western systems ofrepresentative democracy to be applied.Culturally its people are temperamentally suitedto following the decisive lead of a strong rulerwho can unite them in the face of greatchallenges. Without such a ruler Russia is likelyto fragment with local strongmen grabbingpower in the regions, religious fundamentalismdominating much of the Caucasus and CentralAsia, and economic stagnation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con03b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipAll of thesespeculations are rather unreasonable and tend tocreate a public opinion which does not cooperateentirely with the truth. Such drastic conclusionscan be made just about any other country. It istrue that Vladimir Putin is a strong leader and apowerful figure in the Russian political life, butthis does not mean that he is a puppet master,who decides the entire faith of Russia and theRussian population. The political life cannot gowithout political games, intrigues and deals, butthis is just how the policy works and this is howit has been working for a long time. Politicalinterests mix up with business interests and it isactually important to have a strong leader in theface of Putin, who, unlike a lot of politicians willnot be influenced by big corporate players or atleast will not be influenced as much. Putin’spolitical career has been successful and his ratingamong the population are the simplest proof -According to public opinion surveys conducted by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con01b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipThe best possibleway to tackle the corruption issue, which letsface it is one of the major problems in Russianowadays, is through a strong leader. EasternEuropean democratic countries are the pureexample that corruption spreads when there isno strong leadership. The corruption in thesecountries is an obstacle to their economicdevelopment. As a matter of fact presentpresident Dmitry Medvedev has launched policiesand new projects in order to fight backcorruption – “ Fighting corruption has been a topagenda of President Dmitry Medvedev. AnAnti-Corruption Council was established byMedvedev in 2008 to oversee the Russia'santi-corruption campaign. The central documentguiding the effort is the National Anti-CorruptionStrategy, introduced by Medvedev in 2010.” (2)In fact, increasing corruption might prove to bemore dangerous than terrorist attacks since itwould create powerful drug, oil and weapons", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con02a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipRussia does nothave true democracy The status quo in Russia ishighly controversial. On the one hand it isconsidered a democracy – it has all thestructures and norms of a democracy. On theother hand there are many attacks and proofthat the Russian governance is far fromdemocratic: The joint observer team for theCouncil of Europe and the Organisation forSecurity and Cooperation in Europe criticised theRussian elections as \"not fair and failed to meetmany OSCE and Council of Europe commitmentsand standards for democratic elections,\" with\"abuse of administrative resources, mediacoverage strongly in favour of the ruling party\".The polls \"took place in an atmosphere whichseriously limited political competition\" meaning\"there was not a level political playing field\". The2007 parliamentary election resulted in UnitedRussia gaining 64.1% of the vote.(3) Furthermore not only there isn’t election", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con04a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipCorruption, anessential issue in Russia, is due to the strongleadership There is a link between the highlevels of corruption and the strong leadership ofRussian president and prime minister of Russia.– “Some of Russia's most prominent oppositionfigures have produced a report accusing PrimeMinister Vladimir Putin of presiding over a boomin corruption and enriching his inner circle overthe past decade… Putin and President DmitryMedvedev themselves have 26 \"palaces\" and fiveyachts, which in turn require costly state upkeep,according to the report.” (8) Many argue that ifit weren’t for the power of the prime ministerand ex-president Putin, also his strong authorityand management, corruption would have beenminimized long ago.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con03a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipThe status quoreveals that several powerful and influentialpeople are in charge of the whole state What isoccurring in Russia now is closer to dictatorshiprather than to strong leadership. Manycommentators of the Russian political stageshare the opinion that Medvedev is just a pawnin the hands of the former president and currentprime minister – Putin. “The leading role stillclearly belongs to Putin. This reflects theunspoken agreement that was reached betweenPutin and Medvedev,” said Yevgeny Volk, anindependent political analyst in Moscow. (6)Russia’s both external and internal policy havenot changed after the elections in 2008 and arefollowing the same path, which is anotherargument that Putin continues to pull thestrings. In fact, the more important question isnot whether or not Medvedev is a pawn, but whois actually in charge – “Kremlin-watchers say thissystem of interlocking and competing clans that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con01a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipProper democraticchecks and balance are the only way to realproblem-solving There is a fine line betweenenough authority to fight corruption and enoughauthority to oppress a population. Many corrupt,authoritarian leaders have risen to powerthrough the promise of social reform and ofwiping out drug cartels and gangsters. A societyliving in fear and believing that all their problemswill be solved by a powerful leader will never beable to overcome its problems. Empoweringindividuals and accepting risk is ultimately theonly true solution to such problems. Even if Putinwere completely pure himself, centralising powerso completely gives great influence to thoseadvisers and ministers around him and makescorruption in government inevitable. Only bybuilding in proper democratic checks andbalances, including criticism from a free mediaand legal system, can accountability be createdand corruption or incompetence tackled.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con04b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipThe currentpresident Dmitry Medvedev is working on andintroducing policies toward corruption. Actuallythis is his main strategy. It is a well-known factthat Medvedev keeps close relations with theformer president Putin and discusses Russianrelations and policy with him. If the abolishmentof the corruption was standing in the way ofPutin, such a strategy would not have beenundertaken by Medvedev. – “Speaking to agroup of Russian experts and journalists, he saidthat corrupt officials ran Russia. \"They have thepower. Corruption has a systemic nature, deephistoric roots. We should squeeze it out. Thebattle isn't easy but it has to be fought. I don'tthink we can achieve tangible results in one yearor two. If I am a realist we could get good resultsin 15.\" “(9) Exactly strong leadership can dealwith the difficult issue of corruption in theRussian state. And the new policies of thecurrent president clearly present that.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepghbrnsl-con02b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics government house believesrussia needs strong leadershipRussia has theattributes of a democracy. It is a federal statewith a constitution. It has a two chamberlegislature; the lower house is the Duma with450 members elected from nationwide party listsbased upon proportional representation. TheUpper house; the Federation Council has tworepresentatives from each of Russia’s 89 regionsand republics that are chosen by the regionalgovernors and legislatures. Elections for thePresident are every four years who then appointsthe prime minister who in turn appoints thegovernment. Russia therefore appears to havethe necessary structure to be a democracy aseach of the branches or government areindependent. What Russia is doing is combiningthe modern democratic governance with bettercontrol and management. Shortly after one ofthe reporters’ death (which death is thought tobe a political order) the head of the human rightsorganisation issued a strongly worded statement", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceIn the areas of policywhere rapid responses are necessary even withinthe EU the UK retains its freedom of action. Theareas where there is joint policy are issues suchas trade and environment negotiations which arealways slow anyway. Defence and security areareas where power remains with the memberstates. The only areas of foreign policy where theslow speed of the EU comes up against slowdecision making are areas where joint policy is abenefit as in response to the migration crisis; noone nation could have responded alone, evenGermany, who take in most migrants neededthere to be a path to the country.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceBritain will havegreater ability to respond quickly Whatever theEU is we can all agree it is not the fastest andmost responsive of institutions. As a result ofneeding the input of 28 countries EU externalpolicy is slow and faltering. Leaving will enablethe UK greater freedom to create its own policiesand to reframe them in response to changingcircumstances and challenges. The UK will nolonger need to take into consideration any othercountry’s views.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceAs a smaller and lessattractive market the UK will inevitably get a lessgood deal than it could have with the whole ofthe EU at its back. Moreover if the UK still wantsfree access to the EU market, which accounts for45% of UK exports and 53%, [1] it will still nothave a completely free hand economically.Norway for example may retain close economiclinks and freely trade with Europe but does nothave any ability to make decisions on EU rulesand must accept their regulations – clearly aworse position than the UK now. [2] [1] Webb,Dominic, and Keep, Matthew, ‘In brief: UK-EUeconomic relations’, House of Commons Library,Briefing Paper, No. 06091, 19 January 2016, p.3, www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN06091.pdf [2] Eide, Espen Barth, ‘We pay, but have nosay: that’s the reality of Norway’s relationshipwith the EU’, The Guardian, 27 October 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceThe UK would have acompletely independent foreign policy Britain’sis not completely sovereign within the EuropeanUnion with the EU having a common foreign andsecurity policy and all economic negotiationstaking place under the auspices of the EU tradecommissioner, it is what the EU refers to as an‘exclusive power’, rather than the Foreign Office.[1] Exiting would give these powers back to theUK. Regardless of how these powers are usedthis will mean the UK has more influence andfreedom to manoeuvre as it will have moreoptions with which it can negotiate with otherpowers. [1] ‘Policy making: What is tradepolicy’, European Commission,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceIt is a misconceptionthat any nation has complete sovereignty in therealm of international affairs, the restraints andrestrictions as a result of being in or out aresimply different. Every foreign policy has tooperate within the context of the internationalsystem, and the capabilities with which the statehas. Leaving the EU will give back certain areaswith which the UK can negotiate but at the sametime will ensure the UK is a lone voice ratherthan part of a combined negotiating position. Thecommon foreign policy is just that; 28 countriesmaking the same point, much more difficult foreven the biggest nations to ignore. The decisionmaking is done by all the heads ofstate/government so cannot be said to representa loss of sovereignty. [1] [1] ‘Foreign &security policy at EU level’, EUR-lex, updated 8December 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceUkraine may not be ahigh priority itself for British foreign policy butRussia is still a major, possibly the most major,threat. The UK has had very poor relations withRussia for years with various spy incidents suchas the murder of Alexander Litvinenko [1] andwith Russian bombers regularly beingintercepted near the UK, six times in 2015, [2]even before we get onto Russian aggression inGeorgia and Ukraine and British and Russianinterests in the Middle East often being atloggerheads. The migration crisis may notdirectly affect the UK but it's cause, Syria andMiddle Eastern instability, is a major concern forthe UK as a result of UK nationals joiningDaesh. [1] Owen, Robert, ‘Report into the deathof Alexander Litvinenko’, The Litvinenko Inquiry,January 2016, [2] ‘RAF jets intercept Russianbombers heading to UK’, BBC news, 17 February2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceEU economicpreference will no longer bind Britain As acustoms union the EU has a common externaltariff set at the EU level meaning that the UKcannot tailor its external trade policy to its ownneeds. Instead the UK will be free to negotiateits own free trade agreements with any power itwishes. This may be individually or joining largertrade groupings such as the currently beingnegotiated Trans Atlantic Trade and InvestmentPartnership deal between the USA, Canada, andthe EU. it also means the UK is free to rejectsuch joint agreements, as many campaigninggroups would like with the Trans Atlantic Tradeand Investment Partnership deal. [1] Countrieswhich are not in regional blocks have notsuffered as a result, South Korea has 24 freetrade agreements [2] and despite an economythat is just over half the size of the UK’s hastrade in goods worth similar amounts;$1,098bln$1,190bln [3] but importantly gets to negotiate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceUK will bedisentangled from EU affairs Leaving the EUwould mean that Britain is no longer entangled inforeign policy issues that are of little interest to itand instead could devote itself to other moreproductive issues. The two main foreign policycrises for the EU at the moment are Ukraine andmigration, neither of which concern the UK whennot a member of the EU. Migration would bestopped at the channel while Ukraine is at theopposite end of the EU. The EU would essentiallybecome a buffer for the UK.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con03b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceIt is undeniable that insome areas the EU is a force multiplier. Butmany of the issues it uses this leverage on arenot areas of concern to a UK that has left the EU;migrants arriving in Greece are of little nationalinterest to the UK. Britain would instead focus itsweight on areas that are of direct concern suchas terrorism. In other areas the multiplier simplysaves the UK a little money; could the UK havean embassy in Djibouti? Certainly if it wished,but it is not an area of primary concern to theUK.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con01b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceThe UK has moreinfluence as a power in the second tier beingsought after rather than having its voiceswamped in the EU where it is but one of 27voices. The UK will retain its UN Security Councilseat and nuclear weapons, it will remain apowerful country that is relevant across all sortsof areas, it will simply be less constrained.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con02a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influencePower is shifting tothe East Geography has a great influence on theposition of nations and their foreign policies. Forexample it is the UK’s Island nation status that isa major reason why it is not fully committed tothe European project. Attention internationally isnow shifting to East Asia where the main risingpowers are; China and India. This means thatthe UK’s position is less geographically importantso to compensate the UK needs Europe; China’sleader Xi Jinping on his state visit to Britainstated China wants “a united EU, and hopesBritain… can play an even more positive andconstructive role in promoting the deepeningdevelopment of China-EU ties.” [1] The UnitedStates, Britain’s main ally since World War II, ismuch less interested in Europe. [1] ‘China wantsBritain in a united European Union, Xi Jinpingtells David Cameron’, South China Morning Post,23 October 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con04a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceLeaving the EU willmean the UK will have less regionalinfluence Like it or not the UK is a part of Europegeographically and as such the countries that aremost important to UK foreign policy are also inEurope. Leaving the EU will damage relationswith those powers that are currently a part of theEU, and potentially also those who are used todealing with the UK as part of the EU. The UnitedStates has noted it “benefits from a strong UKbeing part of the European Union” [1] in muchthe same way as the UK does. If this is the UK'sstrongest ally's view what would be the view ofthe powers from whom out would mean divorce?The UK will be outside the group trying toinfluence it rather than on the inside. The EUstates will no longer need to listen to the UK on awide range of issues where it has previouslybeen a key voice. [1] Earnest, Josh, ‘PressBriefing by the Press Secretary Josh Earnest’,White House, 14 March 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con03a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceThe EU is a forcemultiplier The UK gets more bang for the buckas a result of being a member of the EU. It hasrepresentation in more countries as a result ofthe European External Action Service (equivalentof the Foreign Office) thus extending UKinfluence to countries where it would nototherwise have representation. For example theEU have representation in Djibouti [1] whereasthe UK individually is represented there fromneighbouring Ethiopia. [2] The UK, along withFrance, and to a lesser extent Germany, leadsthe EU on foreign policy matters, as illustratedby the first The High Representative of the Unionfor Foreign Affairs and Security Policy being aBriton, Catherine Ashton. [3] This means the UKessentially gains from the backing of the other26 member states giving the UK a much moreinfluential voice globally. For example the EU hasa role in the Middle East ‘quartet’ of the EU, USA,Russia and United Nations [4] giving the UK a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con01a", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceThe UK needs to bepart of a block to remain relevant History ismoving towards bigger and bigger blocks beingrelevant. The US and USSR dwarfed the previousglobal power the UK [1] and China and India lookset too be bigger again. In a world where thegreat powers are regions of the globe inthemselves to be influential requires being partof a bigger group. The EU negotiates on equalterms with China, India and the USA. The UK onits own would be very much a second orderpower. [1] See Paul Kennedy’s The Rise and Fallof the Great Powers, Random House, 1987", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con04b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceThe UK will still bepart of Europe just not in the EU. It will still be amember of a plethora of other organisations;NATO, OSCE, Council of Europe, European freetrade area. Countries like France and Germanyare not going to stop listening to the UK becauseit is no longer a member.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oeplhbuwhmi-con02b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics leadership house believes ukwould have more influenceThere are alsoadvantages to this power shift; the UK is lessthreatened so better able to act. The UK istherefore free to align itself with whicheverpowers it wishes rather than having alignmentsdictated by geography and who is threateningthe UK. In the past the threat from Germany,and then the USSR, forced the UK into analliance with France and the USA. When it comesto deciding between the USA, China, and Indiathe UK has a free hand. As a result the UK has aonce in a lifetime opportunity to strike new“trade deals with the growth economies aroundthe world”. [1] [1] Boris Johnson quoted inErixon, Fredrik, ‘Boris and the Breziteers aretalking nonsense about Britain’s trade policies’,The Spectator, 1 April 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapghwliva-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "onal americas politics government house wantsline item veto amendmentThe present system ofearmarking in Congress is wide open to abuse.The party leaderships in each house can use theoffer of pork, or the threat to withhold it toenforce party discipline. “Logrolling” occurswhereby an earmark is obtained in return forsupport on an unrelated piece of legislation. Allthis leads to legislators who put party abovecountry and vote for bad legislation in pursuit oftheir own vested interest. They basically “arefederal dollars that members of Congress doleout to favor seekers — often campaign donors.In the process, lawmakers advocate for thecompanies, helping them bypass the normalsystem of evaluation and competition.”1Forcingpork out in the open by making Congress vote todefend it after a Presidential line-item veto is thebest way to remedy matters. Overall thePresident is more accountable to the people as awhole than individual representatives, and withtheir national mandate, more able to stand up to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapghwliva-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "onal americas politics government house wantsline item veto amendmentThere are other meansby which cutting earmarks could be achieved,without the drastic step of mutilating the work ofthe Founding Fathers. For a start, Congress couldjust ban the use of earmarks, unfortunately anattempt in 2010 was defeated 39-56 in theSenate.1 Existing rescission powers could betoughened by requiring Congress to hold aprompt vote on Presidential requests forappropriations cuts, rather than ignoring them asinvariably happens now. The Impoundmentpower removed in 1974 could be restored. Theconvention that spending items in committeereports should be binding on the executive couldbe challenged. And the practice of legislatingmassive omnibus spending bills could be ended;more, smaller and more focused bills wouldmake pork more obvious and make it moreviable for a President to veto a whole bill withoutcausing the federal government to collapse forwant of funding. 1 Rushing , J. Taylor, 'Senate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapghwliva-con03b", "title": "", "text": "onal americas politics government house wantsline item veto amendmentThe use of theline-item veto power by President Clinton in1997 demonstrates the advantages of suchauthority. Although the power was declaredunconstitutional in 1998 by the Supreme Court,while he held it Clinton demonstrated what couldbe achieved. He acted cautiously, only cancelling82 appropriations, but these totalled nearly $2billion1– a useful contribution in itself to reducingthe federal deficit, and one that suggested thatmuch bigger savings could be achieved by amore determined President. The CongressionalBudget Office agreed according to theCongressional Budget Office \"The 1997cancellations had a relatively small impact on thebudget's bottom line, but that outcome mayhave resulted in part from temporary factors,such as last year's balanced budgetagreement.\"2 This period also demonstrated thatCongress would still retain the power of thepurse, as it was able to overrule one of Clinton’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapghwliva-con01b", "title": "", "text": "onal americas politics government house wantsline item veto amendmentThis amendmentwould only give the President a limited power fora limited but worthwhile purpose. The media andinterest group scrutiny that accompanies thePresidency will ensure that the White House willhave to justify every line-item decision made. Itdoes not affect the Congress's power regardingpolicy-making, entitlement programmes ortaxation. Indeed, it is little different to theexisting convention of executive \"SigningStatements\" whereby the President can signlegislation while making it clear his intention notto fully implement aspects of it. It would create abudgetary separation of powers between thepresident and congress so introducing checksand balances against the abuse of power.1 1Ferro, Lucas and De Magalhaes, Leandro M.'Budgetary Separation of Powers in the AmericanStates and the Tax Level: A RegressionDiscontinuity Design', Bristol University, Oct2009,accessed 5/5/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapghwliva-con02a", "title": "", "text": "onal americas politics government house wantsline item veto amendmentThe constitutionshould not be amended We should always becautious of altering the United States’Constitution. Once an amendment is passed, it isextremely hard to overturn, even if itsconsequences are clearly negative (as theexperience of constitutionally-mandatedprohibition of alcohol should make clear). Itwould be both difficult and unnecessary. Thereare problems of wording and interpretation. The1996 Act covered 22 pages and went into greatdetail to define the extent and limits ofPresidential authority under the legislation,including the exact meanings of “single item ofappropriation”, ''direct spending'' and ''limitedtax benefit'', as well as the means by whichCongress could override his decisions.1 It is hardto believe that a one-paragraph amendment tothe Constitution could achieve such precision,opening the budgetary process up to confusion,shifting interpretation and constant legal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapghwliva-con03a", "title": "", "text": "onal americas politics government house wantsline item veto amendmentHas made littledifference in the past The precedent of the LineItem Veto Act under President Clinton shouldwarn against a constitutional amendment. Thesums saved were laughably small, $355 million,in the context of the entire federal budget, $1.7trillion, (0.02% of spending)1 but nonethelessprovoked considerable friction between electedrepresentatives and the White House. There wasunhappiness that the large majority of his cutswere of earmarks requested by Republicanmembers, and an allegation that theAdministration had threatened a Congressmanwith the veto of an item dear to them unlessthey supported an unrelated piece oflegislation. 1Virginia A. McMurty, 'Enhancing thePresident's Authority to Eliminate WastefulSpending and Reduce the Deficit', Subcommitteeon Federal Financial Management, GovernmentInformation, Federal Services and InternationalSecurity Senate Homeland Security and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapghwliva-con01a", "title": "", "text": "onal americas politics government house wantsline item veto amendmentA President would beable to abuse the power given to them in aline-item veto authority, leveraging it into undueinfluence over other elements of the legislativeprocess. By threatening to veto items dear toparticular Congressmen, they could obtainassent to bills, treaties and appointments thatotherwise would not be forthcoming. Suchintimidation would be subtle and hard to prove,but it would erode checks on the executive andfundamentally alter the balance of power withinthe constitution. This means that budgets arepoliticised even more than is currently the case.When the line item veto was previously used byClinton republicans such as Rick Santorumargued that every decision \"has politicalovertones, but that's fine, it comes with theterritory,\" Senator Ted Stevens went further\"We're dealing with a raw abuse of politicalpower by a president who doesn't have to runagain\".1 1 Hugliotta, Guy and Pianin, Eric,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapghwliva-con02b", "title": "", "text": "onal americas politics government house wantsline item veto amendmentWe should always becautious of altering the United States’Constitution. Once an amendment is passed, it isextremely hard to overturn, even if itsconsequences are clearly negative (as theexperience of constitutionally-mandatedprohibition of alcohol should make clear). Itwould be both difficult and unnecessary. Thereare problems of wording and interpretation. The1996 Act covered 22 pages and went into greatdetail to define the extent and limits ofPresidential authority under the legislation,including the exact meanings of “single item ofappropriation”, ''direct spending'' and ''limitedtax benefit'', as well as the means by whichCongress could override his decisions.1 It is hardto believe that a one-paragraph amendment tothe Constitution could achieve such precision,opening the budgetary process up to confusion,shifting interpretation and constant legalchallenge. It is also unnecessary. Supreme Court", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsPossessing nuclear weapons willdo little to help small and poor nations set theagendas on the international stage. In thepresent age, economic power is far moresignificant in international and diplomaticdiscourse than is military power, particularlynuclear weapon power. States will not be able tohave their grievances more rapidly addressed inthe United Nations or elsewhere, since they willbe unable to use nuclear weapons in anaggressive context as that would seriouslythreaten their own survival. Possessing nuclearweapons may at best provide some securityagainst neighbouring states, but it creates thegreater threat of accidental or unintended use orof nuclear weapons falling into the hands ofterrorists and rogue states.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsNuclear weapons give statesvaluable agenda-setting power on theinternational stage The issues discussed ininternational forums are largely set by nuclearpowers. The permanent membership of theUnited Nations Security Council, for example, iscomposed only of nuclear powers, the samestates that had nuclear weapons at the end ofWorld War II. If all countries possess nuclearweapons, they redress the imbalance with regardto international clout, at least to the extent towhich military capacity shapes states’interactions with each other. [1] Furthermore,the current world order is grossly unfair, basedon the historical anachronism of the post-WorldWar II era. The nuclear powers, wanting toretain their position of dominance in the wake ofthe post-war chaos, sought to entrench theirposition, convincing smaller nations to sign up tonon-proliferation agreements and trying to keepthe nuclear club exclusive. It is only right, in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsPossessing nuclear weapons willdo little to help small and poor nations set theagendas on the international stage. In thepresent age, economic power is far moresignificant in international and diplomaticdiscourse than is military power, particularlynuclear weapon power. States will not be able tohave their grievances more rapidly addressed inthe United Nations or elsewhere, since they willbe unable to use nuclear weapons in anaggressive context as that would seriouslythreaten their own survival. Possessing nuclearweapons may at best provide some securityagainst neighbouring states, but it creates thegreater threat of accidental or unintended use orof nuclear weapons falling into the hands ofterrorists and rogue states.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsPublic acknowledgement of theright to nuclear deterrence will benefit the publicregulation of nuclear weapons generally Whennuclear deterrence is an acknowledged right ofstates, they will necessarily be less concealing oftheir capability, as the deterrent effect worksonly because it is visible and widely known.Knowledge of states’ nuclear capability allowsgreater regulation and cooperation indevelopment of nuclear programs fromdeveloped countries with more advanced nuclearprograms. [1] Developed countries can helpconstruct and maintain the nuclear weapons ofother countries, helping to guarantee the safetyprotocols of countries’ programs are suitablyrobust. This will cause a diminution inclandestine nuclear weapons programs, and willreduce the chances of weapons-grade materialfalling into the hands of terrorists. Thus, greateropenness and freedom in the development ofnuclear weapons will increase the security of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsAll countries have a right todefend themselves with nuclear weapons, evenwhen they lack the capacity in conventionalweapons The nation-state is the fundamentalbuilding block of the international system, and isrecognized as such in all international treatiesand organizations. States are recognized ashaving the right to defend themselves, and thisright must extend to the possession of nucleardeterrence. Often states lack the capacity todefend themselves with conventional weapons.This is particularly true of poor and small states.Even wealthy, small states are susceptible toforeign attack, since their wealth cannot makeup for their lack of manpower. With a nucleardeterrent, all states become equal in terms ofability to do harm to one another. [1] If a largestate attempts to intimidate, or even invade asmaller neighbour, it will be unable to effectivelycow it, since the small state will have the powerto grievously wound, or even destroy, the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsWhile states do of course havethe right to defend themselves, this does notextend to the possession and use of nuclearweapons. The destructive power of nuclearweapons cannot be contained in either space ortime. They have the potential to destroy allcivilization and the entire ecosystem of theplanet. International humanitarian law prohibitsthe use of weapons that are incapable ofdistinguishing between civilian objects andmilitary targets. [1] Indeed, the use of nuclearweapons could well constitute a war crime or acrime against humanity. [2] Just as biologicaland chemical weapons are banned byinternational treaty, so too the internationalcommunity generally acknowledges the dangersof nuclear proliferation, which is why so manytreaties are dedicated to non-proliferation. [3] Itis unfortunate that nuclear weapons exist, evenmore so that a few countries are still seeking todevelop them. It is better to fight this movement", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsIt is very unlikely that manystates will invite their neighbours to help them inthe development of their weapons and insecuring them, as doing so would open the riskto sabotage and would disclose potentialweakness in their defences. Furthermore,terrorists will not be substantially deterred bygreater openness in weapons development, asthere will be more potential suppliers ofweapons.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsThe nuclear peace theory onlyholds when all nuclear-armed states behaverationally. This cannot be guaranteed, as roguestates exist whose leaders may not be sorational, and whose governments may not becapable of checking the power of individual,erratic tyrants. Also, international conflicts mightwell be exacerbated in the event that terroristsor other dissidents acquire nuclear weapons ordirty bombs, leading to greater fear that nuclearweapons will be used. A better situation is one inwhich nuclear weapons are reduced andultimately eliminated, rather than increased innumber. Furthermore, MAD can break down insome cases, when weapon delivery systems areimproved. For example, Pakistan’s military hasdeveloped miniaturized nuclear warheads for useagainst tanks and other hard targets on theIndian border, that will leave little nuclear falloutand thus be more likely to be employed in theevent of a border skirmish. This development", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsNuclear weapons serve todefuse international conflicts and forcecompromise Nuclear weapons create stability,described in the doctrine of Mutually AssuredDestruction (MAD). Countries with nuclearweapons have no incentive to engage in openmilitary conflict with one another; all recognizethat they will suffer destruction if they choosethe path of war. [1] If countries have nuclearweapons, fighting simply becomes too costly.This serves to defuse conflicts, and reduce thelikelihood of the outbreak of war. For example,the conflict between India and Pakistan wasdefused by the acquisition of nuclear weapons byboth sides. Before they obtained nuclearweapons, they fought three wars that claimedmillions of lives. Relations between the twostates, while still far from cordial, have neverdescended into open war. The defusing of theimmediate tension of war, has given the chancefor potential dialogue. [2] A similar dynamic has", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsPowerful states often couchtheir imperial ambitions and desires to furthertheir own aims on the world stage in thelanguage of humanitarian intervention. [1] Suchinterventions are rarely due solely to the abuses,real and imagined, committed by leaders upontheir people, but are driven by geopoliticalconsiderations. This is why interventions havebeen staged in the Middle East, as in Iraq wherethere were substantial oil reserves, while not inSudan where civil war has been rife, but whichpossesses little in the way of strategic oreconomic significance. Recognizing the right ofall states to possess nuclear weapons serves todiminish the number of political power plays ofstrong states against weaker ones, andentrenches the concept of nationalself-determination as an ideal that should not beinfringed by strong nations against theweak. [1] Walsh, John. 2011. “Libya and theHypocrisy of Humanitarian Intervention”. Daily", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsAll parties recognize the risk oftheir total destruction as a result of starting anuclear conflict. This is exactly why no full scalewar has broken out between nuclear powers.Supposing that states will be unable to handlethe responsibility of nuclear weapons does notchange the fact that many states have them, andalso that many other states are incapable ofdefending themselves from aggressiveneighbours without a nuclear deterrent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsThe threat of nuclear weaponsfalling into the hands of rogue states andterrorists increases as more countries possessthem There are many dangerous dictators andtyrants, many of who covet the possession ofnuclear weapons not just for the purpose ofdefence, but also for that of intimidating theirneighbours. [1] Such leaders should not possessnuclear weapons, nor should they ever befacilitated in their acquisition. For example, Iranhas endeavoured for years on a clandestinenuclear weapons program that, were itrecognized as a legitimate pursuit, could beincreased in scale and completed with greaterspeed. The result of such an achievement couldwell destabilize the Middle East and wouldrepresent a major threat to the existence of anumber of states within the region, particularlyIsrael. Furthermore, the risk of nuclear weapons,or at least weapons-grade material, falling intothe hands of dissidents and terrorists increases", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con05a", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsThe threat of a state developingnuclear weapons could instigate pre-emptivestrikes from its neighbours and rivals to preventthe acquisition of such weapons The threatrepresented by potential nuclear powers willinstigate pre-emptive strikes by countries fearingthe future behaviour of the budding nuclearpowers. Until a state develops a nuclear capacitythat its rivals believe they cannot destroy in afirst strike, nuclear weapons increase the risk ofwar. For example, Israel will have a very realincentive to attack Iran before it can complete itsdevelopment of nuclear weapons, lest it becomean existential threat to Israel’s survival. TheUnited States military even consideredattempting to destroy the USSR’s capabilitybefore they had second strike capability GeneralOrvil Anderson publicly declared: “Give me theorder to do it and I can break up Russia’s fiveA-bomb nests in a week…And when I went up toChrist—I think I could explain to Him that I had", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsPossessing nuclear weapons willbe counter to the peaceful interests ofstates Most states will not benefit at all frompossessing nuclear weapons. Developing anuclear deterrent is seen in the internationalcommunity as a sign of belligerence and awarlike character. Such an image does not suitthe vast majority of states who would be bettersuited focusing on diplomacy, trade, andeconomic interdependence. [1] The loss of suchdiplomatic and economic relations in favour offorce can seriously harm the citizens of would-benuclear powers, as has occurred to the NorthKoreans, who have been isolated in internationalrelations by their government’s decision todevelop nuclear weapons. If the right to nuclearweapons were recognized for all states, onlythose states that currently want them forstrategic reasons will develop them, and they willdo so more brazenly and with greater speed.These countries might try to develop them even", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsHumanitarian interventionbecomes impossible in states that possessnuclear weapons It has often proven to benecessary for the UN, the United States, andvarious international coalitions to stagehumanitarian interventions into states fightingcivil wars, committing genocide, or otherwiseabusing the human rights of their citizens. [1] Anexample of such an intervention is the recentcontributions by many states to the rebels inLibya. Were all countries permitted to possessnuclear weapons, such interventions wouldbecome next to impossible. Were, for example,countries to try and contribute to the Libyanrebels, they would find themselves the targets ofLibyan nuclear warheads. The cost ofintervention thus becomes too high for virtuallyany country to tolerate, in terms of both humanand political costs. The world would be a worseplace if tyrants were allowed to perpetratewhatever crimes they saw fit upon their people,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con05b", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsThe threat represented bypotential nuclear powers will instigatepre-emptive strikes by countries fearing thefuture behaviour of the budding nuclear powers.Until a state develops a nuclear capacity that itsrivals believe they cannot destroy in a firststrike, nuclear weapons increase the risk of war.For example, Israel will have a very realincentive to attack Iran before it can complete itsdevelopment of nuclear weapons, lest it becomean existential threat to Israel’s survival. TheUnited States military even consideredattempting to destroy the USSR’s capabilitybefore they had second strike capability GeneralOrvil Anderson publicly declared: “Give me theorder to do it and I can break up Russia’s fiveA-bomb nests in a week…And when I went up toChrist—I think I could explain to Him that I hadsaved civilization.” [1] The development ofnuclear weapons can thus destabilize regionsbefore they are ever operational, as it is in no", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsThe right of self-defence mustbe exercised in accordance with internationallaw. There can be no right to such terriblydestructive weapons; their invention is one ofthe great tragedies of history, giving humanitythe power to destroy itself. Even during the ColdWar, most people viewed nuclear weapons atbest as a necessary defence during that greatideological struggle, and at worst the scourgethat would end all life on Earth. Nuclear war hasnever taken place, though it very nearly has onseveral occasions, such as during the CubanMissile Crisis. And in 1983 a NATO war game, theAble Archer exercise simulating the full release ofNATO nuclear forces, was interpreted by theSoviet Union as a prelude to a massive nuclearfirst-strike. Oleg Gordievsky, the KGB colonelwho defected to the West, has stated that duringAble Archer, without realising it, the world came‘frighteningly close’ to the edge of the nuclearabyss, ‘certainly closer than at any time since", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsIt is true that most states willnot develop nuclear weapons, whether they arerecognized as a rightful possession of states ornot. The important thing is that those states thatdo want nuclear weapons can have them, whichwill likely be only a handful. As to arms races, itis unlikely that they will occur, as the defencepacts between many states, such as NATOdefend non-nuclear states without requiringthem to possess such weapons themselves. [1]Furthermore, if a state feels vulnerable due tothe nuclear armament of its neighbours, it shouldabsolutely have the right to defend itself. [1]Sagan, Scott D. 1993. The Limits of Safety:Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons.Princeton: Princeton University Press.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhbanhrnw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "defence house believes all nations have rightnuclear weaponsGovernment legitimacy isdefined in its most limited form as the ability toprovide security and stability within itsjurisdiction. It seems fair to say thatinternational institutions and states with a stakein international order, as most do, will have aninterest in keeping nuclear weapons out of thehands of failing and failed states, which do notretain the same legitimacy of states that canprovide the baseline of security to their people.Furthermore, the openness created by the publicrecognition of the right to nuclear weapons willallow advanced countries to offer assistance insecurity and protection of nuclear stockpiles,making it less likely that nuclear weapons will fallinto the hands of terrorists.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsThe media alwayswant a good story; they are interested in thehealth of celebrities when there is no clearreason why they should have any right to thisprivate information. The health of the leader isnot something that the press or public needs toknow about unless it is an illness that is likely toaffect the president’s capacity to make decisions.A government’s decision should not be basedupon the possibility that information on theleader’s health will leak and should take aconsistent line that it is a private matter orprovide a bare minimum of information.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsAdministrativecapabilities should not be compared to health.Unhealthy leaders may perform better than thehealthy ones, people could be misled to chooseinappropriate leaders while taking health as ablack spot while the leader could actually have abetter potential than the rest. If the electoratehad just elected on the basis of health, or hadbeen fully informed about presidents health thenit is plausible that neither FD Roosevelt of JFKennedy would have been elected. Neithercompletely hid their illnesses but they were notdiscussed and did not become election issues asthey would have in a modern election. 1 1Berish, Amy, ‘FDR and Polio’, Franklin D.Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsIf a candidate has acondition during an election campaign then thereis a clear right to know when the electorate ismaking the decision. But does such a right toknow apply at other times when it will make nodifference to the people? There can only be aright to know if it is going to affect the people,something that many illnesses won’t do.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsAll of these procedurescould be put in place even if there is secrecy.Doctors are already committed to patient-doctorconfidentiality so are unlikely to tell the press ifthey are told beforehand to be ready to receivethe President.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsDeputy leaders areappointed and they are well versed with how theleader is managing issues and are capable oftaking up the role immediately after the leaderresigns or dies. Being open and transparentabout a leader being ill simply creates the lack ofstability. If he lives it is best if the illness is notrevealed as everything will carry on as before. Ifthe leader dies then it is best nothing is knownuntil his successor is announced so reducing theperiod of uncertainty.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsWhen leaders chooseto serve the country they should be ready tosacrifice their privacy for the country. There isclearly a different standard for those who are ingovernment and should be publicly accountableto those who are not. Even more minor illnessescan damage the running of the country througheither affecting the judgment of the leader orlimiting the amount of time he can work. Thepeople have the right to demand their leader hashis full attention of the issues affecting thenation. If he can't do that then he should resign.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-con04b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsIf the leader in-chargeis in illness, to avoid any repudiation, therepresentative from the other side could meetthe leader in order to confirm or even have avideo conference with the leader in charge. Theleader only needs to set the overall policy, notnegotiate the fine details. When Nixon went toChina the Americans knew Mao was ill butrealised that he still set the overall direction ofpolicy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdfsaphgiap-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate free speech and privacy health generalinternational africa politicsTransparency is stillbetter than secrecy. There are several reasonswhy the opportunity of instability is as presentwhen keeping the leader's health a secret. Thefirst is that it is likely that at least some of theleader's rivals are in government so are likely tobe in the loop on any illness. In this case secrecysimply gives these individuals more opportunityto do as they wish. Secondly a lack oftransparency creates uncertainty which can befilled by a rival wanting to seize power; if theleader is just ill and there is a void of informationit is simply for rivals to seize the narrative andclaim he is dead enabling their takeover.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoIt is true thatthe Founding Fathers did design the complexionof the Federal Government in such a way thatprevents power from being concentrated in oneplace. This made sense in the eighteenth centurywhen the states had most of the power. Howeverthe power and responsibilities of the federalgovernment has expanded dramatically. TheUnited States is no longer best off with a slowgovernment that creates compromise. In aperiod where the poles of the parties areincreasingly powerful government is not justslow but glacial as is shown by the crisis in 2011over negotiations to raise the debt ceiling. [1]Single party government would be able to get itslegislation passed and could actually governrather than merely engaging in politicalmanoeuvring to fend off the other party. [1]MacAskill, Ewen, and Rushe, Dominic, ‘US debtcrisis talks reach an impasse’, guardian.co.uk, 26July 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoConstitutionalimperative The Constitution of the United Statesis designed to prevent power from beingconcentrated in one place, with each of the threebranches (executive, legislative and judicial)placing checks and balances upon each other. AsJames Madison wrote “It is of great importancein a republic not only to guard the societyagainst the oppression of its rulers, but to guardone part of the society against the injustice ofthe other part.” [1] This principle ensures thatpower is divided, facilitating greater dialoguebetween the branches and between the twohouses of Congress which seeks to compromisewith each other to provide the best possibleexpression of Congress’ will. Such a need forcompromise between the branches lends itself tohaving control of the two elected branches beingspilt between two parties necessitatingcompromise as opposed to single party control ofboth houses, where compromise can be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoCongressmaybe a bicameral body, but it still needs to beable to work effectively and having control splitbetween the parties is not conducive to this.Reconciliation only truly works when there is aclear and coherent ideological programme towork around when making straighteningdifferences between laws. In an ever morepolarised politics, divided government would bemore likely to result in gridlock as is the case in2011 the reconciliation. Voters may also choosean ideological swing, rendering such a pointmoot. There was a clear mandate for Republicanpolicies from 2003 to 2007 and Democraticpolicies from 2009. Every democracy has itslosers. Voters recognise this and vote for a clearprogram at elections, not a watered downversion of it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoChecks andbalances By having both parties in charge ofdifferent parts of the Government, there can be agreater degree of scrutiny over policy as theopposition party will force the president to justifyhis policies. Under single-party rule, there is arisk of a President being able to push throughhis/her agenda with little oversight from alegislative branch that is largely in agreementwith the policy. One need only look toauthoritarian governments the world over to seethat governments with too much power are likelyto abuse that power. Divided Governmentprovides a check on the executive, preventingagendas to be pushed through, allowing forcompromise to be made between the two majorparties, ensuring that the best possible policy forAmericans is enacted. As Benjamin Franklinwrote “It is not enough that your Legislatureshould be numerous; it should also be divided.”[1] [1] Franklin, Benjamin, Writings, ‘III. On the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoPropositionmakes the assumption that Single-PartyGovernment prevents Checks and Balances to beenacted within the United States Government.This is simply not true as there are stillinstitutional breaks on the executive such as theSupreme Court. In particular the most powerfulcheck of all is still in place, no matter howpowerful a party is it will still have to facepresidential elections in at most four years’ timeand elections in the house within two years. Asingle partly government will therefore not havelong to take advantage of their weakopposition. Even in congress supermajorities -the high threshold required for a filibuster proofmajority – are rare; 60 out of 100 senatorswhich before 2009 had not happened since 1979and previously 1937 means that congress willstill be a check. [1] This along with theideologically fractured nature of the two majorparties forces the executive to compromise with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoDividedGovernment may in theory provide an impetusfor co-operation but rather has been anopportunity for the divisiveness of the campaignto continue once the votes have been counted.Instead of co-operation, what is commonly seenis partisan tactics from both sides of the aisle todiscredit the other side, preventing compromiseand leading to gridlock. In some extreme cases acomplete shutdown of the federal governmenthas been forced due to the impasse, such as in1995 when Clinton was unable to work with anobstinate Republican Congress. [1] WhileReagan was able to use his co-operation withHouse Democrats to great effect in pushingthrough policy and gaining re-election. [2]Clinton was re-elected by showing himself as theonly one prepared to compromise compared tothe dogmatic Republicans, merely continuing thePartisan mode of campaigning the Propositionhopes would end through divided government.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoHow CongressWorks Congress is a bicameral body, with itsconstituent parts, the House of Representativesand Senate, working largely independent of eachother to create bills. However necessary for boththe house and Senate to pass laws in identicalform in order for it to become law. [1] A periodof ‘Reconciliation’ is usually required to find acompromise between two different versions ofthe same bill in order to maintain and improvewhat is best about proposed reforms andeliminate flaws before it becomes law. [2] Thisindependence between the two chambers, withReconciliation being one of the few areas wherethe two meet can allow for division in Congressbetween the two major parties. Indeed this canbe seen as beneficial, as the broadest ideologicalrange will be considered when making a policywork by reconciling two bills, making sure thatcentrist policy is enacted, preventing anideological swing against the wishes of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoEffect on thestructure of the main political parties DividedGovernment creates an imperative forcompromise, encouraging the parties to worktogether for the best outcomes. This can help toundermine the more visceral aspects of debate,with the contest for election being left behind inorder to focus on governing for the good of allAmericans. As a result the greatest Americanachievements have come when there has beenbroad bipartisan consensus. [1] There is also aPartisan consideration to seeking dividedGovernment. The more successful two-termPresidents of recent times, Ronald Reagan andBill Clinton, governed with Congress partly orcompletely controlled by the opposition party.[2] They were able to work with the opposition topursue the best policy, aiding their re-electionhopes by pitching themselves as seeking tocompromise, in line with the aspirations ofvoters, who on the whole prefer divided", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoThe reasonwhy a febrile atmosphere has emerged in recentyears is because both red and blue single-partygovernments have made unpopular decisionswithout the necessary checks being place uponit. This has made people disenchanted with thepolitical system and made them think that it isonly looks out for ideological elites, causing abacklash in the form of the Tea Party and Occupymovements. [1] Divided Government combatsthis by helping to re-establish consensusbetween the parties over what is best forAmerica, ensuring that policies have the consentof a majority of people, thus preventing theovertly ideological backlashes seen recently. [1]Miles, Chris, ‘What the Tea Party and OccupyWall Street Have in Common’, policymic,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoIt isSingle-Party Government that fails to representthe interest of Americans. By subscribing to justone view of what makes good policy,government risks simply taking into account littleover half the electorate (and under half thepopulation, giving how low voter turnout usuallyis in American Elections [1] ) when taking actionsthat effect all. By taking into account the wantsand aims of both parties, the best policy that cancarry the support of the broad cross-section ofsociety will be implemented, preventingdisillusionment with unrepresentative, overtlyideological government. [1] Infoplease,‘National Voter Turnout in Federal Elections:1960–2010’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoExistingchecks and balances Proposition have made outso far that single-party Government has fewchecks upon it, allowing for overbearingideological government. This however is not trueas there a many external checks upon asingle-party government that can preventthis. Firstly, the checks and balances put inplace by the Constitution means that theexecutive is unable to do much without theconsent of Congress, meaning that the Presidentwould need the support of his/her party in thelegislature to do what (s)he wants ingovernment. Within Congress, the governingparty would still face oversight fromDepartmental Committees that scrutinises itswork and unless the governing party can get afilibuster-proof majority of 60 Senators in theUpper House, then a degree of negotiation wouldbe required. Finally, the nominally non-partisanSupreme Court can strike down laws seen to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con04a", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoParties ascoalitions The two political parties areideologically broad churches, with many differentfactions that stand up for varying positions onthe ideological spectrum. The republicans forexample contain within them several differentrepublican movements; from socialconservatives or ‘the religious right’, throughlibertarian conservatism like much of the teaparty, to fiscal conservatives who are mostlymore moderate. Interweaving these three isnational security conservatism and issuesconservatism. [1] Policies formed by each partyare specifically designed to take into account ofthe different strands within the party, creating aplatform that all candidates can stand on. Thepolicy is in effect a compromise betweendifferent wings of the party, with Primariesadding credence to a particular view. In effect,Policies enacted under Single-Party Governmenthave had the oversight from party members in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoGrowingpartisanship The current political climate makesdivided government difficult anyway. The termsof debate in American politics is based on aperceived ‘culture war’ between liberals andconservatives over what it means to beAmerican, something that has been exacerbatedby 24-hour news and a proliferation of partisanblogging. This makes agreements on core issuesdifficult to achieve and this has become apparentin recent years, with opposition to BarackObama’s $1 trillion stimulus package helping tospawn the Tea Party movement [1] that hashelped move the Republican Party to the right,making the compromise required for effectivedivided government unachievable. [2] While ithas been most noticeable recently the USpolitical climate has been becoming morepolarized for the last twenty-five years. Thispolarization helps to create gridlock and lesspublic policy. [3] The stasis in Congress created", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoEffect ondemocratic participation Divided Governmentundermines the democratic will of the people asit prevents a clear policy choice from beingenacted by those elected to represent them. Thecompromise necessary will result in policyplatforms enthusiastically chosen by voters beingwatered down in order for it to be even partlyenacted. It is notable that the majority oflegislation originates from Congress whengovernment is divided rather than from thePresident. This is despite the president being theone with the nationwide mandate. [1] SingleParty Government counters this by ensuring thatpolicies clearly presented to and chosen by theelectorate are enacted without having tocountenance the opinions of an opposition whosepolicies have just been discredited by theelectorate, Thus ensuring that government isresponsive to the aims and wishes of thepeople. [1] Jones, Charles O., The Presidency in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con04b", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoThe partiesmay be broad churches with many mechanismsin place to form the ‘best policy’ but that can stilllead to flaws under a single-party government. Itis easy for one wing to dominate a party, as hasbeen seen recently with the dominance of theTea Party within the Republican Party. Primariesare a symptom of this, with the views of grassroots being expressed in results that do notconform to the views of a majority ofvoters. This can lead to parties standing andgoverning on a platform that is unrepresentativeof the aims of many Americans. UnderSingle-Party Government, there is little scope formoderating highly ideological government, thusunderlining the need for divided government.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ghbgussbsbt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "government house believes governance unitedstates should be split between twoAs notedearlier, compromises in Congress can bepre-arranged in order to satisfy the aims of theExecutive if both are controlled by the sameparty, reducing the amount of check and balancefrom Congress. The party in control of Congressalso form majorities on DepartmentalCommittees making effective scrutiny conditionalupon whether or not government is divided. Thelast time a supermajority in the Senate wasachieved along party lines was during the 95thCongress of 1977-79 when the Democrats had61 seats. Since then no party has achieved thisyet the majority party has still have been able touse the influence they have to work inconjunction with their President’s agenda. Onlyby having split control can there be a real checkand balance. The Supreme Court can be quitepartisan with Justices reading the law in order tofit their own ideological biases. [1] A seen anumber of times during the Presidency of George", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapdhwinkp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "onal asia politics defence house would ignorenorth korean provocationsNegotiations to defusethe cause of the immediate tension, andsanctions to encourage North Korea to thenegotiating table are sensible, proportionateresponses to North Korean actions. It is difficultto see how sanctions can be seen as encouragingeven if those sanctions are then eased whenNorth Korea climbs down.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapdhwinkp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "onal asia politics defence house would ignorenorth korean provocationsProviding attentionsimply encourages the regime North Korea hasan attention seeking cycle on the go that wasused by Kim Jong Il and now seems to be usedby his son Kim Jong Un. Essentially North Koreatakes a provocative action (as big or small as itthinks necessary – this may be a missile launch,right up to some kind of military attack) in orderto grab the world’s attention. There is then aperiod where there are condemnations andthreats to increase sanctions that usually don’tget anywhere as they are blocked by China. TheNorth Korean regime will then proclaim awillingness to do business and negotiate givingminor concessions on the issue of theprovocation in return for aid or whatever theregime happens to want at the time. Of coursewhatever concession it gives is easily reversibleso setting up another round. [1] This is a gooddeal for North Korea as it essentially gets aid inreturn for bad behaviour, it is therefore not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapdhwinkp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "onal asia politics defence house would ignorenorth korean provocationsThe United States hasits own interests in the North Korean question,not only does it have troops in South Korea andsecurity guarantees to maintain with its ally butit is also concerned by nuclear proliferation. Ifthere is a chance to get rid of North Koreannuclear weapons through negotiations, or even apeace treaty should the USA not take that whenit is in the US national interest? [1] [1]DiFilippo, Anthony, ‘Time for North Korea PeaceTreaty’, The Diplomat, 11 April 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapdhwinkp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "onal asia politics defence house would ignorenorth korean provocationsSouth Korea canhandle the situation itself The two Koreas shouldbe able to solve the situation themselves withoutrecourse to all the neighbouring powers – whoseinterest does not seem to have spurred asolution to the frozen conflict anyway. With theCold War over South Korea is more than capableof handling its own security. South Korea iseconomically far ahead of the North with itseconomy thirty seven times bigger. [1] Itsmilitary is also more capable than the North’s asthe International Institute for Strategic Studiesargues “As measured by static equipmentindices, South Korea’s conventional forces wouldappear superior to North Korea’s. When morale,training, equipment maintenance, logistics, andreconnaissance and communications capabilitiesare factored in, this qualitative advantageincreases.” [2] So should be able to deteraggression on its own and pull its own weight innegotiations without the need of a multilateral", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapdhwinkp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "onal asia politics defence house would ignorenorth korean provocationsPressure from otherstates acts as a force multiplier helping to showthat the North has crossed a line with its actions.A lack of reaction from the Unites States, Japan,and other states around the world would showthat these nations are no longer supporting theSouth as strongly as they were. The UnitedStates in particular has to be willing to engagewith North Korea in order to present a unitedfront with its South Korean ally.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapdhwinkp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "onal asia politics defence house would ignorenorth korean provocationsRounds of sanctionsand engagement does not bring a solution anycloser The responses to North Koreanprovocations do not bring a solution any closer.North Korea has yet to sign a peace treaty withthe South and the United States. It is howeverparticularly interested in signing a treaty with theUnited States rather than the South. In 2010 theNorth Korean foreign ministry proposed that \"Ifconfidence is to be built between [North Korea]and the US, it is essential to conclude a peacetreaty for terminating the state of war, a rootcause of the hostile relations, to begin with\". [1]The North wants a peace treaty with the US soas to drive a wedge between the USA and SouthKorea to prevent US support for the South in theevent of war. [2] Ignoring such efforts atnegotiating with the USA without South Korea inthe room, and indeed all advances andprovocations would force the North to acceptthat it has to negotiate with the south or with no", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapdhwinkp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "onal asia politics defence house would ignorenorth korean provocationsSo far engagementhas done little to resolve the situation in NorthKorea either; the regime is practically immune topressure from those states that are willing topressurise it. There are occasional hopes thatChina will put more pressure on North Korea butso far these have proven to be false hopes, andindeed China is investing heavily in North Korea,for example creating a port at Rason to serveManchuria. [1] When the Korean question isresolved it will be through the collapse of theregime, something that is as likely to come aboutthrough ignoring it as engaging with it. [1]Bloomberg News, ‘North Korea Investment ZonePromoted to Chinese as Next Shenzhen’,Bloomberg, 13 September 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapdhwinkp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "onal asia politics defence house would ignorenorth korean provocationsNorth Korea is not anirrational regime, and is certainly not going touse its missiles to hit one of its neighbouringgreat powers. North Korea has shown time andtime again that its number one objective isregime survival [1] and its provocations are onemethod it uses to try and ensure such survivalthrough getting concessions and buildingdeterrence against any possible pre-emptiveattack either by the South or the United States.[2] North Korea will therefore never invite suchretaliation from the surrounding great powers.All provocations it takes are just to the extentthat it thinks it can get away with them. It isnotable that since South Korea altered its stancefrom ‘controlled response’ to ‘manifoldretaliation’ in the wake of the shelling ofYeonpyeong Island [3] the provocations fromNorth Korea have been much less provocativei.e. missile testing rather than militaryactions. [1] Lankov, Andrei, ‘Weep Not for Kim", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapdhwinkp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "onal asia politics defence house would ignorenorth korean provocationsNorth Korea is anunresolved conflict it can’t simply beignored Even if the provocations are sometimesrelatively small and ineffective, such as the failedmissile launch in April 2012, as a conflict zonethey cant simply be ignored by anyone even ifthey themselves are unlikely to be drawn intoany potential conflict. After Rwanda the UnitedNations promised never again would it allowgenocide; [1] how much worse would it be toignore something that could be a spark to aconflict that could cost millions of lives when wealready know there is the potential. The UnitedNations was created “To maintain internationalpeace and security, and to that end: to takeeffective collective measures for the preventionand removal of threats to the peace… to bringabout … settlement of international disputes orsituations which might lead to a breach of thepeace” [2] therefore all nations should beattempting to resolve this frozen conflict that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapdhwinkp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "onal asia politics defence house would ignorenorth korean provocationsIgnoring North Koreawont resolve the situation While the greatpowers can try to keep on with business as usualhow will this be helpful? The situation is unstableand needs to be resolved which is somethingthat ignoring the North will not do.Commentators thought that the North wouldcollapse as a result of the withdrawal of supportthat was given by the USSR in the early 1990sbut it did not happen. The regime will likely beable to hang on in the status quo situation prettymuch indefinitely. There is also no reason tobelieve that the provocations may not becomebigger should smaller provocations be ignored.While North Korea can attract the world’sattention with a missile test launch it is likely tokeep doing such small and relatively harmlessactions. Should such actions fail the regime mayresort to bigger incidents such as the sinking ofthe South Korean corvette Cheonan in 2010which resulted in 46 deaths which may have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapdhwinkp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "onal asia politics defence house would ignorenorth korean provocationsNorth Korea is anirrational regime that is a strategic threat tonumerous great powers North Korea is anirrational and irresponsible regime that can’tsimply be ignored. As the United States NationalSecurity Council spokesman Tonny Vietor said inresponse to the 12th December 2012 missile test“This action is yet another example of NorthKorea's pattern of irresponsible behavior.” As apower that is willing to defy internationalsanctions and resolutions such as “Resolution1874, which demands the DPRK not to conduct\"any launch using ballistic missile technology\"and urges it to \"suspend all activities related toits ballistic missile programme\"” [1] it isessential that there is engagement to preventthe regime breaking more internationalnorms. It is impossible simply to ignore aregime with such a propensity to engage inprovocative actions when it borders you, as isthe case with China and Russia, or when it has", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oapdhwinkp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "onal asia politics defence house would ignorenorth korean provocationsWhile the UnitedNations is about creating peace that does notmean that it needs to keep trying the same failedformula. It is clear that multilateral discussionsand sanctions have not succeeded in creatingpositive change in relation to North Korea. Tryingnew tactics does not mean giving up on the goalof international peace and security.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "edia politics voting house believes film starsmusic stars and other popularThis ‘injustice’needs to be weighed against the effects of thepolicy. If you prohibit celebrities fromparticipating in party-political campaigns,commit an injustice against the celebrities. Youviolate the right to self-expression of thecelebrity. Everyone in a free society has the rightto express their political views; indeed, this issomething we hold to be a hallmark of suchfreedom. Celebrities should be no different, andshould hold those same rights. Further, theycannot be said to have consented into such aloss of rights (given that not all chose the level offame and power they find themselveswith). Further, it is a bit melodramatic tosuggest that people with influence ‘effectivelyhave more votes’. By this metric, we would haveto also prohibit the persuasive from participatingin political campaigns. People have differences intheir abilities to persuade others to follow theirlead, and this is something that we simply have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "edia politics voting house believes film starsmusic stars and other popularThis is an unjustuse of unelected power Politicians wantendorsements because they know it will bringvotes; it is estimated that Oprah’s endorsementof Obama in the Democratic Primary of 2008brought an additional 1 million votes to Obama.[1] It is unjust for celebs to use their influence inthis way. Celebrities have an ability to influencethe political sphere that bears no necessaryrelationship with their knowledge of the subjectsconcerned, or qualifications otherwise to doso. Consequently, they represent an unelected,unaccountable pressure on the democraticsystem: they have been given power andinfluence, with no mechanism of checking thatpower, or way to prevent them from misleadingthe public (unlike, for example, politicaljournalists, news channels and other sources ofpolitical information). This is principally unjust:the optimum democratic system is the one thatholds the closest to the principle of “one person,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "edia politics voting house believes film starsmusic stars and other popularThis is notnecessarily the case: there remains a diverseassortment of news sources, and with theexplosion in size and quality of the blogosphere,people are increasingly accessing informationfrom a wide range of sources. Thus it isdecreasingly the case that space in the news canbe conceived of as limited in this way. Further,providers of political analysis might find it easierto sell papers/shows to a wider audience whenthey can use a celebrity image or quote as well,resulting in a more, not less, informedpopulation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "edia politics voting house believes film starsmusic stars and other popularPersonality politicsis harmful to the democratic process Celebrityinvolvement in the political process may increasethe extent to which politicians need to courtmedia attention in order to promote theirpolicies. Many people get their politicalinformation from ‘soft-news’ outlets [1] , i.e.entertainment channels and magazines thatoften focus on ‘celebrity gossip’. Shows such asOprah Winfrey get millions of viewers many ofwhom don’t get news through other mediumsand although soft news is the preferred formatfor a minority (10.2%) for a great many more itis in their top three. [2] The involvement ofcelebrities in the political sphere increases thepower of “soft-news” over the political process:due to the wide reach of “soft-news” it is notpossible to counter its effects using narrow-reachopinion pieces and policy analysis. Rather,politicians are forced either to package theirideas in a way acceptable to these magazines", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "edia politics voting house believes film starsmusic stars and other popularThe accusation of‘dumbing down’ is misguided: politicians willincreasingly be able to reach a wider voter baseif they are willing to repackage their ideas andpolicies, but this does not require ‘dumbingdown’, simply a change in focus of theexplanation. So not only is dumbing down notnecessary, but politicians’ ideas are reachingmore voters! For example, the ‘war on women,’has gained considerable attention in the media,and this has given a platform for femalecelebrities like Eva Longoria, to participate inevents like the Democratic National Convention[1] . Eva Longoria and politicians who feel thatwomen are being unfair attacked in regards totheir body are now having these issueshighlighted. Having celebrities involved inpolitical campaigns like Eva Longoria does notmean the campaign was ‘dumbed down’ it meansthat it was accessible to a larger audiencebecause they understood what she was talking", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "edia politics voting house believes film starsmusic stars and other popularPeople will haveless information about politicians’ manifestos andideas. Celebrity endorsement distracts thosewho normally provide information to voters.Newspapers, blogs and other online media allhave limited space, and, because celebrities sell,will use that space showing who is supportingwhom, rather than covering debate about apolitician’s policies and ideas. Though thepresence of celebrities may actually give themasses more avenue to relate to electoralprocesses, the fact still stands that in status quopeople are more interested in the activities oftheir favorite celebrities which will thus blot outthe candidates themselves. When voters seecelebrity endorsements they are no longerthinking about how these future politicians canmake an impact on their lives. In some cases thecelebrity may help show the platform of policiesthe candidate is standing on but most of the timethey are simply taking airtime from more in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-con03b", "title": "", "text": "edia politics voting house believes film starsmusic stars and other popularThis may well be aside-benefit of celebrity involvement in politics,however, the effect celebrities have on thepromotion of minority interests is not decreasedby their prohibition from party-politics. They canstill engage in general advocacy andcampaigning on specific issues important tothem without endorsing parties orcandidates. The policy-vote relationship thatcelebrities have with voters works in the oppositedirection than for politicians: where politiciansmust choose the policies they believe will attractvoters, celebrities first attract voters and thenadvocate for particular policies. This adds to thedanger of celebrity participation; a celebrity maybe endorsing a particular candidate because ofthat candidate’s support on that issue. Fans ofthe celebrity who may be influenced by theendorsement may have no interest or even beopposed to the issue for which the celebrity isendorsing the candidate. This would make", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-con01b", "title": "", "text": "edia politics voting house believes film starsmusic stars and other popularThere is noparticular reason why someone who is interestedin a particular politician-endorsing celebritywould choose to do political research. Given, inparticular, the segregation of news, wheremagazines and blogs tend to specialise (on, say,politics or celebrity life) it is hard to see whycrossover would occur. The internet, whilst itmakes information more accessible, accentuatesthis problem: where you can skip from newsitem to news item so easily, you are less likely toread an in-depth piece of political analysis byyour favourite celebrity if you are not, in the firstplace, interested in politics. Further, it is worthconsidering a balance of harms here: on the onehand you have a smaller, but better informedvoter base (those interested in politics withoutcelebrities), and on the other hand a larger butless well-informed voter base (assuming not allthe people who see a celebrity endorsement andgo on to vote do any research first). That former", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-con02a", "title": "", "text": "edia politics voting house believes film starsmusic stars and other popularCelebrityinvolvement counters financial power to thebenefit of the disenfranchised Parties advocatingpolicies that benefit the most financially powerful(big business etc.) are able to make largerevenues from donations from wealthy businesspersonalities involved in those industries. Filmand music stars tend towards the ‘liberal’ or ‘left’wing of politics [1] . Consequently, in beingprevented from exerting non-financial power(through endorsement) the different politicalparties are not equally affected: rather, youdisproportionately punish the liberal parties. Thisis significant, given the necessity of acounter-balance to the power of big business(through donations – for example in the USA90% of donations from mining and theautomotive industry goes to the republicans [2] )over our political system (which is not beingsimilarly banned). [1] Meyer, D., Gamson, J.‘The Challenge of Cultural Elites: Celebrities and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-con03a", "title": "", "text": "edia politics voting house believes film starsmusic stars and other popularCelebrityinvolvement can highlight minorityinterests There exists a problem with regards toadvocacy for minority issues within mainstreampolitical movements. This motion wouldexacerbate that problem. Voters tend to basetheir decisions on key issues (things likeeducation, the state of the economy, healthcarepolicy etc.). Whilst they may care about moremarginal issues (e.g. gay rights, religiousfreedoms, environmental issues), they are oftenunwilling to sacrifice something they think has agreater impact on them for something that has alesser impact. Minority issues suffer particularlyhere: by their very nature, there are fewerpeople who feel directly affected than there arepeople who feel indirectly affected or indifferent.Consequently, there are never a great enoughproportion of votes that could be gained by apolitical party concentrating on these particularissues in a way which might be detrimental. See,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-con01a", "title": "", "text": "edia politics voting house believes film starsmusic stars and other popularCelebrityinvolvement can act as a ‘gateway’ to get morepeople engaged in politics Celebrityendorsement of a candidate does more thanmake people vote, drone-like, for the candidateendorsed by their favourite celebrity. Rather, itencourages people who might not otherwisehave thought politics was interesting to payattention to it. Especially in an age of easilyaccessible information, people can easily accesssufficient information about political personalitiesand policies to cast a meaningful vote. As aconsequence, you have more potential voters,from a wider cross-section of society, note thekey role played by personalities like will.i.am inengaging young people during the Obamacampaign. Rock the Vote with a large amount ofcelebrity support registered 2.6million voters in2008 and it and other celebrity campaigns hadbeen prominent in 2004 as well which wasprobably a key factor in 2million more 18-29", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-epvhbfsmsaop-con02b", "title": "", "text": "edia politics voting house believes film starsmusic stars and other popularIf the celebrityinvolvement can be proven to be otherwiseharmful or unjust then it is immaterial that itimpacts one side more than another: if it reallydoes advance the cause of some more thanothers, if we can prove this is an unfair andtherefore illegitimate advantage, it should bestopped. Similarly, we place limits on therelationship between big businesses andpoliticians, with laws that attempt to preventcorruption and undue influence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseThis has simplynot been the case; since the launch of the Euroin 2002, London has consolidated her position asthe financial centre of Europe. There is no needfor Britain to join the Euro, she can profit fromthe financial influence London exercises while hermainland European counterparts use the singlecurrency. As explained by Anthony Browne inThe Euro: Should Britain join?, “at the launch ofthe Euro…that what were effectively regionalfinancial centres –such as Paris- lost any reasonfor their existence and saw all European businessdrain away to Europe’s real financial centre,London.”1 Moreover, Britain is not wholly relianton her European counterparts for business;“More people work in financial services in Londonthan live in Frankfurt, its only likely rival. Wehave the English language and a time zone thatmeans we can deal with New York and Tokyo inthe working day.”1 If the British economy doesnot even need mainland Europe for business,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseBritain may notlike losing the Queen's head on banknotes butLondon will be at a huge economic disadvantageif Britain stays out. London will further lose itsposition as Europe’s financial centre, and thefinancial influence this brings with it. Britain’sstaying out of the Euro has already depletedLondon’s status as the European financial centre.As explained by Anthony Browne in The Euro:Should Britain join?, “The European Central Bank– the second most powerful in the world – had anatural home in London, but ended up inFrankfurt because of our indecision over theEuro.”1 Germany used this to her advantage, forit “reinvigorated Germany’s bid to ensure thatFrankfurt becomes Europe’s financial centre, witha massive office-building programme to rivalLondon’s Docklands.”1Germany seizing London’ssphere of influence will only increase if Britainstays out of the Euro. Moreover, if Britain’sindecision over the Euro continues, “it would lead", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseNo; cheapergoods come at a high monetary price and a highprice of a chaotic turnaround. Even before theEuro has taken effect, it is going to be costly;\"Converting to the Euro will also cost businesses,and shops in particular, billions of pounds, andthat is bound to be passed on to theircustomers.\"1 Once it fully takes effect, \"The Eurowill also lead to higher inflation and more redtape, encumbering businesses and theircustomers with even higher costs\". 1 And so theinitial monetary costs and inconvenience are notgoing to be short lived, but will in fact spread.Any silver lining of cheaper goods priceseventually is not going to be worth the upheavalof complications and inflation its creation entails.1 The Euro: Should Britain join?, AnthonyBrowne, p. 102", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseBritain will loseeconomically if she stays out of the Euro over thelong term. Joining the European single currency(the Euro) may appear unfavourable to Britain,but the negative effect of not joining would bemore unfavourable. As explained by AnthonyBrowne in The Euro: Should Britain join?,\"Euroland businesses are now…able to raisemoney for investment across the entire singlecurrency zone, making it easier and cheaper.British companies, on the other hand, are stilllargely constrained to drumming up money fromwithin Britain if they want to expand.”1Eurozonebusinesses find it easy to raise money, for theyare spared currency conversion charges. Thecarmaker Nissan has previously told the Britishgovernment that eliminating exchange rate riskby siting production in the same currency zoneas its sales market will be its preferredoption’2. 1Browne, A., \"The Euro: Should BritainJoin?\", Page 89 2Morgan, O. \"Nissan tells Blair", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseBritain doesnot have to become a part of the Euro to benefitfrom the EU economically. Britain has alreadystruck the right balance between EU involvementand managing her own economy. \"We arealready part of the single market, and getting ridof the barriers put up by having separatecurrencies will make little difference. It was theremoval of all the other barriers– such as tariffs– that mattered far more. The economies ofscale are already here – from the EU’s almost300 million consumers – having aneffect.”1.Accepting the Euro could very wellupset this balance with very negative effects;“Staying out, we have the advantage of a moreflexible economy, more adaptable labour market,and lower taxes.” Therefore, it is moreadvantageous for Britain to keep the poundwhilst maintaining EU membership. 1Browne,A., 2001, \"The Euro: Should Britain Join\", Page91", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseThis theorydoes not transfer to practice successfully.Questions of lifestyle (such as holidays) underthe Euro cannot be treated in isolation.Converting to the Euro will have a series ofknock –on effects which are all interconnected,affecting and effected by one another. One ofthese is the inevitability of higher inflation. Withincreased inflation, there will be increasedunemployment; There will be even more Britishjobless who cannot afford to go on holiday.Moreover, as explained by Anthony Browne inThe Euro: Should Britain join?, “These savingsare a mere fraction of the total cost of going onholiday.”1 1Browne, A., 2001, \"The Euro:Should Britain Join?\", page 103", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseAmid all theEuroscepticism (sic) and xenophobicscaremongering so typical of the British tabloids,Britain forgets the advantage of cheaper goodswould come with her entry into the Europeansingle currency. There will be initial conversioncosts and inflation, but this will be short lived. IfBritain accepts the Euro, “There will be far morepowerful forces – price transparency andeconomies of scale in a massive single market –that will continuously push the price of Britishgoods down to European levels [resulting in]massive savings.”1. The end of cheaper goodsjustifies the means of attaining them. 1Browne,A., 2001, \"The Euro: Should Britain Join\", Page91", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseJoining theEuro would reduce the cost of travel inEurope. Before the arrival of the single currency,holiday makers would spend much money onpreparing for the trip, before they had evenbought a single souvenir or postcard; “travellerstouring this fragmented continent could spendlarge amounts of their money simply changing itfrom one currency to another.”1 The lossincurred by currency conversion would beeliminated and accommodation abroad will alsobe cheaper and easier to book; “Joining the Eurowill also make it cheaper to send money aroundEurope. Sending money to book a holidaycottage in another country with another currencycan cost £40. Within Euroland, it would cost lessthan one Euro - much less than onepound.”2 1Browne, A., 2001, \"The Euro: ShouldBritain Join\". page 102 2Browne, A., 2001, \"TheEuro: Should Britain Join\". page 103", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-con03b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseThe Queen'shead on British money will not be entirely lost.This nostalgia is simply ridiculous; the head ofQueen Elizabeth II has only appeared on Englishbanknotes \"since 1960, having been madeimpossible by the nationalisation of the Bank ofEngland in 1946.\"1 (Moreover, Scotland andNorthern Ireland have never had the reigningmonarch's head on their banknotes; and so nochange will incur. The Queen's head will be lostfrom banknotes but \"By contrast, we have hadthe monarch's head on our coins since the MiddleAges, and that will continue. Countries inEuroland can put a symbol- such as theirmonarch- on one side of each coin.\"1 Theattitude expressed alongside is irrational fear ofchange. 1 Anthony Browne, The Euro: ShouldBritain join? Page 83.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-con01b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseNo;Unemployment will rise if Britain stays out of thesingle currency. Britain's indecision over joiningthe single currency has already discouragedforeign investors from doing business with her,and this will only worsen if she stays out, thusreducing the number of jobs there. Britain has tobe in the single currency to retain a presence inthe European business scene if she is to prosperand make any profit at all. As explained byAnthony Browne in The Euro: Should Britainjoin?; \"Without access to the single currencyzone, foreign investors who are here will moveout, closing factories and businesses; new oneswill set up in Euroland in preference to the UK.\"London's position as the European financialcentre has already been depleted by Frankfurtand this situation will only deteriorate if Britainstays out of the Euro. The pound is no longer asource of hope for Britain. 1 Anthony Browne,The Euro: Should Britain join? Page 52", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-con02a", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseIn joining thesingle currency, Britain would have to surrenderher sovereignty and allow Brussels (where theEU is based) to dictate her financial affairs. Ifshe accepted the Euro as her currency, Britainwould have to hand the control she has over hereconomy over to Brussels. EU Committees woulddictate how she may spend and tax. It is toodangerous for any country to have her economicaffairs dictated by another country. This is anissue even Europhiles (those who support theEU) are sceptical about. \"Joining the euro wouldinvolve a major surrendering of our sovereignty,severely hindering our ability to run the economyas we see fit. We would lose control over interestrates, and the ability to manage the economythrough taxing and spending. Instead, it wouldbe run by European committees… Even Britishpolitician Kenneth Clarke, nicknamed “Europe’sbiggest friend” and one of the leadingcampaigners for the euro, admits that Britain’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-con03a", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseLosing theQueen's head on banknotes is NOT a minorissue, it symbolises Britain losing her identityand control over her own economy. This mustnot be dismissed as petty nostalgia, desire foroutdated British tradition and fear of change. Thefact that Britain does not want to lose thenational symbol of her Queen on the banknotesis surely a sign that the British want to hold on totheir own identity and keep control of their owneconomy. As explained by Alan Clark, \"TheEuropean Commission Press Office chose thatmoment to release facsimiles of the new eurobanknotes in their various denominations. Theunfamiliar, but so obviously foreign, appearancemade many people uneasy. Polls showed thatthe electorate, for most of the time indifferent toEuropean squabbling, whose technicalities theycould not be bothered to master, disliked theremoval of their Sovereign's head from thecurrency of the realm. The sceptics took fresh", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-con01a", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseFor Britain tojoin the single currency is simply unthinkable;jobs will be lost The EU creates economicconditions that threaten jobs. As explained byAnthony Browne in The Euro: Should Britainjoin?, \"Joining the Euro would damage the Britisheconomy with 'one size fits all' interest rates,and so destroy jobs.\"1 This is not merely aproduct of anti-EU propaganda created by theBritish tabloid press; The evidence speaks foritself; \"In 2000, (Euro was launched 1st January,1999) unemployment in Euroland averagedabout 10 per cent, compared to under 6 per centin the UK\" Britain must also learn from themistakes of history; \"Past experience has alreadyshown us that locking ourselves intoinappropriate interest rates destroys jobs. Afterwe joined the Exchange Rate Mechanism,100,000 businesses went bankrupt andunemployment doubled before we were finallyforced out in 1992.\" Repetition of this is to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpegiepgh-con02b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy economy general internationaleurope politics government houseTheserestraints exist to ensure that all countriescontribute to the European Community.Surprisingly, Britain's sovereignty will actuallyincrease by joining the Euro. As explained byAnthony Browne in The Euro: Should Britainjoin?, \"When it comes to interest rates, we wouldin some ways get more sovereignty. Beingrepresented in the ECB (European Central Bank)would give us more influence over the businesscycle, because we would be there as part of thedecision-making process, not just having toaccept decisions made by others that would havea profound effect on us.\"1 Joining the singlecurrency and by attachment the ECB would helpBritain to better oversee and predetermine hereconomic activity, thereby improving the handleshe has on her finances. 1Browne, A., 2001,\"The Euro: Should Britain Join?\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpecfiepg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy eurozone crisis financeinternational europe politics governmentTheproposition vastly understates the negativeimpact a default has on the local economy. It isunrealistic to compare Greece with Argentina. Asa member of the Eurozone, the developmentswithin the Greek debt crisis have a huge impacton nations suffering from similar problems, aswell as the Eurozone as a whole. Moreover,devaluing the Drachma would be nowhere nearas beneficial as the proposition suggests. Greeceis not rich in natural resources or industry and soboosting exports will not make a hugedifference. Yes, a default would resolve theuncertainty about whether Greece will defaultand exit the Euro. However this newpredictability would not be good; it would simplyshow investors that they cannot invest in Greecebecause they will lose their money. Ratingsagencies are unlikely to consider Greece a safeinvestment for a long time so there will not beinternational investment.[1] [1] Pappa, Eppi:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpecfiepg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy eurozone crisis financeinternational europe politics governmentGreece’sdefault will not decrease uncertainty. If anything,the perceived risk of investing in other Eurozonemembers suffering from their own debt problemslike Italy, Spain, Portugal and Ireland wouldrocket sky-high. The Eurozone project as a wholemay struggle on with Germany trying to keep ittogether, but claiming that a Greek exit from theEurozone would restore stability is short-sighted.Many of Greece’s creditors are European banksand financial organisations. Greece’s defaultwould, therefore, be a heavy blow for many oftheir creditor companies who would be unlikelyto be willing to invest in other nations sufferingsimilar problems to Greece.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpecfiepg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy eurozone crisis financeinternational europe politics governmentTheproposition’s claims that the austerity measureshave totally failed are unfounded. Although it istrue that the total debt % GDP ratio has notgone down, this is not as serious as the propmake out. The budget deficit is the main problemthat needs to come down because a consistentlyhigh budget deficit is what will make thesituation spiral out of control and make Greecedefault on its debts. There is nothing per seproblematic with having a large total debt (lookat the USA’s total debt of $10 trillion, or Japan’smuch higher debt to GDP ratio of 230% whichunlike in Greece has not resulted in high interestrates,[1] for example). The fact that Greece’sbudget deficit has gone down from 16% to 9% isan encouraging sign of improvement. Inaddition, the proposition are not contentious intheir claims about the negative effects ofausterity. What they have failed to demonstrate,however, is why defaulting is the only solution to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpecfiepg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy eurozone crisis financeinternational europe politics governmentThesituation in Ireland, Italy, Spain and Portugal isnot as extreme as that faced by Greece. It istherefore highly unlikely that a Greek defaultwould have as severe a domino effect as theopposition suggests. Greece is the main sourceof political and economic uncertainty in theEurozone, and their departure would ease thesituation, facilitate investors and allow for theEurozone to rally strongly. [1] [1] Ruparel,Raoul and Persson, Mats: “Better off Out? Theshort-term options for Greece inside and outsideof the euro”, June 2012, Open Europe, 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpecfiepg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy eurozone crisis financeinternational europe politics governmentIt is notnecessarily true that the whole banking sector inGreece would collapse. Given that the defaultwould be orderly and take place within thecontext of the European Union, the ECB andEuropean Commission would still providesubstantial liquidity aid for Greek banks.Moreover it is not true that a devaluation ofdomestic currency necessarily leads to highinflation – this was not the case, for example,when Britain exited the European Exchange-rateMechanism in 1992 and pursued a devaluationpolicy of the British Pound. [1] Lastly, evidenceof recent governments that have defaultedsuggests that even though some of the harmsthe opposition refer to may actualise, recoverygenerally follows fairly quickly, as was the casewith Argentina, South Korea and Indonesia.[2] [1] Ruparel, Raoul and Persson, Mats:“Better off Out? The short-term options forGreece inside and outside of the euro”, June", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpecfiepg-con04b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy eurozone crisis financeinternational europe politics governmentEven inthe long-term, continued Eurozone membershipfor Greece is not sustainable. The size of theirtotal debt % GDP ratio is such that even ifGreece were to recover (eventually) with thecurrent austerity measures, Greece would alwaysbe susceptible to yet another debt crisis in theevent of a future global or European recession.Eurozone membership denies Greece fiscal andmonetary policy freedom required to faceeconomic shocks to prevent this from happening.We thus see that in the long-term growth ismore sustainable for Greece without the Euro.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cpecfiepg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "conomic policy eurozone crisis financeinternational europe politics governmentInreceiving financial support from the ECB andEuropean Commission to prevent the escalationof a major banking collapse in Greece, the GreekGovernment would be expected to continue withreforms of the public sector. What’s more,defaulting would grant the Greek Governmentmore time to implement such reforms, makingthem more likely to succeed and less painful onthe Greek populous. The oppositions fears are,therefore, unfounded.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingThis idea is nonsense.Political parties do try and capture the‘disadvantaged groups’ vote, specifically in orderto convince them that voting is in their bestinterest. As opposed to compulsory voting, avoluntary system in fact encourages politicalparties to target policies at the disadvantaged inorder to convince them to get out and vote ,rather than accept that the disadvantaged willsimply vote for the opposition. The Labour Partyshifted to the right in the UK specifically becauseno-one was voting for it; the majority of thepopulation, from across the social spectrum, nolonger believed in its socialist agenda and italtered its policies to be more in line with themajority of the population. Low turnout is bestcured by more education, for example, civicsclasses could be introduced at school. Inaddition, the inclusion of these ‘less-interested’voters will increase the influence of spin aspresentation becomes more important. It will", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingCompulsory votingbroadens representation of disadvantagedgroups Voter apathy is highest among thepoorest and most excluded sectors of society. Asthe Institute for Public Policy Research highlight,“the higher the income a citizen enjoys, and thehigher the educational qualifications attained,the more likely it is that he or she will turn out tovote”. Since they do not vote, the politicalparties do not create policies for their needs,which leads to a vicious circle of increasingisolation. By making the most disenfranchisedvote the major political parties are forced to takenotice of them and this would reduce politicalpolarisation 1. An example of this is in the UKwhere the Labour party abandoned its coresupporters to pursue ‘middle England’. Politicalparties are drawn towards those groups to whomfavourable policies will be rewarded in the formof vote. Compulsory voting ensures that allstakeholders in society are proportionally", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingForcing the populationto vote will not stop people expressing their wishnot to vote. Tucker notes that in Australia 5% ofeligible voters did not caste a valid vote. Mostcountries that use compulsory voting give votersa legal opportunity to abstain. For example, inAustralia valid explanations might include beingoverseas, trying to vote but failing for somereason, or belonging to a religious order whichprohibits voting ( Electoral Commission ).Moreover people who vehemently refuse to votefind a way to do so such as paying the finestraight away (for those who can afford to) orattending the polling station but submitting ablank ballot. McAllister et al (1992)1 concludethat compulsory voting has led to a higher levelof non-votes because the only legal method ofpolitical protest is to spoil the ballot paper orleave it blank deliberately 2. However, innon-compulsory jurisdictions voters so motivatedwould boycott the ballot. Furthermore, forcing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingIt will reduce the powerof special interest groups A benefit ofcompulsory voting is that it makes it moredifficult for special interest groups to votethemselves into power. Under a non-compulsoryvoting system, if fewer people vote then it iseasier for smaller sectional interests and lobbygroups to control the outcome of the politicalprocess. A notable example would be thedisproportionate influence of agriculture in policymaking as seen in both European politics andwell as American with enormous amounts ofsubsidies for farmers who represent a minutepercentage of the population. 1 2 The outcomeof the election therefore reflects less the will ofthe people (Who do I want to lead the country?)but instead reflects who was logistically moreorganized and more able to convince people totake time out of their day to cast a vote (Do Ieven want to vote today?). 1 Ira M. Sheskin andArnold Dashefsky, \"Jewish Population of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingVoting is a civicduty Other civic duties also exist “which arerecognised as necessary in order to live in abetter, more cohesive, stable society” 1 likepaying taxes, attending school, obeying roadrules and, in some countries, militaryconscription and jury duty. All of these obligatoryactivities require far more time and effort thanvoting does, thus compulsory voting can be seenas constituting a much smaller intrusion offreedom than any of these other activities. Theright to vote in a democracy has been fought forthroughout modern history . In the last centuryalone the soldiers of numerous wars and thesuffragettes of many countries fought and diedfor enfranchisement. It is our duty to respecttheir sacrifice by voting. 1. Liberal DemocratVoice , 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingA democracy is basedon the principle of respecting basic human rights,such as free choice. This principle is directlyviolated by compulsory voting. With many civilrights there is a choice to choose to engage inthe activity or not. Voting has carries that option,citizens of a democracy have the choice to eithervote or not, despite being encouraged to vote. Itdoes not matter why a person chooses to vote ornot, it is the fact of principle that they have theright to choose. Compulsory voting goes againstsuch ideas of the freedom of choice, and on thatgrounds should not be compulsory. Theproposition speaks of those who died for theright to vote, and respecting their sacrifice byvoting. Unfortunately the propositionmisconstrued the point of their sacrifice- to giveus the freedom of choice. That right of choicemust be upheld, as it is the cornerstone of ademocratic society. Compulsory voting would beinfringing upon that.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingThe power of lobbyinggroups is a benefit to politics at large. Theirability to publicize issues that are important tospecific interest groups are invaluable to thepolitical process. Similarly, they are able topropel and sustain wider interest in the politicalagenda, ensuring oversight over public policyand recommending necessary changes. Toreduce their power in favour of ‘less-interested’voters will increase the influence of spin aspresentation, not substance, becomes moreimportant. It will further trivialise politics andbury the issues under a pile of hype.Furthermore, by removing incentives for politicalparties to mobilise their support, compulsoryvoting favours established parties over minorparties and independents, whose supporters tendto be more inherently motivated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingThat it has beenimplemented successfully in Australia does notmean that compulsory voting will workeverywhere. Australia has a small population sothe system does not have to be as bureaucraticas it would be in a much bigger nation. MoreoverAustralia has a law abiding culture and fast andefficient courts so most people will vote even ifthey object to it being compulsory. In a countrywith either a slower court system or a populationthat is less inclined to follow the law the numberof cases of failing to vote facing the court couldbe overwhelming.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingIt will cause morepeople to become interested inpolitics Compulsory voting increases the numberof people who cast their vote 1. People whoknow they will have to vote will take politicsmore seriously and start to take a more activerole. Compulsory voting will potentiallyencourage voters to research the candidates'political positions more thoroughly. This mayforce candidates to be more open andtransparent about their positions on manycomplex and controversial issues. Citizens will bewilling to inform themselves even aboutunpopular policies and burning issues that needto be tackled. Better-informed voters will,therefore, oppose a plan that is unrealistic orwould present an unnecessary budget-drain. Thismeans that such a system could produce betterpolitical decisions that are not contradicting eachother, quite upon the contrary. 1 Peter Tucker,The median Australian voter and the values that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingCompulsory voting hasbeen implemented successfully. Australia is oneof the most notable examples of compulsoryvoting and shows how it can be implemented. InAustralia Compulsory voting was introduced atfederal elections in 1924 1. Every Australiancitizen who is over eighteen has to vote unlessthey have a ‘valid and sufficient reason for failingto vote’ which is decided by the electoralcommission whether a reason is sufficient 2. Ifthe elector who fails to vote does not providesuch a reason they pay a penalty and if (s)hedoes not pay then the matter is dealt with incourt 3. There is little reason to believe that thiswould be more difficult to implement in any othercountry. 1 Evans, Tim, 'Compulsory voting inAustralia', Australian Electoral Commission,(January 2006), (accessed 4/8/11) 2 Harrison,Brianna, and Lynch, Philip. Votes for theHomeless, (March 2003), (accessed 4/8/11) 3Voter Turnout for Referendums and Elections", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-con03b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingThe benefits obtainedfrom compulsory voting cannot be gained fromany of the strategies mentioned by theopposition. Compulsory voting can enhance asense of community, as everyone is in ittogether. This can be especially helpful inbringing new people in to community life. It alsoforces the silent majority to think about electionswhich safeguards from extremism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-con01b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingAs noted elsewhere,forced attendance would lead to increasedpolitical awareness, and an abstention optionwould offer a 'none of the above'/'I don't mind orcare' choice instead of people spoiling theballot. Because the number of voters wouldincrease, politicians would have to be active inengaging with the public and therefore become\"more deserving of the public'strust\". Citizenship classes don't negate the needfor compulsory voting but should be used inconjunction to compulsory voting. If people aregenuinely not interested in voting or politics,educating them in school would not change thatfact. The education is likely to vary from schoolto school and is only likely to have an impact ifthe student likes the subject. Compulsory votingwould force those parts of the population whoare usually disinterested to voice some form ofopinion- created a more balanceddemocracy. Besides, who pays for the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-con02a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingPolicing and financingthe system is unmanageable If a largeproportion of the population decided not to voteit would be impossible to make every non-voterpay the fine. For example, if just 10% of the UKvoters failed to do so the government wouldhave to chase up about £4 million in fines. Evenif they sent demand letters to all these people,they could not take all those who refused to payto court. Ironically, this measure hurts mostthose who the proposition are trying toenfranchise because they are least able topay. The cost of policing this system will impactupon tax payers. The Government will need toexpand and more civil servants positions will beneeded to create, administer and enforce theprocesses. It is especially prudent that we lookclosely at the impact it would have financially onindividual countries. For example, the US hasmore than ten times the voting population ofAustralia “the financial cost for the two nations is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-con03a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingThere are alternativesthat tackle the real causes of voterdisengagement Compulsory voting hides theproblem which is causing people to bedisengaged from politics; it allows politicians toignore measures that can tackle the true causesof political disengagement. States insteadshould seek on strategies that will eliminatebarriers to voting along with reducing the costsof turnout for its citizens, weekend voting,making election days a holiday, simpleregistration procedures, reforms such as to theparty finance rules to widen the playing field,and the creation of a centralized, professionalbureaucracy concerned with all aspects ofelection administration. In the UK, for example,adopting a more proportional system will allowfor a political spectrum rather than the threemajor parties that currently dominate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-con01a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingPersuasion is moreeffective than coercion Forcing people intovoting when they are disengaged from the politicprocess will exacerbate this problem; no onelikes doing something simply because they haveto. The election results from compulsory votingmay not be a representative view of society,than the current systems. Just because peopleare required to vote does not mean they becomemore politically engaged than they werebefore. Rather than forcing people to vote, moreshould be done to engage the public in politicallife. Government transparency should be furtherencouraged as well as evaluating to what extentthe current voting system causes low voterturnout. Low turnout is best cured by moreeducation. Instead of trying to engage people byforce, how about introducing political educationin schools and encouraging politicalconversation. How about educating the public onhow politics affects them? Citizenship classes", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppgvhwmv-con02b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics government votinghouse would make votingBecause mandatoryvoting means that no large campaign funds areneeded to goad voters to the polls, the role ofmoney in politics will decrease. Compulsoryvoting will reduce spending such as campaignspending on voter turnout. It can also lead to areduction in the incentive for negativeadvertising “as there is little to be gained fromtactics aimed purely at persuading oppositionvoters to stay at home” 1. States that sanctionfines usually sanction a very low fine, which eventhe poorest members can afford. Besides,government like the British seem to managespeeding fines just fine, there is no reason tothink they wouldn’t be able to managenon-voting fines. However, other measures suchas disenfranchisement (Belgium) and denial ofpublic services (Peru, Greece) can be used,which don’t incur a cost for the individual. 1Electoral Reform Society", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-pgsimhwoia-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "politics general society immigration minoritieshouse would offer increased aidProviding moneyto developing countries to provide for themigrants they take in does not ensure that themoney will be spent on those who it is meant tobe spent on. In some developing countries aid isbadly spent or is badly affected by corruption; in2012 the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moonstated “Last year, corruption prevented 30 percent of all development assistance from reachingits final destination.” [1] Moreover even if theaid is spent on those it is earmarked for thereare problems. Many developing countries areaffected by poverty, poor housing, and fewgovernment services. Aid being provided to payfor such services for migrants is likely to causeresentment among a population that does nothave the same access as the newcomers. [1]Ki-moon, Ban, ‘Secretary-General's closingremarks at High-Level Panel on Accountability,Transparency and Sustainable Development’,un.org, 9 July 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-pgsimhwoia-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "politics general society immigration minoritieshouse would offer increased aidAid can ensurebetter treatment of migrants Migrants indeveloped countries are often not very welltreated, for example the Traiskirchen migrantcamp in Austria, one of the richest countries inthe EU was condemned for its inhumaneconditions by Amnesty in August 2015. [1] Theaid provided can be earmarked to ensure thatmigrants being well treated and provided forthrough safe transportation and access toessential government services such ashealthcare and welfare. The advantage of thisprovision in developing rather than developedcountries is cost. The same amount of moneygoes a lot further in a developing country. Thisprovision therefore makes sense in a time weremany developed countries are both strugglingwith greater numbers of migrants and withausterity. Greece, which has had 124,000migrants arrive in the first seven months of2015, a 750% rise over the same period in 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-pgsimhwoia-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "politics general society immigration minoritieshouse would offer increased aidMigrants alsobenefit developed countries albeit in a slightlydifferent way. Migrants, often even those whoare highly educated, provide a cheap workforcedoing the jobs that native workers don't want todo. This is particularly the case in agriculture indeveloped countries where anything that islabour intensive relies upon cheap migrant, oftenillegal, labour. In the US somewhere between aquarter and a half of the farm workers are illegalimmigrants. [1] This results in goods andservices being cheaper in the developed countrythan they otherwise would be benefiting thewhole country. [1] Baragona, Steve, ‘USFarmers Depend on Illegal Immigrants’, Voice ofAmerica, 11 August 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-pgsimhwoia-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "politics general society immigration minoritieshouse would offer increased aidIt is just toredistribute migrants It is an accident ofgeography, or history, simple bad luck that hasresulted in some countries getting large numbersof immigrants while many others get none. Thefirst developed country on migrant routes getlarge numbers as those wishing to seek asylumhave to apply in the first safe country. Similarlythose countries next to conflict zones, or placesaffected by natural disasters, get very largeinfluxes of migrants who hope to return home assoon as possible; there are more than 1.1 millionrefugees from Syria in Lebanon [1] a country ofless than 6million. It is right that there should bea mechanism to help even out the burden ofmigrants and that rich developed countriesshould be those who pay that cost. [1] ‘SyriaRegional Refugee Response’, data.unhcr.org, ,accessed 19th August 2015", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-pgsimhwoia-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "politics general society immigration minoritieshouse would offer increased aidWhile the burdenof migrants should be shared the burden is notjust monetary. Developed countries should notbe able to dodge their responsibility to take inlarge numbers of migrants simply because theycan pay poorer countries to take migrants intheir place. Being burdened due to geographymay be unfair but so is being burdened becauseyou are poor and can be bribed. A truly justsystem would redistribute migrants within thedeveloped world rather than shifting the burdento those who are still developing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-pgsimhwoia-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "politics general society immigration minoritieshouse would offer increased aidMigrants canbenefit developing countries Migrants can bringthe benefit of their industriousness to developingcountries. When there are crises it is the middleprofessional classes who are most likely tomigrate as they have the resources andknowledge with which to do so. When it comes toeconomic migrants it is often the educated youthwho are looking for better work opportunities;skilled workers make up 33% of migrants fromdeveloping countries despite being only 6% ofthe population. [1] Developed countries alreadyhave a highly educated and skilled population,and will take in those migrants with skills theyneed. Developing countries on the other handhave a much less well educated population soderive more benefit from the influx of skilledworkers to help them develop thus counteractingthe ‘brain drain’. [1] Docquier, Frédéric, Lohest,Olivier, and Marfouk, Abdeslam. ‘Brain Drain inDeveloping Countries’, The World Bank Economic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-pgsimhwoia-con03b", "title": "", "text": "politics general society immigration minoritieshouse would offer increased aidPart of thepayment of aid would be to ensure that migrantscan't simply set off in an attempt to get back intoa developed country. The aid would fundsufficiently good living conditions to encouragethe migrants that staying where they are is abetter option than attempting another harsh anddangerous journey. Moreover a part of the aidwould be to ensure monitoring of migrants whohave just arrived in the developing country toensure they remain.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-pgsimhwoia-con01b", "title": "", "text": "politics general society immigration minoritieshouse would offer increased aidAn argumentbased upon ‘historical responsibility’ and capacityto absorb migrants runs into several problems.First not all developed nations bear historicalresponsibility for colonialism; should Switzerlandand Denmark bear the same historicalresponsibility as the UK and France? What aboutcountries that were themselves essentiallycolonies; Finland and Czech Republic? Identifyingwhat counts towards this responsibility is trickyand very open to argument, and even more soworking out how many migrants a certainresponsibility should result in taking in. Capacityto absorb migrants is also difficult to judge. Acountry may have a lot of migrants alreadyshowing tolerance but it could also mean thatcountry is already at the point where it can takeno more with racism and discrimination rising asa result.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-pgsimhwoia-con02a", "title": "", "text": "politics general society immigration minoritieshouse would offer increased aidLarge influxes ofmigrants will create conflict in unpreparedcountries It is regrettable that difference is amajor source of conflict among humans withdifferences in religion and ethnicity havingregularly been the source of conflicts householdhuman history. While many countries havetraditions of accepting migrants others don't andeven those that are tolerant may not beprepared for a large influx of migrants. Thispolicy would bring about such an influx in thosecountries that take up the offer of aid for takingin migrants. A new community is likely to belabelled the ‘other’ by the natives of that countryand be blamed for taking jobs and puttingpressure on services. This happens because thenewcomers are easy to blame and have fewinfluential voices in the country to speak out intheir defence. Places with existing large migrantcommunities are less likely to experience antiimmigrant hostility. Thus in India Delhi with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-pgsimhwoia-con03a", "title": "", "text": "politics general society immigration minoritieshouse would offer increased aidMigrants willsimply return to the countries they have beensent from Moving migrants to developingcountries in return for quantities of aid is simplynot a sustainable policy. Migrants fleeing conflictlooking for safety may accept any safe countrybut the migrant problems affecting rich countriesare in large part economic migration. Thesepeople are looking to get to a developed countryto earn more and have better prospects thanthey could at home so are unlikely to accept acountry at a similar (or potentially lower) level ofdevelopment as a good alternative. They aretherefore likely to simply tray again to maketheir way to a developed country when they can.There have been examples of migrants such asRachid from Algeria who has tried to get intoEurope three times already and is waiting for aship to try again, [1] it is unclear how thisproposal would alter this problem. [1] Ash,Lucy, ‘Risking death at sea to escape boredom’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-pgsimhwoia-con01a", "title": "", "text": "politics general society immigration minoritieshouse would offer increased aidDevelopedcountries have a greater responsibility to take inmigrants Developed countries have aresponsibility to take in large numbers ofmigrants. There are several reasons for this.First they have a historical responsibilityresulting from a legacy of colonialism,imperialism, and industrialisation that benefitedthe developed world at the expense of thedeveloping world. This helped create theinequalities in the world that drive migration sodeveloped countries should accept that a greaterresponsibility for migrants is the price. Seconddeveloped countries have a much greatercapacity to absorb migrants than developingcountries. Developed countries have more jobs,and the ability to create more through using thestate’s financial resources to increaseinvestment. They already have the legalframework for large numbers of migrants; lawsthat ensure equality and fair treatment", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-pgsimhwoia-con02b", "title": "", "text": "politics general society immigration minoritieshouse would offer increased aidWhether acountry is developed or not is not necessarily agood indicator of if a country is prepared for alarge number of migrants. Nor is whether acountry has large numbers of immigrantsalready; Israel is a country made by immigrationyet has still seen anti immigrant riots. [1] Inorder to prevent social conflict it would be farbetter to have migrants in countries with asimilar culture to their own thus migrants froman Arabic nation would be repatriated to anArabic country that is participating in the aidscheme. Of course no two countries culture is thesame but it should be possible to find cultureswith more similarity than the developedcountry. [1] Greenwood, Phoebe, ‘Israelianti-immigration riots hit African neighbourhoodof Tel Aviv’, The Telegraph, 24 May 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-mtpghwaacb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "mployment tax politics government house wouldabolish all collective bargainingThe public sectorbeing paid extra is something that is acceptableand necessary within society. Workers within thepublic sector often fulfill roles in jobs that arepublic goods. Such jobs provide a positiveexternality for the rest of society, but would beunderprovided by the free market. For example,education would likely be underprovided,particularly for the poorest, by the free marketbut provides a significant benefit to the publicbecause of the long term benefits an educatedpopulace provides.In healthcare the example ofthe United States shows that private providerswill never provide to those who are unable toafford it with nearly 50million people withouthealth insurance.1 Although the average payreceived by government employees tends to behigher, the peak earnings potential of agovernment position is significantly lower thanthat of other professions. Workers who chose tobuild long term careers within the public sector", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-mtpghwaacb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "mployment tax politics government house wouldabolish all collective bargainingCollectivebargaining leades to pay crises in the publicsector The public sector is often significantlyoverpaid. The workers within the public sectorsof Western liberal democracies often get paidmore than people of equal education andexperience who are employed in the privatesector. In the United States there is a salarypremium of 10-20 percent in the public sector.This means that there is likely a waste ofresources as these people are being paid morethan they should be by the government.1 Thereason this happens is that collective bargainingmeans that workers can often, through thesimple idea that they can communicate with thegovernment and have a hand in the decisionmaking process, make their demands muchmore easily. Further, governments in particularare vulnerable during negotiations with unions,due their need to maintain both their politicalcredibility and the cost effectiveness of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-mtpghwaacb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "mployment tax politics government house wouldabolish all collective bargainingCollectivebargaining might hurt the democratic processdue to its political nature, but the alternative isworse. Without collective bargaining it isincredibly difficult for public sector workers to getacross their ideas of what their pay should be totheir employers. This leads to worseconsequences because public sector workers whofeel underpaid or overworked will often move tothe private sector for better job opportunities inthe future as well as a better collectivebargaining position. Further, those public sectorworkers that do stay will be unhappy in theirpositions and will likely do a worse job atwork. Given that this is true and the fact thatpublic sector workers often choose to do theirjobs out of a sense of duty or love for theprofession, it is fair that the taxpayers should beplaced in a position where they are required totrust the public sector and the politicians to workout deals that end up being in favour of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-mtpghwaacb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "mployment tax politics government house wouldabolish all collective bargainingCollectivebargaining is not a right Whilst the freedom ofassociation exists under the state and it is truethat people should be allowed to communicatewith one another and form groups to forwardtheir personal and political interests, it is not truethat the freedom of association automaticallygrants access to the decision makingprocess. Unions in this instance are problematicbecause whilst other groups do not have accessto special privileges, unions are able to exert asignificant and disproportionate amount ofinfluence over the political process through theuse of collective bargaining mechanisms. Thisargument applies to private unions as well,although to a lesser extent, and the banning ofcollective bargaining for private unions would beprincipally sound. In the case of unions in theprivate sector they can cause large amounts ofdisruption which has a large knock on impact onthe economy giving leverage over politicians for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-mtpghwaacb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "mployment tax politics government house wouldabolish all collective bargainingCollectivebargaining is considered a right because of thegreat benefit that it provides. Specifically, whilstfreedom of association might not allow people tobe privy to the negotiation process, when a largeenough group of people form together and makea statement regarding their opinion, it isprofitable for those in power to listen tothem. Collective bargaining in this situation is alogical extension of that. Given that public sectorworkers are intrinsic to the continued success ofthe state, it thus makes sense that the stategives them a platform to make their views in aclear and ordered fashion, such that the statecan take them into account easily.1 Further, theknowledge that such a right exists causes unionsto act in a way which is more predictable.Specifically, a right to unionise with reduce thelikelihood that state employees will engage instrike action. Under existing union law, groups ofemployees are able to compel a state employer", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-mtpghwaacb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "mployment tax politics government house wouldabolish all collective bargainingCollectivebargaining undermines the democracticprocess The bargain between normal unions andprivate enterprise involves all parties beingbrought to the table and talking about the issuesthat they might have. However, the public sectorrepresents the benefits of taxpayers, thepoliticians and the unions. The power that unionsexercises means that negotiations can happenwithout the consent or involvement of the publicsector’s stakeholders, the public. Even thoughpower in a democracy is usually devolved to thepoliticians for this purpose, given the highlypoliticised nature of union negotiations,government office-holders who supervise unionnegotiations may act inconsistently with themandate that the electorate have given them.This is because public unions often command avery large block of voters and can threatenpoliticians with this block of voters readily. Thisis not the same as a private business where", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-mtpghwaacb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "mployment tax politics government house wouldabolish all collective bargainingAs discussed inthe first proposition side argument, we cancurtail the rights of individuals if we see thatthose rights lead to a large negativeconsequence for the state. In this situationproposition is happy to let some public sectorworkers feel slightly disenfranchised if it leads tofewer strikes and a situation where public sectorworkers are not paid too much, then the netbenefit to society is such that the slight loss interms of consistency of rights is worth takinginstead.1 Davey, Monica, “Wisconsin SenateLimits Bargaining by Public Workers”, The NewYork Times, 9 March 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-mtpghwaacb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "mployment tax politics government house wouldabolish all collective bargainingEven if collectivebargaining leads to a workforce that is betterable to communicate their ideas, it also leads toa situation as mentioned within the propositionarguments that results in unions havingsignificantly more power over their wages andthe government than in other situations. This isproblematic because it leads to consequenceswhere other unions feel that they should havethe same powers as public unions and can hencelead to volatility in the private sector as aresult. Further, given that often the negotiatorsthat work for public unions are often aware ofthe political power of the public workers,negotiations with public unions often lead tostrike action due to the fact that it is likely thatthe public will be sympathetic to the publicworkers. As such, allowing public workers tobargain collectively leads to situations that areoften much worse for the public. Further, a lot ofopposition’s problems with a lack of collective", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-mtpghwaacb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "mployment tax politics government house wouldabolish all collective bargainingCollectivebargaining is a counter to the creation of naturalmonopolies Many public industries exist aspublic industries because they are naturalmonopolies. For example, rail travel, which isoften public in Western Liberal democracies, is asector in which it makes no sense to buildmultiple railway lines across the country, eachfor a different company, when one would simplybe more efficient. A similar case can be made forthings such as public utilities. As such, thesesectors often only have a single, often publiccompany working in that sector. In the casewhere there is a monopolist, the workers in thesector often have no other employers that theycan reasonably find that require their skills, sofor example, teachers are very well qualified toteach, however, are possibly not as qualified todeal with other areas and as such will finddifficulty moving to another profession. As such,the monopolist in this area has the power to set", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-mtpghwaacb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "mployment tax politics government house wouldabolish all collective bargainingCollectivebargaining has been recognised as an enforcableright Collective bargaining is a right. If the stateallows freedom of association, individuals willgather together and exchange their ideas andviews as a natural consequence of this freedom.Further, free association and free expressionallows groups to then select a representative toexpress their ideas in a way that the individualsin the group might not be able to. In preventingpeople from using this part of their right toassembly, we weaken the entire concept of theright to assembly. The point of the right toassembly is to allow the best possiblerepresentation for individuals. When a group ofindividuals are prevented from enjoying this rightthen it leads to those individuals feeling isolatedfrom the rest of society who are able to enjoythis right. This is particularly problematic in thecase of public sector workers as the state that isisolating them also happens to be their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-mtpghwaacb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "mployment tax politics government house wouldabolish all collective bargainingCollectivebargaining is a necessary aspect ofdemocracy Collective bargaining is needed bypeople in any job. Within any firm there existfeedback structures that enable workers tocommunicate with managers and executivedecision makers. However, there are someissues which affect workers significantly, but runagainst the principles of profit, or in this case theoverall public good that the state seeks toserve. In this situation, a collection of workersare required. This is primarily because ifsuggested changes go against public interestthen a single worker requesting such a change islikely to be rejected. However, it is the indirectbenefit to public interest through a workforcethat is treated better that must also beconsidered. But indirect benefit can only trulyoccur if there are a large number of workerswhere said indirect benefit canaccrue. Specifically, indirect benefit includes the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-mtpghwaacb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "mployment tax politics government house wouldabolish all collective bargainingThe oppositionargument here is simply a case against naturalmonopolies. In many Western Liberaldemocracies, advances in technology haveenabled natural monopolies on telecoms andpublic transport to be broken down. A wide rangeof necessary public services- such as telecomsand power generation- now function as part of acompetitive market. As such, it is feasible thatthe state could simply deal with this problem bybreaking down other natural monopolies in thesame way. Even if the state acts as amonopolist in some industries, public sectorworkers often have transferrable skills whichmean they can move to other industries withoutthat much trouble. For example, a publicprosecutor will have acquired professional skillsthat enable a relatively quick transition intoprivate or commercial civilpractice.1 “Identifying the Transferable skills ofa Teacher.” North Central College.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "onal global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newReducing nucleararms through New START will not compel othersto stop pursuing nukes. The logic behind NewSTART asserts that for every negativedevelopment in the area of nuclear proliferationthe US needs to take a substantive step in thedirection of nuclear disarmament. Ultimately,this approach effectively assumes that thepossession of nuclear arms by the US (andRussia) is the incentive driving other nations topursue nuclear weapons programs so as to beable to deter the United States. Not only is theassumption misplaced, but the policy willundermine deterrence and increase the likelihoodof the use of nuclear weapons. It is foolish forthe U.S. to take substantive steps toward nucleardisarmament at the same time the nuclearproliferation problem is growing worse. [1] TheUS should also not seek to improve relations bybribing them with New START at the cost ofdamaging US defence capabilities. [1] Spring,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "onal global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newNew START willcause American missile and nuclear capabilitiesto atrophy, not to be maintained. This is becauseit locks the US in to agreements of defensivereductions which are tied into Russian offensivereductions. This could eventually leave the USbadly under-defended by its missile systemswhen compared against the offensive capabilitiesof other nuclear states. Moreover, New STARTleaves in place the pre-existing Russian tacticalnuclear advantage harming US capabilities bycomparison. [1] Overall New START hams USmissile and nuclear capabilities, and furtheradvantages Russia and other nuclear powers,and so should not be supported. As Mitt Romneyargued in 2010: \"Does New START limitAmerica’s options for missile defense? Yes. Forthe first time, we would agree to aninterrelationship between strategic offensiveweapons and missile defense. Moreover, Russiaalready asserts that the document would", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "onal global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newNew START isabout national politics, not about the interests ofthe world or peace. As George Will argued in2010: \"The (Obama) administration's ardor forratification is understandable, as is Russia's. Thepresident needs a success somewhere; Russianeeds psychotherapy. It longs to be treated aswhat it no longer is, a superpower, and it likesthe treaty's asymmetries.\" [1] New START isabout serving these domestic political interests,not securing peace, which it will not achieve asthe inspections it puts in place are highly flawed,and there remains a high probability that Russiawill cheat on the treaty and augment its nuclearcapabilities regardless. All this treaty does isweaken the US, and a situation where one powerweakens and the other grows stronger is notgood for world peace. [1] Will, George.\"Obama's time-warp focus on the New STARTtreaty\". Washington Post. 2 December 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-con03b", "title": "", "text": "onal global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newAgreementsbetween the biggest nuclear powers are a goodstarting point towards disarmament. We cannotexpect countries with a very small number ofnuclear weapons to be disarming if the countriesthat have the vast majority of the world’s arsenalhave not already begun the process of getting ridof their own. Even the reductions in New STARTwill not bring either Russia or the United Statesanywhere near the level of any other nuclearpower whose nuclear weapons number in thehundreds not thousands. Both countries wouldneed to reduce a very long way before they losedeterrence against China, let alone North Korea.As former secretaries of state argue America has“long led the crucial fight to protect the UnitedStates against nuclear dangers… The world issafer today because of the decades-long effort toreduce its supply of nuclear weapons. As aresult, President Obama should remain similarlycourageous with New START.” [1] If linkage", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-con01b", "title": "", "text": "onal global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newMany of theworries about the impact of the treaty are muchmore of a political problem than problems withthe treaty itself. U.S. missile modernization inparticular is still up to the President andCongress to sort out the funding between them –the restrictions are minor. [1] Worries about theimpact on missile defense are also a red herring.Missile defense is not aimed at Russia and theUnited States simply needs to make sure that itsdefenses are obviously aimed at who it says theyare aimed at: rogue states such as Iran andNorth Korea. Regarding other defencecapabilities, the New START Treaty preservesAmerica’s ability to deploy effective missiledefenses, and simply prevents it from beingeffective enough to undermine deterrence,something which Russia would be right inworrying about if the United States had anyintention of building such a comprehensivemissile defence. The prohibition on converting", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-con04b", "title": "", "text": "onal global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newThe verificationrequirements of New START have satisfied notonly the Obama Administration but also a largenumber of foreign policy experts. A panelincluding Henry Kissinger argues that NewSTART “emphasizes verification, providing avaluable window into Russia's nuclear arsenal.\"[1] Howard Baker argues that: \"PresidentReagan was famous for his adage about dealingwith the old Soviet Union: “Trust but verify.”Since the last START treaty expired in December2009, we’ve had no right to conduct inspectionsof Russian nuclear bases, and thus no way toverify what the Russians are doing with theirnuclear weapon systems. For us veterans of theCold War, that’s an alarming fact and acompelling reason to ratify this New STARTtreaty without further delay.\" [2] When theallegations are gone through individually they donot stand up to scrutiny. On the telemetry issuethe treaty does not limit throw-weight so the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oglilpdwhsn-con02b", "title": "", "text": "onal global law international law politics defencewarpeace house supports newThe New STARTtreaty does not help Russia more than it does theUnited States. Former Secretary of DefenseRobert Gates argued at the time the Russiansare currently “above the treaty limits. So theywill have to take down warheads.” [1] If therereally is undercounting of missiles on bombersthen it affects both sides equally – as Romneysays “While we currently have more bombersthan the Russians”, so this too should not be aworry. Russia does not currently deployrail-mobile ICBMs and neither does the UnitedStates, explain why the definitions are not there.However the State Department argues that “If aParty develops and deploys rail-mobile ICBMs,such missiles, their warheads, and theirlaunchers would be subject to the Treaty.” As thedefinitions of ICBM launchers would includethem. [2] Finally we should recognize that we donot know that Russia would have reduced itsbomber and missile forces without a new treaty,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousIntolerantschools cause more problems for not allowingfreedom of religious expression. In amulticultural society, students should be awareof the different religious practices and culturaltraditions of their classmates, and be taught tounderstand and respect these. Without suchrespect, religious groups with distinctivesymbols, such as Orthodox Jews, Sikhs andChristians, will be driven out of mainstreameducation and forced to educate their childrenseparately.1 As for the worry about safetyissues, particularly concerning hair length, mostclassroom accidents occur when loose, long hairgets caught in machinery or in a flame whichwould not be a problem when hair is held inplace under a headscarf. 1 'Religious Rights andWrongs', The Economist, 4th September 2008,accessed 24th July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousReligioussymbols cause problems in schools. As well asdivision in society in general, religious symbolsare also a source of division within schoolenvironments. The Hijab causes schools manyproblems. It is potentially divisive in theclassroom, marking some children out asdifferent from the others and above the rulesthat the school enforces for everyone else. Thismay lead to alienation and bullying. Fullheadscarves may also be impractical ordangerous in some lessons, for example PE,swimming, or in technology and science lessonswhere machinery is being operated. In the sameway, there have been discussions as to whetherto ban the display of Crucifixes in publicclassrooms. Authorities in Italy have followedthrough with the ban saying that such a Christiansymbol segregates those who are notChristian.1 1 'Decision due in Crucifix ban case',Times of Malta, March 17th 2011 , accessed on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousMuslimwomen are not the only ones to feel a culturaldivision over their mode of dress. Most peopleare affected by the societal norms surroundingthem. Fashion trends could be seen in exactlythe same light as religious traditions. Banninghead coverings is only likely to provoke a moreextreme reaction among highly religiouscommunities1. Framing laws to ban only Islamicforms of dress could be considered an attack onone religion. Feeling under attack could causethe Islamic community to close off into itself.They could set up religious schools where theirchildren can dress as they want them to and notmix with children from other faiths. These effectscould never be good for the integration of societyand would further the influence of extremists.Internationally, the perceived attack on Islamicvalues would inflame wider Muslim opinion, feedconspiracy theories and add to the dangerousfeeling that there is a clash of civilisations. 1", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousWesternsocieties are secularly focused Many societiesare founded on secular values that do not permitthe sponsorship of any religion by the state.British society aspires to this and has consciouslyacted to separate religion from state authoritywith many organisations such as the NationalSecular Society encouraging the suppression ofany religious expression in public places.1 In thisclimate it is important that all citizens of thestate are seen as equal. If some dress differentlyto others, deliberately identifying themselves asmembers of one religion, this can harm the unityand ethos of the state. This holds particularlytrue for institutions of the state like schools andgovernment offices. In this way, it is possible todeduce that religious symbols are detrimental tothe secular and equality focused identity ofWestern society. 1 'UK: One Law for all and theNational Secular Society Back Bill that Aims toCurb Sharia Courts', 11th June 2011 , accessed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousManysymbols are seen as a symbol of oppression onwomen. Religious symbols are seen to, in somecases, increase the equality divide betweengenders. As an example, the Muslim Hijab isconsidered by some as a very powerful symbolfor the oppression of women, particularly incountries such as Saudi Arabia or Afghanistanwhere it is compulsory. Therefore, when it isworn in Western countries that encouragedemocracy and equality, the wearing of the Hijabis seen as almost counter-productive to the goalsof democratic society. For this reason Belgiumhas recently banned the wearing of the fullMuslim veil, much like France in 2010.1 OftenMuslim dress rules for women are seen as moresevere than those for men. Inequality betweenmen and women is a form of discrimination andliberal societies should fight all forms ofdiscrimination. 1 ' Belgian ban on full veilscomes into force', BBC News Europe, 23rd July", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousReligioussymbols are not seen as oppressive by thosewho choose to wear them. Many Muslim womenview the veil as a means to protect their modestyand privacy. Just as we would not force anywomen to be seen in public in her underwear ifshe did not feel comfortable doing so, whyshould a woman be forced to show her hair if shedoes not want to? Modesty is a personaljudgement call; some are comfortable in thesmallest bikini while others prefer a lot moreclothing. No one but the woman herself shouldmake that decision. In fact, concerning the banof the veil in Belgium, Muslim women haveimmediately challenged it and regard the ban asdiscriminatory.1 1 'Belgian ban on full veilscomes into force', BBC News Europe, 23rd July2011 , accessed on 23rd July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousEventhough the wearing of religious symbols could bea part of that specific religions' culture andpractice, it must be remembered that Westernsociety and culture brands itself as secular and,therefore, should take precedence over clasheswith minority cultural practices. In Britain therehas been controversy over movements to includeSharia Law in the British legal system, which tiesin with this same argument of culture clashesconcerning religious methods.1 Essentially, thequestion arises as to how far is tolerance fordifferent cultural practices detrimental for themaintenance of a secular British culture andstate. 1 Abul Taher, 'Revealed: UK's first officialsharia courts', The Sunday Times, 14thSeptember 2008 , accessed on 23rd July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousDecidingwhat people can and can’t wear should not bethe responsibility of schools. Enforcement maybe potentially simple but only at the cost ofcreating a conflict between schools and theirMuslim pupils and staff.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousReligioussymbols cause division within Westernsociety. Religious symbols can be seen aspossible tools for fuelling division within society.When some women wear the Hijab it createspressure on other Muslim women to also covertheir heads. Pressure comes both socially fromwanting to look like other women in theircommunity and religiously from imams andfamily leaders pressing for observance. As such,Muslims themselves are divided and religiousoppression against women is internalized.1Approving of Muslim head coverings in societycements the Hijab as an essential tenet of Islam,in the minds of non-Muslims as well as believers.However, many different schools of Islam existand as on other issues, they often disagree howto interpret the Koran's dress prescriptions.Moderate interpretations accept modest forms ofmodern dress while severe interpretationsrequire full covering with the Burka or similar", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousA ban wouldbe simple to enforce. A ban would be simple tocreate and enforce. Religious symbols are for themost part meant to be shown therefore it issimple for police or authorities to check thatsomeone is not wearing them. There are manysocieties that have had bans on a religioussymbol in public buildings, for example in Francewhere there is a ban on religious symbols inschools has been in force since 2004. In Francethe ban is made even easier to enforce byrestricting it to 'conspicuous' religious apparel.1Moreover when the ban is only when enteringpublic buildings it can be enforced by theteacher, or the building's security guards ratherthan being an issue for the police to deal with. 1BBC News, 'French scarf ban comes into force', 2September 2004 , accessed 28/8/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousIt would notbe necessary to ban all religious symbols if onewas banned. Banning religious symbols that areregarded as dangerous, such as the Kirpan,would be very different from banning crucifixesas the justification would be different.1 And ifpeople start asking for other things to bebanned, their cases should be listened to. Someof them may have a point for banning them.However if a symbol poses a risk then it shouldbe banned in order to prevent that risk. 1'Kirpan incident raises questions about courtruling', The Montreal Gazette, 16th September2008 , accessed on 25th July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousA ban onreligious symbols would not be targeting thewhole religious group. It would highlight theproblems of symbols, such as the veil or Kirpan,within the boundaries of society. At the end ofthe day, full Muslim veils can be used as adisguise and, therefore, could pose a s apotential problem to the general population ofpeople.1 If hundreds were people were killed bysomeone wearing a veil, would people bedefending it then? In this way, it is the same forpeople wearing hoodies nowadays. A fewtearaways and everyone socially brands them ascriminals, or \"chavs.\" This scares people,especially the elderly and as such poses a risknot just to their health, but also to their safety.As a result, the religious symbols such as fullveils should be banned due to safety concerns. 1'Belgian committee votes for full Islamic veilban', BBC News, 31st March 2010 , accessed24th July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousReligioussymbols are personal, therefore, they should notmatter to others. At the end of the day, thewearing of religious symbols is the choice of theindividual. Many have considered intervention inthe practice of religion and symbolism as anintrusion into privacy and individuality. Therecent bans on the full Muslim veil, particularly inBelgium, have been criticised for causing thosewho feel they have an obligation to wear it to beostracised and forced to be confined within theirown home.1 1 'Belgian ban on full veils comesinto force', BBC News Europe, 23rd July 2011 ,accessed on 23rd July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousIt is theirculture and religion. Religions themselves tendto encompass their own distinctive culture and,to many of their members, this culture and itsmethods comes before anything secular. For thisreason, Muslims should be allowed to wearpersonal items as it states in the ruling of theirreligious book to do so. Had a particular garmentbeen required in the Christian religious book -The Bible - then no doubt those stout Christianswould follow this particular ruling. The questionis, would it be wrong to take away somethingclose and meaningful to these religions? Surely,a religious symbol or method is purely personal,and, therefore, banning such symbols would bean intrusion into their individuality.1 1 JessicaShepherd, 'Uniform Dissent', The Guardian, 9thOctober 2007 , accessed on 24th July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousIf you banone thing, you have to ban lots of things. Everyreligious symbol should be treated equally so asnot to cause discrimination. It's just not viable toban one symbol. If you ban something, forexample, as sacred and religious as the Muslimveil, people will then start rallying cries for otherthings to be banned. At the end of the day, if theGovernment feels that it is in the best interestsof society not to ban the veil, then we have tobelieve them. Really if one thing is banned thenthe uproar that would happen would havesignificantly worse consequences than before theban. There have been worries about the banningof the Sikh Kirpan because outsiders regard it asa possible weapon and a danger to people inpublic places.1 However, in the Sikh perspective,the Kirpan is a sacred symbol very similar toother religions' symbols. 1 'Timeline: TheQuebec kirpan case', CBC News Online, 2ndMarch 2006, accessed on 25th July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousBanningreligious symbols is just a way of unfairlytargeting people. Banning religious symbolscould be viewed as just a way of targeting agroup of people. In a nutshell, religious symbolswould be used as a scapegoat in order to bothhighlight and blame for problems that are muchbigger. Removing the hijab, the Crucifix or theJewish skullcap would take away someone'sculture, religion and heritage, and, therefore,banning them would cause more problems.1 Itcould potentially increase hatred within religiousgroups, and lead to more racism and morecriticism, ultimately making the country a worseplace to live. 1 at 'Belgian ban on full veilscomes into force', BBC News Europe, 23rd July2011 , accessed on 23rd July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousThat thestate is secular does not diminish the right tofreedom of religion is enshrined in the UNcharter, that all states have signed up to, andconsidered by many to be a basic human right.1Some religions require special diets, othersprayer at specific times. Why shouldn't areligious mode of dress receive as muchprotection as these other aspects of religiousfreedom? Surely equality in society is mostaccurately presented through allowing eachindividual, including their religious beliefs andmodes of expression, to practice their religioustraditions without hindrance. 1 'Declaration OnThe Elimination Of All Forms Of Intolerance AndOf Discrimination Based On Religion Or Belief',1981 Resolution of the UN Charter , accessed on23rd July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-grcrgshwbr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousSome arguethat religious symbols, particularly those that areclearly seen, are not just for personal benefit.They affect the safety of the society aroundthem. For example, there have been worriesabout how the Muslim full-veil may be used as adisguise for terrorists and how veils make itharder to ascertain someone's identity.Therefore, some symbols at least involve others,maybe even unintentionally, through theuneasiness and suspicion they cause. 1 'TheIslamic Veil Across Europe', BBC News, 15thJune 2010 , accessed on 25th July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesThereis no guarantee of the quality of contractedsoldiers often resulting in less being done persoldier. The competitive-business nature ofprivate contractors includes cost reduction aswell as profit maximisation, which leads to therecruitment of cheaper, less experienced andill-prepared staff as well as the use of cheaperand poorer equipment. As no standardisedtraining is in place, the quality of the hired menis never known and may be incompatible withthe training of traditional forces and thereforeunsustainable. The result of this is in the longrun to push up the cost as work that PMCsshould have done has not been done to the rightstandard.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesPMCsgive value for money Mercenaries are a costefficient way of fighting. Although expensive tohire, the government does not have to cover thecost of training, housing, pensions or healthcare.Mercenaries, unlike regular troops, are only paidfor the days on which they are used. Outsourcingwhen necessary will reduce the cost of the force.For example, the US army is around a thirdsmaller than it was in the 1991 Gulf War (PBSNews Hour, 2004). This saves taxpayers’ moneyand avoids the build up of conventional troops,which, in the past, has contributed to thedevelopment of arms races which can becripplingly expensive as shown by the collapse ofthe Soviet Union.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesPMCscan be made much more legitimate byregulation Currently mercenary work as aprofession is not regulated by law, which allowsthe corruption and lack of guaranteed quality, aswell as the problems of accountability to remainproblematic. Regulating PMCs encourage a safer,professionalised security sector which can bestandardised and controlled. Governments wouldthen legislate, regulate and moderate the use ofsuch forces rather than provide them outright.PMCs today are legitimate businesses, much oftheir work has nothing to do with fighting andkilling MPRI for example \"shipped more than$900,000,000 worth of donated food andmedical supplies to the newly independent statesof the former Soviet Union over a five yearperiod”. These companies are already placinggreater emphasis on having a good reputationand are increasingly transparent so manycompanies would welcome regulation.(Vaknin,2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesThisimage of responsible professionals may not beentirely justified. Some employees of PMCs mayhave no military experience, those who do mayhave been dishonourably discharged from dutyand some may be implicated in criminal activityor atrocities, such as Eeben Barlow (formerofficer in South African 32nd Battalion-Assassination squad during Apartheid, now achief of PMC Executive Outcomes whichpredominantly employs ex-secret policemen).These people may know how to do the job butthey may also not be the kind of people we wantworking with the military.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesPMCsprovide a service that may be otherwiseunavailable. Many nation states have achievedsufficient unity to rely on their own armies butfor those which cant, mercenary forces providean invaluable and possibly only mode ofprotection and security. British Foreign SecretaryJack Straw believes that in an era of “small warsand weak states” mercenaries have a “legitimaterole” (The Economist, 2002). Mercenaries maybe the only way of providing short term securityguarantees to allow a government to establishitself without relying on warlords or one side ofan ethnic conflict. This could be the only way outof a pattern of coup and counter-coup. Recruitinglocal mercenaries also has the benefits ofreducing transportation costs, instant readinessas well as any knowledge of the local politics,geography and customs which may be highlyvaluable to a security force. These local recruitsmay be less inclined to share this informationwith a government force.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesPMCsare a valuable resource PMCs are a flexible andefficient tool with which to fight 21st Centurywars making them a necessity. Privatecontractors can be hired at short notice and usedonly when necessary. They can be used to carryout specific missions, to reinforce traditionaltroops where greater numbers are required or toprotect other contractors whilst traditional troopscarry out more lucrative missions. Additionally,most PMCs are non-combative but ratherdefensive, providing security for officials, supplytrains etc. As a result they are viewed less asinvaders or “the enemy” and more aspeace-keepers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesPMCsare ineffective as they do not fit in with adisciplined army. PMCs are not bound by thesame rules and standards of conduct andaccountability as conventional troops. Whenproblems arise it is often unclear whether armyrepresentatives or PMCs should be heldresponsible. Moreover, the lack of regulationmeans that there is no means to ensuremercenaries breaking laws are disciplined.Currently most mercenaries can operate outsidemartial law with relative freedom. Some of theworst offences at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq werecommitted by “privatised interrogators” (Hersh,2004) who are yet to be punished.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesTheuse of mercenaries is counterproductive forunstable states. By relying on hired mercenariesweak states encourage private competitionrather than reinforcing their own nascent armies.The emergence of powerful local, as well asinternational, mercenary organisations frustratesthe ultimate goal of securing a state monopolyover the use of force. There are many caseswhere mercenaries have remained in a regionlong after their official contract ended in anattempt to exploit regional instability in order tofurther a particular ideological cause or reapfinancial reward. Colonel Bob Denard foughtvaguely “against Communism” in Africa andattempted to overthrow the government of theComoros Islands off Madagascar on fourseparate occasions. Similarly, Colonel “Mad”Mike Hoare tried to topple the government of theSeychelles in 1981, arriving with 43 mercenariesdisguised as rugby playing members of abeer-tasting club named The Ancient Order of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesTheamount of attention and suspicion depends onwhat the PMCs are doing not that they are PMCs.Whilst mercenaries appear to be less dislikedthan American troops in Iraq, in parts of Africatheir activities have increased tension. Thereputation of a national government is oftenstained by the activities of hired mercenarygroups. The involvement in national militaryoperations of white supremacist adventurers anddiscredited individuals like Simon Mann is usedby men such as Mugabe to challenge thelegitimacy of British policy in Africa. These kindof actions by some groups mean that all PMCsare considered with suspicion.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesPMCshave an equally strong incentive toperform. PMCs must perform carefully andeffectively to secure future contracts. It istherefore in their interests to ensure theiremployees are well- trained and well-equippedand perform to the highest standard. Most PMCsrecruit ex-service personnel as a way to ensurethe quality of their force. In 2004 more SASsoldiers worked privately in Iraq than served inthe army. Additionally, governments increasinglyrecognise the quality of mercenaries. PMCs andregular militaries cross over on occasion: AnAmerican PMC -Military Professional ResourcesInc - trains the Reserve Officer Training Corps(ROTC) on behalf of the US Government (Lock,2011). The British Ministry of Defence now allowssoldiers yearlong sabbaticals to work asmercenaries in the hope they will return havingearned more in the private sector. This officialrecognition suggests that mercenaries have shedtheir “dogs of war” image. They are no longer", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesPMCsattract less attention and suspicion and can carryout their role more effectively. Mercenariesoften arouse less hostility amongst civilians thansoldiers fighting for national armies. In ethnicconflict they are perceived as less partisan. Thefact that civilians to some extent do not connectmercenaries with a particular ideological cause,invasion or civil war makes them ideal forprotecting safe areas and policing reconstructionprojects. For example, PMC Global RiskStrategies successfully guarded the Green Zonein Baghdad, the sealed off section inhabited bycoalition staff. As they are mercenaries they canbe fighting for the national or local governmentof where their mission even if they have adifferent paymaster.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-con03b", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesA goodreputation is vital to any company, includingPMCs, so human rights abuses or any otheractivity which is deemed questionable would beavoided. Mercenaries are not protected by legalimmunity would have to face justice for anycrime like any other criminal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-con01b", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesPMCsdo not really have an interest in conflicts neverending. Like any other organisation in a conflictzone they lose men and material while carryingout their missions. They may wish there to be anenvironment where they can still be useful butthis does not mean stoking a conflict. Even ifPMCs were helping to increase conflict toincrease their own business it would still only bea very small factor in any conflict.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-con02a", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesPMCsare untrustworthy The possibility of mercenariespulling out will always remain a risk. PMCs arenot fighting for their own country so they cannever be threatened with a charge of desertion.PMCs are motivated by money and do not havethe interests of their employer at heart. Loyaltyis given to the highest bidder and is thereforedelicately balanced. “The fact is, they have noother attraction or reason for keeping the fieldthan a trifle of stipend, which is not sufficient tomake them willing to die for you. They are readyenough to be your soldiers whilst you do notmake war, but if war comes they takethemselves off or run from the foe.”(Machiavelli,1515) Machiavelli considered that it wasmercenaries that ruined Italy much as they arenow doing in Iraq and Afghanistan.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-con04a", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesTherole of PMCs has had a negative effect ontraditional militaries and theiroperations. Soldiers trained at high expense bythe state may leave for the greater income ofprivate employment, reducing the power of thestate’s military and bolstering the attraction ofPMCs. PMCs also have a much more relaxed,business-like attitude to conflict. Beingunregulated gives them a freedom to workoutside of the law to an extent, using illicitpractices such as torture and bribery which goesunnoticed. However, these practices strengthenthe morale and line the purses of “the enemy”,such as warlords or the Taliban in Afghanistan,putting the militaries they are fighting alongsidein danger.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-con03a", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesPMCsviolate human rights and Internationalagreements in pursuit of profit or power. SomePMCs may abuse the power they wield. SimonMann, founder of PMCs EO and SandlineInternational, in a recent plot to oust PresidentObiang in Equatorial Guinea (BBC News, 2008)shows that even mercenary organisationsconsidered legitimate by the British Governmentremain staffed by corrupt opportunists. It ishighly morally questionable whetherorganisations with such a profound disrespect forthe sovereignty of other nation states should beinvolved with the training of our armed forces,let alone fighting alongside them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-con01a", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesPMCshave an interest in conflict. ncreased reliance onmercenaries is destabilising in the long term. Itallows invaders and local governments to feelthat they can get away with not providingsufficiently trained or numerous security forcesbecause there are men on the ground. It alsomeans that the most influential actors, largemulti-national companies, no longer have topressure governments so hard to providesecurity guarantees for everyone because theycan buy their own. That leaves those withoutinfluence or money high and dry. This then leadsto a proliferation of armed forces in the country,some working for the central government, othersfor local governments and some for privateindividuals and firms. These PMCs are hiredprovide security and to help create stability yetthat is not where their interests lie. If thecountry returns to stability they are out of a jobso it is in their interest to keep an unstablesituation unstable to result in more work.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-con04b", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesThisdoes not necessarily mean that there is anythinginherently wrong with using PMCs. While it mightbe true that the United States has sometimesmisjudged which private forces to hire, this doesnot mean that we cannot use PMCs altogether.In fact, there can be solutions to ensure thequality of PMCs, such as legal regulation. Therisk of inadvertently funding the enemytemporarily is perhaps worth taking, consideringthe alternative may be to have them constantlypreventing anything being done to help.Short-term compromise could be the best optionto long-term victory.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-dhwem-con02b", "title": "", "text": "defence house would employ mercenariesIt is inthe interest of PMCs to fulfil their contractualobligations to ensure future contracts and avoidthe reputation of being treacherous. While PMCsare often considered to be untrustworthy thereare very few examples, if any, of them actuallyrunning away or switching sides since the end ofthe cold war.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsGuns don’t kill people – peoplekill people. Restricting gun ownership will donothing to make society safer as it is the intentof the criminal we should fear, and that willremain the same whatever the gun laws. In thevast majority of crimes involving firearms, thegun used is not legally held or registered. Manyof illegal weapons are imported secretly fromabroad, or converted from replica firearms ratherthan being stolen from registered owners.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsThe legal ownership of guns byordinary citizens inevitably leads to manyaccidental deaths The legal ownership of gunsby law-abiding citizens inevitably leads to manyunnecessary and tragic deaths. Legally held gunsare stolen and end up in the hands of criminals,who would have greater difficulty in obtainingsuch weapons if firearms were less prevalent insociety. Guns also end up in the hands ofchildren, leading to tragic accidents and terribledisasters such as the Columbine High Schoolmassacre in the U.S.A. Sometimes evennormal-seeming registered gun owners appearto go mad and kill, as tragically happened atHungerford and Dunblaine in the U.K.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsShooting is a major sport enjoyedby many law-abiding people, both in gun clubswith purpose-built ranges and as a field sport.These people have the right to continue withtheir chosen leisure pursuit, on which they havespent large amounts of money – an investmentthe government would effectively be confiscatingif their guns were confiscated. In addition, fieldsports bring money into poor rural economiesand provide a motivation for landowners to valueenvironmental protection. While compensationcould be given the cost would be huge; in the UKshootings value to the economy was £1.6billionin 2004. [1] [1] ‘£1,600,000,000 – the value ofshooting’, Shooting Times, 27 September 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsThe only function of a gun is tokill The only function of a gun is to kill. Themore instruments of death and injury can beremoved from our society, the safer it will be. Inthe U.S.A. death by gunshot has become theleading cause of death among some socialgroups; in particular for African-American malesaged from 12 to 19 years old. [1] Quite simply,guns are lethal and the fewer people have themthe better. [1 ‘Study: Homicide leading cause ofdeath among young black males,Jacksonville.com, 5 May 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsProhibition is not the answer,especially not in countries such as the USAwhere gun ownership is such an entrenchedaspect of society. Banning guns would not makethem disappear or make them any lessdangerous. It is a legitimate right of citizens toown weapons with which they can protectthemselves, their family, and their property (seepoint 4). Many people also need guns for otherreasons. For example, farmers need guns inorder to protect their stock and crops from pests,e.g. rabbits, birds, deer, foxes, stray dogsattacking sheep, etc.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsThere are substantial exceptionsto that correlation, for example Japan has theworld’s 5th highest suicide rate but very low gunownership. [1] As the proposition concedes, theavailability of firearms is not a direct cause ofsuicide and thus the restriction of availability offirearms can only have a marginal effect on thesuicide rate. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsSports shooting desensitizespeople to the lethal nature of firearms Shootingas a sport desensitises people to the lethalnature of all firearms, creating a gun culture thatglamorises and legitimises unnecessary gunownership. It remains the interest of a minority,who should not be allowed to block the interestsof society as a whole in gun control.Compensation can be given to individual gunowners, gun clubs and the retail firearms trade,in recognition of their economic loss if a ban isimplemented.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsGun ownership increases the riskof suicide There is a correlation between thelaxity of a country’s gun laws and its suicide rate– not because gun owners are more depressive,but because the means of quick and effectivesuicide is easily to hand. As many unsuccessfulsuicides are later glad that they failed in theirattempt, the state should discourage and restrictthe ownership of something that wastes so manyhuman lives.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-con03b", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsShooting as a sport has thepotential to desensitize people to the lethalnature of all firearms, creating a gun culture thatglamorizes and legitimizes unnecessary gunownership.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-con01b", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsBurglary should not be punishedby vigilante killings of the offender. No amountof property is worth a human life. Perversely, thedanger of attack by homeowners may make itmore likely that criminals will carry their ownweapons. If a right to self-defence is granted inthis way, many accidental deaths are bound toresult. Moreover the value of guns forself-defence is overrated. A firearm kept in thehome for self-defence is six times more likely tobe used in a deliberate or accidental homicidethan against an unlawful intruder. [1] [1]Drinan, Robert F. ‘Gun Control: The GoodOutweighs the Evil’. The Civil Liberties Review.August/September 1976", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-con02a", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsGun ownership increases nationalsecurity within democratic states “Awell-regulated Militia, being necessary top thesecurity of a free State, the right of the people tokeep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.” –2nd Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. [1]Any country is much more able to defend itselffrom aggression if many of its citizens are able touse guns, keeping them for leisure and sportinguse. Some countries actively require adultcitizens to maintain weapons in their house, andperiodically to train in their use. The high levelsof firearm availability in Iraq and Afghanistanhave been significant contributory factors inallowing for a viable insurrection to form whichhas the potential to generate the politicalpressure necessary to cause the withdrawal offoreign occupiers. Of course, such widespreadownership of weapons is also a safeguard againstdomestic tyranny. [1] See also DIstricxt ofColumbia v Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-con04a", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsEffective gun control is notachievable in democratic states with a traditionof civilian gun ownership Much like the failure ofthe prohibition era to stop alcohol consumption,trying to restrict the use of guns that are alreadywidely owned and prevalent in a society is animpossible task. [1] The people who intend touse guns for illegitimate purposes are obviouslyunconcerned with the fact that it is illegal toacquire the guns in the first place in countrieswhere this is already the case such as in the UK .[2] [3] [1] Kates, Don B. ‘Why a Civil LibertarianOpposes Gun Control’. The Civil Liberties Review.June/July 1976 [2] The Independent. ‘Up to 4mguns in UK and police are losing the battle’. 4thSeptember 2005. [3] The Guardian. ‘Firearms:cheap, easy to get and on a street near you’ 30thAugust 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-con03a", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsSports shooting is a safeactivity Shooting is sport enjoyed by manylaw-abiding people, both in gun clubs withpurpose-built ranges and as a field sport. Thesepeople have the right to continue with theirchosen leisure pursuit, on which they have spentlarge amounts of money – an investment thegovernment would effectively be confiscating iftheir guns were confiscated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-con01a", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsGun ownership is an integralaspect of the right to self defence Law-abidingcitizens deserve the right to protect their familiesin their own homes, especially if the police arejudged incapable of dealing with the threat ofattack. Would-be rapists and armed burglars willthink twice before attempting to break into anyhouse where the owners may keep firearms forself-defence. (This can also be applied to theright to carry concealed weapons, deterringpotential rapists, muggers, etc.)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-con04b", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsLimited restrictions on ownershipand use are different in nature to absoluteprohibition and are more easilyenforced. Statistical analysis shows that thatgun control laws do have a deterrent effect onfirearm deaths and that the magnitude of theeffect is dependent on how well the rules areenforced. [1] The ineffectiveness of badly draftedor enforced gun control regulations is not anindicator of the ineffectiveness of well draftedand enforced regulations. [1] Kwon et al. ‘Theeffectiveness of gun control laws: multivariatestatistical analysis’, The American Journal ofEconomics and Sociology. Jan", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwlrba-con02b", "title": "", "text": "eneral politics politics general house would limitright bear armsThe 2nd Amendment of the U.S.Constitution was written in the age of horse andmusket, where a private citizen could gain accessto the same (or even better) weaponry that thestate did. Unless the opposition want to removeall barriers on gun ownership completely, noarmed citizenry can seriously compete with amodern military armed with tanks, drones andprecision weaponry. Popular resistancemovements rely upon creating an unaffordablepolitical cost to maintaining the occupation (e.g.The US was eventually forced from Vietnam,despite winning virtually every major battle ofthe war), but this assumes that the occupyingpower is vulnerable to that kind of pressure. Anundemocratic invader or a domestic tyranny willhappily slaughter dissidents with impunity (seethe pre-intervention stages of the Libyancivil-war and the 2011 Syrian uprising).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityNo one doubtsthat politicians have to make morally difficultdecisions, where sometimes every option isunpleasant. However, no one wants politicians tohave an unrestricted ability to make ethicalquestionable decisions. That is exactly whatimmunity would deliver them. A politician whoknows that they cannot be touched isincentivized and licensed to be much morebrazen in their behavior when in office, and wewant a bulwark against unrestrictedrule-breaking. A state of affairs whereinpoliticians can sometimes be prosecuted createsthe ideal amount of disincentive for politicians tobreak rules; they will do so only when there is apressing need, and only to a moderate degree.Because of the plausible justifications for suchacts, politicians need not fear prosecution in theoverwhelming majority of cases. For instance, noofficial from either the UK or USA has beenactually indicted with regard to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityPoliticiansshould be able to make difficult decisions withoutfear that selecting one option will lead to theirincarceration. By the most popular definition, astate is the entity with the monopoly on thelegitimate use of force within a defined territory.Politicians, as the government of that state,necessarily wield the institutions of that stateforce. This results in the tremendousresponsibility of deciding when the overwhelmingpower of the state is exercised. This pertains to avariety of areas, such as police action againstcivil unrest, the interrogation of both alleged andconvicted terrorists, and economic policies thatsubsidize industries with state resources. While itis certainly possible to brazenly abuse thispower, in many cases politicians are presentedwith options which are, if at all illegal, marginallyso, and made with the good faith interest of thenation at heart. There are even conceivablesituations in which a politician may exercise", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityThesemechanisms are not immediate enough to put animmediate stop to an aberrant behavior.Impeachment proceedings take months at least;elections may be years away; and reputationaldamage is even more long-term. Moreover,these punishments are nowhere near a sufficientdeterrent. If loss of one’s job, and damage toone’s public image were sufficient deterrents, wewould not prosecute business leaders for insidertrading, nor celebrities for drunk driving. The factis that a criminal justice system which punisheseveryone equally is not just fair; it’s also apractical method of achieving meaningfuldeterrence. Finally, even if we are willing tosettle for one of these lesser punishments, thethreat of a great punishment gives prosecutorsleverage to strike deals with the politicians, suchas offering not to prosecute in exchange forcoming forward with the details of misdeeds.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityProsecutions ofpoliticians are often motivated by partisanconcerns. As noted above, the political life issteeped in difficult decisions, and some of theseare bound to result in choices that are at leastpotentially illegal. The ability to prosecutepoliticians incentivizes political opponents tosearch out past actions by said politicians so asto immobilize them politically. Such prosecutionsare therefore not motivated by concern forjustice, nor are they conducive to awell-functioning, multipartisan political systemwherein representatives seek to work together toachieve their political ends. In the most extremecases, powerful politicians use prosecutions toimmobilize their political opponents.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityGivingpoliticians’ immunity from prosecution allowsthem to focus on performing their duties Thepremier reason that most states, even those thatallow for the prosecution of politicians, abstainfrom prosecuting them while they hold office isthat being a politician is a job that requires one’sundivided attention. Especially for the holders ofprominent national-level offices, writinglegislation, responding to crises under one’spurview, consulting one’s constituents, andengaging in campaign work often lead topoliticians working an upwards of 12 hour day,every day. To expect politicians cope with all ofthese concerns will simultaneously constructing adefense against pending charges would be toabandon all hope of them serving theirconstituents effectively. We are rightlyaggravated when politicians take extensivevacations or other extracurricular forays. [1]Being under indictment not only consumes even", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityPoliticians haveto divide their focus anyway. As the examplesabove concede, being a politician means beingpulled in several different directions. Electionsare particularly distracting, and in jurisdictionswith fixed election cycles like the United Statescan make periods of up to a year prior to theelection a write-off for getting real work done.Thus, personal liability is nothing special amongthe many concerns a politician has. In fact,accountability, of this direct type, and for seriousoffences, is probably more important than mostof the things a politician is forced to consider,and at the very least deserves inclusion amongthem.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityMotivation doesnot matter. Almost every time someone pressescriminal charges, it is for their own personalconcerns (such as wanting retribution), ratherthan concern for the public good; that does notchange the fact that if charges are laid, it isbecause the prosecuting authority has decidedthat, regardless of why the crime has come totheir attention, the interest of society at largerequires that the individual be prosecuted. Ifpolitical motivations are what is needed forpoliticians to be held accountable, so be it. Evenif this is a problem, it can be mitigated withsufficient oversight from an independentprosecuting authority.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityIf we don’t wantpoliticians hurting the dignity of the office, thereis only one thing we can do: not elect politicianslikely to commit crimes! Of course, this is oftenimpossible to tell in advance, but the dilemmaremains: a crime has been committed, and thathurts the dignity of the office no matter whataction we take. One thing that’s worse thanhaving an office’s holder raked over the coals isfor them to get away with a behavior thatotherwise warrants punishment. See discussionbelow under “hurts the image of the office.”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityIn the event ofmajor abuses of power it should be the publicthat holds politicians to account. The obviousbenefit to prosecuting politicians is that itpunishes – and thereby deters – corruption bypoliticians. However, this benefit can be achievedthrough other means. Firstly, many westernliberal democracies have one form or another ofremoving a politician from office in the midst oftheir term, such as impeachment in theAmerican system or a vote of no confidenceagainst the government in the Westminstersystem. While defenders of immunity opposeimpeachment as contrary to the principlesoutlined above (because of the effect that it mayhave on political duties), this is an option thatremains in cases of gross misconduct. If thepolitical will cannot be mobilized to remove asitting politician, they are held accountable bythe electorate to whom they must answer in thenext election, and who will likely punish blatant", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunitySeeing apolitician put on trial hurts the integrity of theiroffice. It does tremendous damage to the publicperception of a given political position to see theholder of that position on trial for criminal acts.Politicians are important role models for thepopulace at large, and shining light on everyoneone of their misdeeds is not conducive to themplaying such a role. This hurts the ability of theirsuccessors who, though completely innocent, arestepping into an institution now tainted with theimage of corruption or scandal. Finally, the veryprocess of prosecution can be damaging to thecountry, as citizens on opposing sides of thepolitical spectrum disagree over the legitimacy ofcharges. These effects all deal real damage tothe political institutions necessary for thefunctioning of the state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-con03b", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityThe concept ofretribution is a narrow and dubious foundationfor justice. A modern, civilized legal systemshould not be geared around delivering paybackon behalf of victims, but rather around advancingthe best consequences for the future. For exactlythis reason legal systems give several ways inwhich defendants can avoid punishment, eventhough they are technically guilty, if punishingthem would have bad consequences; theseinclude jury nullification and suspendedsentences.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-con01b", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunitySee argumentabove regarding other accountability mechanism.Jeopardizing future electoral success, harmingone’s political party, and damage to one’spersonal legacy are all meaningful checks on thebehavior of politicians. To suggest that, in theabsence of prosecutions, an under-used toolanyway, politicians will be able to abuse theirstation with impunity, is simply untrue.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-con02a", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityPoliticians whocommit crimes are likely unfit to serve. The sortof person who commits an offense hasdemonstrated irresponsibility and so is unworthyof the public trust. Would any reasonable citizenwanted to be represented by a domestic abuser,or have a fraudster manage the public treasury?While almost all people are capable of atonementand redemption, someone who commits crimesworthy of prosecution while in office ought to beimmediately removed for the betterment of thestate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-con05a", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityImmunitycreates a perverse incentive to hang on to theiroffice as long as possible. Prosecutorialimmunity brings about a massive side-benefit tobeing in office. It is easy to get used to a lifewhere minor indiscretions go regularlyunpunished, as has happened with dignitariesholding diplomatic immunity. [1] Immunity fromprosecution may spur a politician to seekreelection into their old age when they aresignificantly less effective at performing theirduties. This is one reason why in the vastmajority of democracies elected representatives,while far from poor, are not paid massivesalaries; we don’t want people getting intopolitics for the wrong reasons. [1] Uhlig, MarkA., ‘Court Won’t Bar Return of Boy in Abuse Caseto Zimbabwe’, The New York Times, 1 January1988, [Accessed September 9, 2011]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-con04a", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityImmunity forpoliticians hurts the image of their office Farfrom the worst PR for an office being that aholder of it is on trial, the worst possible publicperception of a political institution is that it iswracked with corruption, with it not eventheoretically possible to hold its members toaccount. Prosecuting politicians makes it clearthat their office is not a den of impunity, and inthe wake of a scandal, restoring publicconfidence in politicians to come. The publicwants their politicians to be accountable andgranting immunity harms accountability bydenying an option.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-con03a", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityImmunity forpoliticians is an unjust double standard Everyvictim deserves to have the perpetrator of theirsuffering answer for their misdeeds. It is unjustthat certain offenders would avoid retribution,and certain victims would be denied their day incourt, simply because of a factor external to thecommission of the crime. Even if the crime is notexternal to the criminal’s political role, thefoundation of a free and fair justice system isthat all individuals are treated alike, regardlessof perceived importance. Hence, a wealthyphilanthropist will not be spared fromprosecution simply because they are a pillar ofthe community. Politicians should receive nogreater reprieve.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-con05b", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityWith regard tothis issue, elections are unquestionably aneffective alternative mechanism. The act of apolitician in a liberal democracy holding on tooffice for another term, by definition, requirespublic assent. The citizenry has an out: don’tcontinue electing politicians who aren’t servingthe public interest. Regardless, politiciansalready have a plethora of motives, bothlegitimate and self-serving, to hold on to publicoffice; this doesn’t move the barometer onincentives to run. Most elections are at leastmodestly well contested precisely because manyqualified candidates really want the position.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-con01a", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityThe ability toprosecute politicians is the ultimate protectionagainst the abuse of power. It is impossible tooverstate the power that the threat ofprosecution has to stay the hand of anyone,including a politician, from transgressing thelaws of the state. In fact, we need moreaggressive prosecution of politicians. Not a singleperson has been prosecuted for approval illegaltorture or wiretapping. These are illegal actionsactually happening which the populace, with onlythe blunt instrument of voting for or against apolitician on the sum total of their policies, isunable to effectively influence. There is nogreater deterrent that could be used againstpoliticians.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-con04b", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityThe differencebetween the harm to the office of a politiciangetting away with a crime and the harm fromthem being tried for that crime is that the trial isinherently public. Short of widespread corruption– the sort that would probably precludeprosecuting politicians anyway – it is unlikelythat unpunished wrongdoing in an office will everbecome public. A trial, by contrast, creates amedia flashpoint that captures the publicconsciousness. Thus, even if the damage to theintegrity of the office is greater per person incases of unpunished crimes, the act of punishingthe crime informs enough people to outweigh thefact that it may not do as much damage percapita.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-eppghwgpi-con02b", "title": "", "text": "eneral punishment politics government housewould grant politicians immunityThis is notnecessarily true. A politician could be a brilliantdiplomat who happens to commit a minoroffence such as drink driving; very few indictableoffences correlate directly with one’s ability todischarge the mandate of a political office.Historically, politicians have often had theirsecret vices, including the rumored drug habitsof many 19th century politicians, that have notimpeded the performance of their duties.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glgvhbqssc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "government local government voting housebelieves quebec should secede canadaAlthoughthere have been flaws in the way that Canadahas dealt with Quebec in the past, it simply isn’ttrue that it is currently denied its right toself-determination. First of all, it is not the will ofthe people to become an independent nation,shown by the results of the most recentreferendum on the issue and recent pollingfigures [1] . Therefore, it is the will of theQuebecers to be governed as part of Canada andbecoming independent would in fact violate thisright to self-determination. Second, there havebeen large steps taken to rectify these pastissues of exclusion of the Quebec voice such asin 2006 where Prime Minister Harper’srecognition of Quebec as a distinct nation withinCanada [2] . [1] Chung, Andrew. \"Sovereignty\"outmoded,\" Quebec poll indicates.\" Star 19 May2010, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. < . [2]\"Harper: Quebec a nation... within Canada.\"Canada.com 22 Nov 2006, n. pag. Web. 1 Dec.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glgvhbqssc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "government local government voting housebelieves quebec should secede canadaQuebechas the right to self-determination. All peoplehave the right to determine their own form ofgovernment and representation and Quebec hasbeen systematically denied this right. Quebechas historically been denied the right todetermine its own form of governancesystematically and therefore the Canadiangovernment has no right to claim legitimacy overQuebec and cannot stop it from leaving thefederation. The Canadian Constitution waspatriated in 1982 in a backroom deal known asthe Meech Lake Accord [1] where Quebec wasexplicitly excluded from the negotiations andtheir issues were ignored. Specifically, Quebecwas attempting to entrench recognition of theirspecial status and needs as a distant societywithin Canada [2] and this was denied. To thisday, Quebec has refused to sign the Canadianconstitution as it feels it doesn’t adequatelyrepresent its interests and needs [3]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glgvhbqssc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "government local government voting housebelieves quebec should secede canadaThe rightto self-determination does not necessitateindependence, but rather determination of theirown governance. This principle is widely seen asnot being about sovereignty, but rather the rightto control local governance for their peoples, aright already extended to the Quebecois. TheInternational Court of Justice, the mostimportant court of international law, hasrecognized the right of self-determination asbeing adequately fulfilled by devolvedgovernance. [1] Moreover, as explained incounterargument one, there is no basis for theQuebecois to claim that they are systematicallydenied adequate representation, making theinternational legal precedent onself-determination irrelevant. [1] Van der Vyver,Johan D., „Self-Determination of the Peoples ofQuebec under International law“, Journal ofTransnational Law and Policy, Vol. 10, No. 1,< >, p.11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glgvhbqssc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "government local government voting housebelieves quebec should secede canadaQuebecneeds to be independent to retain its distinctlanguage and culture. The only way to ensurethat Quebecers get to retain their distinct cultureis to gain independence as a country and removethemselves from the Canadian federation. Avery big issue for certain Quebecers is the threatthat an overwhelmingly English-speaking countryhas on their pocket of distinct French-Quebecoisculture [1] . The unrestricted immigration ofEnglish-speaking Canadians to Quebec hasdiluted the culture of the Quebecois and has setoff the process of cultural-loss and the highlyfeared loss of their language [2] . Moreover,whenever Quebec has tried to put in placeprovisions to protect their culture and language,such as with Bill 101 [3] , Quebec is called racistand Canadian Federal Courts try to strike downtheir laws to stop their “discrimination” againstEnglish-speaking Canadians in their province [4]. The only way that Quebec can protect its", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glgvhbqssc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "government local government voting housebelieves quebec should secede canadaAlthough itmay be true that traditional Quebecois culture isunder threat, this is not necessarily a bad thing.Cultures change and evolve to reflect the richhistory of a territory and its peoples and theinteraction with Anglophonic Canadians is a veryimportant part of that history that should bereflected in Quebecois culture. Moreover,Quebec is more than able to institute languagelaws and cultural policy, as they were able tocontinue the vast majority of the provisions inBill 101 [1] after it was struck down once theystripped out the parts that explicitlydiscriminated against English-speakingCanadians and once they enacted theConstitutional not-withstanding clause that theCanadian constitution has in place to helpaccommodate Provincial diversity such as this.Further to this, Canada is officially a bilingualcountry, and thus the linguistic and culturalrights of the French are constitutionally protected", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glgvhbqssc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "government local government voting housebelieves quebec should secedecanadaInternational Law Mandates Quebec beallowed Independence International lawrecognizes Quebec’s right to self-determinationand denying them self-determination is thereforea violation of international law. International lawrecognizes the right of all peoples toself-determination. The international communityhas decided that it is oppressive to individuals tolive under a government that is systematicallyincapable or unwilling to protect them and theirinterests. [1] The Quebecois have beensystematically denied adequate representation inthe federal government of Canada. Quebecoislegislation protection their basic rights to retaintheir language and culture have been met withcontempt [2] and legal action by the federalCanadian government and courts. [3] This is butone example of the very clear denial of basicrepresentation and self-governance that afflictsthe Quebecois in Canada. Therefore, Quebec", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glgvhbqssc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "government local government voting housebelieves quebec should secede canadaManycountries in the world have bad economies; thisis not a reason to not be an independentcountry. Economic circumstances can changeand be improved through different economicinitiatives; this simply isn’t a good enoughreason to not secede from Canada. Furthermore,there is significant economic evidence thatsuggests that smaller states, such as that ofQuebec, have a higher chance of thrivingeconomically than larger states such as Canada.[1] Therefore, this argument not only does notjustify the opposition case, but also is entirelyspeculative and likely incorrect. Quebec’seconomy could very well benefit significantlyfrom detaching its economy from Canada. [1]Price, Adam, „Small Is Cute, Sexy, andSuccessful: Why Independence for Wales andOther Countries Makes Economic Sense“,Harvard Kennedy School Review, 2011,< >", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glgvhbqssc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "government local government voting housebelieves quebec should secede canadaThis is notthe will of the people of Quebec. Secession fromCanada would not be a fair or adequaterepresentation of the will of the people ofQuebec. The most recent referendum and allcurrent polling data suggest that anoverwhelming majority of Quebecers areopposed to Quebec seeking independence fromCanada [1] . The government of Quebecpursuing such a policy is only representative of avery small minority of people in Quebec, andtherefore is undemocratic in nature. Moreover,this policy explicitly denies consideration orenfranchisement for the very large populations ofAnglophone Quebecers who also deserverepresentation, and whose interests are beingwholly discounted to pursue this one policy onbehalf of the Francophones in theirprovince. Therefore, pursuing secession is bothwholly undemocratic, but also specificallydisenfranchises a very large portion of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glgvhbqssc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "government local government voting housebelieves quebec should secede canadaQuebecwould not be able to be economically viable onits own. Quebec independence simply will notwork because Quebec would not be financiallyviable as an independent economy. Quebec hasbeen financially dependent on the rest of Canadafor years [1] specifically being dependent on“have” provinces such as Alberta to prop-up itseconomy as a “have-not” provinces throughequalization payments [2] . Moreover, allfinancial indicators point to the situation stayingas it is or worsening, with no signs ofimprovement in the economy visible [3] . IfQuebec were to gain independence, it simplywould not be able to sustain itself as anindependent country. Quality of life wouldnecessarily have to drop for all those living inQuebec and the economy would only crashfurther as confidence in it would dwindle onceyou remove the credibility the support of theCanadian government and economy that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glgvhbqssc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "government local government voting housebelieves quebec should secede canadaQuebec isin a unique position as the homeland forFrench-speaking Canadians and therefore has avery different mandate than a normal state orprovince. Quebec has an obligation to the rightsof French Canadians as a group due to its uniqueposition, and just because Anglo-Canadians havemigrated to Quebec does not mean that theprimacy of this special obligation hasdisappeared because the mandate’srepresentation within its territory has beendiluted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsWhile electionscan create a focal point for protest and violencethis may actually make things more predictablenot less. Countries without elections are notwithout opposition groups and protests, all thismeans is that the spark for the protests is goingto be different; police beating someone up, aparticularly extravagant piece of corruption, anattempted cover up, the disappearance of anopposition activist. Not having elections simplyprevents the divisions in society from beinghighly visible; it does not get rid of the divisions,indeed it gets rid of one of the safety valves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsAvoids the costsand uncertainty of elections It is hard to seewhat the benefit of an election that can changenothing is, but there are certainly all the costsassociated with a normal election. Elections canbe costly in financial terms, the United Stateselections cost several billion dollars but evenmuch smaller and less extravagant electionsneed financing. Zimbabwe’s elections in 2013forced the government to ask its neighbours for$85 million to carry out the polls, for a nationthat is essentially bankrupt this is a lot of money.[1] Another cost is uncertainty. In fullydemocratic elections the uncertainty is with whatthe policies will be when the governmentchanges. With sham elections the uncertainty iswhether the elections will be a focus for violence.Sometimes this is during campaigning itself aswith Zimbabwe in 2008 where up to 200 peoplewere killed. [2] Otherwise violence occurs whenthere is a perception that an election has been", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsThere is littleevidence that countries without elections aremore willing to take difficult decisions, or able totake wise decisions, than those that face someform of election. Many petro states have failed todiversify their economies despite having themoney to do so – often investing in wild ideassuch as Saudi Arabia investing $84 billion inagriculture in the desert from 1985-2000.[1] [1] Alterman, Jon B., ‘Water and NationalStrength in Saudi Arabia’, Center for Strategic& International Studies, March 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsHaving noelections is honest Holding sham elections isfundamentally dishonest as it is asking thepeople to choose a government and thenignoring their choice. Not holding elections is atleast honestly telling the people that they get nosay in who is in power. Holding a sham electioninevitably means having to lie to the peoplesomewhere along the line; whether it is inpreventing people registering, or voting, or inmanipulating the results. The people usuallyknow the result is a sham or at least aresuspicious – in the latest Zimbabwean electionthe headlines in the newspapers included“ZANU-PF gloats over victory”. [1] Without asham election the government can at least behonest with their people so enabling a level oftrust or even a kind of contract between the two– the government and the people each lets theother get on with it. Thus for example in Chinatrust in government in 2012 was 76% against", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsBeing honestabout depriving the people of their right tochoose the government is not beneficial. Anunwillingness to hold elections does not build anytrust even when the government has proveditself capable at governing because anunwillingness to hold elections fundamentallyshows distrust by government of the people. Ifthe government trusted the people in return itwould trust them to elect a competentgovernment and representatives.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsThe problem withgood governance and economic success as thebasis of legitimacy is that a crisis of legitimacy iscreated whenever growth falters or corruptioncomes to light. Legitimacy based uponperformance also has the problem that if acertain performance becomes normal then thebenchmarks must be higher and higher over timeto continue to provide legitimacy. [1] Havinglegitimacy at least in part based on periodicelections, even if these are somehow rigged, ismore sustainable as the legitimacy is renewedwhenever there is a new election or change ingovernment. This has the added benefit that asfairer elections are seen as more legitimate thereis a greater chance that sham elections willbecome real elections to ensure the regime hasmore legitimacy even at the risk of it being votedout - as shown recently by Burma being willingto take the democratic route. [1] Lam, Jon-Jon,‘Performance Legitimacy: an Unstable Model for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsAllows the ruler tomake necessary but unpopulardecisions Democracy and elections are aboutpopularity but popular decisions are not alwaysthe right ones. Even mature democracies havesometimes seen their government’s make use ofthe levers of government to boost their electoralchances; for example Margaret Thatcher’sgovernment stoked the economy in the Lawsonboom in 1987 which just happened to be anelection year. [1] Governments without electionscan engage in long term planning and makeunpopular decisions without fear of theconsequences. Thus for example Saudi Arabia iswilling to pump less oil (and so get less money inthe short term at least) in order to createstability in the oil market by having enoughexcess capacity to prevent price spikes. [1]Congdon, Tim, Keynes, the Keynesians andMonetarism, 2007, p.73", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsForces the ruler tofind another way to placate the people Nothaving any elections – or only elections for apowerless advisory parliament – may actuallyhave a benefit in putting responsibility squarelyon the shoulders of the rulers. Only a countrythat is comparatively well governed, orsuccessful, can manage without a democraticsafety valve. It is notable that the remainingabsolute monarchies or those where the Kingrules as well as reigns are mostly very wealthypetro states. Several of the remainingcommunist regimes, China and Vietnam, rely onrapid economic growth to cement theirlegitimacy combined with meritocracy in theirselection of leaders. In both cases there is anincentive for good governance by those in poweras they are in for the long term. The leadersknow they are not going to be elected out ofoffice so have the motivation to reducecorruption and create long term growth through", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con03b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsIf the governmentwere genuinely interested in what the peoplewant then there would be far more reliable waysthan through an election. Polling could be doneon each individual policy providing a much finergranularity of response to tell policymakers whatthey really want. All that a government will beable to tell from a sham election is that thepeople don’t like the government.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con01b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsStates can haveelections that have almost no chance of changingthe government for decades. These elections canactually set back the cause for genuinedemocracy. There are several reasons for this.First having elections, or marginally expandingthe number of parties or franchise, so providingliberal political reform can be used to keep theopposition on side through constantly danglingthe prospect of further reform. Thus Sadat in1977 allowed elections in response to discontentover peace overtures to Israel and in 1984following his assassination Mubarak made theseelections multiparty. [1] Secondly havingelections can be used to disrupt the opposition ascoalitions of disparate elements are difficult tocreate so it will likely lead to internal squabblingand victory for the ruling party. Encouragingsuch squabbling will then prevent there being asingle recognised opposition party or figure thancan be seen as able to take over. When there is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con02a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsElections of anysort force rulers to meet their people Electionsalmost anywhere in the world mean politiciansgetting out and campaigning. Regardless of thelegitimacy of the final election the leadership ofthe country will be going out and meeting voters.In many of these events individuals won’t beable to express their views but there are alsolikely to be protests and meetings whereindividuals can get their views across. Thisprovides an opportunity for the leader to stay intouch with the people – often a problem withdictators who have been in power toolong. Dictators will want to, and often believethat they are likely to win even without resort tofraud, as Marcos did in 1985. [1] They are thenare much more likely to consider the views of theelectorate to still be relevant if there areelections than if there are not. Thus for exampleMugabe in the most recent elections made a bidfor, and won, the youth vote by promising a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con04a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsSham elections donot mean the elections have no influence orimpact. For an autocracy the election for the topjob needs to be predetermined, but the otherelections do not. This means that elections forthe legislature can still be competitive. The seatsdo have some influence, provide patronage, andhave status attached so there are plenty ofpeople who want to contest them. In the Arabworld before the Arab spring there was a lessthan 25% incumbency rate for legislatures. [1]Having elections that determine control in localareas or allow opposition some control inparliament is far preferable to the alternativewhere the government appoints everyone. AungSan Suu Kyi and the National League forDemocracy in Burma have for example gainedentry into Parliament and have despite being aminority had an impact. This has particularlybeen the case internationally. They have helpedliberalise the new Foreign Investment Law and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con03a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsEven a shamelection demonstrates what the people want Inan election the people show what their policypreferences will be. Even if the government isengaging in vote rigging or voter intimidationthey will still know how the people voted orwanted to vote (if they stuffed the ballot they willknow how many extra votes they added) so willhave some guidance as to the policies that thepeople wish implemented. If there are multipledifferent parties competing in the elections thenit will be possible to tell which party platformsare the most popular and so which to take ideasfrom. If there are elections then there areopposition parties and independent MPs who aregiven much more space than they would bewithout elections. Being MPs gives the oppositionsome status and gives them a controlled settingin which to criticise the government. Thisprovides the opposition with the chance tochannel the voice of the people and encourage", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con01a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsSome kind ofelection is more likely to lead to real democracythan no election The acceptance by mostautocrats that there need to be elections showsthe idea that legitimacy derives from the peopleis generally accepted. Meaning that these statesare already part way to having a genuinedemocracy. Having regular elections, even if theoutcome is preordained, means that theelectorate becomes used to voting and the ideaof voting to make their voice heard. In suchcircumstances eventually they are going to wanttheir vote to really count. If there is a creepingprocess of reform eventually this will result infree and fair elections. Having any kind ofelections means that there are people who arerecognised as an opposition. This means thatthere is a viable alternative to the ruling partywhich can be turned to in a crisis, or can take onthe leadership role when the regime is finallytoppled. For example in Philippines the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con04b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsThis is simplyco-opting the opposition in an attempt to allowthe regime to survive longer than it wouldotherwise done. As Morgan Tsvangirai of theMovement for Democratic Change in Zimbabwehas found out even being in a coalitiongovernment with a dictator does not give you thepower to change the outcome over the longterm. He has called his election defeat “coup byballot” reflecting the vote rigging that he believesoccurred to keep President Mugabe in power. [1]The Movement may have had a significantimpact during its time in governmenteconomically but it totally failed to prise the realpower out of the hands of Zanu PF. [1] Smith,David, ‘Morgan Tsvangirai loses hope followingelection defeat’, The Guardian, 4 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhwhnerse-con02b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house would have noelections rather sham electionsThere is littledifference between a stage managed electionand stage managed events without elections. Ineither case the chances of the autocrat meetingreal people who present opinions that are not onthe party message are slim.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsAn elected mayor would give theappearance of accountability, but at the risk ofstifling democratic debate. At present policies aredebated by council committees, and then by thefull council, which represents a wide spectrum ofviews and interests; the public and media canusually attend these meetings, so overallproposals have to survive detailed examination.Focusing power in the hands of one person riskspolicy mistakes, ignores the interests ofminorities, and allows for the possibility ofcorruption, especially if they are in office for fouryears and cannot be removed by vote of thecouncil. Ken Livingstone, who was Mayor ofLondon for eight years, argues “It’s easy to avoidserious scrutiny – Boris has had six pressconferences in four years. When you come to seehow the assembly gets to question him once amonth that’s not the same as a detailed scrutinyby a council committee.” [1] Greateraccountability could instead be achieved by use", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsMayors would be more accountable thana council Electing mayors would improveaccountability in local government. A Mayorwould have a bigger mandate, which could be upto 500,000 votes compared to 5,000 forindividual councillors making them more directlyaccountable to the city’s electorate. [1] They arealso more visible; 57% of people could nametheir mayor when they had one compared to only8% being able to name their council leader andso they are more likely to be held to account fortheir individual policies. [2] By comparison wherethere are not mayors an elaborate and confusingseries of committees make decisions in mostareas, making it easy for individual councillors orparties to dodge responsibility for unpopulardecisions or failed policies. Bristol is a goodexample of this with wobbly coalitions resultingfrom backroom deals and constantly shiftingpolitics; the council changed hands seven timesin the ten years to 2012. [3] Placing this power", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsTalented individuals with a proven trackrecord are unlikely to seek mayoral office unlesslocal government is given much greaterautonomy by central government. With thepowers for each city not yet clear many may notbe willing to take the risk. The reason for thelack of talent in councils is therefore not becausethey work as a body rather than one prominentindividual but that councils themselves have toolittle power. Regardless of the system of election,if real power is offered, real leaders will beattracted by the prospect of wielding it and willrise to prominence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsElecting a Mayor will revitalise localdemocracy An elected mayor would revitaliselocal democracy. At present many people haveno idea who their local councillors are, or wholeads their council, perhaps because collectivedecision-making is generally unexciting. It is notsurprising then that turnout is only around 30%and in some urban areas in Britain fewer than 1in 4 adults bother to vote in local elections – theworst turnout in the EU. [1] An elected mayorwould act as a focus for local people, bothsymbolically and as someone with real power toimprove their lives. Local elections would gainmore coverage and more people’s attention asthey are voting for one recognisable figure ratherthan a number of councillors. This in turn wouldturn attention to local democracy and increaseturnout in elections. [1] Shakespeare, Tom, ‘ForGood Measure Devolving Accountability forPerformance and Assessment to Local Areas’,Localis, 2010, p.17", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsDirectly elected mayors would do little torenew local democracy. In the past, councils inthe UK used to have a great deal of power,controlling schools, housing and local utilities,and setting budgets and raising revenues moreor less as they wished. Since 1979 these powershave been greatly reduced with powerincreasingly centralised in Whitehall, which alsogreatly limits councils’ financial freedom so thatlocal taxes bear little relation to localexpenditure. [1] Not surprisingly, as the realdecision-making power of local councils hasdiminished, so has the proportion of citizens whothink it is worth voting for them. There is noreason to think that people will flock in greaternumbers to vote for a mayor who may well endup with similar restrictions placed uponthem. [1] Parry, Keith, ‘Local government:timeline from 1979’, House of Commons Library,10 January 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsElecting a maverick candidate could dothe image of a town or city a great deal of harmrather than good. Cities such as Birminghamhave already been highly successful at attractinginward investment under the present system oflocal government. In any case, the majorbureaucratic constraints on investment relate toissues of subsidy and tax-breaks, which areoutlawed by the EU, and to national taxation andplanning policies, set in Whitehall, none of whichwill be affected by an elected mayor.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsElected Mayors would attract the bestcandidates to run for office. Elected mayorswould allow talented individuals to make adifference, regardless of their party affiliation.The present system rewards long-serving andloyal party hacks rather than innovativemanagers, thinkers and leaders; polls show thatthe public think councillors put party politicsabove the needs of their community. Those whoare most talented who are elected are simplyusing the council as a stepping stone for runningfor national office. If mayors were directlyelected, local parties would have to find dynamiccandidates with a proven ability to solveproblems and manage big organisations, or risksuch candidates running and winning asindependents. This has already been shown to bethe case in London where Ken Livingstone (whoinitially became Mayor as an independent) andBoris Johnson, both established and well knownpoliticians, ran for Mayor, and in Birmingham", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsMayors would raise the profile of the citythey represent Elected mayors would speak onbehalf of their communities, raising the profile oftheir town or city nationally and internationally.This could be particularly valuable whennegotiating with businesses, helping to drawvaluable investment into their area andovercoming bureaucratic hurdles that typicallyhinder development. Chambers of commerce incities that are holding referendums believe afigurehead will provide a focal point for businessrelations and a single point of contact thatchampions the city’s interests. [1] In addition,mayors would give local government in general ahigher profile after years of increasingcentralisation by national government. Actingcollectively, and through the change in attitudestheir higher media profile would generate,mayors would be able to draw power away fromthe centre once again and bring it closer to thepeople. [1] Carter, Andrew, ‘Mayors and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-con03b", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsWhile there may be some extra costs tohaving a mayor this is likely to be marginal andoverall costs may well fall, as Prime MinisterCameron argues “if you end up with a mayor,you’ll actually save money, because mayors canbang heads together, get rid of bureaucracy, andright now, any mayor worth their salt will betrying to get bills down.” [1] There are manylayers of funding which create needless overlapsand administration; in Leicester it is estimatedfor economic development it costs £135 millionin overheads to spend £176 million on projects,[2] an inefficiency the new mayor would be in agood position to get to grips with. [1] ITV News,‘Bristol mayor will save money, says PrimeMinister’, A Mayor for Bristol, 24, April 2012. [2]Carter, Andrew, ‘Mayors and Economic Growth’,in Tom Gash and Sam Sims eds., What canelected mayors do for our cities? Institute forGovernment, 2012, pp.37-42, p.42", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-con01b", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsElecting a mayor would not concentratepower too much in the hands of one individual.Although models of local government vary,mayors usually have to pick a cabinet fromamong the elected councillors and to seekapproval for their policies and budget from thewhole elected council. A mayor would thus haveto persuade and build a consensus in order togovern effectively. This is a more transparentapproach to local decision making than thepresent one, and should therefore be free fromthe accusations of corruption and nepotism thathave been levied at the old system.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-con02a", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsDirectly elected mayors provideopportunities for populists. The position ofelected mayor is likely to attract populist andmaverick candidates, who will seek to capitaliseon the unpopularity of party politics with “singleissue sloganising, glib promises and headlinegrabbing” (Ken Walker, Labour leader ofMiddlesbrough council). [1] A good example isPaul Massey, who has had 25 convictions in thepast and yet is running to be Mayor of Salfordand could even have a chance of winning. [2] Inoffice such candidates are likely to alienateelected councillors and other crucial localpartners, to disappoint voters as their promisesrun up against the actual limitations of theirpower, and to neglect many aspects of localgovernment in favour of their own pet issue. Thisdanger is even greater if a far-right candidatewere to exploit local concerns about immigrationand asylum-seekers to inflame racial tensions.Again Lutfur Rahman of Tower Hamlets is a good", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-con04a", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsMayors could split economic regions Thevalue of a mayor is dependent upon that mayorhaving a distinct area of control. However oftenthis area is set too small. Cities are the hubs forneighbouring towns and countryside as well asthe inner city. This could then end up splitting upeconomic regions. Birmingham and Coventry arevery close to each other but at some point in thefuture could potentially have different citymayors. There would then be confusion; whoruns regional transport policy or the WestMidlands police that affects both cities? [1] [1]McCabe, Steve, ‘An executive mayor – can weafford it?, Birmingham Mail, 17 April 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-con03a", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsMayors will come at a cost HavingMayors is costly. First of all there is thereferendum and the election of the Mayor himselfwhich Bristol council has said could cost up to£400,000. [1] This is then followed by the extraadministrative cost created by having a Mayorwho will of course have to have deputies, staff,offices, cars and a publicity budget, which couldmean up to £3 million a year. [2] This is moneythat at a time where councils are facing budgetcuts could be better spent on shoring up theservices councils provide. [1] The Economist,‘Why elected mayors matter’, 19 April 2012. [2]McCabe, Steve, ‘An executive mayor – can weafford it?, Birmingham Mail, 17 April 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-con01a", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsMayors would result in too muchcentralisation of power. An elected mayor wouldhave too much power, making the prospect of itsmisuse alarming. If the mayor has the power tochoose their own cabinet of councillors, thiscould be as small as three members, all of whomcould be sacked at will for opposing the wishes ofthe mayor. If the mayor has the right to delegatepowers to his cabinet members, they equallyhave the authority to reserve all the real powersto themselves. And those councillors outside thecabinet would have little to do other than tomonitor broken streetlights and the standard ofrefuse collection in their ward. Why wouldtalented and ambitious people stand for councilin these circumstances, and what would theabsence of such people do for the council’soversight of the mayor?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-con04b", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsCoordinating between a few mayors in aregion is considerably easier than betweenhundreds of councillors. The whole point ofdevolving power is to let local people have moreinfluence and decide for themselves.Neighbouring areas could eventually havereferendums to become part of the areacontrolled by the mayor if it is seen as beingnecessary just as they would to get a mayor oftheir own.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-lghwdecm-con02b", "title": "", "text": "local government house would directly elect citymayorsIf the position of Mayor is given powersthen it will attract a wide range of candidates,which may include extremists. However thesecandidates are no more likely to win than theywould be in any other election. As with any otherelection voters are likely to vote for centristcandidates that have strong manifestos and goodideas about how to solve the city’s problems.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyFirst, it is not clear whether such aposition is topical. Second, it is better to supportprotesters in this case, rather than taking thelead. To begin with, it is not clear that assistingindividuals in the fight for democracy is a validinterpretation of the phrase \"imposingdemocracy\": if the majority of people want it,perhaps it is not really an imposition. But secondand more importantly, if internal movementsexist, foreign nations should seek to strengthenand support those movements rather thanimpose a government. Democratic governmentsgain legitimacy through popular support: both inorigin and in survival. A government chosen andfilled by the citizenry is far more legitimate, andthus more likely to command respect andmaintain order, than one enforced by a foreignregime.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyImposing democracy can be a way tosupport individuals unable to fight for democracythemselves. If the people within a nation wantdemocracy, it is not wrong -- indeed it may evenbe morally required -- for us to assist them byimposing democracy against the will of thegoverning class. Often internal movements lackresources, weapons, or organization, making thefight for democracy very difficult. Whenindividuals seek to defend their rights against anoppressive regime, other nations do them adisservice by allowing evil to win out. ThusNATO's intervention in Libya was in support ofrebels often seen as part of the 'Arab spring'wave of democratization but the internalmovement even if it had large amounts ofsupport was being suppressed and would havebeen destroyed without outside intervention1. 1Traub, James. \"Stepping In\", Foreign Policy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyFirst, democracies are not necessarilymore peaceful than other governments. Second,imposition of democracy is likely to fuelterrorism. First, it is not entirely clear thatdemocracies have not gone to war: for examplethe Central Powers in WWI, although notclassified as democracies per se, did haveelected parliaments just like the Allies. Further,just because democracies have not gone to warin the past does not mean they will not in thefuture: a culture of negotiation within thedemocracy does not necessarily translate into alack of aggression externally. Second, even ifdemocracies are more peaceful, the imposition ofdemocracy can threaten to world peace byfuelling terrorist movements. Invasions,particularly by Western nations, increaseEast-West tensions, galvanize terrorist groups byvalidating their claims that Western nations posea threat. Indeed, in Osama bin Laden's public", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyInterventions can be successful giventhe right conditions. Certain factors mayincrease the chance of success: for exampleimposing democracy on a nation with whichthere were once colonial relationships increasesthe expected lifespan of the democracy.Democratic transitions in general also tend to bemore successful if economic conditions arebetter. Obviously we are not advocatingimposing democracy on every country whichdoes not have it, but if there are strong enoughinstitutions and conditions, imposition can workand there have been past successes likeGermany and Japan post WWII that show theworth of imposing democracy1/2. 1 Enterline,Andrew J. and Greig, J. Michael.\"Against AllOdds? Historical Trends in Imposed Democracy& the Future of Iraq & Afghanistan.\" 2Przeworski et al \"What Makes DemocraciesEndure?\" Journal of Democracy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyInterventions are far more likely tofail than to succeed. As explained further inOpposition Argument 2, empirically and logicallyimposed democracy is likely to fail. Governmentscan try and minimize the risk of failure, but it isinherent to the nature of imposition that agovernment is being instated against thecountry's will. It is consequently very unlikely togenerate support and remain stable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyThere are two problems: democracy isnot necessarily the best form of government,and even if it is that does not mean it is ourobligation to impose it. First, just because webelieve that political self-determination is animportant value, it does not mean that it islogically more important than other values. If,for example, a society places great value onstability, it may not want a government thatchanges every few years. If a society is veryreligious, its people may prefer to be ruled by agovernment claiming divine authority. Second,even if democracy is objectively better thanother governments, that does not mean we mustor should intervene in other countries to imposeit. Perhaps we should intervene in the case ofserious rights abuses-- such as genocide-- butthe lack of complete political freedom is not alife-threatening issue.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyPromoting democracy promotespeace. By most accounts, there has not been awar between two democracies in the past 200years. Immanuel Kant argued in Perpetual Peace(1795) that a) democratic governments are moreconstrained by their people's opposition to warand b) that a democratic culture of negotiation,as well as the checks and balances inherent insuch a system, make war less likely. Thus bypromoting democracy through imposing it, weincrease the chance of a peaceful world.Furthermore, terrorism may be less likely toarise in democratic countries, where people areallowed to air their views and human rightsnorms prevent feelings of marginalization. This isgood for human rights worldwide, including therights and safety of individuals in our owncountry.1 1 \"Do Democracies Fight Each Other?\"BBC.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyBecause democracy is the best formof government, it is not wrong-- and indeed mayeven be our obligation-- to bring it to those whodo not have it. Democratic regimes are the bestform of government, and it is our obligation totry and provide that to others. Democracy is theonly form of government which upholds thevalue of political self-determination: that eachindividual has a right to form his/hergovernment, and to vote out governments s/hedoes not like. To deny this right is to deny theinherent worth and freedom of the individual.Political autonomy also has instrumental valueinsofar as it allows individuals to check abusivegovernments which may seek to violate otherhuman rights. Thus it is certainly not wrong --and may even be our humanitarian obligation --to bring democracy to those who do not have it,just as we would intervene in other situations inwhich serious rights were being abused1. 1 Fish,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-con03b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would impose democracyEvenif individuals within a nation do not overtlysupport democracy, that does not mean thatdemocracy does not serve their interests, andthat they will not support it once it exists. Thereare two reasons this might be true. First,individuals may be too scared to show supportfor democracy, for fear of repercussion. Second,individuals may not realize that they wantdemocracy, but come to understand andappreciate it once it is there. Power analysistheory helps us understand how individuals aremanipulated into supporting systems that workagainst their interests: for exampleanti-feminists during the early and mid 20thcentury, who accepted male dominance as anecessary and desirable fact of life. Thus, it maytake some foreign intervention to create supportfor democracy. And, despite the fact thatimposed democracy often does fail, there havebeen success stories (as well as Germany and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-con01b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyImposed democracy is better than nodemocracy. Ideally, every democraticgovernment would be created by the people.However, given that this is often not possible --corrupt governments are too powerful,populations lack the unity to organize, the lack ofdemocratic tradition precludes effectivetransition without external guidance-- it is surelybetter to have imposed democracy than nodemocracy. Even if theoretically a democraticgovernment is formed by the people, practicallyspeaking that may not be a possibility, and weshould not let abstract philosophical ideasprevent us from effecting real positive change.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-con02a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyUnilateral action is burdensome, anddangerous. POINT The motion suggests that aparticular government is imposing democracy,but in fact it is far better to try and encouragedemocracy multilaterally. Multilateral assistance,like the UN Democracy Fund which seeks to\"strengthen the voice of civil society, promotehuman rights, and encourages the participationof all groups in the democratic process\"1, isbetter, because it makes the support seem lesspolitical and colonial, and more honest. By usingthe international community to encouragedemocracy in a given country, we increase thechances of the people in that country respectingand supporting our attempts, rather thanviewing them with suspicion2. 1 United NationsDemocracy Fund, 'About UNDEF', 2010, 2 Doyle, Michael. \"Promoting Democracy is NotImposing Democracy.\" The Huffington Post.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-con05a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyAttempting to impose democracy mayescalate conflict. Intervening in a country, andattempting to impose a different government, islikely to a) result in backlash and b) destabilizethe country by destroying infrastructure anddisrupting services. Both these things make it farmore likely that violent conflict will emerge,either between the country and the imposers, orwithin the country, as rival factions are forced tocompete for scarce resources and rightsprotection. Iraq is a prime example ofintervention causing a civil war. The previousgulf war combined with sanctions and weeks ofbombing destroyed Iraq's infrastructure resultingin what General Odierno called 'societaldevastation'1 and the disbanding of the armyand debaathification forced the experiencedadministrators who ran the country out of theirjobs.(Kane, 'Don't repeat the mistakes of Iraq inLibya', 2011) The result was the attempt to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-con04a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would impose democracyTheimposition of democracy violates nationalsovereignty Countries have a right to choose theform of government they want, and we do nothave the right to violate this right by imposingthe form of government we think is best. Nationsmay want to be ruled by, for example, religiousor tribal law, or a Communist system which aimsto remove government altogether. We canencourage nations to adopt democracy if wethink it is better, but ultimately nations areself-directing entities which can only beinterfered with in extreme situations. The UnitedNations has states as equals no matter theirgovernment and only authorises force in the caseof an act of aggression towards anotherstate1. 1 United Nations, Charter of the UnitedNations, 1945,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-con03a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would impose democracyThedesire for, and fight for, democracy must comefrom within or else democratic government willnot be sustainable. Unless the people within acountry want democracy, they will not respect it.Unlike military dictatorships, democraticgovernments do not rely solely -- or evenmainly-- on force to enforce the law. Rather,most people obey the law at least in partbecause they believe those laws are legitimate,as the result of free and fair elections. If citizensdo not want such an electoral system, then thereis no reason for them to obey the law, pay taxesetc. and the government will be unable tomaintain order. Indeed, foreign-imposeddemocracies often slide back into authoritarianregimes because they find that they cannotuphold the law (at least without foreign support).Enterline and Greig found in a 2007 empiricalstudy that half of imposed democracies failwithin 30 years, and that this failure reduces the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-con05b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyGovernments can take actions to helpreduce conflict. Most people agree that thestrategy behind the Iraq War was extremelyweak. Furthermore, it was clear that theAmerican government had ulterior motives andthat establishing democracy was not the only --or even the most important -- goal, thusreducing the American government's legitimacyin the eyes of Iraqis and the internationalcommunity. Alternately, in nations wherebacklash against dictatorships causes violentconflict -- like in Syria or Libya -- imposingdemocracy could bring a chance of stability and agovernment that people actually trusted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-con01a", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would imposedemocracyDemocracy by its very nature cannotbe imposed. Democratic government is not onlygovernment for the people, but also governmentby and of the people. A foreign-imposedgovernment is not a government established bythe people which it rules, meaning that it lacksthe legitimacy necessary to claim democraticstatus. It is wrong to force a government uponpeople, and imposers of 'democracy' do just that.This is exacerbated by the fact thatforeign-imposed democracies often have a greatdeal of trouble governing themselvesindependently (like the Iraqi and Afghanigovernments, which are still very much relianton the United States), thus de- legitimizing thegovernment even further1. 1 Doyle, Michael.\"Promoting Democracy is Not ImposingDemocracy.\" The Huffington Post.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-con04b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would impose democracyIt iswrong to suggest that the rule of law, orprotection of civil rights, is less important indifferent regions. The fact is that democracy isthe only form of government which respectsevery individual's right to political selfdetermination (as explained in PropositionArgument 1). States may have the right toself-direct, but they do not have the right todeny their citizens basic political freedoms.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-ypppdghwid-con02b", "title": "", "text": "y political philosophy politics defencegovernment house would impose democracyTorely on multilateral action is utopian. First, themotion does not exclude multilateralcooperation; this house may impose democracywith the support of others. But second, the UNdoctrine of non-intervention in the domesticaffairs of independent nations means thatunilateral or bi-lateral actions are often the onlyrealistic possibilities. This is especially importantgiven that China has a veto on the SecurityCouncil and other Security Council regularmembers are not themselves democracies. Ifother countries are not willing to help us imposeor fight for democracy, why should we not tryourselves?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedThe accusation that theHouse of Lords is inherently conservative is anunjust accusation, as proven by their siding withthe people on unpopular government policiessuch as student tuition fees and the 42 daysdetention. Today no party has a majority in theChamber, with independent peers holding thebalance of power in any vote.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedThe House of Lords has aninbuilt conservative majority. The traditionalprovenance of the House of Lords translates toan in-built Conservative majority. Even so calledLiberal and Labour peers are usuallyconservative in their opinions. They represent asocial and economic elite and seem to flauntdiversity monitoring in a house with only 181female peers and a staggeringly low 31 peersfrom ethnic minorities. [1] This unfair skew inthe favour of the conservative has the power toslow down and revise legislation and is a grossmisrepresentation of the British population. TheHouse of Lords should be reformed in order tobetter reflect the British people so that theiractions and decisions benefit the whole of societyand not just their own. [1] Smith, Ben, ‘EthnicMinorities in Politics, Government and PublicLife’, House of Commons Library (18 November2008) and see viewed 1 June 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedHouse of Lords reformdefeats the point; firstly the election processwould deter many industry experts and attractpolitical opportunists instead, thus eliminatingthe current worth of the House of Lords. It likelythat if elected the House of Lords would simplybecome a mirror for the House of Commons. Bybeing non-elected the House of Lords is freefrom political sways and can work in thelong-term interests of the country.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedThe House of Lords is out oftouch with the electorate. The 19th century USPresident Abraham Lincoln stated thatdemocracy should be ‘Government of the people,by the people, for the people’ [1] Thereforepeers who sit in the house based on noble birthright or their membership of the Church ofEngland, that is itself largely ignored by thepeople, do not represent the people ofBritain. [1] A' Short Definition of Democracy’,Democracy-building.info, 2005, viewed on 1 June2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedThe House of Lords may notbe representative of the British population butinstead they represent an array of educatedexperts who can give informed advice onGovernment policy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedAlthough the House of Lordsmay not be a true expression of ‘democracy’, ithas a positive function in the governing of thecountry and is based in a tradition and heritagethat the people of Britain should not try andabandon. One could argue in return that thosevery decisions and wars that Britain is in involvedin to defend ‘democracy’ do not reflect the will ofthe people and that modern states are not truedemocracies at all. In practice the British peoplehave a limited say in how the country is run andit would be naïve to champion the idea of Britainbeing a ‘democracy’ by ignoring the existence ofsuch an overpowering state machine.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedReform would strengthen theHouse of Lords Reform of the House of Lordswould strengthen the legitimacy of the houseand therefore improve its functions. By electingthe second chamber they would gain thelegitimacy to not simply stall bills but reject themall together or drafts bills of their own, thusfacilitating a more dynamic government, able tochange. Using a different electoral technique, forexample Proportional Representation withmembers sitting for longer periods would allowthem to still be of a different composition to theHouse of Commons and not sway to short-termpolitical popularity. Electing different portions atdifferent times would also guard against a freaklandslide result affecting the house’s balance. Bycreating a worthy opposition to the House ofCommons all issues would be debated anddecided upon more fairly and government wouldbe more closely monitored.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedThe current House of Lords isundemocratic The House of Lords isundemocratic. Currently the members of theHouse of Lords consist of hereditary peers,senior members of the Church of England andthose appointed by political parties. Whether ornot there is an abuse of power or the outcome ofthe House of Lords is beside the point – its veryexistence in its current state is undemocratic andas such it should be reformed. It seemsnonsensical that a country that lectures to therest of the world the importance of democracy,to the point of war, should overlook such agrievance in their own society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedThe fear of controversy or ofan ‘unworkable’ government is not reason to stallreform. If we adopt the stance that agovernment knows best or if we excuse agovernment to override the will of its people inthe name of the greater good, then we pave theway for the misuse of power. Democracy shouldbe held in the highest regard, only free societiescan be secure and developed as shown innumerous historic example. Only fundamentallyfree societies can be fundamentally secure anddeveloped, which is backed up by manyexamples from history. [1] Democracy hasproved itself as better than the alternatives,where autocracies, oligarchies and theocracieshave failed, democracy has prevailed. [1]Grizold, Professor Anton, Peacebuilding and theimpact of post-conflict areas on Europeansecurity (Department of Political Science,University of Ljublana)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedAlthough a small number ofmembers of the House of Lords are industryexperts the fact remains that there is still aproportion of hereditary peers, which guaranteesno expertise whatsoever. Furthermore politicalparties can elect peers which is simply absurd,parties should not be able to appoint their ownwatch dogs: David Cameron has alreadyappointed 117 peers in less than a year. [1] [1]Barrett, Matthew, ‘Full House: Cameron warnedagainst appointing more peers’, (20 April 2011)viewed 1 June 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedReform would make theHouse of Lords simply a mirror of the House ofCommons An elected House, even one electedevery ten years, would still think about policiesthat are popular in the short term rather thanthe long-term welfare of the country, making itcloser to the House of Commons in its interestand reducing its role as a balance. By subjectingthe second chamber to election there would betwo outcomes: if elected at the same time theHouse of Lords would simply become amirror-image of the House of Commonsrendering it pointless, if elected mid-term thecomposition of the House of Lords would reflectthe tendency for a government to be unpopularmid-term, thus creating gridlock and making thesystem unworkable. Reform of the House ofLords is impractical and undesirable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedThe public is apathetic toreform. Whether or not reform of the House ofLords should be a top priority in the currenteconomic climate is debateable, let alonewhether or not a coalition government would beable to initiate and drive through such measures.Attempts to reform the House of Lords havebeen delayed time and time again,demonstrating the House of Commons’reservations on change. [1] A feeling that is nodoubt echoed in popular British opinion – asdemonstrated by the recent outcome of theAlternative Vote – the public are either adverseto the idea of change or apathetic to it. [2] [1]Summers, Deborah, ‘Labour's attempts to reformthe House of Lords’, The Guardian (27 January,2009), viewed on 1 June 2011 [2] BBC News,‘Vote 2011: UK rejects alternative vote, 7 May2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedDemocracy should not be theend-point aspiration of government. One shouldnot assume that the lack of democracy is whollynegative; do the majority of people know what isbest for the country? Or do industry experts?Could the public reach a consensus on importantgoverning decisions? Government can see thebigger picture and balance the needs of differentinterest groups to produce the best outcome forall: ‘true’ democracy is simply unworkable andcan too easily lead to the ‘tyranny of themajority’ as described by Fareed Zakaria. [1]Perhaps the best way to illustrate this point is tolook at the two champions of democracy: Franceand America. France overturned its monarchyand government in the name of liberty, yetquickly descended into mob-rule and violence;‘democracy’ had a bloody birth. [2] Similarly oneonly has to look at the appalling levels ofinequality within the United States of America toquestion the nature and worth of ‘democracy’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedThe House of Lords allows anumber of experts to influence governmentpolicy. While the members of the House of Lordsmay represent a small section of society, theyalso include expert peers including lawyers,scientists, businesspeople, academics, doctorsand civil servants that can balance out thesometimes short term, political opportunismpresent in the House of Commons. Election doesnot guarantee these expertise and knowledge, sohaving a second chamber that is appointedrather than elected improves the quality of thegovernance of the country.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedThe AV campaign cannot becompared to reform to the House of Lords,furthermore one should not mistake amisinformed public due to political spin, withapathy. Often voters express that they areapathetic because they feel that they can’tchange anything, that there vote won’t count:reform that ensures the people running thecountry are directly elected by the people wouldhelp to counter these feelings.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-gvhbhlsbr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "government voting house believes house lordsshould be reformedThe House of Lords could beelected on a longer term basis than the House ofCommons – ten years for example. Furthermoreelections could be staggered during this periodso the House of Lords would never simply be a‘mirror’. Furthermore the House of Lords shouldbe democratically elected and it should reflectthe will of the people, whether or not this is a‘mirror’ of the other house is not relevant as itreflects the results in a fair vote. Similarly ifelected mid-term and the House of Lordsreflected mid-term unpopularity of the rulingparty, then this too would be the will of thepeople – any clashes would be part of thedemocratic process.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digital freedomsBeing acitizen does not come with a right to knoweverything that the state does. In much thesame way being a shareholder does not meanyou get to know absolutely everything everyperson in a business does. Instead you get theheadlines and a summary, most of the time thehow the business goes about getting the resultsis left to the management. Ultimately the state’spurpose is to protect its citizens and this comesbefore letting them know everything about howthat is done.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digital freedomsCitizenshave a right to know what is done in theirname The nation exits for its citizens; it dependson their consent to maintain order and to raisefinances. The main purpose of the state is lawand order, and national defence, both of whichare covered by security. As an area that is socentral to the role of the government it is vitalthat the stakeholders in that government, itscitizens, know what it is the state is doing intheir name for their security. The Obamaadministration for example refuses toacknowledge that it is carrying out a campaignusing drones while at the same time saying it is“the only game in town in terms of confrontingand trying to disrupt the al-Qaeda leadership.”[1] If the US government is bombing anothercountry then the US people have a right to knowwith much less ambiguity what exactly is beingdone, who is being hit, when and where. Theyalso need to be informed of any possible", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digitalfreedomsTransparency in situations ofinternational tension is tricky; with completetransparency how do you engage in bluffing? Thestate that is completely transparent is tying onehand behind its back in internationalnegotiations. It is also wrong to assume thattransparency will always reduce tensions.Sometimes two countries just have completelyincompatible interests. In such instancescomplete transparency is simply going to setthem on a collision course. It is then much betterfor there to be a bit less transparency so thatboth sides can fudge the issue and sign up to anagreement while interpreting it in different ways.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digitalfreedomsTransparency prevents public relationsdisasters Transparency is necessary to avoidpublic relations disasters; particularly incountries where the media has some freedom toinvestigate for themselves. It is clearly the bestpolicy for the military to make sure all theinformation is released along with the reasonsbehind actions rather than having the mediafinding individual pieces of a whole andspeculating to fill the gaps. A good examplewould be a collision on 16th January 1966between a B-52 bomber and a KC-135 tankerwhile attempting to refuel that destroyed bothplanes. Accidents happen, and this one cost 11lives, but could have been much worse as theB-52 had four nuclear bombs on board were notarmed and did not detonate. In this case aninitial lack of information rapidly turned into apublic relations disaster that was stemmed bymuch more openness by the military and the US", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digitalfreedomsTransparency is a good in and ofitself The most essential commodity within astate is trust. Trust is essential in all sorts ofaspect of our lives; we trust that the papermoney we have is actually worth more than ascrap of paper, that doctors performing surgeryknow what they are doing, that we won't beattacked in the street, and that the governmentis looking after our interests. In order to createthat trust there needs to be transparency so thatwe know that our institutions are trustworthy. Itis the ability to check the facts and theaccountability that comes with transparency thatcreates trust. And this in turn is what makesthem legitimate. [1] The need for trust appliesjust as much to security as any other walk of life.Citizens need to trust that the security servicesreally are keeping them safe, are spendingtaxpayers’ money wisely, and are acting in afashion that is a credit to the country.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digital freedomsTrust goestwo ways; the people have to trust that on someissues, such as security, the government is doingthe right thing to protect them even when itcannot release all relevant information. But evenif the military and security services do claim tobe completely transparent then how is everyoneto know that it really is being as transparent asthey say? Unfortunately there are informationasymmetry’s between members of the public andthe government; the member of the public isunlikely to have the capability to find out if thegovernment if hiding something from them. [1]Other countries too are likely to be suspicious of‘complete transparency’ and simply believe thatthis is cover for doing something more nefarious.Trust then cannot only about being transparentin everything. [1] Stiglitz, Joseph, ‘Transparencyin Government’, in Roumeen Islam, The right totell: the roll of the mass media in economicdevelopment, World Bank Publications, 2002,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digital freedomsThis isclearly not always the case. Often transparencymeans that the public becomes aware whenthere is little need for them to know. There hadbeen previous nuclear accidents that had causedno damage, and had not been noticed, such as inGoldsboro, N.C. in 1961. [1] If there had been amedia frenzy fuelled by released informationthere would clearly have been much more of apublic relations disaster than there was with noone noticing. Since there’re was no harm donethere is little reason why such a media circusshould have been encouraged. And even withoutmedia attention the incident lead to increasesafeguards. [1] Stiles, David, ‘A Fusion Bombover Andalucia: U.S. Information Policy and the1966 Palomares Incident’, Journal of WarStudies, Vol.8, No.1, Winter 2006, pp.49-67,p.51", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digitalfreedomsTransparency may mean that mistakesor problems are found faster, but it does notmean they are going to be corrected faster.Waste in the defense budget has been knownabout for years yet it still keeps coming up.Transparency shines a light on the problem butthat is not helpful if it does not result in action tosolve the problem.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digitalfreedomsTransparency helps reduce internationaltension Transparency is necessary ininternational relations. States need to know whateach other are doing to assess their actions.Without any transparency the hole is filled bysuspicion and threat inflation that can easily leadto miscalculation and even war. The Cubanmissile crisis is a clear example where a lack oftransparency on either side about what theywere willing to accept and what they were doingalmost lead to nuclear war. [1] It is notable thatone of the responses to prevent a similar crisiswas to install a hotline between the White Houseand Kremlin. A very small, but vital, step interms of openness. Today this is still a problem;China currently worries about the US ‘pivot’towards Asia complaining it “has aroused a greatdeal of suspicion in China.” “A huge deficit ofstrategic trust lies at the bottom of all problemsbetween China and the United States.” The result", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digitalfreedomsTransparency prevents, or corrects,mistakes Transparency is fundamental inmaking sure that mistakes don’t happen, orwhen they do that they are found and correctedquickly with appropriate accountability. Thisapplies as much, if not more, to the securityapparatus than other walks of life. In securitymistakes are much more likely to be a matter oflife and death than in most other walks of life.They are also likely to be costly; something themilitary and national security apparatus isparticularly known for. [1] An audit of thePentagon in 2011 found that the US Departmentof Defense wasted $70 billion over two years. [2]This kind of waste can only be corrected if it isfound out about, and for that transparency isnecessary. [1] Schneier, Bruce, ‘Transparencyand Accountability Don’t Hurt Security – They’reCrucial to It’, The Atlantic, 8 May 2012 [2]Schweizer, Peter, ‘Crony Capitalism Creeps Into", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digital freedomsThe publicis rational and can make its own assessment ofrisk. The best course in such cases istransparency and education. If all relevantinformation is released, along with analysis as tothe risk presented by the threat, then the publiccan be best informed about what kind of threatsthey need to be prepared for. Terrorism has beenblown out of proportion because they are singledeadly incidents that are simple to report andhave a good narrative to provide 24/7 coveragethat the public will lap up. [1] As a result therehas been much more media coverage than otherthreats. It can then be no surprise that the publicoverestimate the threat posed by terrorism asthe public are told what risks are relevant by theamount of media coverage. [2] [1] Engelhardt,Tom, ‘Casualties from Terrorism Are MinorCompared to Other Threats’, Gale OpposingViewpoints, 2011 [2] Singer, Eleanor, andEndreny, Phyllis Mildred, Reporting on Risk: How", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digital freedomsDrones arean unusual example (though not unique)because they are a new form of warfare overwhich there are few clear rules and norms. Thismeans that making it transparent will create newnorms. However in the vast majority of covertoperations if made public they would clearly beillegal and would have to be ended. Drones arealso unusual in that the public sees fewdownsides to the killing, this means there wouldbe less public pressure than in most suchoperations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digital freedomsProvidesinformation to competitors Where there isinternational competition transparency can be aproblem if there is not transparency on bothsides as one side is essentially giving itsopponent an advantage. This is ultimately whycountries keep national security secrets; they arein competition with other nations and the bestway to ensure an advantage over those states isto keep capabilities secret. One side havinginformation while the other does not allows theactor that has the information to act differentlyin response to that knowledge. Keeping thingssecret can therefore provide an advantage whenmaking a decision, as the one with mostinformation is most likely to react best. [1]Currently there is information asymmetrybetween the United States and China to the pointwhere some analysts consider that the UnitedStates provides more authoritative informationon China’s military than China itself does.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con05a", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digital freedomsIn securitytoo much transparency endangerslives Transparency is all very well when it comesto how much is being spent on a new tank,aircraft, or generals houses, but it is verydifferent when it comes to operations.Transparency in operations can endanger lives.With intelligence services transparency wouldrisk the lives of informants; it is similar with thecase of interpreters for US forces in Iraq whowere targeted after they were told they could notwear masks because they are considered to betraitors. [1] In military operations being openabout almost anything could be a benefit to theopposition. Most obviously things like the timingand numbers involved in operations need to bekept under wraps but all sorts of informationcould be damaging in one way or another.Simply because a state is not involved in a fullscale war does not mean it can open up on theseoperations. This is why the Chairman of the Joint", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con04a", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digitalfreedomsTransparency can lead to conflict Theidea that transparency is good assumes that thepeople watching the government be transparentare likely to provide a moderating influence onpolicy. This is not always the case. Insteadtransparency can lead to more conflict. First anationalist population may force the governmentinto taking more action than it wants. Oneobvious way to quiet such sentiment is to showthat the country is not ready for war; somethingthat may not be possible if being transparent.Instead if it is transparent that the military couldwin then there is nothing to stop a march to war.It then becomes possible for multiple interestgroups to form into coalitions each with differingreasons for conflict trading off with each otherresulting in overstretch and conflict.[1] Secondly when there is a rapidly changingbalance of power then transparency for the risingpower may not be a good thing. Instead as Deng", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digital freedomsDon’tpanic! The role of the security services is in partto deal with some very dangerous ideas andevents. But the point is to deal with them in sucha way that does not cause public disorder oreven panic. We clearly don’t want every reportdetailing specific threats to be made public,especially if it is reporting something that couldbe devastating but there is a low risk of itactually occurring. If such information is takenthe wrong way it can potentially cause panic,either over nothing, or else in such a way that itdamages any possible response to the crisis.Unfortunately the media and the public oftenmisunderstand risk. For example preventingterrorism has been regularly cited in polls asbeing the Americans top foreign policy goal withmore than 80% thinking it very important inGallup polls for over a decade [1] even when thechance of being killed by terrorism in Westerncountries is very low. If the public", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con05b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digital freedomsClearlytransparency in real time might cause someproblems allowing the disruption of ongoingoperations. However most of the timeinformation could be released very shortlyafterwards rather than being considered secretfor 25-30 years. [1] A much shorter timeframe isneeded if the transparency is to have anymeaning or impact upon policy. In the case ofWikiLeaks most of the information was already acouple of years old and WikiLeaks said it madesure that there was no information that couldendanger lives released. We should alsoremember that a lack of transparency can alsoendanger lives; this might be the case if it leadsto purchases of equipment of shoddy equipmentwithout the proper oversight to ensureeverything works as it should. For example manycountries purchased bomb detectors that aremade out of novelty golf ball finders, just plastic,that do not work from a Briton looking to make a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digitalfreedomsTransparency can result innormalisation While something is secret it isclearly not a normal every day part ofgovernment, it is deniable and the assumption isthat when it comes to light it has probably beenwound up long ago. However making somethingtransparent without winding it up can be a badthing as it makes it normal which ultimatelymakes a bad policy much harder to end. The useof drones by the CIA may turn out to be anexample of this. At the moment we are toldalmost nothing about drones, not even howmany strikes there are or how many are killed.There have however been recent suggestionsthat the drone program could be transferred tothe Department of Defence. This would thenmake the targeted killing that is carried out seema normal part of military conflict, somehting itclearly is not. [1] And the public reactsdifferently to covert and military action; already", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con04b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digital freedomsCoalitionscan form behind expansionist policies regardlessof whether there is transparency. If there is notransparency then it is simply an invitation forthese groups to overestimate the strength oftheir own state compared to their opponents.Where there is transparency the figures will atleast be available to counter their arguments. Itshould not be surprising that interest groups donot have as much influence in creatingexpansionist policy in democracies.[1] Transparency showing when a state is to beeclipsed is a greater concern but a lack oftransparency in such a case is just as bad. Notransparency will simply encourage the fears ofthe state that is to be eclipsed that the risingstate is hostile and not to be trusted. [1]Snyder, Jack, Myths of Empire, Cornell UniversityPress, 1991, p.18", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-cdmaggpdgdf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ch debate media and good government politicsdefence government digitalfreedomsTransparency clearly does not have toextend to things like technical specifications ofweapons. Such information would be a clearbenefit to a competitor allowing them to buildtheir own while being of little help in terms oftransparency as most people could notunderstand it. On the other hand knowing what aweapons system does simply preventsmisunderstanding and misjudgement.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics defence leadership housefavours common eu foreign policyConsultation,collaboration and the attempted creation of acommon set of values has not worked and is notlikely to work. This language is not muchdifferent from what we have heard with everyattempt the EU has made to push for furtherpolitical integration. The role of the CommonForeign and Security Policy (CFSP), as agreedupon back in 1993 during the Maastricht Treaty,was in fact presented very much along similarlines. Fifteen years later however, that unitedfront has not been created. If anything, the EU’spolitical union, and certain any attempts towardsa common foreign policy, have completelydisintegrated when faced with the War in Iraqand the larger war on terror and more recentlythe Euro debt crisis on another front.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics defence leadership housefavours common eu foreign policyThe creation ofa combined post of High Representative forforeign and security policy and Vice President ofthe Commission for External Relations marks aneedless complication of decision making. Itadds an expensive and largely pointless layer ofEuropean bureaucracy to a substantively weakand poorly coordinated foreign policy. This failureis made worse by the member states’ refusal toappoint a senior European politician withinternational credentials to the post. Thissuggests that the European Union is simply notready to pursue a serious and substantiveforeign policy. 1 1 Charlemagne, 'The test forAshton and Europe', The Economist, 1st February2011,accessed 1/8/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics defence leadership housefavours common eu foreign policyThe verycreation of a common military framework hasbeen fraught with disagreement. The UK andFrance have only been willing to cooperatebilaterally and outside the EU framework, withina set of nationally-framed security interests.Both states are also very traditional militarypowers. While some states pretend to supportthe creation of a credible EU military capacity,they are unwilling to contribute seriously to itsconstruction and when faced with a crisis almostalways turn to the United States for militarysolutions. While the EU does like to see itself asthe diplomat of the world and flaunt itsachievements with the International CriminalCourt (ICC) and the World Trade Organization(WTO), it still ponders the possibility of amiddle-of-the-road strategy of militarization andsecuritization. In the meanwhile, it continues toreside comfortably within the US sphere ofmilitary protection while acting as an enfant", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics defence leadership housefavours common eu foreign policyThe position ofHigh Representative will be, and has been,largely powerless, because the member stateshave such divergent interests that agreementwill be rare, and that attempts to devise acommon foreign policy for the EU are doomed.Because control of foreign policy is such a keyaspect of sovereignty, it would be wrong fornational governments to give this power away tothe EU, which is less democratically accountable.If the EU and its High Representative do try topressure states into common positions this maywell backfire, creating strong anti-EU feeling inboth national governments and public opinion.Pushing too hard for a common foreign policyand giving too much power to an unelected HighRepresentative may instead begin to tear Europeapart. 1 1. Traynor, Ian, 'EU foreign ministersround on Lady Ashton', guardian.co.uk, 23rd May2011, accessed 1/8/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics defence leadership housefavours common eu foreign policyThe EU isindeed under NATO’s and US’s military umbrella,and while terrorist attacks on EU’s territory havecertainly heightened levels of anxiety, its ‘foreignpolicy’ is still based on an inclusive approach:bring threatening nations under your economicand political umbrella and provide them withincentives to collaborate. Academics such asAllen David and Michael Smith have argued thatthe EU’s ‘foreign policy’ seeks to go beyond thenation state and thus treats what lies outside itsborders not necessarily as ‘foreign’ and‘threatening’ but rather as a different system.1The EU provides a subsystem of internationalrelations within a larger global system, in whichthreats and fears subside as a result of economicand military integration. The most pressingchallenge is to learn how to extend this systembeyond the current borders of the EU, keeping inmind that the accession process is a mechanismnot to be abused. 1. Allen, David, and Smith,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics defence leadership housefavours common eu foreign policyOne should notforget that a uniting Europe in itself has been avery bold undertaking that has taken severalcenturies to develop, and is certainly far frombeing a finished product. It would be unfair toargue that the EU has made no progress in itscollaboration on foreign policy since the initialestablishment of the CFSP, or that the pastfifteen years have seen more decay thanprogress on further political integration. Themixed EU reaction to the war in Iraq has longbeen a point of contention and criticism, yet itrepresents only a small and exceptional failure,in a much larger common EU foreign policy. TheEnlargement Process has been by far one of themost successful elements of EU foreign andsecurity policy, along with many other successstories with aid to third parties and managementof international conflicts, for example the EU’srole in Kosovo.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-oepdlhfcefp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "onal europe politics defence leadership housefavours common eu foreign policyCreating acommon EU foreign and security policy will infact be easier than many people suppose,because many of the 21st century’s mostimportant issues in external relations are alreadypart of the ‘normal’ EU policy routine; climatechange, development, trade, aid and theenvironment, for example. Most such issues areones on which any single member state, evenone as significant as Britain, France or Germany,cannot hope to make a real global impact alone.Only by coordinating policy at EU level will theinterests of member states be advanced at all.Having a High Representative to coordinate andpromote this work on behalf of the Union as awhole makes sense and actually gives allmember states a greater internationaleffectiveness – the true measure of sovereignty.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glghssi-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "government local government house supportsscottish independenceIt may well be the casethat the model of politics at Westminster needsto be reviewed but that does not speak to theissue of independence. Furthermore, it isinteresting how many of the parties’ ‘big beasts’(influential) chose to stay at Westminster –including Alex Salmond for a term. Equally, inthe light of the credit crunch, it is questionableas to whether constantly giving away populistfreebies such as free eye-tests [i] when theparliament is not responsible for raising thetaxes to pay for it hardly represents goodpolitics. Furthermore, in its brief life, there hasbeen no shortage of political scandal at Holyrood,including the resignation of one First Minister indisgrace over an expenses scandal. [i] BBCNews, ‘Scotland brings in free eye tests’, 31March 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glghssi-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "government local government house supportsscottish independenceDevolution hasdemonstrated the ability of Scots to governthemselves not only as well as Westminster butwith more civility Not only has the policy agendabeen different in Scotland but so has the modelof politics. It has seen the emergence of newpolitical parties and a better representation ofthe diversity within existing ones. The nature ofpolitical discourse, although vigorous and not asconsensual as initially hoped, has proved to bemore consensual – both during the time of theSNP minority administration and the precedingcoalitions than politics south of the border.[i] The contrast between the coalitiongovernments at Holyrood, the Scottishparliament, where Scottish Labour and theScottish Liberal Democrats were allied between1999 and 2007, and the internecine warfaregoing on between Conservative and Liberalmembers of the current Westminster coalitioncould not be more stark. [i] Cairney, Paul,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glghssi-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "government local government house supportsscottish independenceFirstly, if these industriesare already emerging under the devolved powersthen there seems to be little reason forexpanding those powers. Nationalism has alwaysrelied on the fantasy that magically everythingabout the country will change the day afterindependence. [i] The reality is not quite sorosy; with a disproportionately high level ofemployment in the public sector [ii] as well asconsistently high levels of multi-generationalunemployment, pretending that these problemswould be swept away following autonomy is justfantasy. These constitutional wrangles are adistraction from the real issues of addressingemployment and chronic ill-health are muchhigher concerns. [i] Chakrabortty, Aditya, ‘CanScotland pay its own way?’, The Guardian, 20May 2011, [ii] Simon Rogers. “The public sectoremployment map of the UK: the full data.” TheGuardian. 21 November 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glghssi-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "government local government house supportsscottish independenceScotland has a proudhistory and has demonstrated since devolutiondifferent political interests The Union has nowpassed its 300th birthday and throughout thattime Scotland has maintained as distinct role andidentity. This is grounded in a tradition andhistory that is quite different from that south ofthe Border and includes legal and educationsystems that have always been separate. Thathas manifested itself in a distinct policy agendasince devolution and areas such as free care forthe elderly and the abolition of student tuitionfees. Despite the opinions of doomsayers beforedevolution it has been proved as a remarkablesuccess and massive approval throughout the UKwith 70% saying it has been a success. [i] [i]The Scotsman. “70% of Britons supportdevolution for Scotland, poll suggests” 8 May2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glghssi-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "government local government house supportsscottish independenceThere are manydifferences between devolution andindependence. Surviving events such as thebanking crisis and the European sovereign debtcrisis are much easier within the confines of alarger, richer state such as the UK. Nobodydenies that devolution has, broadly speaking,been a success. However, it’s been achieved inquite a different context than that facing a nationstate. It has left difficult decisions toWestminster. It allows the Scottish Executive theluxury of being oppositionist on issues such asnuclear power, fantasists on renewables whileleaving the problem of how to keep the lights onto politicians at Westminster.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glghssi-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "government local government house supportsscottish independenceAn independent Scotlandhas enormous economic potential to join othersmall European nations, especially as a leader intechnology and renewable energy Many ofScotland’s problems are grounded in the factthat its potential has consistently been heldback. Because the focus for economicdevelopment from a Westminster perspectivehas focused for generations on North Sea oil andthe coal fields of Lanarkshire, huge opportunitieswere missed and the best and the brightesttended be dragged down south for jobs worthy oftheir skills. Even with the limited powers allowedby devolution a burgeoning life-sciences sector, agrowing IT sector in silicon glen are adding to thetraditional industries. Since 2003 Scotland hasgenerally had faster economic growth than theUK with 13% during the period from 2003-2007compared to the UK’s 11.4%. [i] Independencewould stretch people still further. [i] CPPRCentre for Public Policy for Regions, ‘The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glghssi-con03b", "title": "", "text": "government local government house supportsscottish independenceThe Scottish budget runsat a surplus of about 1%, unlike the UK’s, and sothe Scots are actually subsidizing theirneighbours. [i] It is also important to take intoaccount the vast amount of wealth that has fledsouth in the shape of North Sea oil revenue andthe talent that has been sucked up by London interms of not only work but also with the numberof Scots soldiers sent to fight Englishwars. Perhaps the best example of thishistorically is Glasgow which literally built theBritish Empire – mostly to English benefit – onlyto be discarded to some of the worst poverty inthe developed world when it was no longeruseful [i] Chakrabortty, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glghssi-con01b", "title": "", "text": "government local government house supportsscottish independenceScotland already has adistinct global profile including world-classnational brands such as whiskey and salmon.Arguing that Scotland would have ‘less influence’as an independent state is frankly absurd as, atthe moment, it has none. Westminster leads ininternational negotiations and rarely considersScottish interests. Additionally, considering thedamage that the UK government has managedto do to its international reputation with the warsin Iraq and Afghanistan putting some clear,tartan water between Edinburgh and Londonwould seem to be quite a strong diplomaticmove.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glghssi-con02a", "title": "", "text": "government local government house supportsscottish independenceThe union has worked forover three hundred years and most people feelcomfortable with the joint Scots/Britishidentity For over three centuries the two nationshave cooperated much to their mutualadvantage. The majority of Scots are happy withtheir British-ness. In terms of culture and artthe two nations have maintained distinctivetraditions but ones which have been enhancedby their interaction. There are many people whohave relatives from Scotland and another of theHome Nations for whom British is the moreobvious identity. [i] After centuries of fightingwith each other the Union brought peace andmutual benefit. [i] Mitchell, David, ‘If Scotlanddoes secede, I won’t be alone in mourning formy country’, The Observer, 15 May 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glghssi-con03a", "title": "", "text": "government local government house supportsscottish independenceScotland needs Englisheconomic muscle as through the Barnett formulaEngland, especially the Southeast effectivelysubsidizes the rest of the UK in general andScotland in particular The Barnett establishedthe model by which money is divided up withinthe regions and nations of the UK. The formulaworks greatly to Scotland’s advantage with a netflow of funding heading north. The Englishtaxpayer subsidizes Scots to the tune of £19bn ayear (2009-10). [i] Without that subsidy TheScottish government would not have been ableto give away the many benefits that have beenhanded out by the devolvedauthorities. Scotland needs English supportfinancially just as she does in terms of diplomaticrepresentation or political muscle. [i] McLaren,John et al., ‘Financial Implications of DifferentFiscal Arrangements For Scotland’, CPPR Centrefor Public Policy for Regions, June 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glghssi-con01a", "title": "", "text": "government local government house supportsscottish independenceDeliberately turning awayfrom the international clout the UK brings to playon the global scene is simply odd The UK acts asa big player on the international scene sitting atthe top table of most international institutions. Itis questionable as to whether the remaining partof the UK would continue to sit on the UNSecurity Council; one thing that is certain is thatScotland would not. Equally they would havelittle clout on European bodies, damaging theirinfluence on key Scottish interests such asfisheries policy. It would also lose the advantagethat many companies see Edinburgh as aconvenient base within the UK but would beunlikely to see much benefit to it as a base in anindependent Scotland [i] . [i] David Sinclair.“Issues surrounding Scottish independence.”September 1999. Published by the ConstitutionUnit, Tavistock House.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-politics-glghssi-con02b", "title": "", "text": "government local government house supportsscottish independenceIgnoring the fact that Oppis putting forward a version of history that isdecades rather than centuries old there are otherflaws. Scottish cultural traditions were activelydestroyed by English dominance and continue toreceive very limited support. Linguistictraditions such as Scots and Gaelic werecompletely ignored and frequentlysuppressed. In addition it has not been 300years of mutual benefit as Scotland has beenlargely overwhelmed by its more populousneighbour. Scotland’s resources, including itsintellectual ones, have been – and continued tobe – effectively stolen by England.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldBanning skinwhitening on such a basis also requires theacceptance of the racial overtones. Some form oftan is popular in many societies of people ofEuropean ethnic origins – that is not a racialmatter, it is more based on economic socialperceptions (that of holidays to warmerclimates). Ascribing a racial element toeverything to do with skin tone is at best a lazyanalysis. Irrespective of issues of race andperceptions of ethnic origins, and its intersectionwith beauty standards, some people will be givenadvantages in life due to their appearance.Banning a certain form of cosmetic, even if it canhave some racial and ethnic undertones, won’tchange that.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldThey fuelcolourism in society Allowing the use of racialovertones – the perception that a product willbring a person towards a “white ideal” is harmfulfor several reasons. It could cause communitiesto generate a form of inferiority complex, and itreinforces the structural difference rather thanaiming to minimize it. While it may soundabsurd, in the US darker-skinned AfricanAmericans (and darker skinned latinos) are lesswell educated and have lower incomes [1] .Elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere, such as inBrazil, race is seen as an issue of colour andsocio-economic background, not ancestryhighlighting a much more obvious link betweenwhitening creams and racism [2] . Is it not therole of the state to reduce that discrimination,not to fuel it? Banning such creams would helpprevent such harmful effects by discouraging thenotion that people should aim to makethemselves lighter skinned. [1] Hunter,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldIf there is ademand for it, people want it. Not only doindigenous skin-whitening products exist, theyare so widespread and popular it cannot beascribed to a “cringe” on a small area ofsociety. It is wrong to consider skin whitening tojust be a colonial import as if being white is allabout looking like a westerner. Many cultures,particularly in Asia but also some in Africa suchas Egypt, valued lighter skin tones beforecolonisation; such tones showed that you were awoman of leisure who did not need to toil underthe hot tropical sun. [1] Maintaining a desire tolook lighter may therefore neither be an effect ofa neo-colonial mind-set nor create neo-colonialbusiness ties. [1] Goon, Patricia, and Craven,Allison, ‘Whose Debt?: Globalisation andWhitefacing in Asia’, Intersections: Gender,History and Culture in the Asian Context, issue 9,August 2003,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldThese productsare dangerous Skin whitening creams oftencontain a wide variety of harmful ingredients – insome cases, mercury. These can cause varioushealth problems; mercury in particular causesrenal (kidney) damage, major skin problems aswell as mental health issues [1] . States,throughout the world, ban consumer productsbecause they are harmful regardless of whetherthis is for consumption or for cosmetics. This isjust another case where that is appropriate inorder to prevent the harm to health that mayoccur. [1] World Health Organization, “Mercuryin skin lightening products”, WHO.int, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldSkin whiteningcreams often contain a wide variety of harmfulingredients – in some cases, mercury. These cancause various health problems; mercury inparticular causes renal (kidney) damage, majorskin problems as well as mental health issues [1]. States, throughout the world, ban consumerproducts because they are harmful regardless ofwhether this is for consumption or for cosmetics.This is just another case where that isappropriate in order to prevent the harm tohealth that may occur. [1] World HealthOrganization, “Mercury in skin lighteningproducts”, WHO.int, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldMonetizingcolonialism Skin whitening can be seen as anattempt to fit in with a form of a neo-colonialistmind-set; a form of cultural imperialism drivenby capitalism. These products, often sold by biginternational FMCG (fast moving consumergoods) companies feed off a neo-colonialistmind-set – one of a cultural inferiority complex.These products form part of the process of tyingAfrican people into a globalised consumer worldwhere non-westerners feel compelled to buywestern products that they don’t need. They aretherefore kept in a colonial situation where theyare dependent on the west both mentally and interms of the products they buy. That is reasonenough for nations that have been victims ofcolonialism by the Global North to take actionagainst them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-con03b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldNo-one ispretending that a ban on whitening products is asolution to every social ill. What is beingsuggested is that these products are harmful,and that the culture they create is alsopotentially harmful. A race-colour-class nexusexists – that is why the proposition is concernedabout the normalization of skin bleaching.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-con01b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldStates can and doban products that are physically or sociallyharmful – that’s not illiberalism, it is commonsense. It clearly does not suggest that non-whitewomen do not have the capacity; white countriessuch as the USA engage in similar bans forhealth reasons. Anyway, In a society with massmedia and celebrity-lead marketing campaigns,do people really make entirely autonomousdecisions? Consumers almost never havecomplete information about what they arebuying. When they don’t the government has toprevent them from making mistakes that may beharmful to themselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-con02a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldProhibition iscounterproductive As tempting as it is to feelthat banning is the solution to problems, itdoesn’t work. Almost all states prohibits certaindrugs, but that does not stop them being used.[1] Despite being banned in Ghana, skinwhitening creams are still openly advertised onbillboards [2] . Counterfeit cosmetics of all typesexist worldwide [3] , they are illegal for a varietyof reasons, not least intellectual property abuse:banning skin lighting creams would simply givemore space to the counterfeits. A ban could leadusers towards either a homemade substance, orpills and injections which would almost certainlybe more damaging as a result of a lack ofregulation. [1] See the Debatabase debate ‘ ThisHouse supports the legalisation of drugs’ [2] AlJazeera English, “The Stream: Fair Beauty”,YouTube, 22 August 2013, , roughly 18 minutesin [3] RIA Novosti, “Counterfeit cosmetics:Turning beauties in to beasts”, RT, 08 November", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-con04a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldRun educationcampaigns instead Education is an alternative.Campaigns such as #darkisbeautiful (dark isbeautiful) in India are the model for advancingequality and marginalizing colourism in India.The campaign has had some success attractingstars, including some such as Vishaka Sing whohave modelled for fairness creams, to campaignagainst the prejudice against darker skin tones.[1] The heavy hand of legislation is not thecorrect tool – other methods from social mediacampaigns to changing practices in the fashion,beauty and media industries (such as hasoccurred in Dakar Fashion Week [2] ) will reducethe cultural demand. [1] Krupa, Lakshmi, ‘Darkis beautiful��, The Hindu, 8 September 2013, [2]Reuters, “Dakar fashion week bans models whouse skin lightning cream”, South China MorningPost, 01 July 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-con03a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldBanning these ispapering over the issue It would be all tootempting for governments to consider that a banon these products would sort out issues of skintone discrimination as they would be hiddenaway from public view. Class and race are bothdivisive issues, and are often inextricably linked.Those with lighter skin will still have advantagesover those with darker skin hues. The banning ofwhiteners will simply reduce the ability ofindividuals to change how others perceive them.We can all agree that there needs to be lesscolourism but that has to be achieved byreducing prejudices. Only broader education onthe issue of skin colour discrimination canachieve such a change.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-con01a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldPersonalautonomy Like many other debates, this simplyboils down to personal autonomy. Individualsshould be free to take actions, even onesharmful to them as long as they do not harmothers, at least not without good reason. Thusthings that are almost entirely harmful such assmoking are allowed. It is a matter of personalchoice – to suggest otherwise non-white womendo not have the capacity to make that choice.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-con04b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldEducationalcampaigns can and do work on many issues.However, they can only do so much in terms ofmaking genuine progress. If you want to changeattitudes – generally subconscious – moreconcrete action is needed. Legislation affectseveryone while a campaign will only ever reachcomparatively small numbers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmciahbans-con02b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture international africa housebelieves african nations shouldObviously, notevery policy is 100% effective. However, a banon products that is well created and adequatelyenforced could at least reject a material from themainstream, and signals disapproval. Noteveryone will follow a ban but many will see thatthe ban is there for a good reason and will notseek alternatives. Counterfeit cosmetics are adifferent issue – one is the attempt to capitalizeoff of a brand, the other is to provide a productto achieve people’s goals.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulPeople are unhappy because they can'thave everything, not because they are given toomuch choice and find it stressful. In fact,advertisements play a crucial role in ensuringthat what money people have, they spend on themost appropriate product for themselves. Ifadvertisements were not permitted, peoplewould waste money on an initial product when,given the choice, they clearly would go foranother. A meta-analysis incorporating researchfrom 50 independent studies found nomeaningful connection between choice andanxiety, but speculated that the variance in thestudies left open the possibility that choiceoverload could be tied to certain highly specificand as yet poorly understood pre-conditions1. 1^ Scheibehenne, Benjamin; Greifeneder, R.& Todd, P. M. (2010). \"Can There Ever beToo Many Options? A Meta-Analytic Review ofChoice Overload\" . Journal of ConsumerResearch 37: 409-425.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulPeople are given too much choice, whichmakes them less happy. Advertising leads tomany people being overwhelmed by the endlessneed to decide between competing demands ontheir attention – this is known as the tyranny ofchoice or choice overload. Recent researchsuggests that people are on average less happythan they were 30 years ago - despite beingbetter off and having much more choice of thingsto spend their money on1. The claims of advertscrowd in on people, raising expectations about aproduct and leading to inevitable disappointmentafter it is bought. A recent advertisement formake-up was banned in Britain due to thecompany presenting its product as being moreeffective than it actually was2. Shoppers feelthat a poor purchase is their fault for notchoosing more wisely, and regret not choosingsomething else instead. Some people are sooverwhelmed that they cannot choose atall. 1Schwartz, The Tyranny of Choice, 2004. 2", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulAdverts which use very sly methods likesubliminal images (images which are shown soquickly the viewer doesn't consciously realisethey saw them) are already banned. The otherforms of advertising are just companies beingcreative. There is no difference fromsupermarkets being painted bright colours tomake their food seem more appetising or evenpeople wearing make-up to improve their image.People make unconscious judgements all thetime, and we frequently try to influence thesechoices by the way we present ourselves. Thisisn't brainwashing, so neither is advertising.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulAdvertisements tell children that theyshould have everything they want. Advertisinggives the impression, especially to children, thatthey can and should have everything they want.This makes people too interested in materialthings. People are becoming more selfish andobsessed with their possessions, and losing theirvalues of patience, hard work, moderation andthe importance of non-material things like familyand friends. This harms their relationships andtheir personal development, which has seriouseffects for society as a whole.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulThere are too many advertisements ineveryday life. The sheer volume of advertisingin our society is incredible. You cannot watchtelevision, ride on a bus or even walk down thestreet without someone trying to sell yousomething or inform you of something. Recentresearch suggests people living in a city todaysees up to 5,000 advertisements a day1. 50% ofthose surveyed said they thought 'advertisingtoday was out of control'1. People shouldn't haveto go about their lives having their mindssaturated with such a vast quantity of, in mostcases, redudant and profiteering information.They should be able to go about their daily livesin peace without being forced to watch, listen orview an advertisement. 1 Anywhere the Eye CanSee, It's Likely to See an Ad. New York Times.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulThough there are a great manyadvertisements in everyday life, there are not somany that they can't simply be ignored.Advertisements attempt to get you to buy aproduct, if you're not interested, then don't buythe product. For every person who finds all theadvertisements stressful, another person findsthem enjoyable and something to read or watchwhile they make their daily journey to work orschool. Out of control could mean simply thatcustomers think businesses are spending toomuch on advertising. Without proof that thenumber of advertisements is having a negativeeffect, the point is worthless.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulOur society is built around the idea thatcompanies produce things that people want, andthis is what makes us prosperous. If consumerssuddenly stopped wanting to buy so manyproducts then what happens to the people whosejob it is to make them? The economy will sufferterribly. Of course some people take materialismtoo far, but most people buy just what they needand then a little extra when they treatthemselves. This is a much better situation thanone in which people can only afford to buy thethings they need - that would be a stepbackwards.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulThe media and celebrity magazines domuch more harm, by mocking unattractive oroverweight people, and glorifying models whoare often dangerously thin. Adverts nevercriticise people - that would be terrible for thecompanies behind them. Their aim is tounderstand and provide what people want, andso their adverts only ever reflect what peoplethink. If people's perceptions are wrong, then itnot the advertisers' job to put them right, butpoliticians, the media and schools.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulAdvertisements are an attempt tobrainwash customers. People cannot just chooseto ignore advertising, because advertisers usemany underhand methods to get their messageacross. Posters have attention grabbing words,or provocative pictures. Some adverts today areeven being hidden in what seem like pieces orart or public information so people don't realisethey are being marketed to. The introduction ofdigital screens allows businesses to alter theiradvertising to respond to specific events, makingadvertisements not only everywhere, butseemingly all-knowing1. By targeting people'sunconscious thoughts adverts are a form ofbrainwashing that take away people's freedomsto make choices. 1 Anywhere the Eye Can See,It's Likely To See an Ad. The New York Times.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulAdvertisements try to make people feelbad about not having the product Many advertsdo more than just advertising products. Some tryto make people feel inferior if they don't havethe product, or if they have something which theproduct would change. Perceptions of beauty andfashion in particular have been terribly distorted.Many young people have low self-esteem, andlead unhealthy lifestyles because they feel theyshould be thinner and more attractive like themodels they see in adverts. This leads to seriousproblems like eating-disorders and self-harm.Research that proved this effect also concludedthat 'the media can boost self-esteem (happinesswith one's self) where it is providing examples ofa variety of body shapes. However, it often tendsto portray a limited (small) number of bodyshapes'1. 1 Skinny models 'send unhealthymessage'. The Guardian.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-con03b", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulAdvertisers don't have the good ofsociety in mind when they do their work - theyonly care about making profit. This means thatthey regularly advertise unhealthy or harmfulthings. Fast food adverts are a large part of thereason so many children are obese. Researchershave found that children aged 6-13 who wereshown commercials for junk food were morelikely to pick meals that were bad for them1. Theadverts just try to make children eat as muchbad food as possible without any concern for thehealth costs. 1 Junk Food Harmful for Kids.Hindustan Times", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-con01b", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulAdvertising in fact gives an unfairadvantage to big businesses. Small companiesmight have much better products, but theycannot afford to advertise them as well and sopeople don't find out about them. In the filmindustry, the big film studios spend more than$75 million on advertising alone1. Small filmscannot compete. This restricts the quality ofproducts for consumers, and places a hugeroadblock to the success of small businesses. 1When Is Too Much Advertising Too Much? SpinoffOnline.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-con02a", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulAdvertising helps us choose betweendifferent goods. Advertising has a positive roleto play in modern society, helping us choosebetween competing goods. Many adverts aredrawing our attention to products with newfeatures, for example more powerful computers,telephones which are also cameras and musicplayers, or foods with added vitamins. Otheradverts try to compete on price, helping us seekout the cheapest or best value products. In mostcases advertising does not make us go shopping– we would be planning to buy food, clothes,gifts and entertainment anyway. Whatadvertising does is to help us make betterdecisions about how to spend our money, bygiving us more information about the choicesavailable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-con04a", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulAdvertising is only as annoying as youwant it to be. No-one is forced to put advertisingon their property - for many companies it is animportant part of their income. Football teamswould have much less money if they were notsponsored. Manchester United's shirtsponsorship deal with Aon is worth £80 million.For the small annoyance of having to have a logoon the shirt, the football club can afford to buynew players and hopefully win more games. Andno-one is forced to look at advertising - you canturn the TV off between shows, or just flick pastadverts in newspapers. If you don't want to seethe adverts, then just ignore them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-con03a", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulAdvertisements promote healthyproducts and lifestyles. Advertising is used topromote healthy activities, products andlifestyles and is further regulated to ensure thatunhealthy products are not promoted. TheSchool Food Trust in Britain, for example, usedcelebrities in advertisements to promote healthyeating in 20071. Furthermore, adverts whichpromote seriously unhealthy things are becomingvery rare. Cigarette advertising is all but extinct,and alcohol adverts are being more restricted.With adverts such as fast food we see as wellthat companies are changing their message topromote healthier options. This is because it isbad for businesses to be viewed as harmingchildren. Public pressure and successfulregulation will always bring any advertisingproblems back under control. 1 Schools FoodTrust uses celebs to promote healthy eating.Campaign Live.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-con01a", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulSmall businesses need advertisements tomake their products known. If there wasn'tadvertising then small businesses would have nochance at all to make their product well known.Adverts can actually level the playing field - ifyou have a good new product, and market it in aclever way then it doesn't matter how small yourcompany is, you can still make consumersinterested. The more you restrict the freedom ofinformation, the more this helps the largecompanies who everyone already knows about.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-con04b", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulIt is hard to ignore advertising when it iseverywhere in modern life. Advertising may bewelcomed by companies which profit from theirsponsorship, but fans do not like it nornecessarily want it. Barcelona in Spain wentwithout commercial advertising on their shirts fora long time, proving sponsorship is not necessaryto win trophies and buy players.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mthbah-con02b", "title": "", "text": "media television house believes advertisingharmfulAdvertising does not help us choose, itmerely confuses customer who are not sure whois offering what. This is particularly true withadvertisements that compare products withother businesses. In Britain, advertising forbroadband (internet) services confuse nine out often people1. With different costs and add-ons,it's hard to for a customer to know what they areactually paying for and whether it is better thangoing somewhere else. As a result, manycustomers end up stressed and confused. 1Misleading broadband advertising confusescustomers. Virgin.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimategrounds restriction artisticWhilst it is the case inindividual instances that, if one piece of art iscensored, another on a different topic may beproduced, when looked at in a wider context thisis not the case. If we restrict artists in all caseswhere someone is disgusted, an enormousquantity of subjects will be off limits. This willhave, not only a negative impact on that artist,but a deleterious effect on whole branches ofart. Further, restricting any art that could causesocial disgust is an unreasonable restriction toplace upon society (or gallery curators, or grantallocation committees). It is difficult to know atwhat point a piece will cross the line from simply‘provocative’ to ‘disgusting’. Consequently,people will be forced to err on the side ofcaution, leading to an excessive caution andrestriction: overcensorship. When weighedagainst these harms, it is far from clear thatindividual disgust can be elevated to this extent!", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimategrounds restriction artisticWe have a duty toprotect individuals from the worst reactions toart Those who see the artwork, or hear of it,must be considered. Often, social disgust stemsfrom the violation of those values that are mostcentral to an individual. An individual’s right notto have their most central values abused orridiculed is surely of more importance than thedesire of an artist to be entirely unrestricted intheir work: the harm caused to individuals by thecontinuing acceptance by society, (andconsequent exposure) of art they find disgusting,can be great, and the reasonable modern societyrecognises such harms and does not imposethem unnecessarily. For example, the case ofthe Chapman brothers’ repeated use of Hitlerand Nazi imagery: for the Chapmans the horrorof WW2 might be distant and historical, andtherefore for them the time may have come forHitler to simply be mocked; however, for othersthat horror is altogether more current. Other", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimategrounds restriction artisticWe are no less able toconsent to art than we are to every othermanifestation of individuality in society. We aresimilarly unable to consent to, but stronglyimpacted by, all sorts of things, from musicvideos and adverts to people dressed strangelyon the street. However, as a society we acceptthat people’s core values ought to be robustenough to survive challenges in the publicsphere: we allow debate, art and music on manytopics that have enormous personalramifications, from euthanasia todeportation. As a consequence, it is onlylegitimate to restrict the worst excesses, whoseimpact can be measured objectively, beforedisplay: we set rules in this regard restricting theworst instances of, for example, exploitation andpornography. Further, those who are worstaffected can self-limit their exposure: it is rarethat people are entirely unaware of the existenceof a controversial piece of art, and as such", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimategrounds restriction artisticJust shock-tactics, atthe cost of better art Sometimes artists go toofar in a bid to get their message across. Simplygrabbing the headlines with shock tactics doesnot constitute art of the sort that should bereceiving either public support or attention. It isimportant to recognise that public displays andfunding of art are limited commodities, so everytime one piece is chosen for an exhibition, or anartist is given money, this comes at the cost ofother possible pieces of art. It is surely better tosupport those artists who have chosen toexpress their ideas and messages in a way thatdoes not rely on simple attention-grabbinghorror: it is surely more artistically meritoriousto create a work that conveys its message in away that rewards close attention and carefulstudy, with layers of meaning and technique.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimategrounds restriction artisticWho determineswhether something is too disgusting? It is alsohard to separate a piece of work’s artistic meritfrom its impact. It is perfectly possible for a workof art to display great technical competence, andyet fail to have an emotional impact on itsaudience, and so as a consequence it seemsmost sensible to allow, display and fund as widea display of art as possible. Limiting the forms ofart that we display or give funding to thoseconsidered ‘artistically meritorious’ will result inthe loss of innovation in the art world: if we onlyencourage those pieces that are ‘good’ underpresent-day metrics, we lose those pieces of artthat, though considered controversial, or ‘not art’now, may in the future be consideredmasterpieces (e.g. Picasso’s Guernica).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimategrounds restriction artisticThe power of thevisual Art differs from other forms of media withregard to the expression of ideas. Unlike othermethods of conveying ideas, art has a visceralimpact that is instant and has a lasting effect. Ina discussion, for example, there are often cluesthat ideas that might make people feeluncomfortable are about to arise. Thus, peopleare in a better position to consent to the sorts ofchallenges controversy within a conversationmay pose (similarly, we tend to look morepositively on taboo subjects raised within aconversational context than we do when theyare, for example, shouted about in thestreet). In the case of art, particularly thatwhich is displayed in public spaces (like squares,parks and museums) people are unable toconsent in this way, but rather, may beconfronted suddenly by something that they finddisgusting, because it has forced them toconfront something they find horrific or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-con03b", "title": "", "text": "arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimategrounds restriction artisticSocial change does notcome from pieces of art. It comes from real,concrete political action and struggles, over time.It is unclear, therefore, why it should not be thecase that we ought first to campaign for changesto society, and then display (newly) acceptableart reflecting upon the changes we have made.To do otherwise is to suggest that artists shouldbe allowed special dispensation to run ‘ahead’ ofthe norms the rest of us feel bound by: note thatit is not always the case that disgusting art laterbecomes acceptable. Not all transgressions arefor the sake of future changes to society; somesimply remain transgressions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-con01b", "title": "", "text": "arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimategrounds restriction artisticFirst, it seemsimplausible that there are ideas that can only beconveyed by instant, emotional responses. Itmust surely be possible to convey these ideas inother ways. Second, it is unclear why it is soimportant that these reactions are provoked:surely if something is incredibly shocking it isthat way for a reason? Something cannotprovoke social disgust without taking a clearstride over the line of what we consider to beacceptable in society. The taboos that exist insociety are not meaningless: rather, theyexpress inviolable values that are presentthroughout time, and in many different societies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-con02a", "title": "", "text": "arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimategrounds restriction artisticFreedom ofspeech Artists ought to be allowed to expressthemselves, and display the world they see, asthey see it. Freedom of speech is consideredintegral to the modern democracy, and withgood reason! Free speech makes a vitalcontribution to a plurality of ideas. It is onlywhen a great number of ideas are expressed andchallenged, such that people’s beliefs remainfluid, and can be formed and reformed, that weare able to arrive at such a point where we arelikely to progress. This ‘marketplace of ideas’prevents us from stagnating; from continuingharmful practices and modes of thought simplybecause they are traditional. The more freespeech is limited, the less able we are to accessthis plurality of ideas, and thus the less able weare to truly challenge harmful habits.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-con03a", "title": "", "text": "arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimategrounds restriction artisticRestriction based onsocial disgust prevents socially liberal ideas fromflourishing Great, socially liberal movementshave always been controversial, and always beensupported, encouraged and propagated by art.Art is a realm wherein an artist’s expression isless limited by social structures (like thenecessity of pleasing your box; of being‘commercially viable’). Subsequently it haseasily, and often, been utilised as a means ofchanging public opinion. Some of thesemovements, for example, the breaking down ofstereotypes and norms surrounding sexuality (inparticular female sexuality) and gender thatSarah Lucas, Tracey Emin and others contributedto in the liberalising 80s and 90s, attract socialdisgust. In any situation where a taboo is beingattacked, this will happen. The conversehowever, is not the case: it is almost impossibleto provoke social disgust by maintaining thestatus quo. As a result, restriction of art that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-con01a", "title": "", "text": "arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimategrounds restriction artisticSocial disgust can becentral to artwork Some forms of art relystrongly on the provocation of disgust or otherstrong reactions. For example, conceptual artistsoften rely heavily upon the provocation of strongemotions in the viewer as a way of drawingattention to important, taboo areas (e.g. death,religion and sexuality). If they are banned fromdoing this, then we lose an entire branch of art:we are left instead with forms of art that choosenot to engage with these areas atall. Particularly in cases where people want todraw attention to what they see as unnecessarytaboos, shock is integral. For example, the workof Sarah Lucas explored taboos surroundingsexuality and gender: her work drew attention tostereotyping and taboo in a way that(necessarily) many people found disgusting.Further, it is possible to critically engage withthat disgust. It is wrong to assume that the endpoint of a provocative piece of art is “oh, I’ve", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ahrtsdlgra-con02b", "title": "", "text": "arts human rights thbt social disgust legitimategrounds restriction artisticFreedom of speech isevidently not an absolute right: it is notsomething that we consider to be inviolable andable to ‘trump’ all other rights. Note, forinstance, that many countries have restrictionson freedom of speech preventing hate speechand other transgressions. We can, therefore,limit freedom of speech in instances where thebenefits outweigh the harm: the benefit in thisinstance being the prevention of harm toindividuals as a result of the art.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allThere aremany ways to correct for the dearth of someworks on the market such as orphan works. Bysimplifying copyright law, reducing lengths ofcopyright and more robust searches for legalprovenance can all help correct for the shortfallswithout eroding an important part of law andmaterial rights. Or indeed the law might berevised simply to free works that have unclearownership from copyright by default. Creatorsshould retain, no matter how annoying it may beto would-be enjoyers of their work, control overtheir artistic output. Artists’ creations arefundamentally their own, not the property of thestate or society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allThe defaultof total copyright is harmful to the spreading ofinformation and experience Current copyrightlaw assigns too many rights, automatically, tothe creator. Law gives the generator of a workfull copyright protection that is extremelyrestrictive of that works reuse, except whenstrictly agreed in contracts and agreements.Making Creative Commons licenses the standardfor publicly-funded works generates a powerfulnormalizing force toward a general alteration ofpeople’s defaults on what copyright and creatorprotections should actually be like. The creativecommons guarantees attribution to the creatorand they retain the power to set up otherfor-profit deals with distributors. [1] At base thedefault setting of somehow having absolutecontrol means creators of work often do not evenconsider the reuse by others in the commons.The result is creation and then stagnation, asothers do not expend the time and energy to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allChoosing torelease one’s work into the viral market may bea shrewd business and artistic move, or it mightnot. All of this depends on the individual artistand the individual work. Nine Inch Nails both hasthe money that they can afford to take the riskand the name recognition that means they canbe sure some fans will purchase the music, thisis not the case with most artists. Thus thedecision can really only be made effectively andfairly by the artists themselves. Trying to usurpthat choice through a state mandate only servesto undermine the artist’s creative vision of howhe or she wishes to portray and distribute theirwork to the world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allIntellectualproperty is a legal fiction created for conveniencein some instances, but copyright should cease tobe protected under this doctrine An individual’sidea only truly belongs solely to them so long asit rests in their mind alone. When theydisseminate their ideas to the world they putthem in the public domain, and should becomethe purview of everyone to use. Artists andcreators more generally, should not expect somesort of ownership to inhere in an idea theyhappen to have, since no such ownership rightexists in reality. [1] No one can own an idea.Thus recognizing something like a property rightover intangible assets is contrary to reason,since doing so gives monopoly power toindividuals who may not make efficient orequitable use of their inventions or products.Physical property is a tangible asset, and thuscan be protected by tangible safeguards. Ideasdo not share the same order of protection even", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allAlthoughideas are not tangible intellectual propertygenerally, and copyright in particular, is far froma fiction. Rather it is a realization of the hardwork and demiurgic force that sparks thegeneration and fulfilment of artistic endeavour.The property right assigned over these things totheir creators is a very real one that recognizestheir fundamental right over these works asowners, and the right to profit from them. Theartist must have the right to prevent evennon-commercial use of the idea if it is tomaintain its value and so retain for the creatorthe ability to commercialise it. These protectionsare critical to the moral understanding of allproperty and must be rigorously protected, noteroded for the benefit of some nebulous notionof social good.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allIt may becostly and sometimes ineffective to policecopyright, but that does not make them any lessof a right worth protecting. If artists or firms feelthat they might benefit from fighting infringers oftheir rights, they should have the right to do so,not simply be expected to roll over and give in tothe pirates and law breakers. The state likewise,has an obligation to protect the rights, physicaland intangible, of its citizens and cannot give upon them simply because they prove difficult andcostly to enforce. Furthermore, the ensuringhealth of the economy is a primary duty of thestate and this means aiding its domesticbusinesses and one of the ways it does that is byacting to enforce copyright both internally and ifpossible externally.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allThe creativecommons is a more effective means for artists tobuild and expand their reach and markets thantraditional copyright licensing arrangements Thenature of the internet and mass media on the21st century is such that many artists canbenefit from the freedom and flexibility thatcreative commons licenses furnish to them.Wider use by other artists and laymen alike helpsartistic works “go viral” and to gain major impactthat allow the artist to generate a name for his orherself and to attain the levels of earningsconventional copyrights are meant to help artistsgenerate but that ultimately hamstring them. Amajor example of this is the band Nine InchNails, which opted in 2008 to begin releasing itsalbums through the creative commons. [1]Creative commons licenses are so remarkablebecause they can be deployed by artists toexpand their markets, and to profit even morefrom their greater recognition. After all, the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allThe costs ofmonitoring copyright by states, artists, andlawyers far outweigh the benefits, and is oftensimply ineffective The state incurs huge costs inmonitoring for copyright infringement, inarresting suspected perpetrators, inimprisonment of those found guilty, even thoughin reality nothing was stolen but an idea that,once released to it, belonged to the publicdomain more or less. [1] Furthermore, thedeterrent effect to copyright piracy generated byall the efforts of the state and firms has provengenerally minimal. In fact, the level of internetpiracy of books, music, and films has increaseddramatically year on year for several years,increasing by 30% in 2011 alone. [2] This isbecause in many cases copyright laws are nextto unenforceable, as the music and movieindustries have learned to their annoyance inrecent years, for example ninety percent of DVDssold in China are bootlegs while even western", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-con03b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allFew artistsever see much profit from their work anyway,many choosing the life of bohemian squalor inorder to keep producing art rather than taking upmore profitable pursuits. Vincent van Gogh soldalmost nothing, but his drive to create neverabated. No doubt the true artists will continue tofeel the urge to create under this policy, and theloss of a few marginal cases must be weighedagainst the massive losses to art in general, suchas the huge curtailment of exploration of andresponse to existing works, which are oftenartistically meritorious in their own right, andalso the rendering unavailable of much of theartistic output of the world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-con01b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allPeopledeserve recompense for their work, but thestifling force of current copyright prevents theproper sharing and expansion of the artisticcanon, to the intellectual and spiritualimpoverishment of all. Creative commonslicenses strike an important balance, by leavingartists with the power over commercial uses oftheir work, including selling it themselves, whilepermitting it to permeate the public spherethrough non-commercial channels. This is thebest way to weigh these competing needs in acomplex society. It is not preventing the creatorfrom profiting from his work. It is not a totalabrogation of people’s rights, but a giving over ofsome rights for the benefit of all.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-con02a", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allArtistsshould retain the right to control their work’sinteraction with the public space even if theirwork is publicly funded Art is the expression ofits creator’s sense of understanding of the world,and thus that expression will always have specialmeaning to him or her that no amount ofreinterpretation or external appreciation canoverride. How a work is used once released intothe public sphere, whether expanded, revised,responded to, or simply shown without theirdirect consent, thus remains an active issue forthe artist, because those alternative experiencesare all using a piece of the artist in its efforts.Artists deserve to have that piece of themtreated in a way they see as reasonable. It is asimple matter of justice that artists be permittedto maintain the level of control they desire, andit is a justice that is best furnished through theconventional copyright mechanism that providesfor the maximum protection of works for their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-con04a", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allArtists oftenrely on copyright protection to financially supportthemselves and their families Artists as they areoften not paid for anything else may rely on theircreative output to support themselves. This iscertainly no crime, and existing copyright lawsrecognize this fact. Artists often rely wholly ontheir ability to sell and profit from their work.This policy serves to drain them of that potentialrevenue, as their work is shunted into creativecommons, and available to all. Artists often alsohave families to support, and putting the addedfinancial burden on them of stripping them oftheir copyright only serves to further thoseproblems as they exist. A robust system ofcopyright is a much better protection tostruggling and successful artists alike who like alltalented individuals seek to assuage theirmaterial wants. Artists cannot live onappreciation alone. With much less securecopyright many would have to find other work.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-con03a", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allThe lack ofcontrol over, and profit from, art will serve as aserious disincentive to artistic output Profit is asmuch a factor in artists’ decision to producework, if not more so, than the primordial urge tocreate. Without the guarantee of ownership overone’s artistic work, the incentive to invest in itscreation is certainly diminished. Within a strongcopyright system, individuals feel free to investtime in their pursuits because they have fullknowledge that the final product of their labourswill be theirs to enjoy. [1] Without copyrightprotections the marginal cases, like people afraidto put time into actually building an installationart piece rather than doing more hours at theirjob, will not opt to create. If their work were toimmediately leave their control, they would mostcertainly be less inclined to do so. Furthermore,the inability of others to simply duplicate existingworks as their own means they too will begalvanized to break ground on new ideas, rather", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-con01a", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allArtists havea fundamental property right over their creativeoutput Whatever the end product, be it music,film, sculpture, or painting, artistic works are thecreations of individuals and a property rightinheres within them belonging to their creators.An idea is just an idea so long as it remainslocked in someone’s mind or is left as anunfinished sketch, etc. But when the art isallowed to bloom in full, it is due to the artist andthe artist only. The obsession, the time, the rawtalent needed to truly create art is an incrediblebusiness, requiring huge investment in energy,time, and effort. It is a matter of the most basic,and one would have hoped self-evident, principlethat the person who sacrificed so much to bringforth a piece of art should retain all the rights toit and in particular have the right to profit fromit. [1] To argue otherwise would be to condoneoutright theft. The ethereal work of the artist isevery bit as real as the hard work of a machine.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-con04b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allArtists rarelymake all that much money in the first place, anda great many only work as an artist part time.More importantly, they can still profit from theirart, since they retain exclusive commercial rightsto their work. Oftentimes they will actuallybenefit from operation under a creativecommons license because it provides widerdispersal of their work, which builds a broadername and market for their work.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-ascidfakhba-con02b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allUponentering the public arena works of art take oncharacters of their own, often far different thantheir original creators did, or could have,imagined. The art is consumed, absorbed, andreimagined and takes on its own identity that theartist cannot claim full ownership over. It isimportant that art as a whole be able to thrive insociety, but this is only possible when artists areable to make use of, and actively reinterpret andutilize existing works. That art does, due to itsorigination belong more to the people, whoshould have access, even if the artist, likeBeckett has bizarrely rigorous feelings about thework.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingBans on sexistadvertising will not necessarily solve the harmspresented and could instead cause harm tobusinesses through restricting their ability tocompete for audiences and consumers. Genderdifferences and beliefs about sex existed beforeadvertising. There is no certainty changing thecontent of ads would bring about change withinindividual societies and cultures which have theirown independent attitudes. Cultures have a rightto their own ideals and own values.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingWomen have a rightto be free of stereotyping. Women's rights to befree from stereotyping, prejudice, discriminationand objectification should be a matter of deepconcern as they infringe on human rights relatedto gender. Advertising messages influenceyounger generations as well as sendstereotypical images of men. As a result theobjectification and violence against women willcontinue. Gender inequality and sexualharassment in the work place is not likely todiminish.1 This means that women will continueto suffer from discrimination based upon theirgender. 1 Newswise.com, \"Study Find Rise inSexualized Images of Women.\" 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingAll types ofmessages are prevalent and advertisements donot possess any more influence than news orentertainment programming. Advertising issimply integral to pubic space messages andrepresents the increase of all messages throughthe advancement of technologies. Advertising isalso necessary to support all of types of othermediated messages like news, politics, andentertainment. Additionally, due to the overloadof messages of all kinds, consumers learn toscreen out and limit their reception ofinformation. Through technology, a viewer caneliminate advertisements from program content.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingSexist advertising isharmful to society, especially women. Sexistadvertising harms women through objectificationand diminishing of self-image. The UnitedNations Convention to Eliminate DiscriminationAgainst Women (CEDAW) links stereotypesabout women to prejudice based on gender.1Through visual and verbal messages women areportrayed as subservient to men. Women areseen increasingly as sex objects and these adslegitimize violence against women.2 Sexistadvertising also harms women's self-image byportraying an ideal stylized body.3 The impliedmessage is that consumers should seek toacquire these images even if they are contrary tothe reality of body types and features. Eatingdisorders and obsessive beauty productsconsumption results in order to attain idealbeauty images presented in the media.4 Sexistads also harm men through stereotyped imagesof masculinity.5 1 Object.Org. \"Women not Sex", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingSexist advertisingreflects current social attitudes. Attitudes andperceptions are based on culturally specificvalues and beliefs. It is difficult to determine auniversal definition of harm and sexistadvertising to determine if harm occurs. Somestudies have been questioned regarding theirrigor in examining the direct link fromadvertising to violence against women.1Violenceto women is not debatable but the cause of thatviolence is. In addition, studies related to bodyimage and beauty are often restricted to thosesharing certain genetic characteristics yetbiological differences exist between women.What is an idealized body image exactly? Somecurrent advertising has broadened images ofwomen to include a variety of body types,cultures, and ages to define beauty outsidetraditional stereotypes. Advertising also portrayswomen in roles of power and success and notalways as sex objects as claimed. 1 Young,Toby.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingPolicies which banwill interfere with business practices, restrict freeexpression, and be are difficult to standardize. Ifads do not sell, they will be rejected and whenads are effective they are likely to continue inpursuit of gaining consumers. Business has theright to set business practices which work forthem. Restricting the content of advertisingrestricts free expression. In fact, Swedenrejected a ban on sexist advertising because itwas believed to restrict free expression.1 1Holmes, Stefanie. \"Scandinavian split on sexistads\" BBCNews", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingSince advertising ispervasive in mediated messages, it has thepower to influence social attitudes. Advertsoccupy more public space than ever before inhistory. Due to technology, public space is globaland ads can been seen around the world, in 2009the UK became the first major economy whereadvertisers spend more on internet advertisingthan on television advertising1. Through suchdominance, ads contribute to attitudes andvalues. Due to their power to influence attitudeswithin a society, serious attention should be paidto the content of advertising. 1 Sweney, Mark,'Internet overtakes television to become biggestadvertising sector in the UK', The Guardian, 30September 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingPolicies should beestablished which ban the promotion of sexistattitudes in advertising. Norway and Denmarkhave already developed policies to restrict sexistadvertising1. In 2008, the UN Committee toEliminate Discrimination Against Women callsupon states to taken action and in particular theUnited Kingdom government to address thisissue.2 In May of 2011 Parliamentary Assemblyof the Council of Europe 's Committee on EqualOpportunity for Women made a case for sexistadvertising as a barrier to gender equality. Inthat report standards were presented andmethods to cope with sexist advertising weresuggested.3In Australia a government advisoryboard has developed a list of principles to guideboth advertising and the fashion industry.4 1Holmes, Stefanie. \"Scandinavian split on sexistads.\" BBC news. 2008/April 25 accessed2011/08/25 2 Object.com. \"Women are not SexObjects.\" 3 Parliamentary Assembly of 26 May", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingEven though somebusinesses have responded to public opinion,there are sufficient international commitmentswhich address gender inequality in all societies.The Universal Declaration of Human rights andsubsequent conventions have acknowledged theoverwhelming need to set policies and practicesinto motion which deal with the rights of womenand children. Waiting upon the private sector torespond to needed changes in social attitudeswhich demean certain groups of citizens, is toslow, too inefficient, and until actions are takendoes not solve the inherent problems we havediscussed. Eating disorders, diminished selfimages, and the promotion of women as sexualobjects has immediate harms for women andinfluences the socialization of children. Men aswell suffer from stereotypes aboutattractiveness, body images, and sexuality.Therefore problems created from sexistadvertising need to be addressed now rather", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingAlthough businesshas a compelling self interest to make a profitand advertising is integral to that endeavour,business does not necessarily sacrifice its profitwhen curbing sexist advertising. If messages areharmonizing with social attitudes, thenadvertising which appeals to the greater good ofgender equality does not necessarily harm butcould enhance business credibility. The Bennetonads have often embraced a social consciousnessto promote the public good while making a profit.The affirmative has acknowledged that foradvertising to be effective they have to connectto values held within the community. As moreawareness develops about the negative influenceof sexist advertising, business is likely to benefitfrom the banning of sexist ads.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingSexist advertising issubjective so would be too difficult tocodify. Effective advertising appeals to thesocial, cultural, and personal values ofconsumers. Through the connection of values toproducts, services and ideas, advertising is ableto accomplish its goal of adoption. Failure tomake meaningful appeals to audience membersseriously diminishes the outcomes of marketing.Since differing beliefs about beauty, body types,sexuality, and gender roles exist across societiesand cultures, universal definitions of sexistadvertising are too difficult to determine. As anexample, biological differences exist betweenwomen and what may be considered excessivelythin in one society may not be so in another. Anytype of censoring calls into questions such aswho will censor and how will such censorship beapplied. The development of standards couldfavour cultural imperialism. Therefore, sexistadvertising is too difficult to codify.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con04a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingIndividuals have achoice and right to respond to ads and theirmeaning. Consumers have a choice to exposethemselves to advertising through their ownpersonal behaviour. Advertisements can beignored by the consumer and deleted at will.Interpretation of the ad depends on the attitudesof the receiver. The purchase and consumptionof beauty products is the personal choice of abuyer. How ads attract and influence isdetermined by individual beliefs and values ofthe audience member. Some feminists believethat institutional power structures set up a\"victim\" mentality in women and fail to empowerthem by placing dependence upon powerstructures to make choices for women.1 Ifconsumers wish to embrace the ideals or valuesrepresented in ads, this should be their choice.Therefore the right to self determine one'sconsumer behaviour should be left to theindividual. 1 Thomas, Christine. \"The New", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingAny changes inadvertising should come from businessesthemselves rather than throughbanning. Banning requires a legal frameworkand enforcement mechanism. Externalorganizations interfere with the ability ofbusiness to conduct business. Should the socialcultural environment change, businesses arelikely to respond to the attitudes of theirconsumers. A recent change in the California MilkBoard's website occurred due to publicpressure.1 Social corporate responsibility isanother possibility which business could embraceif changing social attitudes develop.2Banning is arepressive method which interferes withcompetition. Self determined methods should beallowed to competitors in the economicmarketplace. Therefore, any changes inadvertising should come from the businesscommunity rather than through banning. 1Kumar, Sheila. \"Milk Board Alters Sexist", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingSexist advertising isprofitable Business has a compelling self interestto make a profit and advertising is integral tothat endeavour. The profit from business allowsfor economic growth without which individualstates and the world's economy could notsurvive. Competition drives the marketplace ofproducts and ideas. And, advertising is theprimary method through which those products,services and ideas are made known to the public.When banning is placed upon advertising, theability to compete and survive in the economicmarketplace is threatened. Therefore, thecompelling need to make a profit is legitimizesthe need for advertising.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con04b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingIt is true thatindividuals do have the right to consume mediaand have some power over how they perceiveand respond to media. However, since the natureof advertising is always planned for publicconsumption, then ads contribute to existingattitudes inside a person. When slaves in theU.S. were marketed and sold according to thecontent of advertising, a social system was beingperpetrated. When the injustices of slavery wereacknowledged both the business and themarketing of slaves ceased to exist. When thegreater social good of justice is held overindividual choice, social good should prevail.Advertising which demeans the value of certaingroups of citizens is not appropriate for thepublic marketplace. Although Individual choiceand freedom of choice are to be valued, publicmessages by the nature of their public audience,must serve the greater society. Pornography inthe public airways is often regulated and banned", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctghwbsa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television gender housewould ban sexist advertisingAlthough there is aclaim that sexist advertising is to difficult tocodify, such codes have and are being developedto guide the advertising industry. Thesestandards speak to advertising which demeansthe status of women, objectifies them, and playsupon stereotypes about women which harmwomen and society in general. Earlier the Councilof Europe was mentioned, Denmark, Norway andAustralia as specific examples of codes orstandards for evaluating sexist advertising whichhave been developed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireOppositionagree that the culture and law of a nation has aprodigious impact on the conscience of itscivilians. However, according to AlcindaHonwana, an anthropologist and authority on thetopic of child soldiers, the problem does not\"have its roots in African traditional culture.\" [i]Although culture has an impact on society, theissue of child soldiers is not affiliated withit. Side proposition implied that conscriptingchildren should be excusable if it is permitted byan authoritative body of local law. However, arelaws based on value-sets that do not aspire to anaccessible law making process more valid thanthe abiding law of that nation? No. Sideopposition believe that the \"rule of law is a legalmaxim according to which no one is immune tothe law.” The fundamental purpose ofgovernment is the maintenance and promotionof basic security and public order. Without it thenation will deteriorate. The proposition", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireThe failure ofrule of law As the anthropologist and lawyerSally Falk-Moore observed “law is only ever apiecemeal intervention by the state in the life ofsociety.” [i] Laws are, ultimately, social normsthat are taught, enforced and arbitrated on bythe state. The value of these norms is such thatthey are deemed to be a vital part of a society’sidentity and the state is entrusted with theirprotection. However, this ideal can be difficult toachieve. Debate as to which norms the stateshould be custodian of is constant. Where thereis a disconnect between a law and the daily lives,aspirations and struggles of a society, it becomesunlikely that that law will be complied with.Generally, a state will not be able to give apronouncement the force of law if it does notreflect the values held by a majority of asociety. Compliance with the law can be evenharder to obtain in highly plural societies. Evenin plural societies ruled peacefully by an effective", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireTheproposition understates the extent to which theneeds of child soldiers are catered to byinternational justice bodies. The Paris Principles[i] , which are used to guide the formation andfunctions of national human rights organisations,state that “3.6 Children who are accused ofcrimes under international law allegedlycommitted while they were associated witharmed forces or armed groups should beconsidered primarily as victims of offencesagainst international law; not only asperpetrators... 3.7 Wherever possible,alternatives to judicial proceedings must besought, in line with the Convention on the Rightsof the Child and other international standards forjuvenile justice.” Although not strictly binding,an onus is placed on bodies such as the ICC toseek alternatives to the trial process whendealing with children. (The Principles define achild as anyone less than 18 years of age). Even", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireCulturalrelativism and adapting to conflict The issuesunderlying all debates on child soldiers go to thevery heart of intercultural justice, politics andgovernance. International and supranationallegislation notwithstanding, the notion thatchildren should be protected from all forms ofviolence at any cost is expressly western. Thefacts stated in the introduction are not sufficientto support the creation of a defence of culturalrelativism to charges of recruiting and using childsoldiers. “Cultures” are not simply sets ofpractices defined by history and tradition. Theyare also methods of living, of survival and ofordering societies that change and develop inresponse to societies’ environments. Withinmany communities, children are inducted (orinduct themselves) into military organisations asa result of necessity. The traditional providers ofphysical safety within a society may have beenkilled or displaced by war. Communities left", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireSideproposition are attempting to make an argumentin favour of reforming the ICC’s prosecutionguidelines, but are doing so in terms of theculturally relative definition of adulthood. Inother words, side proposition are trying todiscuss war, realpolitik and international justiceusing the language of social anthropology. Thisapproach is flawed. Arguments about theappropriate age to allow a child to hunt, to leaveschool or to marry pale beside the life-and-deathsignificance of participation in warfare. A childdoes not become an adult by acting like asoldier, and those who recruit children intomilitary organisations do not necessarily viewthem as adults. Indeed, children are seen aseasy targets for recruitment, due to theiremotional immaturity, their gullibility anddeference to those who wield authority. Childrenmay join armed groups out of necessity, and inthe interests of survival, but this does not mean", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireThe ICC is notlikely to target children or the leaders ofmarginalised communities when prosecuting theuse of child soldiers. Officials of states partieswho play a role in commanding and deployingmilitary units can be held liable for failing toprevent the use of child soldiers at a locallevel. If the agony of their circumstances forcesa community to recruit ever younger boys intoits militia, then officers, ministers or heads ofstate, along with the commanders of non-stateactors, can be brought to trial for allowingchildren to be used as soldiers. This will be thecase whether these individuals do so negligentlyor by omission. A guilty party need not engage ina positive act. ICC prosecutors and judgesexercise their discretion in order to avoid thetypes of injustice that the proposition describes.The lack of prosecutions relating to the ad-hocuse of child soldiers by pro-independence groupsin South Sudan underlies this fact [i]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireRemovingbarriers to demobilisation, disarmament andrehabilitation It can easily be conceded, withoutweakening the resolution, that war and combatare horrific, damaging experiences. Over the lastseventy years, the international community hasattempted to limit the suffering that follows theend of a conflict by giving soldiers and civiliansaccess to medical and psychological care. This isnow an accepted part of the practice ofpost-conflict reconstruction, referred to asDisarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration(DDR) [i] . The effects of chronic war andchronic engagement with war are best addressedby a slow and continuous process of habituationto normal life. Former child soldiers are sent totreatment centres specialising in this type of carein states such as Sierra Leone [ii] . What isharmful to this process of recovery is thebranding of child soldiers as war criminals. Thestigma attached to such a conviction would", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireThe culturalconstruction of armed conflict The jurisdiction ofthe ICC is primarily exercised according toculturally constructed assumptions about theway war works – that there will be a cleardivision between aggressors and defenders, thatarmies will be organised according to chains ofcommand, the civilians will not be targeted andwill be evacuated from conflict zones. Butcountless conflicts in Africa and central Asia haveproven these assumptions to be flawed. Itshould not be forgotten that almost allformulations of this motion define culturalrelativism only as a defence to the use of childsoldiers. It will still be open for ICC prosecutorsto prove that the use of child soldiers has beensystematic, pernicious and deliberate, ratherthan the product of uncertainty, necessity andunstable legal norms. Moreover, not all defencesare “complete” defences; they do not all result inacquittal, and are often used by judges to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireAs notedabove, the definition of adulthood acceptedwithin western liberal democracies is not acultural absolute. It can be argued that the legalcut-off point- be it sixteen, eighteen ortwenty-one years of age- is largely arbitrary.Children who care for disabled parents take onadult responsibilities inconceivable to manyundergraduate students. Many developing worldcultures would regard the under-emphasis ofpractical skills and physical training that exists inthe education systems of knowledge-basedwestern economies to be tantamount toneglect. In both war-torn Afghanistan andpeaceful Botswana, a boy of fourteen isconsidered old enough and able enough to hunt;to protect his younger siblings; to marry or to beresponsible for a harvest. Why should an Afghanichild or his parents be condemned for allowinghim to participate in the defence of hiscommunity? A family in a similar position in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireThe purposeof the resolution is not to eliminate conflict in thedeveloping world. Side proposition are merelyseeking to remove the harmful side effects of theway in which the use of child soldiers is currentlyprosecuted – the risk of criminalising childrenand teenagers, the stigma attached to being achild soldier, and the condemnation ofcommunities that rely on child soldiers forprotection. Children are already the victims ofatrocities perpetrated against civilians. Theyalready volunteer to engage in military service.Armed groups that target civilian populationshave already broken international law and haveproven willing to do so repeatedly. Children willalways be a target, whether or not they havesought out the means with which to defendthemselves. With the international communityunwilling to provide wide-ranging policing andsupervision of international legal norms, it is notjust to condemn individuals and communities", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requirePunishingobjectively harmful conduct Of the tens ofthousands of children exposed to armed conflictthroughout the world, most are recruited intoarmed political groups. Quite contrary to theimage of child soldiers constructed by theproposition, these youngsters are not de-factoadults, nor are they seeking to defendcommunities who will be in some way grateful fortheir contributions and sacrifices. Child soldiersjoin groups with defined political and militaryobjectives. Children may volunteer for militaryunits after encountering propaganda. Manychildren join up to escape social disintegrationwithin their communities. Several female childsoldiers have revealed that they joined becauseto escape domestic violence or forced marriage.Many children who do not volunteer can beforcibly abducted by military organisations. Oneformer child soldier from Congo reported that“they gave me a uniform and told me that now I", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireUniversalrights and collective compromises Culturalrelativism is the philosophical belief that allcultures and cultural beliefs are of equal valueand that right and wrong are relative anddependant on cultural contexts. Accordingly,relativists hold that universal human rightscannot exist, as there are no truly universalhuman values. If rights are relative, the lawsthat protect them must also be relative. If weaccept proposition’s contention that culturallyrelative values can evolve in response to conflictsand crises, then any perverse or destructivebehaviour given the force of ritual and regularityby a group’s conduct can be taken to be relative.If the group believes that a practice is right, if itties into that group’s conception of what is justand good or beneficial to their survival, thenthere can be no counter argument against it –whether that practice has been continuous for ahundred years or a hundred days. Systems of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireMakingchildren military targets The purpose of the banon the use of child soldiers is to prevent thenormalisation of such tactics in conflict zones. Itis not an inflexible implementation of a loftyEuropean ideal. The ban, and the role of the ICCin enforcing it, is designed to reduce thelikelihood that civilians will be deliberatelytargeted in developing world war zones. Why isthis necessary? If the defence set out in themotion is used to reduce the number of warcrimes convictions attendant on the use of childsoldiers, not only will numbers of child soldiersrise, but children themselves will become militarytargets. Communities ravaged and depleted bywar, under the status quo, may be seen asminimally threatening. Armies are not likely totarget them as strategic objectives if it is thoughtthat they will offer no resistance. However, ifthere is no condemnation and investigation ofthe use of child soldiers, they will become a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-tlhrilsfhwr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireIt is notsufficient to observe that there exist groups thatuse brutality to recruit and control child soldiers.As accounts of conflicts in South Sudan andMyanmar show, politically motivated recruitmentof children is less common than childrenvolunteering through necessity. Side oppositionshould not overlook the fact that there are fewconstructive alternatives available to children insuch situations. Educational institutions are oftenthe first forms of state support to be withdrawnwhen war breaks out. Many children areorphaned as a result of the indiscriminatetargeting of civilians. Taking flight as a refugeemay postpone a child’s exposure to conflict, butis rarely useful in escaping it. Proposition havealready established that child soldiers do notoriginate exclusively within state-based bodies ororganised opposition groups seeking control of astate. They are just as likely to be the productsof necessity or non-western conceptions of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersWith thenumber of child performers on the increase, [1]parents are becoming more aware of what toexpect from their child’s agent, and thus lesslikely to unwittingly allow exploitation.Additionally, laws exist to prevent parents fromspending their child’s wages; for example, the“Coogan Law” dictates that parents in Californiamust open a trust account for their child in which15% of that child’s earnings must be put aside.[2] [1] Sand, ‘Child performers working in theentertainment industry around the world’. [2]Screen Actors Guild, ‘Coogan Law’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersperformers areat risk of exploitation Children are generallyconsidered to be too young to make importantdecisions for themselves, and so decision-makingfalls to parents, teachers, etc. For childperformers, there are additionaldecision-makers: their agents. Since agentsbenefit financially from the child’s getting a roleor doing well in a sporting event, there is adefinite risk of exploitation. Exploitation can alsocome from parents, as in the famous case ofAmerican television child stars Jackie Cooganand Gary Coleman, who both sued their parentsfor spending the money they had earned aschildren [1] [2] or of Macaulay Culkin, whoblocked his parents from having access to hisearnings. [1] AP, ‘The Kid’ To Get $126,000 ForHis Share’ [2] The Deseret News, ‘Former ChildStar Wins $1.3 Million Judgment’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersJust as thestate creates laws to protect child performers itcould ban child performers Child performers arecurrently protected by laws about all sorts ofthings from the minimum amount of educationthey may get to their pay and how many hoursthey can work. Many of these laws would bemuch more difficult to enforce than a blanketban. It would be simple to enforce as childperformers would in most cases be easy to spot– as they are performing for the public. Thegovernment could then bring charges againstthose who are employing the child and finethem.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersChildren willalways feel pressure in certain areas of theirlives, whether with exams or school plays. Itmay be true that pressure is greater for childperformers, but children who perform at aprofessional level are generally more skilled, andso they are often better at dealing with thispressure. At the very least, they gain enoughexperience at a young age, that they learn theskills needed to succeed, even in high-pressuresituations. Given the pressures all children face,[1] surely it is ethical to allow children into aworld where they can learn how to deal withthese stresses and protect themselves againstpossible future problems. [1] Etchingham, ‘Arewe putting our kids under too much pressure?’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersAllowingchildren to perform pushes them to grow up toosoon Child performers are exposed to a muchhigher level of responsibility than their peers,without the maturity to deal with it. They may beexposed to sex, drugs, or alcohol, in a contexttoo far removed from a normal life that theydon’t learn adequate coping mechanisms. It is nosurprise that many child performers “burn out”by the time they reach adulthood, oftenexperiencing problems long before, as in thecase of actress Drew Barrymore, who enteredrehab at the age of 13. [1] Children should notbe encouraged to enter into these adult worlds ofacting, modeling, dancing, etc. Michael Jacksonattributed his obsession with children andchildhood as a consequence of having missed outon a childhood himself. [1] Barrymore, Little GirlLost", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersBeing aperformer limits a child’s formaleducation Spending so much time eitherperforming or training limits the amount offormal education the child can receive. Forexample, in the UK and other countries, childperformers are only required to be educated forthree hours each day. [1] Additionally, the focuson the specialised skill of the child (e.g., acting,dancing, etc.) may detract from their family’s ortheir own interest in formal education. [1] TheChildren’s Legal Centre, ‘What are the hours thata child performer may work?’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersIt is entirelypossible for child performers to achieve highgrades. For example, Jodie Foster graduatedmagna cum laude from Yale University, despitehaving been a child star. [1] Child performerswho spend a lot of hours on-set will also haveaccess to a certified teacher who acts as theirpersonal tutor during that time. [2] In addition,as long as the child performer obtains a sufficientunderstanding of the core academic curriculum,it doesn’t matter if they are more interested intheir chosen career area than in formaleducation, especially if they plan on continuingon that career path into adulthood. [1] YaleOffice of Public Affairs & Communications,‘Yale Alumni Go to the Oscars’ [2] On LocationEducation, ‘Teacher Requirements’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersCases likeDrew Barrymore’s are rare, and many youngperformers have happy and successful careers.All young people are likely to be exposed to adultexperiences at some point in their childhood, andit should be left to parents and teachers toeducate children of the dangers of alcohol,drugs, etc., no matter what activities the childtakes part in outside of school or the home. Formany of the areas that involve child performers,there are also laws in place to ensure childrenare not exposed to age-inappropriate situations.For example, in North America and othercountries laws exist to ensure children in theentertainment industry are not “put at riskphysically (no dangerous stunts),” “exposed tomorally compromising situations,” or everallowed to “be nude or partially nude,” or “beengaged in overt sexual acts”. [1] [1] Moore,‘Protecting Child Stars: Laws and Regulations’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersBanning childperformers could be successful for professionalchild performers in regulated industries but itwould be much more difficult to prevent childperformers on a small scale. It will also be verydifficult to get a balance between allowingchildren to develop in their chosen profession orsport while preventing them from actuallyengaging in any performance that displays thattalent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersThe added riskfor most child athletes and performers is verylow, and there is professional help in place forthem to manage it. Children who competeprofessionally in sporting events are onlyexposed to real risk in very rare, extremesituations. Some elements of risk exist in allaspects of life: children who are allowed to playon rollerblades are slightly more at risk of injurythan those who are not; children who live incities are at more risk of traffic accidents thanthose who live in the countryside, who are atmore risk of falling out of trees, etc. Adults andchildren alike make decisions in which they takerisks in the name of the greater benefits. Forchildren who play a sport professionally, thephysical training they receive can build strengthand muscle and increase fitness levels, whichprovide the child with improved health andprotection from injury in future. If childperformers were banned, there would be no way", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersIt is unethicalto expose children to the pressures ofperforming Even experienced adults can find itdifficult to deal with stage fright or performanceanxiety. Children, more emotionally vulnerablethan adults by nature, should not be exposed tothis sort of pressure. This is especially true insituations where the child is being paid for theirperformance, since the added necessity toperform well can lead to even more pressure.Although suicide among children is rare, it isbelieved often to occur as a result of the childfeeling like she is under too much pressure, orfailing to meet the expectations of others.[1] There are also consequences that continuelong past the child has stopped performing;former child actors often have the problem asyoung adults as feeling as having already‘peaked’ and find themselves without a sense ofdrive or ambition or a coherent adult identity,consequentially they often suffer from substance", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersBeing aperformer can make the child physicallyvulnerable Children involved at a professionallevel in sports are at a higher risk than theirpeers of physical problems like breaking bones.In some cases, these physical problems can befatal; e.g., Julissa Gomez, who died fromcomplications of a vaulting injury contractedwhen she was 15 in warm-ups for a gymnasticscompetition. [1] Even in careers like acting anddancing there are risks for child performers.Actors and dancers are usually encouraged tostay thin, often to an unhealthy degree. Becausechildren are particularly vulnerable, they aremore susceptible to the perils of over-exercisingfor athletes and eating disorders for performers.It has been found, for example, that girls whodance in their childhood are more likely thantheir peers to develop anorexia nervosa in laterlife. [2] Lena Zavaroni, the childhood winner of‘opportunity knocks’ in the 1970’s, struggled with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersChildren mightfeel as if their rights are being taken away, butthere is a reason why children are not given freereign over the way they live their lives.Governments have already stepped in to preventchildren from endangering their health byconsuming too much junk food, [1] [2] andindeed from working in non-performance fields.So too must they take charge in this issue andact so as to prevent children from becomingsusceptible to the emotional and physical risksinvolved in being a child performer. [1] BBCNews, ‘Junk food banned in school meals’ [2]Harris, ‘A Federal Effort to Push Junk Food Out ofSchools’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersIn a lot offilms, television shows, and stage productions, itis possible to have young adult actors playingchild roles. For example, in the popular Americantelevision show The O.C., the main characterswere played by young adults ranging from 18 to29 years of age but all portraying teenagers. [1]Sports needn’t suffer either: the minimum age ofcompetition for gymnastics has already beenraised, [2] [3] and others can surely follow theirexample without suffering from it. If professionalleagues are not allowed to roster athletes belowthe age of 18, for example, children will competein amateur and educational leagues where thepressure and commitment is lower, but wherethey can still train for the professional arena. [1]IMDB, ‘The O.C.’ [2] Hanley, ‘Gymnastics –Minimum age will soon rise to 16.’ [3] TheTelegraph, London 2012 Olympics: artisticgymnastics guide", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersIf childperformers were banned, many children wouldfind a way to perform illegally, now without legalprotection. While being a child performer islegal, these children’s working circumstances areunder the protection of the law and monitored bygovernment departments such as the InlandRevenue, Health and Safety, etc. Were childperformers to be banned, it is certain that somechildren would still perform, but would not bethus protected. This has already happened incertain professional sports where athletes canbenefit by lying about their age. For example, itis easier for Latin American baseball players tosign with U.S. Major League teams if the teamsthink they are young. As a result, countlessplayers have lied about their age, including anumber of high-profile cases, such as MiguelTejada who was named Most Valuable Player in2002. [1] Many of these young players, however,have been less successful. There are too many", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersThegovernment has no right to prevent childrenfrom doing what they enjoy and are goodat Many child performers would undoubtedlyprotest if their right to perform were taken awayfrom them, and justly so. This can be seen inquotes from the likes of Roddy McDowall, whosaid in an interview in 1963 that he “had aparticularly wonderful time” as a child actor, [1]and would presumably have been quite upsethad a ban been enforced in his lifetime. It isbeyond the rights of the government to makeillegal an opportunity that allows those talentedon the stage, in front of a camera, on the pitch,etc. (who might well not be so strong in other,e.g., academic, areas) to make a living fromdoing what they do best. Some child performershave also proved to be extremely business savvy– the ‘Olsen Twins’ have built a massive industryoff of their Disney stardom. [1] BBC News.‘Actor McDowall dies aged 7 0", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersChildperformers are necessary for roles in some films,television shows, etc., and for the survival ofsome sports In some films or television shows,child actors are absolutely necessary in order torealistically portray society and the roles childrenplay. The incredibly popular Harry Potter films,for example, would not have been half asconvincing without the large cast of actors underthe age of 18 playing the schoolchildren. Childactors are also necessary in the advertisingindustry, in order to make products appealing toa younger audience. Some sports, too, would beendangered if children were not allowed tocompete. Ice skaters and dancers, for example,benefit greatly from training starting at an earlyage. [1] [1] Sagolla, ‘Dance Training forChildren and Teens’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-mmctyshwbcp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture television youth sporthouse would ban child performersIf childperformers were banned, it would be the duty ofthe government to ensure children were notillegally performing, just as it is currently theirduty to protect current child performers. In theUnited States, for example, Major LeagueBaseball has begun to institute DNA testing forinternational players, in order to ensure thatthey are being truthful about their age whenthey come to America. [1] Banning childperformers is possible, and it is the only way totruly protect children’s rights and to preventthem from the inherent physical and emotionalrisks. [1] Schmidt and Schwartz. “Baseball’s Useof DNA Raises Questions.”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialBilingualeducation is exactly that – bilingual. Students donot simply abandon the English language – theyintensively study it. The only bilingual classes areprovided in other fields such as math and science- subjects critical for future employment toensure they do not fall top far behind. On thecontrary, while immersion may teach Englishbetter, there is a lot of evidence that it tends toincrease drop-out rates substantially, [1]indicating that for a number of students it is infact less effective since it is hard to learnanything in school if you don’t attend. Eventhose who don’t drop out tend to fallsubstantially behind, hurting their educationalefforts, and undermining their position in theworkplace. A mathematician or scientist does notneed perfect English – they do need good gradesin other courses. [1] Vaznis, James, ‘Bostonstudents struggle with English-only rule’,boston.com, 7 April 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialBilingualEducation is expensive and encouragesbalkanization One of the goals of thegovernment in providing education is to preparestudents for success in the work place, andtherefore the government has an obligation tospend its money in the most efficient waypossible to accomplish this. This is relevantbecause Bilingual education is expensive,requiring the hiring of bilingual teachers, theorganization of bilingual classes, and theacquisition of bilingual curriculum materials.[1] These costs might be justified if theyactually helped students. But the reality is thatthey do not. For one thing, they allow studentsto get by without learning English. One of thegreat obstacles to learning a new language is thefact that parents of students may well speakanother language at home. If students suddenlyuse that language at school as well, they willspend the vast majority of their day speaking a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialEnglish-onlypolicies are not about encouraging acceptance ofdiversity, and to the extent they are aboutbringing people together it is by forcingimmigrants to abandon their culture. From thevery beginning of the English-only movementduring the First World War, when anti-Germansentiment led to attacks on German-speakingimmigrants, the idea of English as a an officiallanguage has been brought up to stigmatizeimmigrants . [1] The very debate over theimplementation of the policy would do more tostigmatize immigrants than could be made up forby any benefits it could provide. It may well bethat forcing Immigrants to speak English andwork in it would help them to assimilate but sowould deporting them across the country wherethey would be forced to sink or swim. We don’tdo that because it would be wrong. Secondly, allof the government’s benefits are based on theassumption that individuals can learn English", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialThe Identityand History of the United States are intrinsicallylinked to the English Language From its veryfounding, English was the common language ofthe United States, and full participation in thenational life was dependent on the ability tospeak it. Theodore Roosevelt himself once notedthat \"We have one language here, and that is theEnglish language, and we intend to see that the[assimilation] crucible turns our people out asAmericans ” [1] Declaring English as the officiallanguage will give legal force to this history, andhelp provide unity to Americans at a time whenmany come from different backgrounds and holddifferent political views. Furthermore, it will helpimmigrants with the process of assimilation.Rather than simply learning English forpragmatic reasons, the act of learning Englishwill tie immigrants into a political and historicaltradition going back to Thomas Jefferson. [1]Opposing Views, ‘Linguistic Unity Is Critical in an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialEnglish is thede facto official language of the United Statesalready and that is not under threat at this time.There is no prospect of it being replaced withSwahili and of children three generations in thefuture being unable to read the declaration ofindependence. As a consequence the majorimpacts of this move will be symbolic. First of all,it will enshrine and endorse the idea that thetrue Americans were the first Americans, that theEnglish colonists who arrived on the continentspeaking the language already were the only realAmericans, and that everyone who arrived lateris an American by integration. Not only is thisuntrue – the Dutch settled New York [1] – but italso places a stigma on that integration. By tyingAmerican identity to the British colony the UnitedStates was rather than the ideals the nation wasfounded on, the government would adopting anexclusive definition that in some ways goesagainst those ideals, including for instance, the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialThesegregation of students in this case is not afunction of their language skills, but of their lackthereof. Simply placing non-English speakers in anormal school will not suddenly make themfriends with everyone, especially if they cannotcommunicate. If there are other speakers of theirlanguage, they will likely form a separate socialgroup with those students, speaking their homelanguage among themselves, which willundermine efforts to teach them English. At thesame time they will likely do poorly in school asthey will struggle to comprehend the content oftheir classes. [1] If other ESL students don’texist, they will likely become socially isolated,with all the negative results this can potentiallylead to such as depression or even in extremecases suicide. [1] Vaznis, James, ‘Bostonstudents struggle with English-only rule’,boston.com, 7 April 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialAvoidsself-segregation In a time when the US hasbegun to overcome racial segregation, and legaldiscrimination in other fields, one of the greatchallenges it faces is self-segregation. Linguisticdiversity worsens these problems because itinevitably leads to self-segregation. All thingsbeing equal, and even if they are not, people liketo be around people they can communicatewith. This was not a huge problem in years pastwhen most immigrant groups were small enoughto be easily swallowed, and too small to maintaintheir linguistic unity, but the Hispanic populationin the United States has grown at such a rate,that it is possible to get by with Spanish in manymajor US cities. Restaurants, businesses andservices all exist which cater to it, and there isan entire industry of Spanish language televisionavailable. This in turn makes the risk of socialbalkanization much stronger. While a smallminority of people may learn new languages", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialBilingualeducation hurts students Bilingual educationsegregates students in its system from thoseoutside it. This limits the opportunities forinteraction. This is harmful in a number of ways.For one thing, it limits their interaction withpeers who will speak English. While it’s possiblethey may practice English with their friends in abilingual school, it seems unlikely, as it would beeasier to talk in the existinglanguage. Furthermore, it also limits theexposure of English-speaking students toimmigrants who don’t speak English, allowingnegative stereotypes to arise out of ignorancethat then can influence governmental policythrough the ballot box. Finally, this segregationmay extend to within bilingual schoolsthemselves, since not everyone seeking bilingualeducation has the same non-English language.The result might well be that students wouldgroup socially into groups based on country of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con03b", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialAll of thoseaccents are varieties of English. The meaning ofEnglish as a unifying force is that acrossAmericans’ differences of religion, politics,history, and yes dialect, at the end of the daythey are all brought together by a commonlanguage and a common ability to communicatewithin it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con01b", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialIt may well bethat some people backing the push to makeEnglish the official language have questionablemotives, but the movement should be evaluatedbased on its results. Right now Hispanics arealready stigmatized, whether on one hand astemporary labourers unable to speak English andtherefore destined for the worst jobs, or as aninvading horde planning to conquer the UnitedStates. For better or worse, the self-segregationof the community reinforces many of thesebeliefs, while it also prevents their kids fromlearning English. If this policy helps to break thisself-segregation up, and the children of HispanicImmigrants become as American as the childrenof German immigrants became in the early 20thcentury then their opportunities will be greatlyincreased.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con02a", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialIt specificallydenies a rich cultural heritage which is uniquelyAmerican of groups that spoke English but not asa first language Almost no one in the UnitedStates knows English, but then chooses not touse it to make some sort of political statement.The language is far too omnipresent in theeconomy, culture, and everyday life to makesuch a choice attractive or even sane. Nor dopeople generally choose not to learn English. Theadvantages and opportunities it opens up, andthe stigmas and discrimination facingnon-English speakers mean that learning Englishis one of the first things any immigrant is goingto try and do. In reality therefore we are goingto be talking about people who can’t speakEnglish, either because they have not learned ityet, or because they can’t learn it. Perhaps theydon’t have the time between working two jobs,or perhaps they find it difficult. In any case, ifthis policy is simply symbolic it will stigmatize", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con04a", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialThe US has along tradition of multiple languages There is along historical tradition in the United States towhich different languages contributed. MostAmericans do not have ancestors who arrivedfrom England prior to 1776, and even among thecolonists before independence there wereFrenchman, Dutch, Swedes, Scots and Irish. [1]The languages of these early immigrants remain,for example Cajun, an offshoot of Frenchremains a de facto official language in Louisiana.[2] The historical importance of Native Americanlanguages or of the immigrants who came in andcontributed so much is also ignored. All of thesegroups are stigmatized and their contributionsignored. The descendants of most of the groupslisted above speak English today, so the issue isnot an ease of access one. It is however one ofhistorical justice and giving full recognition to thefull-range of contributors to Americanhistory. [1] ‘Ethnic Composition of the Thirteen", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con03a", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialEven within theUnited States people speak Englishdifferently Even within the United States peoplespeak many different dialects. From Boston toNew York to the rural South, accents anddiversity within the English language express theexact same types of historical, cultural, and evenpolitical traditions that those pushing English findso horrifying if made in another language. Itwould be hard to set a standard for what isEnglish, and ignore the fact that Americans havelong used linguistic differences as a sign ofidentity. It therefore makes no sense to try topaper over these linguistic differences byimposing English as an official language; ratherthe diversity of languages and dialects should becelebrated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con01a", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialIn the currentenvironment, moves to make English the officiallanguage are specifically targeted at Hispanicimmigrants Historically, efforts to declareEnglish the official language tend to come upwhen certain elements in the American bodypolitic become threatened. It became an issue inthe First World War, when resentment roseagainst German immigrants, and the presentmovement, though nominally not signallinganyone out, is clearly aimed at Hispanics. Thiscan be inferred from the fact that they are by farthe largest non-English linguistic group in thecountry, and on occasion such views have beenlet slip, as the leader of one of the largestlobbying groups for a National Languagedid.[1] Even if such legislation is not aimedspecifically at Hispanics, everyone will assumethat it is, and many Hispanics will neverthelessbelieve that they are the intended targets. Thepractical result of this will be the alienation of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con04b", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialEngland todayowes much to Roman settlers, and for nearlyfour centuries it was governed by a Frenchspeaking nobility – yet this is not a reason forBritain to have either French or Latin as officiallanguages. The fact is that we can recognizethat all Americans today speak English, whilealso recognizing that their parents,grandparents, and great-grand-parents may nothave. In fact that is exactly what making Englishthe official language will recognize, the roleEnglish has played in bringing people togetherand creating a national identity by making thesepeople Americans.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-cgeeghwmeo-con02b", "title": "", "text": "culture general education education generalhouse would make english officialThis policy doesnot stigmatize people who cannot speak English.It rather affirms the hard work of those whohave. There are numerous stories of how proudimmigrants have been to take their citizenshiptest, and by strengthening the idea of identity itmakes it more meaningful. Secondly, if moneyis redirected from bilingual education toproviding individual tutoring, it may well helpindividuals who have trouble learning English in aclass environment. It has never been suggestedthat the government has no role to play inhelping people learn English.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirIf it issomething like a name that can already beconsidered intellectual property then thisbroadening is unnecessary, compensation will bemade through the courts anyway. Culture as awhole is something that evolves overtime, it isnot something that can be comparable tointellectual property. Culture is not as clear cutand rigid as the cases of intellectual property asit consists of things such as shared values andcommon knowledge which often has overlapsbetween different cultures and no true owner.Therefore, cultural appropriation cannot beparallel to stolen intellectual property and theyshould be handled in different ways. Reparationsfor something as arbitrary and subjective asculture is a system very open to exploitation. Itmay encourage exploitative behaviour withminorities encourages to pursue cases throughthe courts to gain reparations even when thecase is slim. In some instances, designs or ideas", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirCulturalappropriation is parallel to stolen intellectualproperty and should be treated in the sameway. There are high standards of globalintellectual property laws such as copyright andpatenting for things such as medicines, andcreative designs. However, these laws only applyto a few areas so this proposal would effectivelywiden its remit by taking intellectual property asa template for what might be considered ‘culturalproperty’. Many minority communities, includingthe Native American Navajo tribe have had theirnames, designs, and culture stolen or misusedand have not received compensation. Thishighlights the embedded systematic inequalitieswhere justice may not be brought to those ofminority cultures. Reparations, monetary orotherwise, should be paid in these cases as othercase studies [1]. The closest this has actuallycome to happening is with the Native AmericanNavajo community. They had their name printed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirFirstly,communities can be given credit for designs andthings of other cultural significance without theuse of reparations which are arbitrary andpointless. Secondly, reparations are alsoineffective, it throws a one-off lump sum to theformerly oppressed. They do not benefit themost deprived in society (economically). Theyare not effective in combatting racism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirCompensationrights a wrong Compensation is a basic principleof justice in any legal system. By definition it canbe given to those who have had harm toreputation or dignity, emotional distress and lossof opportunities, including potential earnings. Itis important to give compensation as it providessomething for those who have suffered fromdisadvantages as a result of someone else’sactions, and it therefore helps to level out theplaying field. Cultural appropriation causes clearharms – lost business, less awareness of thatculture, and a feeling of inferiority. Theoretically,compensation is also beneficial as Rawls believesthat it achieves 'some of the intent' of theprinciple of redress. This is in line with anegalitarian point of view [1]. While individualcases of cultural appropriation may not intend toharm they have an externality of harm bydamaging the culture and identity as a while.This is in much the same way that those", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirCompensationmay be fundamental, but only when it is possibleto quantify the harm, and decide who the harmwas done to. With cultural appropriation both areoften muddy. Taking a part of culture may nothave a monetary benefit for the one taking thatcultural item or a proportional loss for theoriginal culture. If this is the case how is a figureput on compensation? Then who does thecompensation go to; split between everyone inthat culture? But who and how is it defined whois a part of that group?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirThe notion ofcompensation in the case of culturalappropriation is limited. Firstly, culture issubjective and essentially defined to individualinterpretation and perception, there are limiteddefinitive lines. As a result of this, compensationwould be extremely difficult to both claim andgive out every time a cultural appropriation isclaimed by an individual or group.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirCompensationis important to give the communities credit theydeserve. Compensation can be used to level outthe playing field of inequality to those who havebeen oppressed. They help to give communitiesthe recognition they deserve and help to reverseintuitionally reinforced negative stereotypes. Thereparations can be used to benefit thecommunity; for example, within the communityand externally in order to educate peopleappropriately about the struggles of a repressedcommunity. It would help fund efforts based onthe model of the US Governments of Educationand State Boards of Education to develop a'robust curriculum' involving greater accuracy inblack history as well as the involvement ofAfrican American figures in history on local,national and global scales [1]. This inequality iswhy the reform has to be state led; it is up to thestate to protect minorities. Professor MatthewRimmer from the Queensland University of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirCompensationhas the potential to reverse damaged caused byCultural Appropriation. Compensation isnecessary in the case of cultural appropriation asit helps to provide victims with the resourcesthey need or deserve as compensation forexploitative behaviour. Often it can be easilyquantified as would be the case with the NavajoUrban Outfitters case. With stronger legislationand rulings on the provision for compensation forcultural appropriation, minority communitieswould be significantly better off. This would be amajor step towards reversing the damage of saidappropriation as it would allow the community todevelop and gain recognition for traditionaldesigns and ideas. Compensation can bring backsome justice to small, minority communities asthey can gain the appropriate recognition theydeserve as well as the benefits that come alongwith it. It was estimated in 2005 that nearly halfof the US $1billion market from native American", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-con03b", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirWho getscompensated would have to be clearly definedand yes there would be losers and someperverse outcomes. But what matters is that thesystem as a whole would be beneficial. Whileculture is complex any case would only belooking at one isolated aspect of culture; onecustom. Defining this one aspect and who itbelongs to would not be difficult. Compensationwould not usually go to all individuals of acommunity but to help that community; to theircommunity centres, NGOs etc., or to thoseindividuals who have directly lost income as itwould be with intellectual property.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-con01b", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirWhilstglobalisation is occurring and creating multibilliondollar industries all over the world, cultures arenot fully immersed in each other. Nor should wewant them to be as we don’t want a globalmonoculture. Far from sparking divisionscompensation can create harmony as it forcescultures to understand and tolerate each otherby learning what is acceptable and what is not.Preventing stealing of culture will encouragegreater attribution of where ideas come frompreventing smaller cultures from becomingmarginalised in a globalised world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-con02a", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirReparationsand the use of the term 'cultural appropriation' isa mask for more deep-rooted issues of racism insociety. The use of compensation as a means ofredress for cultural appropriation doesn’t tacklethe root problems that are expressed. Theproblems given as examples of culturalappropriation, like a Caucasian person wearingtheir hair in dreadlocks- a style that has meaningand historic prejudice to the afro-Caribbeancommunity is redirecting attention and division.The individuals wearing their hair in this fashionhowever are not the problem. Demandingcompensation from them 'does not challengeracism in any meaningful way' [1]. Insteadtargeting and punishing those who activelydiscriminate against those with the dreadlockstyle of hair is more effective and encouragesequality. [1] Malik, Kenan, ‘The Bane of CulturalAppropriation’, AlJazeera, 14th April 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-con03a", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirNo feasiblesystem of which grounds of compensation canoccur because of the fluidity of culture andcultural identity How a person identifiesthemselves aligns with the culture they are apart of. Szewczak and Snodgrass argue this is asthe values of an individual “are influenced andmodified by membership of other professional,organisational, ethnic, religious, and variousother social groups, each of which has its ownspecialized culture and value set. Thus,individuals vary greatly in the degree in whichthey espouse, if at all, values by a single culturalgroup, such as their national culture” [1]. As aresult, people can identify with several differentcultures often at one time. This createsdifficulties in allowing one person to seekcompensation from another purely on the basisof identity politics – individuals at least partiallydefine their own culture and it may only be oneamong multiple cultures they identify", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-con01a", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirglobalisationand multiculturalism. Cultural appropriationprevents assimilation between members ofsociety and creates further divisions based onarbitrary features of one’s ancestry orappearance. If reparations (through the use ofcompensation) were to occur in addition to this,it would create a more polarised and dividedsociety as an 'us and them' culture is created. Aconsequence of globalisation is the movement ofpeople and the diffusion of knowledge [1]. Thishappens on a mass scale where it is possible fora person from India to travel across the globe tothe United Kingdom (UK) and get there within 24hours of booking their flight. With this, thespread of technology and knowledge it isinevitable that culture and identity does notremain fixed either. It also means that anincreasing amount of people have more than oneculture. A direct consequence of increasedmigration is that migrants are likely to bring with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-culture-thbcsbptwhht-con02b", "title": "", "text": "traditions house believes compensation shouldbe paid those who have had theirThe use ofcompensation is effective in combating more'deep-rooted' issues of racism in society. This isbecause compensation gives the minoritycommunities the recognition, credit and anyfinancial benefit that comes with this, of whichthey deserve. Highlighting other cultures andtheir achievements by preventing culturalappropriation will change attitudes soencouraging equality of treatment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "privacy house would not allow companiescollectsell personal data theirIt is simply not truethat people are bothered by their personalinformation getting out, or at least they areunwilling to do anything about it. In a recentsurvey 85% of respondents said they were awarethat they were being profiled by advertisers asthey browse the Internet. [1] They know thatthis data is what companies use to enablesophisticated advertising directed at them and todetermine what the market wants. While somepeople feel it a bit disconcerting that theircomputer seems to know what might interestthem, as in the case with targeted advertisingbased on personal search data, many othershave found that the targeted advertising hasmade the seeking out of desired goods andservices far easier. Also, a policy of disclosuresuch as that mandated in the EU might beemployed in which services inform users thattheir data will be collated and give them theoption to leave the site before this occurs so as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "privacy house would not allow companiescollectsell personal data theirConsumers tend tofeel alienated by spreading of their personalinformation for profit People experiencing theuse of their personal details by companies havelargely been found to see the process asextremely invasive and unsettling. Many havefelt violated by the exploitation of their personallives to market them products, often from peopleto whom they never consented to hand overinformation. This feeling has been demonstratedthrough significant public outcry and backlash, aswell as empirical results showing these attitudesbecoming more and more widespread,particularly in the case of online targetedadvertising, which is the most well-known use ofpersonal information. The best example of suchbacklash is the result of Amazon.com’s “dynamicpricing” system, in which the company varied itsofferings and pricings to customers based oninformation gathered about them from prioruses. The result was a severe backlash that cost", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "privacy house would not allow companiescollectsell personal data theirCompanies havebeen making great strides in the realm of dataprotection and will no doubt continue to do so asit is in their interest to keep any information theyhave to themselves. They have far moreresources and much more sophisticatedequipment than the hackers, and while there areresourceful individuals out there, the power ofthe corporate structure allows them to fend offattacks with greater and greater effectiveness.As these security technologies become moreadvanced people should feel more and morecomfortable with companies holding their data.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "privacy house would not allow companiescollectsell personal data theirCollecting andselling personal information is a major violationof privacy The gathering of personal data thatcompanies undertake is done in a fashion that isfundamentally invasive of individuals’privacy. When individuals go online they act asprivate parties, often enjoying anonymity in theirpersonal activities. Companies, particular onlineservices, collate information and seek to use it tomarket products and services that arespecifically tailored to those individuals. In thecontext of the internet, this means thatindividuals’ activities online are in factsusceptible to someone else’s interference andoversight, stealing from them the privacy andsecurity the internet has striven to provide sinceits inception. At the most basic level, theinvasion of privacy that collating and usingprivate data gleaned from customers isunacceptable. [1] There is a very real risk of theinformation being misused, as the data can be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "privacy house would not allow companiescollectsell personal data theirMuch of the“personal” data that is kept, collated, and sold isfreely available online already and can beprotected in many ways. The programmes thatare used to collect information online, wheremost of this collation takes place, often do notever gain real access to individuals’ identities,but rather only have access to search details. Itis highly unlikely that any of this informationcould be used to identify actual individuals, andwhere it can it is safeguarded by laws regardingprivacy. Furthermore, the information inquestion is put into the public sphere byindividuals availing of services and may well notbe guaranteed any form of special protection.They exist and are revealed in the public sphere,and belong there.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "privacy house would not allow companiescollectsell personal data theirData breaches canresult in huge amounts of personal data fallinginto unscrupulous hands The data collected andsold by companies is not safe. Servers with eventhe most sophisticated security systems aresusceptible to hackers and other miscreantsseeking to exploit the personal data ofunsuspecting customers. Identity theft is aubiquitous threat in the Information Age, onethat increases every year as the arms racebetween data protection designers and invadersrages on. Data breaches have been rapidlyincreasing [1] and although the total numberdeclined from 412 million exposed records in2011 to 267 million in 2012 this has increasinglybeen due to hacking rather than simplenegligence. [2] The result of these breaches ishuge costs to individuals who have theiridentities and also to firms that appear to beunsafe. As individuals see companies as beinguncaring of their information they tend to punish", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "privacy house would not allow companiescollectsell personal data theirIt is not particularlyreassuring that it is large organisations and inparticular big business that keeps these immensedatasets. They have their own agendas for howthey use this information and if this is simply forpushing products then many people would wantno part of it. Analysis are wary about how bigbusinesses will use big data as there is theconcern that it will be manipulated, misread oreven just plain wrong. [1] While the informationmay benefit small businesses it is not thesecompanies that have control of the data; theyare reliant on it being shared with them by thealready dominant much bigger firms who arelikely to choose to do business with other bigbusinesses. [1] PewInternet, “The Future of BigData”, Pew Research Center, 20 July 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "privacy house would not allow companiescollectsell personal data theirIt is difficult to seehow this advertising is better for businessoverall. The consumer still has the same amountof money so will overall still spend the sameamount. They may spend it on different things asa result of more targeted advertising, assumingthat the consumer is not alienated by thepersonalised advertising, but is that a benefit?Moreover even if companies are successful inadvertising their wares more effectively to theircustomers, it does not change the fundamentalviolation of privacy upon which such advertisingrelies. The norm of selling personal data ishugely dangerous to engender in society, as itproduces more and more a sense of entitlementto others’ personal lives.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "privacy house would not allow companiescollectsell personal data theirThe sort ofinformation being kept and sold is legitimate forfirms to utilize in this fashion Personalinformation given to companies is dispersed intothe public sphere in a limited fashion. Onceplaced into the hands of a firm it ceases to beany sort of absolutely protected private right (ifit ever was), and is instead now within thesphere of the company with which the individualhas opted to interact. It is the natural evolutionof how people’s information informs theeconomic sphere. [1] With regard to selling thatinformation on, it is clearly information theindividual is willing to disclose in the realm ofcommerce so it should make little differencewhat commercial entity is in possession of thedata, especially considering that the informationis then only utilized to make their experienceonline more efficient and valuable. It is alsoimportant to consider the exact kinds ofinformation conventionally revealed through the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "privacy house would not allow companiescollectsell personal data theirThe storing and saleof personal data aids companies by makingmarketing more efficient and allows nichemarkets to thrive Businesses have been able touse consumers’ personal information to producefar better, more efficient, and more targetedadvertising. Traditionally advertisement has beenused to reach mass markets and has thus beenused mostly as a blunt instrument, targeting thelargest and wealthiest demographics in order toget the most efficient use of scarce advertisingbudgets. The focus on large markets has oftenleft smaller, more niche, markets by thewayside. [1] Yet with the advent of the internet,targeted marketing, and data collection services,firms have been able to create whole newmarkets that cater to less homogenous needsand wants. The result has been a Renaissance ofspecialty manufacturers and service providersthat could never arise if it were not for thecollection of personal consumer data. By", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "privacy house would not allow companiescollectsell personal data theirThe sale of personaldata makes for better advertising that benefitsconsumers By targeting demographics andpersonal profiles by way of acquiring and utilizingpersonal data, businesses are able to put forwardtheir services in a more targeted fashion in orderto reach their target markets and to moreeffectively understand the broader market moregenerally. The limited budgets that constrain allcompanies has traditionally forced producers inthe mass market to advertise to broaddemographics and majority markets, resulting ina relative dearth of niche markets and breadth ofservices available in the mass market. Utilizingpersonal data effectively allows firms to enrichthe lives of all consumers by expanding therange of marketable products and the furnishingof services to more eclectic tastes. [1] The vastnumbers of websites and services proliferatingonline makes it much harder for people to findwhat they are looking for, but more importantly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-phwnaccpdt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "privacy house would not allow companiescollectsell personal data theirFirms’ datacollection serves as a very real threat toindividuals’ privacy and identity on the internet.Anonymity is certainly not wholly guaranteedthrough these tactics, and the information is notentirely safe. When individuals use the internetthey often do not pay close attention to what ishappening with their personal data. When theydo not even know what information they aregiving out they cannot meaningfully keep trackof their privacy. Many hackers have made use ofcompanies’ data collection efforts to gain accessto peoples’ personal information, thus revealinginformation that individuals clearly neverconsented to. There must be some boundaries inthe physical and digital world that marketersshould not cross. Keeping and selling potentiallysensitive information of clients certainly falls inthis category.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "digital freedoms intellectual property housebelieves governments shouldThe first firm toshift to the open source approach was Netscapewith its Navigator web browser, because it wasbeing outperformed by the closed sourceMicrosoft Internet Explorer; Netscape made theshift out of desperation. This is exactly the samereason why Sun and Real have made theirprograms open source - Solaris was beingsqueezed by Windows based server software andRealPlayer by iTunes and Spotify. Similarly, thepatents which IBM is sharing and the narrowrange of source code that Microsoft is nowopening up relate to sectors and product marketswhere neither firm is dominant and where theyhope they can leverage the programmingcommunity to boost the quality of the softwarethey are offering. Since Microsoft launched theOpen Source Initiative, it has not expanded it inresponse to other governments threatening toshift to open source software. Therefore, weshould not view this initiative as the beginning of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "digital freedoms intellectual property housebelieves governments shouldGovernmentcontracts can change the software industry forthe better. Even when governments do notultimately select an open source program, bysimply including them in the competitive biddingprocess, they have been able to radically changethe approach that Microsoft and other closedsource companies take to producing ITsolutions. Under threat from Linux, Microsofthas launched the Open Source Initiative throughwhich it shares elements of some of itsprograms’ source code with key partners toenable the development of software for platformslike Windows Mobile [i] . More dramatically, in2002, Real Networks opened up the source codefor its world renowned RealPlayer media andmusic software package and, in 2005, IBMoffered 500 key patents (out of 40,000) to theopen source community. Sun Microsystemsreleased its Solaris server operating system tothe open source community under the Common", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "digital freedoms intellectual property housebelieves governments shouldThe network effectis more complex than the argument that, if agovernment uses a product, then its populationwill too. Firstly, 90% of desktop PCs useMicrosoft products; the cost for companies andcitizens to transition from Microsoft to an opensource alternative makes it prohibitive in theshort term. Secondly, open source softwareworks on the basis of a constant flow of updatesand minor changes; this may be suitable forservers (where it has already made most impact)managed by IT professionals, but the averagecitizen or government worker would requirecontinual training and re-training before theycould be trusted to implement and use suchupdates correctly. Open source software is beingjumped on by some governments as a tool toattack Microsoft’s monopoly but, in the end, itwill cost them time and money.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "digital freedoms intellectual property housebelieves governments shouldOpen sourcesoftware is more adaptable to governmentneeds. Open source software starts from acompletely different viewpoint of how productsshould be created. Rather than resembling atraditional hierarchical organisation (such as anearly twentieth century business, an army or amonastic order) where everyone has their ownclearly defined role and are told how to proceedby a top-down central authority, open-sourcesoftware development is more like an openmarket where everyone is engaged in the sameactivity but come at it from different directions.[i] Out of this cacophonous market, a more fluidproduct emerges. The basic advantage of opensource software is that, as users can read,redistribute, and modify the source code for apiece of software, it evolves. This means thatusers and programmers can improve, adapt andfix the software at a much faster pace thanMicrosoft or another closed source developer can", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "digital freedoms intellectual property housebelieves governments shouldOpen sourcesoftware is not bug-proof and requires far moreupdates than the closed source alternatives. Infact, the most successful open source softwareafter the operating system Linux is Apache, anopen-source web-server which holds around65% of the global market, and MySQL, anopen-source database [i] . Both pieces ofsoftware are far from innovative; they areessentially just stripped-down versions of closedsource programs. Real innovation is driven bythe profit motive and comes from the knowledgethat a firm can capitalize on a discovery, asGoogle has done with its search algorithm. Forthis reason, the open source software movementis doomed to producing mediocrity. Asgovernments choose IT systems for five to tenyears, they should look to a reliable closedsource solution which provides quality ratherthan buying into a nebulous idea of ‘moralsoftware’. [i] “Microsoft’s IIS web server market", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "digital freedoms intellectual property housebelieves governments shouldGovernments canre-define industry standards by choosing opensource software. Economists use the term‘network effect’ to describe the phenomenonwhereby, as several people use the samecommunication platform (be it a specific device,such as a telephone, or a complicated service,such as Facebook), it becomes more valuable forothers to use because they can share andcollaborate on work with a wider range ofindividuals. Network effects explain whyMicrosoft’s monopoly of around 90% of thedesktop market with its Windows and Officesoftware has been so hard to challenge [i]. Governments are one of the few organisationswhich can define industry standards becausecitizens and businesses increasingly have tointeract with governments electronically. Brazil’sDigital Inclusion Program, for example, hasselected open source software for 58government units rather than Windows or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "digital freedoms intellectual property housebelieves governments shouldAs the demands ofgovernment IT departments become more andmore complex, software developers are forced tobecome increasingly specialized. Yet big firmslike Microsoft often lack specialist depth and anunderstanding of niche markets (such as themarket for specialist brail screen readers, whichblind individuals use to interact with computers).In many instances, governments’ needs will bebetter met by the open source market, whereinnovation and flexibility are built in. One areawhere is the open source community’s ability toinnovate is particularly relevant to governmentsis language; Microsoft only supports 33languages in Windows XP and around 20 in OfficeXP, as they do not have the economic incentiveto provide versions for other languages anddialects. Yet governments often need to provideaccess to information in dozens of languages anddialects (particularly in countries like Spain withregional languages like Catalan and Basque, or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "digital freedoms intellectual property housebelieves governments shouldWhile open sourcesoftware is not always free, it tends to besignificantly cheaper than closed sourcealternatives. For instance, the Braziliangovernment’s decision to adopt open sourcesoftware for its housing department in 2005 hasgenerated savings of $120m a year. [i] Giventhat, the United States government alone spends$80 billion a year on information technology, thepotential for total cost savings is enormous. [ii]The money saved could be used to fund moreimportant government expenditure such ashealthcare or education – the very activities that,it was claimed, could be delivered moreefficiently and cheaply following widespreadadoption of IT systems. Furthermore, simply bydiscussing adopting open source software,Microsoft has been forced to reduce its prices; itcut its prices by $35m to match Linux’s offeringto the city of Munich and, when Brazil begandiscussing its future software plans, Microsoft", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "digital freedoms intellectual property housebelieves governments shouldOpen sourcesoftware undermines national security. Even ifclosed source software firms are ultimatelyanswerable to their shareholders, theirshareholders want them to produce softwarewhich meets the needs of their customers so thatthey can sell their products. That is whyMicrosoft has offered a cheap version of WindowsVista to developing nations, and has been willingto cut the price of its software in negotiationswith governments around the world. Moreworrying than the burden that closed sourcesoftware places on a government’s coffers is thethreat that open source software presents to astate’s security. By definition, the code for opensource software is freely available. However, thecontinual attempts to hack into governmentcomputer systems demonstrate that many of thesame hackers are now moving beyond meretargets of opportunity. Hackers could well takeadvantage of the increasing ubiquity of open", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "digital freedoms intellectual property housebelieves governments shouldClosed sourcesoftware is better at meeting consumerneeds. Closed source software companies aremore than capable of segmenting their productsto reach each part of the market, as Microsofthas shown by producing its new Windows 7operating system in a record six differentversions. Microsoft’s monopoly of desktopcomputers ensures that if a programmerproduces a niche software package or softwaretranslation for a specialized purpose, thatprogrammer knows that potential clients willalmost certainly be able to run the program if itis designed for Windows. If this monopoly isbroken up and governments start to push Linuxor other open source alternatives, theprogrammer will either have to develop for twoor more platforms, thereby increasing the cost ofthe final product, or they will have to gamble ona single platform; both options would reduce thelikelihood of the niche solution reaching the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "digital freedoms intellectual property housebelieves governments shouldOpen sourcesoftware is more expensive for governments inthe long run. Open source software is oftenconfused with free software; in fact, it is usuallyprovided at some cost to the user. Moreimportantly, if a Microsoft product fails, agovernment IT department knows that it can relyon a patch or technical support. Whereas, withopen source software, they are left waiting on acommunity to get round to tackling the problem.This has meant that governments which chooseopen source software have had to pay forexpensive support packages, which makes thetotal cost of the IT solution similar to that of theclosed source software. This has been to theadvantage of major consultancy firms, which areoften chosen to put together IT solutions andwho can make more money from pushingexpensive support contracts than on upfrontcosts for software. In the rush to find thesoftware with the cheapest sticker price, there is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-dfiphbgs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "digital freedoms intellectual property housebelieves governments shouldThis is a matter ofnational security and sovereignty, as well as oneof cost effectiveness. Governments around theworld are increasingly shifting their operationsonline, which has created a vast number ofdigital tax returns, criminal records, DNAdatabases and so on. At present, access to, anduse of, this information is dependent on privatecompanies which design software to benefit theirshareholders. Open source software handscontrol of the software needed to access thatdata to the government and the nation itself, andgives it the ability to shape the data andsoftware based on its own interests. Hackershave often attacked Microsoft products becauseof the ubiquity of its closed source software.Hack and malware attacks are ultimatelyspeculative ventures. They target systems thathave not received essential security softwareupdates; systems that are operated by naive andinexperienced users; or delicate specialist", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksThere is little evidencethat cutting off the internet or mobile phonenetworks would be effective. Riots occurredbefore mobile phones and the internet wereinvented and spread just as worryingly. Cuttingoff access would be an inconvenience but littlemore than that. Blaming the technology is nothelpful to finding the real solutions to preventingrioting which is engaging with the underlyingproblems. [1] [1] Metcalf, J., and Taylor, M.,“Technology has always been blamed in times ofunrest”, guardian.co.uk, 7 December 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksNon violent methodsof disrupting riots must be tried before usingforce When riots are on-going then the policeneeds to act but the safety of everyone involvedshould be considered to be paramount. If a riotwill not disperse peacefully then the police oftenfind they need to use batons, water cannon, oreven in extremis tear gas or rubber bullets. It isthe police’s duty to bring back public order bystopping riots through these methods. Howeverthis should not be at the expense of a muchmore preventative approach that shutting downsocial media networks would allow. If duringinstances of rioting the police are able to preventthose rioters from encouraging their friends tojoin them so expanding the riots then this is theright course of action to take. Rioters used socialmedia like activists, to outmanoeuvre the policetargeting areas where there was little policepresence. Cutting off their means ofcommunication would make this much harder", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksPreventing word fromgetting out through social media and stoppingthose who inevitably try to take advantage of therioting to ferment violence elsewhere is notsomething the police should be doing. In a freecountry anyone should be allowed to report onwhat they are doing and on riots that areoccurring. Moreover a shutdown would beineffective at preventing the news getting out asthe traditional media would still be broadcasting.In 270 interviews done by researchers into theriots more than 100 people said they heardabout the riots through TV news, more thanthrough social media. [1] [1] Adegoke, Y., andBall, J., “Twitter? Facebook? Rioters saw it onTV”, guardian.co.uk, 7 December 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksFree speech is notuseful in this context, as riot is never legitimatein a free society Riots should not be tolerated ina free society as there are already legal andpeaceful methods of dissenting such as throughdemonstrations, petitions, and contacting yourrepresentative in Parliament. It demonstrates afundamental unwillingness to engage with notonly the apparatus of the state, but society moregenerally. Rioters have no regard for the public,and the violence and damage they cause harmseveryone. Riots tend to do little to actuallychallenge the state, but rather they tend to harmthe most disadvantaged, those who happen to bein the vicinity of the mobs. The freedom ofspeech social media provides to its users is beingfundamentally misused in the context of riots.[1] When speech is used to organize violence, itmust be curtailed for the sake of society asindividuals security and safety is more importantthat freedom of speech that is briefly curtailed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksOf course we do notwant freedom of speech to be misused to inciteand organise rioting and violence but that doesnot mean that it is always illegitimate. Riots maysometimes be the natural outgrowth of badpolicy and a government that has been unwillingto listen to peaceful forms of protest.Disenfranchised groups may be forced inextremity to turn to these sorts of activities andthe state should take heed when they occurinstead of seeking to wield its power over theinternet and mobile phones to crush dissent. Thisis what happened in the revolutions in the Arabworld. When a riot does have a substantivecause then it is essential that social media isaccessible as it is the way for the rioters to gettheir side of the story across.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksRioters will always findtools by which to organize. The internet is aremarkably fecund environment, one in whichsolutions to problems are quickly found. If thegovernment were to block Twitter, enterprisingdemonstrators would quickly find an alternative.The violence will still escalate, and blocking out awebsite will fail to accomplish anything otherthan alienate Twitter users from the state andanger at its impositions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksWould stop riots fromspreading The police must try to stop riots fromspreading and stop copycat rioting elsewhere.Knowledge of rioting happening elsewhere isoften the Oxygen of riots; the riots in Manchesterand elsewhere outside of London in 2011 weremostly as a result of media exposure. Accordingto Greater Manchester Police chief Peter Fahy \"Acertain group of people saw what was happeningin London and decided they seemed to be gettingaway with it. We knew what was absolutelycritical was that there needed to be control ofLondon. Because that was just creating moreand more copycat violence up here.\" [1] Cuttingoff social media would have helped prevent theriots from spreading so ensuring that theyremain small and a localised problem. [1]Pilkington, D., “Rioting in London sparked'copycat' behaviour”, The Independent, 14November 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksSocial networks serveas a powerful signalling device for the expansionof violent behaviour By using Twitter to signalthe start of riots it attracts people to join themob. People in riots generally look to thosearound them in order to see what is consideredacceptable behaviour. As boundaries arecrossed, such as the change from indiscriminatevandalism to looting, and reported on Twitter,the same behaviour echoes elsewhere. The lensthrough which rioters determine acceptablebehaviour is expanded, so the chance ofbehaviours like looting rippling across the variousmob groups within a locale increases. Oneescalation of violence becomes multipleescalations. Twitter is thus a serious danger tosociety during periods of social unrest andrioting, because it acts as a catalyst for furthermayhem. By blocking Twitter governments areable to manage flashpoints and prevent themfrom expanding violence to other locations. This", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con03b", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksPrivate companieshave no right to do business when that businessis facilitating violence even if that facilitating isunintentional. Sometimes brief impositions arenecessary to secure public order. In the courseof a riot Twitter can be blocked temporarily tohave a meaningful effect on its coordination,extent, and level of violence. This however neednot cause problems with those uninvolved notreceiving prior warnings as the police could dothis before shutting down the network in thelocal area. And of course when the riot is overthe service can return as normal. Ultimately thedisruption is very brief, and not likely to ruffletoo many feathers overmuch.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con01b", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksInternet users rely onhigh visibility for their comments to besignificant. When Twitter is shut down, or itsreplacement, the new sites that pop up muststart again in building numbers. [1] Withoutsufficient numbers on the network they will beable to build up momentum for riots online. Theresult is a significant blunting of the network’sability to develop or act in a riot scenario; a siteis not useful for directing riots if most of thosewho would riot or are rioting are not on thatnetwork. [1] Berger, J.M., “#unfollow”, Foreignpolicy, 20 February 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con02a", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksBlocking socialnetworks denies people the ability to mobilize ongenuine social issues The state may not be thebest placed to gauge the legitimacy of riots.Oftentimes riots are the result of massive socialpressures, like poverty or limited integration ofimmigrant communities. When these issues arenot properly addressed, or outright ignored bythe ruling elites, they boil over. Positive thingscan come from riots. They can put the issues onthe table and bring them screaming into thepublic consciousness. This is the differencebetween the Arab Spring that was consideredlegitimate and the London riots that were not,apart from the initial peaceful protests the riotsdid not have an agenda to create change. [1]The government suppressing legitimatedemonstrations, whether they do it with physicalforce or internet repression, ultimately servesonly to push away the problem, to continue toignore it. [2] Blocking social networks therefore", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con05a", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksIt is better to monitorriots through the social media rioters areusing It is wrong to suggest that social networksonly provide advantages to the rioters in a riot.Many of the networks that can be used are opento the public and even where they are not aswith blackberry messenger the police andintelligence services can likely gain access. Thismeans that the police can also benefit fromrioters use of social networks. Allowing therioters to communicate can help the police totrack what the rioters are doing and potentiallyto intercept any plans before they can be put intoaction. The same logic is used with websites thatpromote extremist ideologies; it is often better tomonitor them for the intelligence they provide.The police already monitor protest groups in thisway during demonstrations and even use it tohelp police impromptu raves so will surely applyit to riots. [1] Yet the social media is useful inother ways, particularly after the rioting it can be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con04a", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksThe state can useblocking Twitter and its ilk as precedent tocensor the internet in the “public interest” Thestate always likes to expand its powers overspeech, particularly when that speech isdamaging to the government’s credibility. Thefreedom of speech is a critical right in all freesocieties precisely because it is the ultimatecheck ordinary citizens have to challenge thepowers that be, to express dissent, and toorganize with like-minded people dissatisfiedwith the way government is running. Theinternet has been the most powerful andvaluable tool in the expansion of individuals’power of their governments. [1] The statequakes at the raw people power services likeTwitter provides. It is the last frontier largelyfree of the state’s power, and the state hassought to expand its influence. By blockingTwitter the government would be able to get itsfirst foothold in blocking free speech online. [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con03a", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksPolice should not blockthe communications and freedom of expressionof law-abiding citizens The blocking of socialnetworks, of the internet, or of mobile phonenetworks in times of riot would be an illegitimatecurtailment of a private company’s right to dobusiness and serve its customers. Socialnetworks are business and have many users.Even more important is the impact on everyonewho is not associated with the rioting. Whenthese actions are taken it harms everyone,perhaps even millions of people at a given time.[1] The action taken by the state to seek toprevent the spreading of the riots is not onlyineffective it is also a massive imposition on therights of the citizens of the polity. Their freedomof speech is curtailed, business is harmed, andthe riots continue. Studies of the use of Twitterduring the riots in London showed that duringrioting it was mostly used to react to the riots tosend warnings to avoid trouble rather than incite", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con05b", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksMonitoring a riot doesnot prevent the damage, destruction, andpotentially loss of human riot that the riotcauses. Rather than taking a reactive passiveapproach the police have a duty to try and savelives by making use of every tool they have tolimit the size and extent of the rioting.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con01a", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksBlocking socialnetworks will not work How are the police toblock social networks when riots are ongoing?The idea that blocking an individual network likeTwitter would stop online networking andreporting during riots is laughable andmisunderstands the rapidity with which theinternet community adapts to changedcircumstances and attempts at censorship.Blocking Twitter might work once, but neveragain. This is why there have been suggestionsthat the police would go further and either cut offthe internet or phone networks as they wouldeffectively need to impose a communicationsblackout in order for it to be successful, much asthe Chinese does in Tibet when there is unrest.[1] Even then the action may not work, rioterswill likely simply post pictures andencouragement for the next night’s rioting oncethe internet and mobile connections are restoredas governments would have to do if they did not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con04b", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksThe state curtails allkinds of speech when it is genuinely in the publicinterest. Blocking Twitter and other socialnetworks during times of riot is a very particularcase of intervention, one with specific manifestbenefits for society. The internet is indeed afantastic tool for social organization and dissent,but it cannot be abused at the expense of thepublic.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihwbasmn-con02b", "title": "", "text": "access information house would block accesssocial messaging networksEven if their messageis worth being spread, rioting and violence is notthe way to do it. Using the tactic of riot to furtheran aim only serves to alienate the public which isbrutalized by the violence in the streets. In effectwhen a protest turns into a riot it delegitimisesitself and tarnishes its message. Blocking socialnetworks will not occur when those protests areseeking to spread their message relativelypeacefully but will only happen when they havealready turned to violence when it becomes auseful tool in the arsenal of the state to forestallthe worst violence by denying its ability to bespread rapidly through the internet.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom politics government digitalfreedoms freedomAs in the offline world, freespeech isn’t unlimited Even in free societies,free speech isn’t always free. Free speech can bedemeaning and hurtful to certain people or caneven incite hatred and violence. [1] The firstreason is why, under internet libel law, InternetService Providers (ISPs) are asked to removedefamatory material and blogs take tomoderating their comments more, [2] and thesecond is why Germany and France haveoutlawed Holocaust denial and Nazism. As in theprevious arguments, accountable governmentsare attempting to strike a balance between freespeech and where this can harm others. [3] Acarefully struck balance between rights in theoffline world shouldn’t have to be abolished, justbecause we’re now in the online world. [4] [1]Waldron, ‘The harm of hate Speech’, 2012 [2]Alibhai-Brown, ‘Freedom of speech can’t beunlimited’, 2009. [3] Minister: The UK“emphatically” supports free speech online but", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom politics government digitalfreedoms freedomInternet regjulation is aeuphemism for censorship Governments aretrying to control what citizens can and can’t sayonline and what they can and can’t access. Thiscan vary from France and Germany requiringGoogle to suppress Nazism in search results [1]to the Great Firewall of China, where the Chinesegovernment almost fully controls what’s said andseen on the internet and has an army of censors.[2] This type of internet censorship is badbecause citizens should have freedom of speechand uninhibited access to information, [3] a rightso fundamental that we have enshrined it in theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights [4] andreaffirmed by the participants of the WorldSummit on the Information Society in 2003.[5] [1] Zittrain and Edelman, Localized Googlesearch result exclusions, 2005 [2] Internetcensorship in China, 2010 [3] Free SpeechDebate, 2012 [4] article 19, UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights [5] Declaration of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom politics government digitalfreedoms freedomWith the government as finaldecision-maker, at least the citizens andconsumers have some say Regulatory capturedoes sometimes happen and when it does, it’sbad. But the risk of regulatory capture isn’t asufficient argument to keep the governmentaway from regulating the internet, becausegovernments can also protect citizens andconsumers from big companies. An example isthe net neutrality debate. Content providerscould have started paying Internet ServiceProviders (ISPs) to have their websites loadfaster than any other website (paidprioritization). Entertainment companies thatalso provide internet are currently beinginvestigated for not allowing their competitors inthe entertainment segment access to theirnetwork as internet provider. [1] This threatensthe freedom of choice of the consumer, which iswhy governments have stepped in to ensure thatcompanies aren’t allowed favour some websites.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom politics government digitalfreedoms freedomRegulating the Internet is ameans for governments to spy on theircitizens Governments around the world aretracking their citizens’ activities online. [1] Theycan use all sorts of techniques, like automateddata-mining (i.e. via trawling your Facebook andTwitter accounts) and deep packet inspection ofeach electronic message sent (i.e. interceptingand reading your email). All these methods areviolations of important principles. Theautomated data-mining violates the principlethat people shouldn’t be investigated by theirgovernments unless there is warrant for it (sothere is reasonable suspicion that they havebeen involved in a crime). Also, data miningcreates many false positives, leading to citizensbeing thoroughly investigated without probablecause. [2] Deep packet inspection violatespeople’s fundamental right to secrecy ofcorrespondence, which is a violation ofprivacy. The problem with these government", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom politics government digitalfreedoms freedom‘Spying on the internet’ isnothing different from a normal policeinvestigation Obviously, governments also usethe internet and social media to investigatesuspects. But when they’re doing this, they’reonly using information that’s publicly availableonline. The technical term for this is ‘OSINT’,which stands for ‘Open Source Intelligence’,which means that it’s the kind of information thatanyone with access to Google and a lot of sparetime could have found. [1] When policeinvestigations turn up more severe suspicions,then more extreme methods can be used toobtain evidence if needed, sometimes evenactively asking hackers for help. [2] Butmethods like these are not necessarily bad: theirdisadvantages in use have to be weighed againsttheir significant benefits. And governments aredoing this, as is for example shown in Canada’s‘Technical Assistance for Law Enforcement in the21st Century Act’: governments try to extend the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom politics government digitalfreedoms freedomInternet regulation is anattempt by big interest groups to regulate theinternet in their favour Large companies havean active interest in shaping the structure of theinternet. One example of this is the Stop OnlinePiracy-Act (SOPA), [1] wherein U.S.-based musicand movie companies proposed that theythemselves would be able to police copyrightinfringements against websites that are hostedoutside of the United States. [2] Thephenomenon whereby companies succeed inshaping government policies according to theirown wishes is called ‘regulatory capture’.Another example from the telecommunicationsindustry is the lobby effort by several largecorporations, who have succeeded in erodingconsumer protection in their favour. [3] If thegovernment wouldn’t have been involved inregulating the internet in the first place, bigcompanies wouldn’t have had any incentive toattempt regulatory capture. [1] 112th Congress,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-con03b", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom politics government digitalfreedoms freedomGovernment shouldn’tinterfere with the internet economy It almostnever ends well when governments interfere withthe internet economy. The graduated responsepolicy against the unauthorized downloading ofcopyrighted content is one example: it violatesthe same principles as a filter against child sexabuse material, but it also doesn’t succeed in its’goal of helping content businesses innovate theirbusiness models, which is why France isconsidering discontinuing it. [1] Also, otherbusinesses are slowly replacing the old fashionedmusic-industry, showing that companies on theinternet are fully able to survive and thrive byoffering copyrighted content online. [2] Whengovernments do become active in the interneteconomy, they’re likely to run very high risks. ITprojects are very likely to fail, run over budgetand time, [3] especially when it concernsgovernments. [4] This means that governmentsshouldn’t be ‘going digital’ anytime soon, as the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-con01b", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom politics government digitalfreedoms freedomInternet regulation isn’t aneffective and legitimate means to create a safeinternet Setting up CERTs aren’t an effectivemeans to create a safer internet, because mostof the threats are a result of ‘social engineering’,which means that hackers use social cues to conpeople into believing frauds. People usually fallfor this because of their own gullibility andnaïveté, like in Nigerian email scams. [1] Themost effective means of combating these threatsis to educate citizens directly, the FBI alreadydoes this with Nigerian email scams. [2] Peopleand corporations are primarily responsible fortheir own actions, which includes taking care oftheir own internet security by obtaininganti-virus software, and which also includescorporations making sure their websites are safeto use or else face liability charges if they turnout not to be. Moreover, CERTs are illegitimate.They are illegitimate because they facilitate thesharing of information on specific persons across", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-con02a", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom politics government digitalfreedoms freedomInternet governance isnecessary to combat heinous crimes committedvia the internet The internet is a means ofcommunication – therefore also a means ofcommunication between criminals. And becauseit is global it creates global crime problems thatneed coordinated responses. One type of crimethat has particularly become a problem on theinternet is child sexual abuse material: theinternet allows for an easy and anonymousdistribution method which can even be securedby modern encryption methods.[1] Governments can help fight this by requiringISPs and mobile companies to track people’sinternet histories, hand over data whenrequested, and allow police to get informationfrom them without a search warrant, somethingwhich has been proposed by the Canadiangovernment. [2] In Australia, the governmenteven proposed mandatory filtering of all internettraffic by ISPs to automatically filter out all child", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-con03a", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom politics government digitalfreedoms freedomInternet regulation isnecessary to ensure a working economy on theinternet As seen above, the internet has enabledmany types of criminal behavior. But it has alsoenabled normal citizens to share files. Music,movie and game producers have difficultyoperating in a market where their products getpirated immediately after release and spread forfree instantaneously on a massive scale. Theinternet enables violation of their right ofownership, gained through providing the hardwork of creating a work of art, on a massivescale. Since it’s impractical to sue and fine eachand every downloader, a more effective and lessinvasive policy would be government requiringInternet Service Providers to implement agraduated response policy, which has ISPsautomatically monitor all internet traffic and finetheir users when they engage in copyrightviolation. Something along these lines hasalready been tried in France, called HADOPI,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-con01a", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom politics government digitalfreedoms freedomInternet regulation isnecessary to ensure a safe internet Citizens,corporations, and public organizations faceseveral security threats when online: criticalinfrastructure systems can be hacked, like theenergy transport system, [1] citizens can fallvictim to identity theft, [2] and phishing, [3]whereby hackers gain access to bank accounts orother sensitive information. Specifically, it seemsthat the public sector is attacked the most.[4] In response to cyber-threats like these,many governments have set up ComputerEmergency Response Teams (CERTs), IncidentResponse and Security Teams (IRTs), orComputer Security and Incident Response Teams(CSIRT; the fact that we haven’t settled on afitting acronym yet shows how much it is still anovel phenomenon): agencies that warn citizensand organizations alike when a new threatemerges and provides a platform for (theexchange of) expertise in methods of preventing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifpgdff-con02b", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom politics government digitalfreedoms freedomBattling hideous crimesshouldn’t lead us to draconian and ineffectivepolicies Everyone is against child sexual abusematerial. But in their drive to battle it,governments might go too far. For example,granting the police the right to search without(full) warrant is a harm to citizens’ basic right toprivacy and freedom from unwarrantedgovernment surveillance. [1] The automaticinternet filtering and data retention are possiblyan even worse infringement on basic civilliberties: it designates all internet traffic andtherefore all internet using citizens as suspect,even before a crime has been committed. Thisoverturns the important principle that people arepresumed innocent until provenguilty. Moreover, instead of the police andprosecution changing their behavior, internetfilters hardwire these new assumptions into thearchitecture of the internet itself. [2] This meansit is more all-pervasive and less noticeable, thus", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms access informationhouse believes googleThis doesn’t enhanceGoogle’s business proposition at all Googlealready censors results all across the globe. Ithas been censoring digital piracy-related contentsince early 2011, but this hasn’t led to usersabandoning Google for another search engine.[1] It has been leaving a backdoor open for theUS Government, but this also hasn’t sent eitherusers or employers packing. [2] Why should thesmall extra step of censoring according toChina’s laws do so? [1] Sara Yin, Pcmag,‘Google Censors Piracy-Related Terms fromSearch Tools’, January 27, 2011. URL: [2]Bruce Schneier, CNN, ‘U.S. enables Chinesehacking of Google’, January 23, 2010. URL", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms access informationhouse believes googleNot censoring helpsGoogle’s business proposition and corporateidentity Google’s corporate motto is ‘don’t beevil’. This is partly an issue of corporate identity,and partly a clever business proposition. In bothcases, complying with Chinese censorship rulesdamages Google as a company. The key toGoogle’s dominance in the search market is thatusers know Google will always deliver the searchresults most relevant to them. By adhering tocensorship laws, users will trust the relevance ofGoogle’s search results less, which hence erodesGoogle’s business position as users will be morelikely to try alternative search engines. [1] [1]Rebecca Blood, ‘Google's China decision ispragmatic, not idealistic’, January 2010. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms access informationhouse believes googleChina won’t budge thateasily China has already faced trade sanctionsfor its human rights abuses for years, inparticular there are bans on arms sales by theEuropean Union that are still in place more thantwenty years after the Tiananmen Squaremassacre that precipitated them. [1] Thesehaven’t helped a bit. [2] Why would a relativelysmall move like Google stopping its censorshipwork? Moreover: true reform in China has tocome from within. When it’s forced from theoutside, it will not be accepted. If Google stopscooperating with the government,reform-minded Chinese officials will have aharder time, because they will seem to be losingface in the eyes of more hardline officials.[3] [1] See debate on EU arms sales tochina [2] James Dorn, ‘Improving Human Rightsin China’, February 8, 1999. URL: [3] ShaunRein, ‘Opposing View: Google’s Big Mistake’,March 28, 2010. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms access informationhouse believes googleNot censoring its searchresults is a victory for human rights Theproblem with Google censoring its results, is thatin doing so, it is complicit in China’s repression offree speech: it adapts its own search engine todisplay only the results the Chinese governmentwants, thereby limiting its citizens’ basic humanright to free access to information (a corollary tofree speech). By avoiding this complicity, Googleis taking a bold, praiseworthy step towardsenhancing respect for human rights in China andwith it, Google can set an important example forother businesses with dealings in China. [1] [1]Human Rights Watch, ‘China: Google ChallengesCensorship’, January 12, 2010. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms access informationhouse believes googleNot censoring doesn’tadvance human rights in China at all Humanrights in China are violated on a daily basis. Forexample, the incidence of people ‘disappearing’for no apparent reason has been on the rise. [1]These human rights violations won’t suddenlyend if Google were to stop censoring itsresults. What’s more likely to happen, whenGoogle stops censoring results at google.cn, isthat Google.cn will get shut down within days –thus, leaving Chinese citizens with no good wayat all to access information, since google.com ison the other side of The Great Firewall and Baiduis a Chinese company fully compliant with thegovernment’s wishes. By staying, Google can atleast broaden the access to information theChinese citizens have, something Google itselfhad acknowledged in 2006 when entering theChinese mainland. [2] [1] Human Rights Watch,‘China: Enforced Disappearances a GrowingThreat’, November 9, 2011. URL: [2] Karen", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms access informationhouse believes googleNot censoring puts globalpressure on China to change its free speechpolicies Google’s decision to stop censoring wasworld news, and has put internet freedom oneveryone’s agenda – even so much so, that U.S.Secretary of State mentioned internet companiesganging up to censor the Chinese corner of theinternet specifically as a threat to freedomworldwide in a recent speech. [1] This helps toinform ordinary citizens of other countries whomay not know about the ‘great firewall’ what theChinese government is doing. By making ahigh-profile decision like this, and by engagingand informing the governments and publics offree and democratic countries like this, Googleincreases the public and political pressure onChina to change its ways. [1] Hillary Clinton,‘Conference on Internet Freedom’, December 8,2011. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms access informationhouse believes googleGoogle’s business isinseparable from basic human rights The WorldSummit on the Information Society (WSIS), a UNconference, affirmed that access to informationis a basic human right, a corollary to the freedomof opinion and expression as articulated in Article19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[1] It is a right because access to information isoften basic to human life; to how to live insociety, to work and to educate ourselves. Chinaratified the Universal Declaration back in 1948when it was accepted by the UN’s GeneralAssembly, and was a party to the WSIS 2003conference. This means that, if China is to be aresponsible member of the internationalcommunity, we can expect them to uphold theprinciples they publicly declare. Google’smission is ‘to organize the world’s informationand make it universally accessible and useful’.Note that this mission happens to coincide withthe basic human right of access to information.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms access informationhouse believes googleGoogle’s revenues wontdecline because of this Google as a company isstill going strong – in the third quarter of 2011, itmanaged to exceed analysts’ expectations andposted impressive revenue growth. Mostimportantly, the figures showed that finally therevenue from its mobile and video advertisingplatform started to come in. This means that therevenue for Google is now starting to come fromall over their business portfolio, instead ofcoming from the search platform alone. [1] Thisresult shows that Google’s revenues won’t sag abit because of this choice. Also, as arguedabove, by staying true to its company motto,Google actually strengthens, not weakens, itsposition with regards to the rest of the world –and possibly eventually in a democraticChina. [1] Financial Times, ‘Google shares soaron higher earnings’, October 13, 2011. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms access informationhouse believes googleGoogle will help Chineseinternet freedom more by staying As Googleitself argued in 2006 when it first entered theChinese domestic market; when Google is fullypresent in China, it can at least do its very bestto allow its Chinese users as much access to allthe information that Chinese users are allowed tolook up. By expanding their access, Google canat least contribute to a broadening of the amountof information Chinese internet users can gather.The alternative is them relying on an even morecensored Chinese search engine called Baidu, orhaving them try to access a heavily blocked,slowed down, restricted and monitored version ofGoogle outside of China, for example google.comor the Hong Kong-based Google.com.hk. Havinga locally accessible version of Google that iscensored might not be optimal, but it’s betterthan nothing. [1] [1] Karen Wickre, ‘Testimony:The Internet in China’, February 15, 2006.URL: Last consulted: December 22, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms access informationhouse believes googleAs a business, Googleshouldn’t interfere with domesticpolitics Business is business and politics ispolitics – and the two shouldn’t mingle. When acompany wants to operate in a foreign country, itshould respect the government and itsregulations. We require the same when acompany wants to operate within our territory:suppose a big Chinese company came to ourhome country and suddenly started criticizingour domestic policies – these are the policies ofthe sovereign state whose territory it is, andoutsiders have no place to tell it how to runitself. [1] [1] Nicholas Deleon, TechChrunch,‘China has every right to be upset with Googleright now’, March 23, 2010. URL: Lastconsulted: December 22, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms access informationhouse believes googleGoogle can’t afford toabandon the Chinese market In 2010, thesearch market in China was valued at $1.7 billionand was expected to grow at an average of 50%per year for the coming few years. [1] After the2010 incident, Google has been losing marketshare in China rapidly. [2] From a businessperspective, Google just can’t afford to miss outon such a business opportunity: not only will itmiss entering this market when it is growing, itwill also forfeit a comfortable position in thesearch market from which it can build its otherbusinesses, like gmail and android, the way itdoes in other countries. [3] [1] Melanie Lee,‘Analysis: A year after China retreat, Googleplots new growth’, Reuters, January 13, 2011.URL: [2] Reuters, ‘Google search share slips asBaidu gains report’, July 26, 2010, URL: [3]Kyle Baxter, ‘Android isn’t about building amobile platform’, January 4, 2011. URL: Lastconsulted: December 22, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfaihbg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms access informationhouse believes googleStaying will not helpChinese internet freedom at all If google.cn wasto be left uncensored, then within a short period,google.cn would lose its license to operate andwill be pulled down. Chinese internet users willthen have to rely either on Baidu, which providesmore or less the same results as Google, or willhave to try to break through the blockades of theGreat Firewall to reach the Hong Kong-basedGoogle. If Google does censor itself, it will onlystate ‘some results have not been shown’ –Chinese citizens still won’t know what has beenhidden. Unless they then try to access the HongKong based Google, but then the Great Firewallwill stop them anyway. Either way, Chinesecitizens will be blocked from seeing what theirgovernment doesn’t want them to see, so what’sthe difference? Google might as well stick to itsprinciples and not censor itself.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms intellectualproperty house would useConsumers will findways to evade detection Evading detection formost of the surveillance methods are relativelyeasy: consumers could start relying on proxyservers to hide their IP-addresses or startencrypting everything they share online to avoidbeing detected by fingerprinting-software. Infact, recent experience in France with its HauteAutorité pour la diffusion des œuvres et laprotection des droits sur internet (HADOPI) lawsuggests that despite a graduatedresponse-policy, piracy is actually on theincrease. [1] This shows that graduated responsewon’t do what it is supposed to do; stem onlinepiracy. [1] Torrentfreak, ‘Piracy Rises In FranceDespite Three Strikes Law’, March 9, 2010. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms intellectualproperty house would useA graduated responsewill be an effective deterrent Research hasshown that consumers are likely to stopdownloading from unauthorized sources whenwarned by their ISP. For example: Seven out often (72%) UK music consumers would stopillegally downloading if told to do so by their ISP,and 90 per cent of consumers would stop illegallyfile-sharing after two warnings from their ISP.[1] This shows that the threat of a possibledisconnection together with a friendly warning isenough to stop most consumers fromdownloading from illegal source. The reasoningbehind it is simple: consumers can nowdownload without a cost, a graduated responsemechanism first raises awareness scaring offthose who are only casually downloading out ofconvenience and then heightens the expectedcost of infringement and thus makes it morelikely consumers will use legal sources. [2] [1]IFPI, Digital Music Report 2009. 2009. URL for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms intellectualproperty house would useGraduated response isa draconian punishment Citizens these days relyon their internet connection for their everydaylives: banking transactions, filing tax forms, andother forms of essential communication are alldone online. Cutting access to these basicservices is a draconian punishment: it basicallyamounts to making daily life a whole lot harder.Even if essential services were to remainaccessible to the offender they could lose accessto things somehow considered less vital such astheir online social life. The punishment in no wayis proportionate to the ‘crime’ of downloading asong that would have cost 99 cents on iTunes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms intellectualproperty house would useThe unauthoriseddownloading of copyrighted material should beaddressed and prevented by thestate Copyrighted material is intellectualproperty: someone worked hard for it to produceit. Downloading this content without paying theproper rights holder for it amounts totheft. Furthermore, downloading copyrightedmaterial from an unauthorized source creates animpossible market for producers of copyrightedcontent, because they have to ‘compete withfree’. Why would the average consumer want topay for a download from an authorized website,when she can get the same movie from apirate-site for free? To build a commerciallyviable content industry online, we need toprotect this industry from the unfair competitionof the parallel market. [1] [1] Piotr Stryszowski, Danny Scorpecci, Piracy of Digital Content.2009, OECD Publishing. URL for purchase:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms intellectualproperty house would useDownloading isn’t acrime Downloading content is not comparable totheft of material things, like cars: afterdownloading the original owner can still use hisor her own copy. Moreover: governments havealways allowed consumers some leeway forreplicating content for themselves under the‘private copying exception’ or ‘fair use’-policy.[1] Before the internet came along, thisexception ensured it was legal that one personcould copy a song from a radio broadcasttransmission for personal use. Why shoulddownloading a song from the internet be anydifferent? Finally, research has shown that thosewho download the most from pirate sites are alsothe ones who buy the most music online legally –why would the content industry want to punishtheir biggest and most loyal customers?. [2] [1]Natali Helberger & P. Bernt Hugenholtz, ‘Noplace like home for making a copy: privatecopying in European copyight law and consumer", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms intellectualproperty house would useA graduated responseis the fairest way to enforce copyrightlegislation First, the sanction after threewarnings can be tailored to fit general notions ofjustice, the punishment need not be severe andcould fit the crime: maybe a consumer would becut off of the internet for only two weeks, or onlycut off from accessing download sites but still beallowed to access government and banking sites,or receive a small fine. Secondly, the consumerhas ample time to change his or her behaviour: aconsumer can insist on infringing copyright atleast two times before the sanction takes place.The consumer can easily avoid being cut off(even temporarily), meaning the punishmentlikely doesn’t even have to take place. [1] [1]Barry Sookman, ‘Graduated response andcopyright: an idea that is right for the times’,January 10th, 2010. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms intellectualproperty house would useGraduated responsecan be done prudently Many companies have‘Terms of Agreement’, violation of whichautomatically leads to cancellation of service.Suppose you don’t pay your library subscriptionfor a year: no one would complain of ‘lack of dueprocess’ if your subscription was subsequentlycancelled. A Graduated response policy is nodifferent. Moreover, the graduated responsepolicy can be made to fit the rules of dueprocess. For example, in the French HADOPI-law,after a third violation, the case gets referred toan ‘expedited judicial procedure’, typically usedfor minor traffic violations, after which that judgewill decide. Compare this to the unfairnessbefore a graduated response policy isimplemented: copyright holders might detectand sue one single consumer and extract a veryheavy penalty, whilst the rest of the downloadingconsumers got away. Both the uncertainty andthe height of the fine made the situation before a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms intellectualproperty house would useGraduated response isnot a massive privacy violation Firstly, ISPsalready use Deep Packet Inspection right now, toengage in what they call ‘network management’,like checking whether users aren’t hogging upbandwidth by downloading too much viapeer-to-peer software. But moreover, it is hardto see how exactly every form of deep packetinspection is a privacy violation: the inspecting isdone by automated software and only checks forinfringements. If no infringement is detected, noone will know what was ‘in the informationpacket’. Take the example of monitoring for thepresence digital watermarks: basically, themonitoring-software has a database of specific‘watermarks’ that content holders put into theirvideos, for example a unique combination ofpixels. The software only checks whether thatcombination is present. If it’s not present, thesoftware has no way of ‘seeing’ the informationitself. Hence, even though it might sound scary,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms intellectualproperty house would useISP will not cooperatewith a graduated response policy The graduatedresponse model requires cooperation from allInternet Service Providers. If just one ISPrefuses, users will flock towards that ISP to beable to keep on downloading. Therefore therewill always be an incentive to be the ISP thatrefuses so as to gain custom from others whohave agreed to cooperate. ISPs will also have anincentive to not cooperate because the cost ofmonitoring and identifying is large, andsignificantly more so for smaller ISPs: initialestimates of the cost of graduated response forISPs were around 500 million pounds over aperiod of ten years. [1] [1] Michael Geist,‘Estimating the cost of a three strikes and you’reout system’, January 26, 2010. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms intellectualproperty house would useThe graduatedresponse is a violation of the basic right to dueprocess Detection of copyright infringement isn’tusually done by a detective sitting behind acomputer. It relies on software like automatedcrawlers and fingerprinting, often created bycommercial vendors and hired by the copyrightholders. This software automatically sendsdetected infringements to the ISP, withoutsomeone actually checking if this allegation iscorrect. This means many consumers can beunjustly accused of copyrightinfringement. Moreover, most graduatedresponse policies proposed require no judicialintervention at all for the sanction to be invoked.This means private organisations get to decidewho has committed a crime and deserves thepunishment. The ISPs and copyright holderstherefore act as accuser, prosecution, judge andexecutioner. On top of this if a consumer wouldgo to court, he would also face a reversal of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms intellectualproperty house would useThe graduate responsepolicy constitutes an invasion of privacy by thestate Graduated response would require hugeamounts of monitoring and logging of all internettraffic using technical systems called ‘deeppacket inspection’ (DPI) equipment. This meansthat a computer program will look in close detailat all of the information someone sends over theinternet in order to check whether it violatessome protocol, for example a ‘fingerprint’ ofcopyrighted data that the content creator putin. This means a copyright holder, or a thirdparty paid by the copyright holder to monitorinternet traffic, suddenly has access toeverything every consumer sends over theinternet. This is a massive violation of privacy.Given the fact that advertising companies arealready using DPI illegitimately for targetedadvertising, it is obvious that content companieswill also feel tempted to ‘do more’ with all thatdata they suddenly have access to. [1] [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-piidfiphwu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "p ip internet digital freedoms intellectualproperty house would useISPs will gladlycooperate with graduated response Almost adecade ago, ISPs engaged in a competitive battleto gain as much broadband penetration aspossible. Now that markets have matured andbroadband penetration has more or less ‘maxedout’ in developed countries, ISPs need to findnew value propositions to attract customers. Oneof these value propositions is being able to offerhigh quality content at high speeds. To be able tooffer this, ISPs will need the cooperation ofcontent providers – who can ask something inreturn, like graduated response. [1] That thisactually happens is borne out by the fact that inmany countries ISPs are actually gettingtogether to make sector-wide agreements, forexample in the USA where the major ISPs haveagreed to implementing graduated response.[2] [1] Olivier Bomsel and Heritania Ranaivoson,‘Decreasing copyright enforcement costs: thescope of a graduated response’. 2009. Review of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightThe freedom of speech doesnot mean that there is a right to reach as broadan audience as possible. It does not mean thereis a fundamental right to access the internet orany other individual medium of communication.If indeed there is some kind of ‘gap’ in humanrights it does not mean that it has to be filled bycreating some spurious new right for individualsto enjoy. If there was a lack of recognition of afreedom of readership then this is because thereis no need for the human right to exist let alonein a form that privileges access to the internetover other forms of information access.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightThe right to internet accessfills a gap in traditional human rights. In ourtraditional human rights there is a hole when itcomes to a right to receive and be able to seekout information. Almost everyone would considerfreedom of speech and freedom of expression tobe human rights but these rights are not veryeffective if there is not a way for those who wishto access that information. Michael L Bestcontends that Article 19 of the universaldeclaration of human rights on freedom ofexpression implies some symmetry but thatfreedom of authorship is privileged over freedomof readership. [1] In short governments couldallow freedom of expression while ensuring thatthose expressing dissenting views have a veryminimal audience without breaking humanrights. A right to the internet is the perfecthuman right to fill this gap. The internet isestimated to have over 35 billion web pages, [2]and the most recent digital universe study", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightThis is taking the freedom ofexpression too far. A freedom to impartinformation does not mean the freedom toimpart it through whatever medium theindividual wishes simply through a method ofcommunication. It is also taking it too far toconsider that the government has a duty toprevent others from interfering with individual’saccess as this is impractical. Governmentsshould not have the power to interfere withprivate businesses that may wish to denyinternet users access for things like not payingtheir bills. The third interpretation is interpretingthis freedom much too broadly, human rights aremeant to prevent the government fromoppressing their citizens rather than forcinggovernment to provide something.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightInternet access as a newhuman right. Access to the internet can beconsidered a separate human right in and ofitself. The UN special rapporteur in June 2011published a report that implied that access to theinternet is a human right “The SpecialRapporteur remains concerned that legitimateonline expression is being criminalized incontravention of States' international humanrights obligations.” [1] The right to internetaccess can meet the necessary conditions to be ahuman right; as a right is should be universal,everyone should have access not just a few. Theinternet is becoming much more than just a toolbut is becoming a fundamental part of societycreating a new sphere of interaction thateveryone has a right to have access to. Creatinga right to internet access would be addressing aspecific contemporary problem as with otherhuman rights that are specific such as a right tobasic schooling, enshrined in article 26 of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightCreating a human rightspecifically for internet access is an example of‘human rights inflation’ where by every groupwants their issue to be a human right and as aresult human rights that are not necessary or aretoo specific begin to devalue the whole conceptof human rights. [1] While there may be a new‘society’ operating online the internet is certainlynot essential for the existence of society. Anonline society is an interesting distraction forpeople and indeed there are many who spendimmense amounts of time cultivating virtualrelationships but this virtual sphere does notneed a human right to enable it to continue. Theinternet is in some ways a free for all and therehave already been internet social networks thathave collapsed or been taken offline. This maybe disruptive for those who relied on thisnetwork as their online society but they cansimply find another. If unable to access theinternet they still have access to other forms of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightInternet access is a necessarypart of the right to freedom of information andexpression. Freedom of expression and speechand freedom of information is a fundamentalfreedom and is article 19 in the universaldeclaration of human rights. This is usually takento have three parts for governments to uphold: aduty to respect, for the government not tointerfere with the freedom to impart information,a duty to protect, preventing interference withlawful communications and, a duty to fulfil, aduty to provide government held information. [1]Access to the internet falls within this. The dutyto respect means that governments cannot blockaccess for people wishing to use the internet toexpress themselves. The duty to protect meansgovernment should prevent others frominterfering with internet users and the duty tofulfil could easily be taken just a little bit furtherto having to provide access to the internet.Freedom of expression therefore covers a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightThe conduit to accessinformation is just as important as theinformation itself. There is little point in theinformation if we are cut off from the flows ofthat information and are unable to access it. [1]Having immense libraries may be an alternativemethod of accessing information for some butonly for a tiny minority. As human rights areconcerned with access to everybody the right anegalitarian method that allows everyone toaccess the information is needed just as much asthe right to access the information. There is littlepoint in a right to information without acorresponding right to access the internet orsome other equally egalitarian method ofobtaining that information. [1] Best, Michael L.,‘Can the Internet be a Human Right?’ HumanRights and Human Welfare, Vol.4 2004, p.24", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightHuman rights are meant toprotect the individual from the state rather thanbeing dependent upon the state. The statecannot decide what these human rights are andcan only constrain human rights if it is necessaryto protect the human rights of another. [1]Human rights are necessary precisely becausestates ignore the freedoms of their citizens sooften. The sources of international law areirrelevant when referring to human rights asthese are a higher law natural law that overridesa system of international law that has beencreated only over the last couple of hundredyears. [1] Brown, Chris, ‘Human rights’, in JohnBaylis and Steve smith The globalization of worldpolitics 2nd ed Oxford University Press 2001,pp.599-614 p.604", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightInternet access is acommodity not a human right. If a human rightis inherent and inalienable then if something is tobe a human right it has to be freely available forall rather than being much more available tothose who are rich. The internet however is acommodity. We are charged for access to it andcan be cut off for not paying our bills. We arecharged more to be able to download more, ineffect to have greater access to this human right.There has never been any suggestion that theequally great media advances of TV andtelephones are technologies worthy of beingconsidered a human right. As with the internetthese increased the ability to express opinions toa wide audience, they helped democratise newsand making it much more international. Theymeant that human rights violations could bemuch more easily told to the world in much thesame way the internet does.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightInternet access cannot be ahuman right when it is not available to all. Ifhuman rights are inalienable and inherent inhumans then no technology can be a humanright as not everyone can ever expect access allof the time. Certainly at the moment hugeswathes of the world have no internet access andthis does not mean that their governments areviolating their human rights. The analogy mightbe given to freedom of movement. Freedom ofmovement is a human right however we don’tneed the aid of a car to be able to exercise thisright the technology itself is unnecessary as wehave an inherent ability to move just as we do tocommunicate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightInternet access is an enablerof rights not a right in itself. The internet is anenabler and so has little value on its own. [1] Noone would consider the internet a human right ifthere was no content or information on theinternet, what good would be a right to stare at ascreen? It is not therefore access to the internetthat is the human right it is access toinformation. The internet is obviously useful forthis but it is not essential. If someone wasdenied access to the internet while being lockedin a library would he or she really have had anyright to information infringed? In such a case theonly argument for a right to the internet is that itfaster to access the information through theinternet than it would be to look it up in thebooks that are all around. There cannot thereforebe considered to be a right to the internet evenas part of any right to information because theright to information would simply require that agovernment provides access to this information", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightHuman rights are dependentupon the state There is clearly not universal oreven widespread acceptance of the idea thatinternet access should be a human right. Humanrights are dependent upon the state, the desiresof the community, and that depends upon thestate’s socio economic context. [1] The internetcannot therefore be considered a universalhuman right because not all states are advancedenough to take responsibility for thisright. International law is based upon severalsources; state practice, customary law, treatiesand judicial decisions. [2] None of these sourcesyet recognise internet access as a human right,indeed if state practice is taken as deciding ifhuman rights exist then the whole concept ofhuman rights is open to question. [3] [1]Turkin, G., Theory of International Law, 1974,p.81 [2] Shaw, Malcolm N., International Law4th ed., Cambridge University press, 1997,Chapter 3. [3] Watson, J.S., Legal theory,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightHuman rights are as muchaspirational as they are fact. When the universaldeclaration of human rights came out themajority of people in the world did not have “theright to take part in the government of hiscountry, directly or through freely chosenrepresentatives.” [1] Having the internet as ahuman right will increase access as it makes itmore difficult for governments to deny accessand increases the priority to provide access.[2] [1] United Nations, Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights, 10 December 1948, Article21. [2] Wagner, Adam, ‘Is internet access ahuman right?’, Guardian Legal Network, 11January 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-aihbiahr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "access information house believes internetaccess human rightBeing a human right does notprevent commoditization going alongside this.Everyone has a right to own property, asenshrined in the universal declaration of humanrights, but it is accepted that property is alsovaluable in a commercial sense. Or moregenerally everyone has a right to shelter and thismeans that governments provide council housingand shelters for the homeless at the same timeas houses often having very high prices. Thehuman right is for a very basic level while thosewho wish can pay for more.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyThere have beenwrongful arrests during the war against terror.Riwaan Sabir was wrongfully arrested under theterrorism act in 2008 for downloading anal-Qaida training manual despite the manualhaving been downloaded from a US governmentwebsite and been for his master’s degree at theUniversity of Nottingham. [1] Since the offencewas online it is certainly possible thatinformation from spying was a part of the causefor the arrest. It is true that we probably haveless cause for concern when it is foreigngovernments doing the spying but this could stillhave consequences such as being denied entry ifyou wish to travel to or through the country. [1]Townsend, Mark, ‘Police ‘made up’ evidenceagainst Muslim student’, The Guardian, 14 July2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyYou are not going to bearrested because the government has access toyour communications Clearly much of the timeyou really do have nothing to worry about whenit comes to intelligence agencies havinginformation about you. People are not regularlyarrested without just cause and we have littleevidence that democratic governments use thisinformation to put pressure on their citizens.There have been no known cases of thishappening since the start of the war on terror.[1] When it comes to foreign governments this iseven less of a cause for concern; while your owngovernment might be interested in variousaspects of your life to help it with the services itprovides foreign governments only have onemotivation; their own national security. If youare not a threat to that national security thechances of them ever taking any action againstyou are essentially nonexistent. [1] Posner, Eric,‘I Don’t See a Problem Here’, The New York", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyIn the UK case this is notall it appears. The Intelligence ServicesCommissioner is comparatively toothless, andboth it and the Interception of CommunicationsCommissioner are immensely understaffed formonitoring all UK intelligence agencies. Someexperts such as Professor Peter Sommer haveeven suggested “I am not sure that ministers orthe ISC would know what questions to ask.” [1]Moreover this is trusting that ministers have thebest interests of the people at heart, in the caseof this conservative government which seemsperfectly happy to introduce bills that erodefreedoms such as the ‘snoopers charter’ thisseems unlikely. [1] Hopkins, Nick, ‘WilliamHague on spying scandal: what he said … andwhat he didn't say’, guardian.co.uk, 10 June2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyThere is no physicalrisk In terms of physical risk it is almostcertainly true that you have nothing to fear fromgovernment having loads of information. Withthe exception perhaps of the Russian FSB anddespite the James Bond films intelligenceagencies in democracies are not in the habit ofbumping people off this mortal coil. In this senseit does not matter at all what information theintelligence services have on you; no matter hownaughty you may have been it is not going to beworth some kind of physical retaliation.Essentially the argument here is that it does noharm, and even does some good, so why shouldit not continue?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyPhysical risk is not theonly risk that people worry about. Denyingsomeone their liberties such as privacy orfreedom of expression does not pose a physicalrisk to them but that act is still wrong and it isstill worth worrying about. Citizens have the rightto go about their own business without theirgovernment spying on them. They should nothave to concern themselves with whatinformation the government does or does nothave.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyClearly if no one everactually looked at any information provided bysurveillance then there would be no point inconducting it. Even if it were true that no onelooks at any of the data being watched is still anintrusion that affects behaviour. It will affectdecisions that are perfectly lawful because therewill always be the slight worry that someone whoyou don’t want to have that information becausethey will think differently of you will obtain it.When the information is out of your hands youcan no longer be certain who will obtain it. [1]Since people have been arrested for theinformation that has been conducted, clearlysometimes the information is checked andused. [1] Moore, Mica, and Stein, Bennett, ‘TheChilling Effects of License-Plate LocationTracking’, American Civil Liberties Union, 23 July2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyThere are safeguards toprevent misuse In democracies there arenumerous safeguards and levels of oversight toprevent abuse. In the UK for example there is a“strong framework of democratic accountabilityand oversight”. Agencies are required “to seekauthorisation for their operations from aSecretary of State, normally the ForeignSecretary or Home Secretary.” The Secretary isgiven legal advice and comments from civilservants. Once the Secretary has given assentthey are “subject to independent review by anIntelligence Services Commissioner and anInterception of Communications Commissioner…to ensure that they are fully compliant with thelaw”. [1] [1] Hague, William, ‘Prism statementin full’, politics.co.uk, 10 June 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyNo one will ever actuallylook at the information If the concern is privacythen there really should be little concern at allbecause there is safety in numbers. The NSA andother intelligence services don’t have the time ormotivation to be tracking down all of our foibles.[1] If the intelligence agencies are watchingeveryone then they clearly do not have thepersonnel to be watching the actualcommunications. Instead certain things orpatterns will raise alarm bells and a tiny numberwill be investigated more closely. [1] Walt,Stephen M., ‘The real threat behind the NSAsurveillance programs’, Foreign Policy, 10 June2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyThe circumstances in thecold war were clearly different to today so thiskind of abuse of power would be unlikely tohappen. More broadly yes there is the potentialfor abuse in much the same way that there arepeople in banks who could steal large quantitiesof other people’s money. That there is a potentialopportunity does not mean it is ever used. Abusecan never be totally avoided but if abuse is aconcern then whether or not there is a programof surveillance is not the highest concern. Even ifthere were not wide ranging surveillanceproblems those in intelligence looking to abusetheir position would be able to obtain theinformation because they have the technology todo so.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyFar from threateningdemocracy the intelligence agencies are usingthis information to protect democracy fromterrorists who wish to overthrow the wholeconcept of democratic governance. Intelligenceagencies are clearly under civilian control andhave several layers of oversight to ensure thatthis kind of misuse does not take place. In theUnited States this means there is oversight fromCongress and in the UK from Parliament. There isalso judicial oversight in the form of theInterception of Communications Commissionerand Intelligence Services Commissioner in theUK [1] and the Foreign Intelligence SurveillanceCourt in the US. [2] [1] ‘Judicial Oversight’,Security Service MI5, [2] ‘Foreign IntelligenceSurveillance Court’, Federal Judicial Center,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyLack of trust Theproblem is that when it comes to privacy it is notreally our personal physical security that we areworried about. Part of the problem is that wevalue our right to a private life and that weshould have control over that to the extent ofbeing able to decide how much informationothers know about us. To a large extent this isan issue of trust; we (sometimes wrongly) trustour friends and others with information about us.We often trust faceless entities; companies andgovernments too though usually to less of anextent. But a lot of that trust is as a result oftheir willingness to tell us what they know aboutus, to provide information in return, or to providemethods for us to restrict what they know. Incases like this that trust has not been earned;we were not asked, and not obviously givenanything back, and there seems little change ofus changing the terms of the relationship.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con05a", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyLoss of Privacy It iswrong to state that we only have anything to‘fear’ if we have done something wrong; a greatmany people want to keep things private wherewhat they have done is morally perfectly rightand justifiable. It is perfectly justified for amarried couple to want to keep a video of themhaving sex private – even if it is sent from onepartner to the other by email, or for someone tokeep his/her sexual orientation secret even ifthey have told someone about it. [1] If we wantsuch information to be kept private does thestate have any business picking that informationup from our emails? It may not go any furtherthan the intelligence agency, it is possible no onethere will look at it but it is still an invasion ofprivacy. [1] Phillipson, Gavin, ‘Q&A: Theright to privacy’, BBC Religion, 14 June 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyThe use of meta datacauses unintentional harm The other possibleharm is unintentional. The amount of datainvolved is huge and too much even for a vastorganization like the NSA to actually physicallylook at. Instead it uses data mining. This is whythe NSA wants data that may seem useless toothers. The records of which phone numbers arephoning who, as the NSA was obtaining ofVerizon, might seem useless but can tell themwho you are contacting, and how much contacttime they have. In turn they could look at whoyour contacts have been talking to and if it turnsout that several of them talk regularly tosuspected terrorists then even if you areinnocent a finger of suspicion might be pointed.There has even been a study showing thatindividuals can be identified from just the time ofcall and nearest cell phone tower after just fourcalls. [1] PRISM gives the NSA even more‘useless’ data to play with. The results of this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyAbuse of information andpower by intelligence agencies Even when thegovernment does not intend harm there are stillcases where direct harms can occur as a result ofsurveillance. The most worrying are where thestate abuses the information it holds. Abuse ofpower and of the information held bygovernment is perhaps the main reason why it isdifficult to trust in intelligence agencies. In onehistorical example from the 1950s FBI agentsinterviewed a Brooklyn liquor importer forrepeating a rumor that the FBI Director J EdgarHoover might be a “queer”. This clearlynecessitated a reminder through questioning thatHoover’s “personal conduct is beyond reproach,”leading to the man quickly agreeing that “hethinks Mr. Hoover has done a wonderful job.” [1]Did this have anything to do with nationalsecurity? No. Was it an abuse of power andsurveillance? Yes. So far as we are aware theintelligence agencies don’t do things quite like", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con05b", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyIs it really an invasion ofprivacy if no one else knows about it even if thatinformation is added to some giant computerdatabase? The information we wish to keepsecret remains a secret, in the unlikely eventthat some analyst reads the information they arenever going to broadcast it to others as keepingsecrets is a part of what intelligence agencies do.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyA threat todemocracy Yes the NSA is unlikely to look atindividual’s personal information if the person inquestion is nobody of interest yet there arepeople who may be of interest to the state whoare essentially innocent of anything exceptannoying the state. The ability for almost anyonein the intelligence apparatus to look up personalinformation has to worry anyone who mightotherwise dissent, investigate the government,or turn whistleblower. Intelligence officials canhold the information as a weapon to ensurecompliance and ruin careers if they don’t gettheir way. [1] This has happened before. In theUS when diplomat Joseph C. Wilson publishedabout the manipulation of intelligence onuranium from Niger being used as part of thejustification for the invasion of Iraq his wife hadher cover blown and career destroyed by peoplewithin the Department of Defense. [2] When weknow that the Obama administration has been", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyMetadata anddata-mining are not new they are simplybecoming more frequent, and more accurate as aresult of more information. In the past therehave been other ways of collecting data; taxrecords, voter registration, reverse telephonedirectories. [1] At the same time governmentand the intelligence agencies are not even thosewho make most use of this, there are wholeprivate companies devoted to sifting this data.[2] There is little reason why we shouldparticularly worry about this being done byintelligence agencies. [1] Gomez, David,‘Hoovered’, Foreign Policy, 11 June 2013, [2]See the debatabase debate ‘ This House wouldnot allow companies to collect/sell the personaldata of their clients ’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-efsappgdfp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "e free speech and privacy politics governmentdigital freedoms privacyThe intelligence agenciesare not violating any right to privacy if they arenot actually looking at the content of any emails,even less so as they in almost all cases won’teven be looking at the metadata. It is notpossible for intelligence agencies to be askingthe people before engaging in every surveillancepolicy as even knowing the broad outlines ofwhat the surveillance involves could allow thetargets of that surveillance to avoid thatsurveillance. While individual citizens are notasked this is where the people’s representativesshould be trusted, it is ministers and members ofparliament that allow surveillance and hold theagencies to account.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom digital freedoms accessinformation house supportsThis has absolutelynothing to do with censorship – not having netneutrality will not stop users accessing certainsites, just make it slower. Data from some pointsof origin, especially games and file-sharingprogrammes slow down the entire network. It’sunfair to other users.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom digital freedoms accessinformation house supportsRisk of a two-tierInternet As things stand there are relatively flatrate services. The concern is that ISP wouldcharge higher rates for full Internet access or actto ensure that their own content arrivedseamlessly and smoothly, while that ofcompetitors was delayed or poorer quality or thathigher bandwidth applications end up with ahigher price-tag [i] . This is of concern both toend users and to the producers of content. Thereare very real concerns here, as a result, aboutthe impact this has on freedom of expression.The best way to avoid censorship – eithercommercial or political – is to ensure that itremains impossible to achieve in the firstplace. Once it becomes possible to givepreference to some forms of content or points oforigin, then commercial censorship at leastbecomes a great deal easier. [i] BBC NewsWebsite. “BT Content Connect service faces‘two-tier net’ claims. 4 January 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom digital freedoms accessinformation house supportsThe idea that there isa virtue in providing things for free takes asomewhat cavalier attitude toward jobs. It is apredicate of this, and many other, argumentsthat the Internet should be either free or verycheap, but this does little for protecting genuinesources of expertise. Equally the costs incurredby ISPs for carrying the huge data loads of heavyusers will simply end up being met by users whoaren’t using that level of data. It doesn’t seemthat unreasonable that those using the datashould be paying for that at least. After all,they’re already avoiding paying the studio, thewriter, the actors, musicians [i] and many othersinvolved in the production of goods. Freewaremay be freely given, but plenty of other pieces ofintellectual property aren’t. Why should thosepeople then have the data usage subsidised byothers as well? [i] Songwriters Guild of America.Rick Carnes. “Demythologizing Net Neutrality.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom digital freedoms accessinformation house supportsPrivacy This was theclinching argument in the Dutch example. LabourMP Martijn van Dam, one of the bill’s co-authorssaid that Dutch ISP KPN was similar to “a postalworker who delivers a letter, looks to see what’sin it and then claims he hasn’t read it. It issimply a basic principle of the Internet that for itto continue working as it does now, all dataneeds to be treated the same otherwisejudgements will be formed on ‘right’ and ‘wrong’data [i] . The principle here is that the databeing used is simply none of the ISPs business.Their job is simply to provide an agreedbandwidth, at an agreed price to the end user.How the end user makes use of that band widthis up to them. If, for example, they’re choosingto Skype from a mobile device – one of thepoints of contention – it’s hard to see what thathas to do with the ISP. [i] PCWorld. MatthewHonan, MacWorld. “Inside Net Neutrality: Privacyand BitTorrent. 14 February 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom digital freedoms accessinformation house supportsThe postal workeranalogy is an interesting one. Certainly, the enduser wouldn’t want the worker snooping throughtheir mail; however they would expect to paymore for the stamp if they were sending a parcel– the equivalent of sending voice messages orreceiving films rather than email and text. It isalso not directly analogous to a postman lookingat the contents of someone’s mail because to tellwhat type of data it is and the size ISPs don’tread the content of the data.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom digital freedoms accessinformation house supportsThreats to Freeware,Shareware and Objectivity There are very realconcerns that ISPs have a commercial interest inguiding people away from certain sites –especially when those sites provide services orproducts for nothing when the ISP or a relatedcompany charges for a competing product. Filesharing more generally is an obvious target. Theexample of Comcast against NetFlix and otherfile sharing sites is simply the most obvious [i]. There are also concerns about the impact onobjectivity more generally; the Internet worksmost effectively as a tool because it is, bydefinition cross-referencing. Although there aremany mistakes on many sources as a whole it ispossible to reach something resembling thetruth. Essentially, “We need freeware, we needshareware, and we need open access. Peopleneed to be able to trust sources that they canfind on the internet, rather than have themcontrolled in a small number of hands or by the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom digital freedoms accessinformation house supportsIt’s no secret thatmany companies have had difficulty working outeffective models for dealing with the internet.That doesn’t justify simple price-gouging. Neitherdoes it justify an invasion of privacy. It’s theequivalent of a restaurant waiting for customersto order, eat their meal and then set the prices.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom digital freedoms accessinformation house supportsThe reverse alsoapplies. In most countries the costs of basicinfrastructure are shared. Taxpayers don’t get adiscount if they don’t have kids in education, anymore than they would just because theydisagreed with a war that their taxes help to payfor. The argument doesn’t make sense.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom digital freedoms accessinformation house supportsAllow ISPs to monitorand remove illegal or unwanted data Many ISPsare responding to user interests when cutting outparticular types of data. At the request of theuser why shouldn’t they be able to monitor whatis delivered to a certain IP address. Most ‘netnanny’ software is not that difficult to get around[i] . Why not let parents who bought their kids acomputer to help with their homework not beable to block them from making calls or watchingmovies? If you compel net neutrality then, say,the ISP who caters for religious customers canno longer deliver the service that they haverequested. Denying freedom of choice seems ahigh price to pay so that someone can getmovies without paying for them. Equally, if ISPsthemselves want to stay within the law andprevent people from accessing illegal orotherwise unpleasant sites, why shouldn’tthey? [i] Foss Force: Keeping Tech Free. CaesarTjalbo. “Top 10 Reasons ISPs are against net", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom digital freedoms accessinformation house supportsRealistic costs forusers and providers of bandwidth andphones The example of mobile devices is,perhaps the most clear-cut. Manufacturers ofmobile devices expect to make their money backand make a profit. They need to do this to paysalaries, invest in the next project and keep theirshareholders happy. To do that they make acalculation based on the price of the originalproduct and what additional revenue they arelikely to make over the lifetime of that product’suse. Phone companies in particular havecomplained that major content providers aresimply not paying a fair share of the costs withthe VP of Verizon, for example, accusing Googleof getting “a free lunch” at the expense ofnetwork providers [i] . Net neutrality compelssome companies to ignore basic financial realities[ii] . For all that Proposition – and others such aspoliticians in Amsterdam and Santiago – maythink that changing the basic rules of economics", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom digital freedoms accessinformation house supportsIncentivise ISPs toprovide more data capacity If the ISPs wereactually making their money on the basis of dataprovision rather than bandwidth then it’s in theirinterest to provide it. If they can’t, they don’tmake money. If they want to sell more data,they have to provide more bandwidth, otherwisethey can’t do it. This way both the data gluttonsand the dieters get what they want. The gluttonsget a fast provision of the resources they want orthe capacity to share those resources at areasonable speed and the dieters get cheaperprovision. Measures being pursued by theEuropean Commission aim to do exactly this.They will allow ISPs to control the passage ofdata across their networks but must, at the sametime, make it clear what they are doing and offerlow data use price plans accordingly [i] . This ismore so with mobile devices than with ‘plumbedin’ ones. For many people, it wouldn’t occur tothem to use Skype for a call and a phone – even", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-digital-freedoms-eifdfaihs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "e internet freedom digital freedoms accessinformation house supportsCensorship hasroutinely been presented in terms of ‘protectingpublic morals’ or ‘defending national security’ orsome similar euphemism, with legislation aimedat pornography but catching everything else inits track as simply the most obvious example [i] .It doesn’t change what it is [ii] . In addition towhich, there are very real reasons to believe thatthe incentives of ISPs here are more financialthan moral – they would, after all, stand to makequite a lot of money. [i] The New Statesman.Nelson Jones. “The Censored Isle”. 6 August2012. [ii] Boston College Law Review. Prof.Jonathan Zittrain. “Internet Points of Control”.Vol. 44, pg. 653, 2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalMost suffering and pain can beaccounted for by the free will that humansexercise; God made us free and we use thatfreedom for evil as well as for good. As for illnessand disease, it is hard for us to know the mind ofGod, but it may be that these trials are anecessary part of a world in which free andspiritual human beings can evolve and develop.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalThe problem of suffering The world isfull of suffering and pain among innocent people.If God is good and all-powerful then why is thisthe case? Either God does not exist or he is notworth believing in since he does not care abouthuman suffering.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalThis is an inaccurate caricature of therelationship between science and religion. In factmost of the great scientists of history, such asDescartes, Newton and Einstein, have beenreligious believers, and the more we learn aboutthe physical world (e.g. the fine balance betweenthe fundamental forces of the universe,necessary for organic life to develop) the more itseems that it has been designed to producehuman life by an intelligent God. The fact thatthere is a physical side to reality does not, in anycase, mean that there cannot also be a spiritualdimension. Nor does the fact that the mind andbrain are closely correlated mean that they arethe same thing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalThe Null Hypothesis With regards toany proposition the only consistent and rationalview is to assume that it is not true unlesssufficient evidence is put forward to nullify thatassumption. The proposition need also befalsifiable, that is to say, there must be somepotential fact that could be proven in order todisprove it. God is unfalsifiable because there isnothing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalReligious belief is completelyirrational There is no evidence that God exists.Reported miracles, healings etc. are neverreliably proved actually to have happened, and inany case everyone’s religious experiences aredifferent and point to the psychologicaldifferences between human beings not to anyobjective divine reality. Belief in God is simplywish-fulfilment. It would be nice if there was aloving all powerful being watching over us, butthere isn’t.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalThere is good evidence that God existsand there are good arguments for acceptingreligious beliefs. The fact that we live in abeautiful, orderly universe in which humanbeings exist and have special moral and spiritualawareness points clearly to the existence of adivine Creator behind the universe. Billions ofpeople have had religious experiences of one sortor another - all of them revealing the existenceof divine reality - the only good explanation ofthis fact is that the divine reality is really there.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalAll beliefs rely upon some form ofpresupposition as their grounding. The nullhypothesis presupposes a natural world – butbelief in God presupposes a supernatural world.It is unfair therefore to apply the null hypothesisto religious faith. Moreover, belief in God is adifferent to belief in an object in the physicalworld that we would expect to be physicallyverifiable. [1] [1] Wolf, Gary. ‘The Church of theNon-Believers’ WIRED Magazine. November2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalReligion may have been the occasion forvarious social and political wrongs, but it is notthe cause. You can be quite sure that if you tookaway all the world’s religions people would stillidentify themselves with national and politicalgroups and go to war over territory, politicalconflict etc. Equally elitism and bigotry are,sadly, parts of human nature with or withoutreligion. In fact religious belief, when takenseriously and sincerely, is a force for good in theworld, promoting humility, morality, wisdom,equality, and social justice. Social justice is atthe heart of the Christian gospel.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalThe God hypothesis isunnecessary Science provides us with the toolsto form a comprehensive view of the Universewhich does not include a supernatural being.From Galileo to Darwin to the modern day,scientists have continually uncovered the truenatural mechanisms behind the creation andevolution of the universe. There are no gaps leftfor God to act in [1] - science has revealed aclosed natural order governed by natural laws.Brain science has shown that there is not a ‘soul’but that all our mental states are simply causedby brain activity. There is, therefore, no reasonto believe in life after death - one of the maintenets of religious belief. [1] Bube, Richard H,‘Man Come of Age: Bonhoeffer’s Response to theGod-of-the-gaps’, Journal of the EvangelicalTheological Society, , p.207", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalReligions have no true claim to specialmoral knowledge Religions through the ages,and still today, have been agents of repression,sexism, elitism, homophobia, and - most of all -conflict, war, and racial hatred. The very natureof belief in received wisdom means that it mustbe, at its core, a conservative and regressiveforce. Moreover the positive moral rules thatreligions claim to promote tend to have existedindependently of those religions – the world didnot have to wait for the ten commandments tolearn that murder and theft was wrong, but itwaited until the 19th Century to reach aconsensus that Slavery was wrong. Whateversmall amount of psychological comfort religiousbelief may give, the evils it is responsible for inthe social and political worlds easily outweigh it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-con03b", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalThis argument is based on a subtlefallacy – the only reason we are here to observethe fact that the Earth is so well suited tosupport life is that fact that it is so well suited tosupport life – if the Earth was a barren rock thenwe would not exist to see it. It shouldn’t besurprising therefore that out of the billions ofsolar systems in the Universe; we live on theplanet that is suited to our survival. Additionally,while the conditions necessary for life appear tobe rare (and our ability to observe planets fromeven relatively nearby solar systems is limited),the Universe has billions and billions of chancesto ‘get it right’. It is very unlikely that you willwin the lottery, but with millions of peopleplaying it is actually very likely that somebodywill win the lottery.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-con01b", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalThis is just special pleading; firstly thereis no reason to consider Godly wisdom as beingbeyond our capacity to comprehend; andsecondly there are discernable flaws in thatwisdom as it is presented in a way that humansare supposed to be able to perceive andunderstand.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-con02a", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalThe Prime Mover The universe followsrules of causality – cause precedes effect. But itcannot be the case that cause and effect regressinfinitely into the past – there must be a ‘primecause’. There is an identifiable point for this –the Universe was formed about 14 billion yearsago with the Big Bang, before which we cannotdetect any chain of causality. What was theprime mover? It had by definition to be a beingexisting outside of our conception of reality – thenatural answer being ‘God’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-con03a", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalThe rareness of Life Life requires anextremely fine set of conditions in order to exist.The right distance from the Sun, a magnetic fieldto deflect solar radiation, the right atmosphericcomposition and conditions etc. These conditionsare extremely rare; indeed only on Earth havewe observed that they are just right for life tohave evolved. [1] This is so unlikely that it leadsto the conclusion that God must haveintervened. [1] McAlpine, Kate, ‘Extraterrestriallife could be extremely rare’, physicsworld.com,1 August 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-con01a", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalRevealed wisdom Godly wisdom is notthe same as human wisdom and cannot besubject to the same criticism. The nature ofhumanity means that our ability to understandGod’s wisdom is fundamentally limited; and thusarguments based on morality or science areirrelevant – what matters is that God hasrevealed Himself.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-frghbbgi-con02b", "title": "", "text": "faith religion general house believes belief godirrationalThis argument is an attempt toshoehorn God into one of the ever-shrinkinggaps in our knowledge of the Universe andshould be treated as such – it doesn’t really givereasons why one should believe in God, it throwsup conjecture and asks ‘why not’? If everythingneeds a prime cause, what is the prime cause ofGod? If God can be an exception, why can't theuniverse be one especially since it is morerational with accordance to Occam's Razor - thatthe simplest hypothosis is most likely to becorrect. This point is merely a substitution of oneproblem by another.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismEvil may bethought of as the absence of good. It is aprivation of goodness, just as darkness is theabsence of light. God is good and theembodiment of goodness, but humans have beenendowed with free will; they can make the choicenot to follow the path of good. People have theability to make both good and bad choices; ifthey did not then they would not truly be free.God’s greatest gift to humanity is thus also aheavy burden. [1] [1] Kekes, John. 1990.Facing Evil. Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismIf there is abenevolent deity, then there should not be thekinds of evil observable in the world and Hewould likely show more interest in His creationthan He appears to have done so far: If God, orthe gods, were good there would be no evil inthe world. Disasters would not kill millions ofinnocents, disease and hunger would not claimthe lives of children every day, war and genocidewould not slaughter people indiscriminately asthey have done for countless bloody millennia.The world is awash with blood, pain, andsuffering. No loving God would make a world soimperfect and troubled. [1] The world’s ills areperfectly explained by the natural, amoraldevelopment of the Universe, of life, and ofhumanity. The reality of the Universe, however,is incompatible with a God of goodness, as He isconventionally described by today’s predominantreligions, which stem from the Abrahamictradition. [1] Tooley, Michael. 2009. “The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismentirely naturaltheories can adequately explain belief in God andthe development of religions, so an existent Godis superfluous to the understanding of thephenomenon: The reason people believe in Godand why religions have formed can be explainedperfectly well by natural processes andpsychology. Religion is an outgrowth of humans’brain architecture developed through the processof evolution; it developed as a by-product ofother useful cognitive processes. [1] Forexample, survival capability is promoted by anability to infer the presence of potentially hostileorganisms, the ability to establish causalnarratives for natural occurrences, and theability to recognize that other people areindependent agents, with their own minds,desires, and intentions. [2] These cognitivemechanisms, while invaluable to human survivaland communal development, have the effect ofcausing humans to imagine supernatural", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro07b", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismThe question ofGod’s existence does matter, not only to thosewho believe, but to understanding of life and itsmeaning. If there is a God and He has a plan forhumanity and the Universe, then in order tounderstand the plan and to become an activepart in it, one must try to understand in somesense the nature of God. However, even if Godwere disinterested in His creation, that would dolittle to affect whether He exists or not.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismIt isunreasonable to suggest that God must revealHimself to humanity, or to make His existencemanifestly clear because that would underminethe value of faith. [1] Belief is an importantcomponent of all religious teachings because it iswhat allows the soul to transcend the materialworld and to commune with the divinity. For thereligious, a life without faith is meaningless.Furthermore, if God were to make His desiresand commands known, then free will would beundermined. It is necessary to the exercise ofindividual human agency that God not dictateevery command to people. That is why Godleaves life, at least on the surface, up tohumans. [1] Maitzen, Stephen. 2006. \"DivineHiddenness and the Demographics of Theism\".Religious Studies 42.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismIn reality thereare only two theological positions, atheism andtheism; agnosticism is nothing but timidatheism: God, like unicorns, has never beenshown to exist, and thus it is logical to acceptthat He, just like unicorns, does not exist. That iswhy a position like agnosticism makes no sense.There are no agnostics on the subject ofunicorns; there are only agnostics on the subjectof God because people tend to be reticent to saythey are atheists due to the prevalence of beliefof God even in the most secular societies. Butfantasy is fantasy, and an agnostic is really justan atheist by another name. Were someone toclaim that dragons exist, the person he told it towould not be justified responding saying he didnot know whether they exist and that it must bean open question until evidence is presented tocorroborate the claim. [1] Rather, he would likelyrespond with disbelief in the absence ofevidence. That is how reasoning works. Thus", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismEntirely naturaltheories can adequately explain the existenceand development of the Universe and all itcontains, making God irrelevant to the discussionof reality: Physics and cosmology explain thedevelopment and evolution of the Universe andthe bodies within it. Chemistry explains theinteractions of substances and the origin of life.Biology explains the development of life’scomplexity through the long process ofevolution. God, or gods, is a superfluous entity inthe discussion of existence; He is entirelyunnecessary to human scientific understanding.[1] At best, believers can point to variousmissing links in science’s explanation, using Godto fill the gaps. The God of the Gaps is a weakGod whose domain grows smaller each day asscience progresses. Furthermore, there is noevidence of the supernatural existing at all, ifthat is what God is meant to be. The burden ofproof in a debate concerning the existence of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro07a", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismEven if atheismwas wrong and God did exist His seeming lack ofinterest and interaction with the Universe as faras humans can perceive means his existence isirrelevant: It seems as if life goes on whetherGod exists or not. Theologians, philosophers, andlaypeople have been fighting both in academiaand on the actual battlefield over the question ofGod’s existence, yet in all the centuries nodefinitive answer one way or the other has beengiven by either side. [1] It seems there is littlevalue to belief one way or the other, so arguingfor God’s existence seems simply to be a wasteof time. If God were proved to exist, or not toexist, little in life would change at all. Thus aposition of atheism serves to relieve the hassleof pointless debate. [1] Borne, Étienne. 1961.Atheism. New York: Hawthorn Books.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismScience cannotexplain everything. People have spoken of theexistence of the soul and of God through theages because reason and logic are sometimesnot enough to explain the complexity and depthof the human experience. God is far more thanthe occupier of the gaps in scientific knowledge.However, the gaps are indicative of thelimitations of science and show that faith andGod can still have a place in humancomprehension of the world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismThere is no strictdichotomy in theology. It is perfectly reasonablefor someone unsure of whether God exists totake up a position of agnosticism, refusing toemphatically accept the existence of God or todeny it. Atheism is a positive claim insofar as it isa statement about the nonexistence of God. Theburden of proof is thus not so clearly on theshoulders of theism alone. Rather, they are rivalclaims that each side must be supported bypositive evidence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismNot everythingabout religion can be explained by evolutionarypsychology. The existence of the soul and theconcept of an ethereal God not directlyconnected to the processes of the world couldnot simply come about by way of evolution.Rather, there must be true meaning in theseconcepts, or they must at least be indicative ofsomething other than the strictly material,contradicting the denials of atheism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismJust because Godcannot be understood by conventionalunderstandings of physics and logic does notinvalidate His existence. In fact, it is unsurprisingthat trying to discuss the attributes of God wouldconfound human reason. That is why faith isessential to understanding, and why science andreason are limited tools. Thus even if oneconsiders the conventional description of God tobe unsatisfactory, it is not sufficient reason toconclude that God does not exist. That is whyone should at best adopt a position ofagnosticism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismIf there were aGod there would be irrefutable evidence of Hisexistence and people would feel compelled tobelief by the fact of it: Many people do notbelieve in God, and the ranks of atheists aregrowing every day, particularly in the developedworld. It seems that as human knowledge of theUniverse expands and as social institutionsdevelop and improve, people feel less dependentupon the crutch of religious faith, and placegreater store in reason. [1] If God existed Hewould make His existence clear to all humanity,not just to a chosen few. In so doing His wisdomwould naturally drown out an earthly knowledge,which would obviously be inferior to any thatmight be furnished by an omniscient being. [2]God has clearly never imparted His wisdom topeople since no such divine wisdom exists in anyholy book. Were there a correct holy bookcurrently in use, it would necessarily be the onlyone, because everyone would acknowledge its", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismThe nature ofGod as it is conventionally described is logicallycontradictory: A creator god is a logicalabsurdity, as demonstrated by empirical fact andrational reflection. Certainly God cannot existoutside of the Universe, as such a concept iseffectively meaningless. In fact, physics explainsthat when the Universe expanded as an inflatingfield of space and time as the result of aquantum fluctuation, causality itself arose fromthe process, making a causative agent “prior” tothe Universe not only unnecessary, but alsoimpossible. Furthermore, the idea of anomnipotent God is logically contradictorybecause if God were omnipotent He would beable to create an entity greater than Himself, yetthat is impossible. [1] The very attribute islogically unfounded, making the conventionalexplanation of God invalid. Thus atheism, theabsence of belief in gods, is the only logicallyjustified theological position. [1] Savage, C.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-con03b", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismIf everything hasa cause, then so too must the creator. Trying toplace the deity outside of the spatio-temporalrealm of the Universe is not a good argument, asnothing can be said meaningfully about what is“outside” the Universe, since we cannot observeor detect it. [1] Furthermore, saying God, or acreator, is uncaused and always existed is a poorargument because again this cannot be verifiedin any meaningful way. Irrespective of theseproblems, however, the argument falls downbecause it presupposes that the Universe has acause, which is not necessarily the case. Thevery notion of causation is built into a temporalunderstanding of physics, which may not havebeen the case in the “pre-Universe”. Atheism cansurvive in the presence of science, theismcannot. If theism cannot survive, then neithercan the agnostic middle ground based on theplausibility of theism. [1] Mackie, J. L. 1982.The Miracle of Theism. Oxford: Oxford University", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-con01b", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismThe rationalposition in the absence of positive evidenceabout God is not agnosticism, but atheism. Whilethere is always a degree of doubt in everystatement, this does not mean that negativeclaims about an entities existence can never bemade. One can rationally state that fairies do notexist, even if there is no positive evidence fortheir non-existence. The very fact that noevidence exists for the existence of fairies, in thesame way there is no evidence for the existenceof God, is evidence of the negative. Thus, in theevidence of positive evidence for God, therational default position is atheism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-con02a", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismThe complexityof the universe and of life cannot be explained byatheism: Atheism suggests that the Universecame about by chance and the interaction ofnatural properties. Yet nature is marked by cleardesign that atheism cannot explain. Thecomplexity of the human body, of planets, stars,and galaxies, and even of bacteria attests to theexistence of creative agency. It is impossible thatsuch things as interdependent species couldcome to exist without the guidance of a higherpower. [1] Likewise, certain organisms can beshown to be irreducibly complex, meaning that ifone were to remove any part of it, it could notfunction. This refutes the gradualist argument ofevolution, since there is no selective pressure onthe organism to change when it is functionless.For example, the bacterial flagellum, the “motor”that powers bacterial cells, loses all functionalityif a single component is removed. [2] Besidesdesign, the only explanation of its development", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-con03a", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismEverything thatbegins to exist must have a cause. Since theUniverse began to exist it must becaused: Every human, every being, every objectin the Universe is a finite and contingent being.These all have causes, yet a causal chain cannotbe infinitely long. Humans are born, stars formfrom gases, even the Universe had a beginning4.3 billion years ago. Nothing in the Universecauses itself. In order to escape the logicalimpossibility of the infinite causality loop it isnecessary to posit the existence of an uncausedcause. This cause exists outside of the Universe,as it is cause of the Universe. [1] Without acreator, the Universe is a logical absurdity.Atheism cannot provide an alternativeexplanation to a creator, and thus fails quiteliterally from the beginning. [1] Craig, WilliamLane. 1979. The Kalam Cosmological Argument.London: MacMillan.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-con01a", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismIn the absence ofpositive evidence for the existence of God therational position is agnosticism, not atheism: Ina situation where there is an absence of eitherpositive evidence for a claim or definite negativeevidence for it, the natural response is notrejection of the claim, but rather skepticism andadmission of lack of knowledge one way or theother. [1] In the case of religion and God, thisposition is agnosticism. Humans are fallibleorganisms, and thus all statements about truthand about the Universe must be qualified bysome degree of doubt. Positively rejecting theexistence of God, as atheism does, ignores thisrequisite doubt even though it cannot prove thatthere is no God. Rather, in the absence ofevidence for or against the existence of God, themost the atheist can say honestly is that he doesnot know. The claims of atheism are positiveones and thus require evidence; an atheistposition is thus faith-based in the same way a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-yercfrggms-con02b", "title": "", "text": "y epistemology religion church faith religiongeneral god morality secularismAtheism does notseek to explain the origin of the Universe, life,etc.; that is what science is for. Atheism is aboutthe existence of God. The atheist position issupported, however, by the fact that there is noevident design in the Universe. People tend toanthropomorphize their environment, trying toassign human-like qualities to animals andnature. All of the complexity in the Universe canbe attributed to natural processes; the Universe,stars, and life are all the product of physical andchemical interactions. There is no mystery in thebasic process. Complexity can be shown to arisefrom less complex conditions without aid ofintelligent agency. Clearly, complexity is notindicative of a creator. The complexity of theUniverse does nothing to support claims for theexistence of a deity, but rather showcases thewondrousness of the natural world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "w crime policing religion religion general religionshouse believes male infantThere are, of course,risks in any medical procedure. Howevercircumcision remains astonishingly safe.Furthermore, denying the parents of a child theright to raise that child in accordance with theirown beliefs would represent an unacceptableintrusion by the state into its citizens’ private andreligious lives. By implementing the resolution,a western liberal democratic state is obliging,say, orthodox Jewish parents, to compromisesome of their most important moral and culturalbeliefs. Ultra-orthodox Jewish groups believe,literally and without equivocation, that whoeverbreaks the covenant with God by not submittingto circumcision will be condemned for alleternity. The state should not compel parents(and children) to endure the moral, psychologicaland ideological turmoil associated with such acompromise; ultra-orthodox Jewish parents willsee the state as forcing infinite harm upon theirchildren. There are risks to giving a child a bike", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "w crime policing religion religion general religionshouse believes male infantThere is always a riskassociated with surgery and taking such a riskfor no particular reason is irresponsible A reportby the Royal Dutch Medical Association notedthat there was not a single medical body in theworld that could point, categorically to a medicalneed for circumcision of infants. It furtherconcluded that “The fact that this practice is notmedically necessary and entails a genuine risk ofcomplications means that extra-stringentrequirements must be established with regard tothis type of information and advice.” Yet this is apractice that is performed around the world bypeople with little or no medical training andaccepted by parents as an instruction fromGod. Studies from the US suggest that around230 baby boys die in America every year as adirect result of hemorrhaging followingcircumcision [i] . [i]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "w crime policing religion religion general religionshouse believes male infantThe precautionaryprinciple is alive and well but risks are inevitablein any procedure. There is no reliable data onfatalities directly related to circumcision. Thecauses of the 10 million or so neonatal deathsthat occur around the world each year are closelylinked to the income and educational level of themother, with diarrhea and malnutrition being theleading causes. By contrast children that areborn with access to modern surgery andinformed parents are likely to do well.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "w crime policing religion religion general religionshouse believes male infantCutting off bit ofchildren’s bodies for no apparent reason issimply wrong If this is simply a matter ofperforming a procedure with no apparent benefitto the patient – in most cases a young child –then it does rather raise the question of “Why”.If the procedure were, say, cutting off a toe oran earlobe then all involved would require a clearand compelling case for such a practice. Thereare grown adults that think that cutting off afinger is the next stage up from getting a tattooor a piercing [i] . At best most people wouldconsider such a practice odd, at worst unstable.However, these are grown adults who have madethe decision to mutilate their bodies forthemselves and as a statement they feelappropriate. Consider society’s reaction if thefingers of unwilling adults were forcibly removed.What about unwilling children? What about thefingers of babies fresh out of the womb? The onlysane response to such an action would be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "w crime policing religion religion general religionshouse believes male infantNeo-natal circumcisionis an operation that has been performed,perhaps, more than any other. It is performedmostly for cultural or religious reasons but thereis also a body of evidence that suggest healthbenefits. There is very little suggestion in anystudy of any harm to the child. In all sorts ofsituations societies allow parents to makedecisions on behalf of their child. In the absenceof proven harm and in the presence of possiblebenefits in terms of health and hygiene there isreally no danger in allowing the parents thisoption. Those problems that can arise from thesurgery are both very rare and as a result offaulty surgery rather than any risks innate withinthe process itself [i] . This is mostly a religiousor cultural decision that has survived withincommunities for thousands of years withouthowls of protest and with no proven harm. In theabsence of a sizable body of opinion calling for itto be ended, why do so? [i] Philip G. Koltz MD.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "w crime policing religion religion general religionshouse believes male infantIn any other situationinvolving minors a precautionary principle wouldbe applied Any risk needs to be justified againstsome benefit. In the absence of anydemonstrable benefit then there is no need totolerate any risk, particularly in the case of anewborn baby who cannot express his opinionone way or another and will not be able to do sofor years to come. The risks of circumcisionhave been repeatedly demonstrated. Thoughthey may be rare, they run from septicemiathrough to blood hemorrhage and heart attacks.There is little research conducted on the longterm effects of the procedure; however there is agrowing body of evidence that a surgicalcomplication rate is about 1 in 500 and thepost-surgical rate of attrition is believed by manyto be higher [i] . [i] Paul M. Fleiss, MD. “TheCase Against Circumcision”. Mothering: TheMagazine of Natural Family Living, Winter 1997,pp. 36--45.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-con03b", "title": "", "text": "w crime policing religion religion general religionshouse believes male infantIt is possible toperform this operation at any time during aperson’s life and there is no compelling need toperform it on extremely young children. Doing soviolates the child’s right to be free from pain.Indeed the deliberate and unnecessary inflictionof pain on a minor in any other circumstancewould be considered abusive, it is clearly illogicalnot to consider it so in this instance. The onlyreason why circumcision is not consideredabusive is that it is so commonplace. However,only a couple of generations ago (and to this dayin many nations) so was the routine use ofphysical punishment in schools, which many nowconsider abusive and repugnant.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-con01b", "title": "", "text": "w crime policing religion religion general religionshouse believes male infantParents do not havethe right to presume their children’s consent forprocedures that are medically unnecessary, as inthe case of circumcision. Ultimately this is achoice that has more to do with culture than withmedical need. The purported benefits are, atbest, questionable and the results areirreversible. The medical benefits of vaccination,by contrast, are undisputed and widelypublicized. In those interests where the balanceof risk is even remotely questioned, as in thecase of the MMR vaccine, there is significantpublic debate and many parents have chosen toavoid the practice all together [i] . [i] Paul M.Fleiss, MD. \"The Case Against Circumcision\".Mothering. Winter 1997", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-con02a", "title": "", "text": "w crime policing religion religion general religionshouse believes male infantA practice that isthousands of years old and has not been foundto cause harm during that time is unlikely tonow Where there compelling evidence frommedical science that a process that predates ithad some proven harm then there might be goodreason to restrict it but that evidence simply isn’tthere. What is known is that circumcisions havebeen performed for millennia without causingwidespread difficulties. In addition, historically,the procedure has been performed incircumstances far less safe than the confines of amodern, well-equipped hospital where it usuallytakes place now, and to no apparent illeffect. Even using the term ‘abuse’ to describesuch a practice shows a lack of respect for thosepeople who are genuinely victims of abuse.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-con03a", "title": "", "text": "w crime policing religion religion general religionshouse believes male infantParents have the rightto use their best judgment, in the light ofmedical advice, as to what is in the best interestof their child There is compelling evidence thatshortly after birth is the best time to perform thisoperation and that the rate of complications atthis age is generally agreed to be between 0.2and 0.4 percent. When performed later in life therisk of complications increases ten-fold tobetween two and four percent. In the light of thisit is appropriate to recognize the rights ofparents to approve a procedure that would beriskier if elected later in life on behalf of theirchild [i] . [i] Michael Benatar. \"How Not to ArgueAbout Circumcision\". The American Journal ofBioethics. 2003", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-con01a", "title": "", "text": "w crime policing religion religion general religionshouse believes male infantThere is no provencause of harm and parents routinely makemedical decisions for children to give theirconsent or otherwise Circumcision is akin, inmany ways, to vaccination; a routine and simpleprocedure with miniscule risks and compellingprobable benefits. We acknowledge the right ofparents to take these decisions on the behalf oftheir children, even if the benefits in question areprimarily cultural and spiritual, and relativistic incharacter. Parents routinely make decisions withfar greater implications for their children’sfutures in terms of their education and generalwelfare on a regular basis and this should reallybe seen as no different [i] . As has beenestablished, even in the most impromptusettings, male circumcision, unlike FGM, runsalmost no risk of causing severe injury orinfection. MGM does not endanger or restrict achild's development, or his ability to living andnormal, fulfilled adult life. Parents make much", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-wcprrgrhbmi-con02b", "title": "", "text": "w crime policing religion religion general religionshouse believes male infantJust because apractice is old doesn’t make it right. In additionto which societies’ attitudes, especially in theWest, have changed radically in relationship tohow we view both the body andchildhood. There is no other area where thephysical violation of a child’s body would betolerated, regardless of how old the process is.Indeed society tends now to reject ancienttraditions as they relate to children, specificallybecause they are archaic, as is the case withcorporal punishment. There is good reason tosuspect that what may have been appropriate,possibly even beneficial, for semi-nomadic deserttribes is of little use in modern society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "church marriage religions society gender familyhouse believes reproductiveIt is undeniably truethat greater investment in public services wouldhelp the poor. It is however, difficult to see howthese two things are mutually exclusive. Indeedthe results of this measure look set toconsiderably increase the chances of aneducation and healthcare for every child.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "church marriage religions society gender familyhouse believes reproductivePoor families wouldbe helped far more by investment in educationand healthcare This has been an urban andpolitical obsession from the outset. The idea thatthe hungry and homeless need condoms morethan food and shelter is clearly absurd. The poorwould be better helped through “accessibleeducation, better hospitals and lessergovernment corruption.” [i] Rather thaninterfering in the moral life of the nation,parliamentarians would be better exercised intackling these concerns. This issue hasconsumed political energy for over a decade andreceived massive national and internationalattention and yet there are far more pressingconcerns for the nation – and its politicalleaders. Instead this bill, which carries themarks of both political and moral corruption hasbeen the main focus of the president andcongress. At the very least this suggests aquestionable sense of priority, at worst a gross", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "church marriage religions society gender familyhouse believes reproductiveIt should beremembered that other values within the 1987constitution include ecological balance and therecognition of the role of women, [i] both ofwhich are advanced by giving women access tobirth control. Pork barrel politics is an all too realtradition of Filipino politics, it is hardly unique tothis bill. The fact that its use lead to theimplementation of a policy that enjoys popularsupport is difficult to square with the somewhatwild claims of the Church about corruption. TheCBCP has also been fairly free on allegations inthis regard but very, very short on proof. Theamount of political pressure required had moreto do with calming fears of the Catholicestablishment intervening directly in electionsthan with the views of the people. [i] Talisayon,Serafin D., ‘Teaching values in the natural andphysical sciences in the Philippines’, University ofthe Philippines,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "church marriage religions society gender familyhouse believes reproductiveThe appropriatesetting for sexual relations is within marriage,contraception encourages pre-marital sex Thepopulation of the Philippines are overwhelminglyCatholic, it seems reasonable to accept thatmany, if not most, accept the teaching of theChurch that safe sex is married sex. Appropriatesexual relations between husband and wife canlead to a fulfilling family life includingchildren. However, freely availablecontraception leads to a rise in premarital sexwith the rises in unwanted pregnancies that goalong with that. In the US, women havingpremarital sex increased from 2% in 1920 to75% in 1999, a period that saw a massiveincrease in the availability of contraception [i] ..This runs against the teaching of the Church,which, itself, is one of the cornerstones of Filipinoculture. The first Mass was celebrated in 1521and by the early 1600s, Catholicism wasunquestionably the countries’ dominant creed [ii]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "church marriage religions society gender familyhouse believes reproductiveIt is simply untrue tosuggest that Catholic hegemony is one and thesame as Filipino values and that the two are – orhave ever been – indistinguishably intertwined.Even where popular support for this very bill notsufficient proof, the very fact that the Filipinoconstitution states quite clearly that there is adivision between the secular and ecclesiasticalshould be enough [i] . [i] Constitution of thePhilippines. Article III (Bill of Rights). SectionFive.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "church marriage religions society gender familyhouse believes reproductiveThe bill violates thePhilippine values of harmony andrespect Perhaps the most important values inthe Philippines are social harmony and respectfor the family. [i] The Reproductive Health billundermines both. Allowing contraception willtake away a psychological barrier that preventspre-marital or casual sex and once that barrier iscrossed the individual will have higher sexualactivity. [ii] In the Philippines this will meangreater numbers of teen pregnancies andpregnancies out of marriage because abortionwill remain illegal. In terms of politics thesevalues mean support for democracy but alsobeing against corruption and graft. [iii] Obviouslythe bill has been very politically divisive soundermining social harmony but also to pass thisbill many parliamentarians had to be bribed soundermining this social harmony. TheReproductive Health bill represents the worstexcesses of the pork barrel buffet. With a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "church marriage religions society gender familyhouse believes reproductiveIt is difficult to seehow the life of anyone is improved by reducingsex to a cheap form of entertainment. Certainlynot the unborn children and not the objectifiedwomen. Proposition is more than happy forwomen to take control of their own fertility –indeed we would go further and suggest thattheir boyfriends and husbands should do so aswell. Recreational sex, within wedlock and duringtimes of infertility removes all of these problems;a little planning and restraint achieves that aim.It also means that both parents need to showthat they are responsible for the results; Opseems happy to say that people areuncontrollable beasts with no control over theirdesires – hardly an edifying concept.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "church marriage religions society gender familyhouse believes reproductiveOpposition haveconveniently glossed over one critical issue inthis debate – that the RH Bill has significantpopular support [i] . It also, as has beendemonstrated that a majority of electedrepresentatives support it. In itself these twofacts provide evidence that modern Filipinos aresick of the fact that around half of the 3.4 millionpregnancies each year are unplanned or theatrocious reality that 90,000 women a year seekthe help of back street abortionists. When manyof these go wrong, they were denied access tomedical care and around 1,000 die each year asa result [ii] . The values for the respect for thelife of the mother, the value of life of the child,respect for the opinions of the majority, respectfor democracy and placing the future ofindividuals and society above the outdatedmythology of the Church would seem to be aliveand well in the decision to pass this bill. [i]Rauhala, Emily, ‘Culture Wars: After a decade of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "church marriage religions society gender familyhouse believes reproductiveThere are clear andproven benefits to the health of the Filipinofamilies, especially women Both sides of thisdebate have spoken about the need to respectthe rights and lives of women. It is, however,difficult to see how exactly opponents of thelegislation reconcile this with their actions.Decades’ worth of research demonstrates thateducational, health and nutritional levels all fallonce a family outgrows its means. In the slumsof Manila that research is unnecessary as it is alltoo apparent at a glance. However the researchis there [i] to provide grisly commentary to thenarrative folding out on thestreets. Investigations on a personal, nationaland global level demonstrate that effectivefamily planning is at the heart of eradicatingpoverty [ii] . When families have less childrenthey are more able to afford better education forthose they do have and have a greater incentiveto do so as they need their child to be able to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "church marriage religions society gender familyhouse believes reproductiveAny body of valuesthat claims to respect the rights of the individualmust recognise the right of a woman tochoose Even the doctrines of the Church acceptsthat pregnancy is not, in and of itself, a virtue –there is no compulsion to maximise the numberof pregnancies; there is simply a disagreementabout how they should be avoided. The Churchrecommends that couples may minimise thechance without ever making it impossiblethrough a chemical or physical barrier. In someparts of the world a pregnancy, even one that isnot planned, is seen as a time for joy – ablessing for the family that will lead to a new andhappy life bringing pleasure to both parents,their society and the child. That ideal is very farfrom the experience of much of the world wherea child is another mouth to feed on impossiblylittle income. For all too much of the world, thatlife will be cruel, nasty and short. In slums,favellas and barren wastes that life is likely to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "church marriage religions society gender familyhouse believes reproductiveThis is a victory fordemocracy – a precious Filipino value - clearmajorities in both houses and in the wider publicsupport it Opposition have conveniently glossedover one critical issue in this debate – that theRH Bill has significant popular support [i] . Italso, as has been demonstrated that a majorityof elected representatives support it. In itselfthese two facts provide evidence that modernFilipinos are sick of the fact that around half ofthe 3.4 million pregnancies each year areunplanned or the atrocious reality that 90,000women a year seek the help of back streetabortionists. When many of these go wrong, theywere denied access to medical care and around1,000 die each year as a result [ii] . The valuesfor the respect for the life of the mother, thevalue of life of the child, respect for the opinionsof the majority, respect for democracy andplacing the future of individuals and societyabove the outdated mythology of the Church", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-cmrsgfhbr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "church marriage religions society gender familyhouse believes reproductiveIt is difficult to seehow the life of anyone is improved by reducingsex to a cheap form of entertainment. Certainlynot the unborn children and not the objectifiedwomen. Proposition is more than happy forwomen to take control of their own fertility –indeed we would go further and suggest thattheir boyfriends and husbands should do so aswell. Recreational sex, within wedlock and duringtimes of infertility removes all of these problems;a little planning and restraint achieves that aim.It also means that both parents need to showthat they are responsible for the results; Opseems happy to say that people areuncontrollable beasts with no control over theirdesires – hardly an edifying concept.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-grcrgshwbr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousIntolerantschools cause more problems for not allowingfreedom of religious expression. In amulticultural society, students should be awareof the different religious practices and culturaltraditions of their classmates, and be taught tounderstand and respect these. Without suchrespect, religious groups with distinctivesymbols, such as Orthodox Jews, Sikhs andChristians, will be driven out of mainstreameducation and forced to educate their childrenseparately.1 As for the worry about safetyissues, particularly concerning hair length, mostclassroom accidents occur when loose, long hairgets caught in machinery or in a flame whichwould not be a problem when hair is held inplace under a headscarf. 1 'Religious Rights andWrongs', The Economist, 4th September 2008,accessed 24th July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-grcrgshwbr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousMuslimwomen are not the only ones to feel a culturaldivision over their mode of dress. Most peopleare affected by the societal norms surroundingthem. Fashion trends could be seen in exactlythe same light as religious traditions. Banninghead coverings is only likely to provoke a moreextreme reaction among highly religiouscommunities1. Framing laws to ban only Islamicforms of dress could be considered an attack onone religion. Feeling under attack could causethe Islamic community to close off into itself.They could set up religious schools where theirchildren can dress as they want them to and notmix with children from other faiths. These effectscould never be good for the integration of societyand would further the influence of extremists.Internationally, the perceived attack on Islamicvalues would inflame wider Muslim opinion, feedconspiracy theories and add to the dangerousfeeling that there is a clash of civilisations. 1", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-grcrgshwbr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousReligioussymbols are not seen as oppressive by thosewho choose to wear them. Many Muslim womenview the veil as a means to protect their modestyand privacy. Just as we would not force anywomen to be seen in public in her underwear ifshe did not feel comfortable doing so, whyshould a woman be forced to show her hair if shedoes not want to? Modesty is a personaljudgement call; some are comfortable in thesmallest bikini while others prefer a lot moreclothing. No one but the woman herself shouldmake that decision. In fact, concerning the banof the veil in Belgium, Muslim women haveimmediately challenged it and regard the ban asdiscriminatory.1 1 'Belgian ban on full veilscomes into force', BBC News Europe, 23rd July2011 , accessed on 23rd July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-grcrgshwbr-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousEventhough the wearing of religious symbols could bea part of that specific religions' culture andpractice, it must be remembered that Westernsociety and culture brands itself as secular and,therefore, should take precedence over clasheswith minority cultural practices. In Britain therehas been controversy over movements to includeSharia Law in the British legal system, which tiesin with this same argument of culture clashesconcerning religious methods.1 Essentially, thequestion arises as to how far is tolerance fordifferent cultural practices detrimental for themaintenance of a secular British culture andstate. 1 Abul Taher, 'Revealed: UK's first officialsharia courts', The Sunday Times, 14thSeptember 2008 , accessed on 23rd July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-grcrgshwbr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousDecidingwhat people can and can’t wear should not bethe responsibility of schools. Enforcement maybe potentially simple but only at the cost ofcreating a conflict between schools and theirMuslim pupils and staff.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-grcrgshwbr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousIt would notbe necessary to ban all religious symbols if onewas banned. Banning religious symbols that areregarded as dangerous, such as the Kirpan,would be very different from banning crucifixesas the justification would be different.1 And ifpeople start asking for other things to bebanned, their cases should be listened to. Someof them may have a point for banning them.However if a symbol poses a risk then it shouldbe banned in order to prevent that risk. 1'Kirpan incident raises questions about courtruling', The Montreal Gazette, 16th September2008 , accessed on 25th July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-grcrgshwbr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousA ban onreligious symbols would not be targeting thewhole religious group. It would highlight theproblems of symbols, such as the veil or Kirpan,within the boundaries of society. At the end ofthe day, full Muslim veils can be used as adisguise and, therefore, could pose a s apotential problem to the general population ofpeople.1 If hundreds were people were killed bysomeone wearing a veil, would people bedefending it then? In this way, it is the same forpeople wearing hoodies nowadays. A fewtearaways and everyone socially brands them ascriminals, or \"chavs.\" This scares people,especially the elderly and as such poses a risknot just to their health, but also to their safety.As a result, the religious symbols such as fullveils should be banned due to safety concerns. 1'Belgian committee votes for full Islamic veilban', BBC News, 31st March 2010 , accessed24th July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-grcrgshwbr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousThat thestate is secular does not diminish the right tofreedom of religion is enshrined in the UNcharter, that all states have signed up to, andconsidered by many to be a basic human right.1Some religions require special diets, othersprayer at specific times. Why shouldn't areligious mode of dress receive as muchprotection as these other aspects of religiousfreedom? Surely equality in society is mostaccurately presented through allowing eachindividual, including their religious beliefs andmodes of expression, to practice their religioustraditions without hindrance. 1 'Declaration OnThe Elimination Of All Forms Of Intolerance AndOf Discrimination Based On Religion Or Belief',1981 Resolution of the UN Charter , accessed on23rd July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-grcrgshwbr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "government religion church religion generalsecularism house would ban religiousSome arguethat religious symbols, particularly those that areclearly seen, are not just for personal benefit.They affect the safety of the society aroundthem. For example, there have been worriesabout how the Muslim full-veil may be used as adisguise for terrorists and how veils make itharder to ascertain someone's identity.Therefore, some symbols at least involve others,maybe even unintentionally, through theuneasiness and suspicion they cause. 1 'TheIslamic Veil Across Europe', BBC News, 15thJune 2010 , accessed on 25th July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-msgfhwbamec-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "marriage society gender family house would banarranged marriages eu countriesDifferentsystems of matrimony can easily co-exist.Arranged marriages encourage family overindividualism, placing emphasis on a moreconsiderate view of relationships that encouragesdevelopment and patience rather than Hollywoodromance. It is however not a rejection of westernvalues to practice arranged marriages. Aspointed out by those who have writtenextensively on arranged marriages, [1] people inthem often have a view of relationships that seestheir spouse as a companion and source ofsupport, but not as their only source ofhappiness. Learning to love a spouse as opposedto being with someone with whom there alreadyexists a romantic interest can mean learning tovalue smaller gestures rather than havingoverblown expectations from a relationship. Thenotion that all marriages have to be based onclichéd and unrealistic notions of love isdelusional and deeply flawed. The fact that so", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-msgfhwbamec-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "marriage society gender family house would banarranged marriages eu countriesIntegration andthe acceptance of Western values areimportant Arranged marriages have not been apart of the cultures of most European countriesfor many years now. Part of the reason for this isbecause ideas about marriage have becomemore progressive, with people accepting thatmen and women of any orientation should beallowed to choose their own partners. This waseven the case during the socially conservativeera of the 1950s, when it was generally acceptedin countries like Britain that people would courtand meet their partners independently of theirparents. [1] Arranged marriages also conform toa view of women in particular which regardsthem as chattel. This does not fit in with the typeof egalitarianism many European countries seekto practice, and thus does not conform toWestern notions of individual rights. [2] It is alsohypocritical to adopt a double-standard withdiaspora communities, turning a blind eye to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-msgfhwbamec-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "marriage society gender family house would banarranged marriages eu countriesDomesticviolence is hardly exclusive to arrangedpartnerships. Surely focusing exclusively onarranged marriages is missing the pointsomewhat. Domestic violence, especially againstwomen, pervades many relationships acrossmany European countries. There are just asmany arranged marriages that are abuse-free,just as is the case with non-arranged marriages.To be logically coherent, the natural conclusionof the proposition’s argument would be to banevery kind of relationship so as to completelyeliminate the risk of domestic violence. One canfind numerous examples to illustrate this. One isthat of Sai Srinivasan and Uma Viswanathan,who were brought together by their families,each with the choice of rejecting the other if theyfelt there was no fit, and have had a happy unionever since. [1] More resources should thereforebe channelled towards addressing violenceagainst women (and men) in relationships of any", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-msgfhwbamec-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "marriage society gender family house would banarranged marriages eu countriesIndividualFreedom Even if marriages are not madeabsolutely mandatory, covert family pressurecan still propel people into unions where they willbe unhappy. This is a form of restricted liberty asthe consequences of people rebelling againstarranged marriages can include being forced toleave home or suffering stigmatisation andreduced contact with family members. Thestigma may also be the other way with the familyfeeling shame when their children reject theirarrangements this in turn can lead to attempts atcompulsion and even some cases like that ofShafilea Ahmed murder for the rejection of themarriage. [1] Clearly there is a thin line betweenarranged and forced marriages. Although thingslike stigmatisation are harder to police thanphysical intimidation or violence, it is only rightthat the state steps in to regulate these harms,giving people the legal mandate to challenge thepractice as well as to discourage relatives from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-msgfhwbamec-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "marriage society gender family house would banarranged marriages eu countriesSuchunderstandings of arranged marriages areinsensitive and misleading. The reality of manyarranged marriages is far from the onepresented here. Often individuals do have a sayin who they marry, and although parents maymake the first move in introducing the potentialbride and groom, many would not insist themarriage go ahead if the two personalities do notsync. [1] Parents often see it as a partnershipbetween themselves and their children to decidewho would be a future suitable spouse, with allsides having a say in thearrangement. Arranged marriages are also acultural norm in many societies, and to imposean outright ban on such an entrenched practicewith so many nuances and variations would be adeeply insulting and ignorant gesture. [1]Acharya Ingrum, Pri, ‘The Reality of ArrangedMarriages’ - (accessed on 21 September 2012)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-msgfhwbamec-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "marriage society gender family house would banarranged marriages eu countriesWomen inarranged marriages in Europe aredisproportionately likely to sufferabuse Arranged marriages are often differentwhen practiced in the home countries of manyimmigrant families in Europe, where womenoften have networks of friends and relatives torely on. The danger with allowing arrangedmarriages to happen in EU countries are that thewomen at the centre are often far morevulnerable, away from their own family,unfamiliar with the local language and fullyreliant on their husband’s family. This makes iteasier for domestic abuses to go undetectedwhich is simply compounding problems ofunderreporting. [1] It is therefore likely thatthere is more domestic violence within arrangedmarriages. [2] This is shown even amongstwomen who still consented to arrangedmarriages but faced abuse from their husbands –such as with the case of Razia Sodagar, whose", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-msgfhwbamec-con03b", "title": "", "text": "marriage society gender family house would banarranged marriages eu countriesWhen the harmspills over into society, the personal becomespublic. Arranged marriages do pose provableharms to the women of diaspora communities inthe European Union. In such situations wherevulnerable individuals are at risk, the state has aright to step in. This is already the case in otherissues linked to inter-marital relations, such asthe criminalisation of rape within marriage inBritain. [1] Although the threats posed byarranged marriages are not always so clear-cut,the fact that within them they contain thepotential for women to be abused and ill-treatedmeans that state intervention is required. Theharm that could arise as a result is that ofcontinued threats to women in African and Asianex-patriot communities across the EU. [1]‘Guideline on rape: in marriage or by a partner,’Rape Crisis - (accessed 23 September 2012)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-msgfhwbamec-con01b", "title": "", "text": "marriage society gender family house would banarranged marriages eu countriesThe new lawscan set a precedent, even if it takes time.Bringing into practice such a law would arguablyhelp send a message that certain practices donot sync with the sorts of societies Europeancountries try to forge – this includes cases ofFemale Genital Mutilation, honour killings andforced marriages. Although the law is likely to behard to police initially, in time it could allow forgreater respect for values about the rights ofindividuals to be adopted by diasporacommunities in Europe. Other countries haveadopted measures that are equally asfar-reaching, such as the banning of wearingreligious symbols in French schools. [1]Countries outside of Europe demand thatex-patriot Europeans within their borders complywith specific laws that arte designed to benefitthe whole nation. It is therefore hardlyunreasonable for EU countries to do thesame. [1] ‘French Scarf Ban Comes into Force,’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-msgfhwbamec-con02a", "title": "", "text": "marriage society gender family house would banarranged marriages eu countriesIt will causeresentment and make certain communities feeltargeted. Arranged marriages are seen as a veryimportant aspect of the identity of lots ofEuro-Asian communities. At a time whentensions between non-Muslims and Muslims inEurope are high enough, for example there wereprotests in London against the film innocence ofMuslims, [1] targeting a practice carried out bymany Muslim families could help extremisttendencies to flare up. It is important not try andcloak laws that are little more than blindintolerance with terms that make them seem likesecular liberalism. Attempting to ban practiceslike wearing the veil in the name of inclusionhave been proven to only inflame tensions, notimprove integration. [2] Banning arrangedmarriages outright would therefore not only beintolerant, but potentially dangerous. [1]Walker, Paul, ‘Anti-US protesters in Londoncondemn controversial film’, guardian.co.uk, 16", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-msgfhwbamec-con03a", "title": "", "text": "marriage society gender family house would banarranged marriages eu countriesThe state shouldnot be allowed to intrude in such personalmatters Matters relating to how individualsconduct themselves in a private and consensualenvironment are arguably not the concern of thestate. This extends to how people get marriedand within which tradition, religion ordenomination. European states are increasinglyallowing non-traditional marriages such as gaymarriages [1] so not allowing arrangedmarriages for those who want them would be aperverse step backwards. Given that arrangedmarriages in themselves do not have any provenharms, and that, as it has already been asserted,the harmful side of arranged marriages, likeforced marriages have already been outlawed,the state cannot keep regulating something withsuch an arbitrary and wide-ranging definitionthat includes so many consenting adults. WereEU states to do this, the harm caused would riskinfringing on the very rights of the people the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-msgfhwbamec-con01a", "title": "", "text": "marriage society gender family house would banarranged marriages eu countriesIt’s impossibleto police such a law. There is simply no feasibleway of enforcing laws against arrangedmarriages, particularly as it is almost guaranteedthat many communities will continue to practicethem regardless. It will be impossible to tellwhether a marriage has been started byarrangement if the community and the coupleare unwilling to go to the police and most will beunwilling to report their own families whenpracticing a cultural tradition. Those who aredeeply dissatisfied and beaten may do so but inthis instance the law already allows divorce andabuse is punishable by the full force of thelaw. Given that forced marriages have alreadybeen outlawed and that it has been establishedthat arranged marriages in themselves cause fewprovable harms, the resources of any police forcewould arguably be wasted on enforcing such alaw; investigations would be very intrusive andlabour intensive. Furthermore, given the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-religion-msgfhwbamec-con02b", "title": "", "text": "marriage society gender family house would banarranged marriages eu countriesYou can extendthat argument to any kind of illiberal practice.The same could easily be said of practices likeFGM. Choosing not to ban certain traditions justbecause they are culturally entrenched could beextended to anything, from slavery to torture.The fact of the matter is that some practicessimply cannot be allowed. There are alreadycases where the police choose not to intervene incases of domestic violence where a south Asianfamily is involved, giving rise to claims that theyfeel to timid to bring the same laws into practicefor fear of infringing upon the cultural practicesof minorities. [1] Furthermore, many writers likePragna Patel [2] have claimed that the moreilliberal elements of communities such as theSouth Asian diaspora are merely fabricationsdesigned to oppress women. It is important notto fall into the trap of condoning practices thathave no place in any society by allowing them toshelter behind the veil of ‘cultural", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorOutright banningthis kind of prejudice does not directly tackle it –it ignores it. A better way for the government totackle derogatory and prejudicial speech is toengage with it in a public forum and reasonablypoint out the flaws and ignorance that itembodies, rather than desperately trying to hideit from public view. In this way, those who arebeing attacked by these websites would feel as ifthe government is actively protecting them andtheir rights and punishing those who haveviolated them, rather than simply closing a fewwebsites and allowing their authors to continuein other ways. This motion does not solve theproblem of prejudice in the way it claims to.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorThe governmenthere may legitimately limit ‘free speech’. Wealready set boundaries on what constitutes ‘freespeech’ within our society. For example, we oftenendorse a ‘balancing act’ [1] an individual mayexpress their beliefs or opinions, but only up tothe point where it does not impede the‘protection of other human rights’ [2] – otherpeoples’ right not to be abused. In this case, ifan individual expresses abuse towards another –especially racism - they may be deemed to beoutside of the boundaries or free speech and canbe punished for it. This motion is simply anextension of this principle; the kinds of siteswhich would be banned are those whichperpetuate hatred or attack other groups insociety, an so already fall outside of theprotection of free speech. The harms that stemfrom these kinds of sites outweigh any potentialharm from limiting speech in a small number ofcases. [1] Hera.org, ‘Freedom of Expression’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorGiven thenumber of people who actually use Facebook [1]and other social networking sites, theseoccurrences were remarkably small [2] . Theseriots cannot be attributed to Facebook; it was themindset of the rioters rather than Facebook itselfwhich provided the raw determination for theseriots to occur. If Facebook had been censored,they may have simply used mobile phones toco-ordinate their actions instead. Censoringthese sites would not prevent such events, andwould anger those who use Facebook tocommunicate with friends [3] and share photos[4] innocently. [1] BBC News, ‘Facebook hits500m user milestone’, 21 July2010, 09/09/11. [2] BBC News, ‘UK Riots:Trouble erupts in English cities’, 10 August2011, on 09/09/11. [3] Santos, Elena, “Theultimate social network”, softonic, on09/09/11. [4] Santos, Elena, “The ultimatesocial network”, softonic, on 09/09/11.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorGovernmentshave a moral duty to protect its citizens fromharmful sites. In recent years, supposedlyinnocent sites such as social networking siteshave been purposely used to harm others.Victims of cyber bullying have even led victims tocommit suicide in extreme cases [1] [2] . Giventhat both physical [3] and psychological [4]damage have occurred through the use of socialnetworking sites, such sites represent a dangerto society as a whole. They have become amedium through which others express prejudice,including racism, towards groups and towardsindividuals [5] . Similarly, if a particularlycountry has a clear religious or cultural majority,it is fair to censor those sites which seek toundermine these principles and can be damagingto a large portion of the population. If we fail totake the measures required to remove thesesites, which would be achieved throughcensorship, the government essentially fails to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorWhile in a tinyminority of cases, such social networking sitescan be used malevolently, they can also be apowerful force for good. For example, manysocial networking pages campaign for the end toissues such as domestic abuse [1] and racism[2] , and Facebook and Twitter were even usedto bring citizens together to clean the streetsafter the riots in the UK in 2011. [3]Furthermore, this motion entails a broader moveto blanket-ban areas of the internet withoutoutlining a clear divide between what would bebanned and what would not. For example, atwhat point would a website which discussesminority religious views be consideredundesirable? Would it be at the expression ofhatred for nationals of that country, in whichcase it might constitute hate speech, or not untilit tended towards promoting action i.e. attackingother groups? Allowing censorship in these areascould feasibly be construed as obstructing the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorAny informationfrom television or newspapers has already beenregulated, so it is not a problem that it may nowappear somewhere on the internet. It is exactlybecause the internet is a forum for freeinformation and expression that so many peopleengage with it; removing this is a dictatorialmove against ordinary citizens who seekinformation without bias and undue censorship.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorEven sites thatappeared innocent have had a devastating effecton society. Some governments, such as theVietnamese government [1] , have already seensufficient cause to ban social networking sitessuch as Facebook. Recently in the UK, manymajor cities witnessed devastation anddestruction as social networking sites were usedto co-ordinate wide-scale riots which rampagedover London, Manchester, Birmingham,Worcestershire, Gloucester, Croydon, Bristol,Liverpool and Nottingham [2] . Rioters contactedeach other through Facebook and blackberryinstant messenger to ensure that they couldcause maximum damage [3] , which resulted inthe destruction of property [4] , physical violencetowards others [5] , and even the deaths ofthree young men [6] . These events prove thatseemingly innocent Internet sites can be used byanybody, even apparently normal citizens, to adevastating effect which has caused harm to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorAs an extensiveform of media, the Internet should be subject toregulation just as other forms of mediaare. Under the status quo, states alreadyregulate other forms of media that could be usedmalevolently. Newspapers and books are subjectto censorship [1] , and mediums such astelevision, film and video receive a higher degreeof regulation [2] because it is widely recognisedthat moving pictures and sound can be moreemotive and powerful than text and photographsor illustrations. The internet has many means ofportraying information and opinion, including filmclips and sound, and almost all the informationfound on television or in newspapers can befound somewhere on the internet [3] , alongsidethe millions of uploads from internet usersthemselves [4] . [1] Foerstel, Herbert N.,‘Banned in the Media’, Publishing Central, on09/09/11 [2] CityTVweb.com, ‘Televisioncensorship’, 27 August 2007, on 09/09/11. [3]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorGovernments areoften obliged to do things that the populationdoesn’t like – raising taxes is an obviousexample. However, it is also recognised thatsometimes the government has to do thesethings in order to represent the long-term, bestinterest of its people – whether or not it is apopular measure at the time.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorWe already frownupon certain forms of speech [1] as we recognisethat it is important to protect groups formprejudice and hatred. Allowing the expression ofhatred does not automatically mean thatordinary people will denounce it as evil; rather, itnormalises hatred and is more likely to beacceptable in the public domain. It also appearsto show implicit acceptance or even support fromthe government when we take no steps toprevent this kind of damaging expression; assuch, the government fails in its duty to ordinarycitizens to protect them and represent their bestinterests. [1] Tatchell, Peter, ‘Hate speech v freespeech’, guardian.co.uk, 10 October 2007, on09/09/11.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorThe Internet is afree domain and cannot becontrolled by thegovernment. Given that the Internet is used asan international [1] and public space [2] , thegovernment has no right over the informationwhich may be presented via the Internet. InWestern liberal democracies, governments areelected on the basis by which they can servetheir own country – how they will create ormaintain laws that pertain specifically to thatnation, and how they will govern the population.The Internet is not country-specific, butinternational and free. As such, no individualgovernment should have a right to theinformation on it. Asserting false authority overthe internet would paint the government asdictatorial and a ‘nanny state’ [3] ,demonstrating a lack of respect for its citizens byassuming that they cannot protect themselves orrecognise the nature of extremist or potentiallyharmful sites and take the individual decision to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorPeople oftenreact poorly to being censored by theirgovernments. In countries that do currentlypractice censorship of Internet information, theircitizens often interpret this as suspicious anddictatorial behaviour. For example, in Chinagrowing discontent with the government’sconstant censorship has led to public outrage [1], and political satire which heavily criticises thegovernment [2] . Censorship can easily be usedmalevolently and is not always in public interest;this motion supports the ignorance of thepopulation by hiding information and the realityof the situation. Therefore the cost of suspicionby the population of the state makes censorshipof any kind less than worthwhile and it is betterto allow individuals to make their ownchoices. [1] Bennett, Isabella, ‘MediaCensorship in China’, Council on ForeignRelations, 7 March 2011, on 09/09/11 [2]Bennett, Isabella, ‘Media Censorship in China’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorCensorship isfundamentally incompatible with the notion offree speech. Censoring particular materialessentially blinds the public to a complete worldview by asserting the patronising view thatordinary citizens simply cannot read extremematerial without recognising the flaws in it. Thismotion assumes that those who have access tomaterial such as religious opinion sites will beinfluenced by it, rather than realising that it ismorally dubious and denouncing it. The best wayto combat prejudice is to expose it as a farce;this cannot be done if it is automatically andunthinkingly censored. Meanwhile, it isparadoxical for a government to assert thegeneral benefits of free speech and then act in acontradictory and hypocritical manner bybanning certain areas of the Internet. Freespeech should not be limited; even if it is anexpression of negativity, it should be publiclydebated and logically criticised, rather than", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ciidfaihwc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "censorship ip internet digital freedoms accessinformation house would censorThe Internet maybe a global resource, but if information on it ishave a detrimental effect upon a particularcountry, it certainly is that government’sresponsibility and right to tackle it. If it affectstheir society and the citizens within it, it affectsthe government and the means by which theycan govern, particularly in relation to socialpolicy. Moreover these websites, and specificallyreligious opinion websites, often seek to ‘recruit’others to their school of thought or even toaction; their purpose is often to gather supportand followers [1] . Therefore there certainly is arisk that these people, who are often veryintelligent and persuasive [2] , might lure othersto them without protection by the government. Itis a very real danger, and needs realprotection. [1] Kiley, Sam, ‘Terrorists ‘MayRecruit On Social Networks’’, SkyNews, 12 July2011, on 09/09/11. [2] Ali, Iftakhar, ‘Terrorism– The Global Menace’, Universal Journal The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-eassgbatj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ent animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorWhat then is the interest of theanimal? If releasing these animals into the wildwould kill them then surely it is humane to putthem down after the experiment. It must also beremembered that the interest of the animal isnot the main and is outweighed by the benefitsto humans. [5]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-eassgbatj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "ent animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorThe laws that restrict animal testingonly allow it where it’s needed. Animal testingisn’t cheap, meaning that if universities and thedrug industry have a good reason to end it ifthey can. If we ban animal testing we won’tknow what it would be able to do in the future.Animal research now has better results thanother ways of doing research. [8]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-eassgbatj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "ent animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorThe right of a human not to beharmed is based not on appearance but on notharming others. Animals don’t participate inthis. Animals won’t stop hunting because of thepain and feelings of other animals. Even if animaltesting were to be abolished people would stilleat meat, and kill animals for other lessworthwhile reasons than animal testing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-eassgbatj-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "ent animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorThere is a moral difference betweenharm for the sake of harming an animal andharm in order to save lives. Lifesaving drugs is avery different purpose to betting or enjoymentthat animal welfare laws are aimed at.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-eassgbatj-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "ent animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorThe decision to test is not basedupon the capacity to suffer. But it should beremembered that the individual being testedwould not be the only one who suffers, for theintellectually disabled we must remember theirfamilies would suffer as well.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-eassgbatj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ent animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorWhen a drug is first tested onhuman volunteers, they are only given a tinyfraction of the amount shown safe to give toprimates showing there is another way, to startwith very low doses. Animal research isn’t areliable indicator of how a drug will work inpeople – even with animal testing, some drugstrials go very wrong [15].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-eassgbatj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "ent animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorTo argue that “the ends justify themeans” isn’t enough. We don’t know how muchanimals suffer, as they can’t talk to us. Wetherefore don’t know how aware they are ofthemselves. In order to stop a moral harm onanimals we don’t understand, we shouldn’t doanimal testing. Even if it were a “net gain”because of the results, by that logic humanexperimentation could be justified. Commonmorality says that isn’t OK, as people shouldn’tbe used to a means to an end. [12]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-eassgbatj-con05b", "title": "", "text": "ent animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorJust because an animal is treatedwell as it is brought up doesn’t stop the very realsuffering during testing. Stricter rules andpainkillers don’t help as the lack of sufferingcannot be guaranteed – if we knew what wouldhappen, we wouldn’t do the experiment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-eassgbatj-con04b", "title": "", "text": "ent animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorNot every country has laws like theEU or the US. In countries with low welfarestandards animal testing is a more attractiveoption. Animal researchers tend to only doanimal research so don’t know about thealternatives. As a result they will use animaltesting unnecessarily not as just a last resort.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-eassgbatj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "ent animals science science general ban animaltesting juniorMany of these drugs are “me too”drugs – ones with a slight change that doesn’tmake much difference to an existing drug. [14]So often the benefits from animal testing aremarginal, and even if there was a slight increasein human suffering, it would be worth it based onthe animal suffering saved.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-cpisydfphwj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinIt is true thata society in which information is widely availableto the public is desirable, but what must berecognized that this argument of “social platformpublicity” encounters two main problems. Firstof all, unless your information is lucky enough togo viral if you really want efficient onlineadvertising you will have to pay for it, even whenit comes to social networks. “When Facebooklaunched its log-out screen ads, reportssuggested it was charging $700,000 for them,but in reality they came bundled with a homagead commitment, too. Buyers say they’re nowselling log-out ads standalone for around$100,000.”(1). As a result, you can hardly callthem “free”. Secondly, online advertising comesmerely as a back-up or as an addition to full-timecampaign ads. No matter what kind of event weare talking about, if it is of general interest, theinformation will be distributed to the population.It will be either promoted by the company itself,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-cpisydfphwj-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinFacebookprovides an information point Undoubtedly, oneof the most important aspects which willinfluence your efforts to improve your life is yourability to take advantage of every opportunitywhich comes up. Obviously, one of the, if notthe, best way to do this is to stay connected withthe world around you, this enables you to beable to quickly find out about job opportunities,sporting competitions or social events in yourarea. Facebook created and developed anefficient, extremely widely visited platform onwhich millions of users can get in touch witheach other. This can prove to be an extremelyuseful tool both for companies or event plannersand direct customers. No matter if we are talkingabout Google's new hiring policy or Toyota's newdiscount, an upcoming music festival or afootball tournament for amateur players,Facebook is informing the individuals about theseevents, keeping them connected with their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-cpisydfphwj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinThere areimmense problems with using Facebook tofacilitate protests in oppressive regimes. Firstly,due to the anonymity of users, it would beextremely easy for government forces todisguise themselves as being protesters and findout future protest locations, thus allowing themto be one step ahead every time to crush theprotest before it starts. Second of all, if all ofthese fail, the government could always shutdown ISPs (Internet Service Providers), exactlyin the way the Egyptian forces did. Their mistakewas that they didn’t shut them down soonenough, but it won’t be repeated by futureoppressive governments as they have the ArabSpring’s example.(1) [1] Surely, it is of greatimportance that people express their opinionsthrough any means possible, even through massprotest. For this reason, over time westernsocieties were shaped to encourage anydiscontented individual to express his or her", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-cpisydfphwj-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinFacebookencourages socialisation One of the most crucialelements in any child's development is the abilityto socialize with peers. By having a large circle offriends to talk to and share interests, the childgains trust, self-esteem and self-confidence. Ifyou have people to talk to when you have aproblem, it is much easier to overcome anyproblems. Facebook and social networks ingeneral help teenagers on multiple levels tomaintain and expand their circle of friends.Firstly, it lets you remain in touch with friendseven if you are very far apart. As we live in anincreasingly globalized world, friend circles tendto be broken up very easily. As a result,individuals need to be able to keep in touch inspite of the physical distance. Facebook enablesthem to do that. (1) Secondly, by allowingpeople with shared opinions, hobbies or intereststo gather, social networks allow users to expandtheir circle of friends, something that is more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-cpisydfphwj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinOn this point,there are two levels of analysis which willdemonstrate that, at the end of the day,Facebook has a detrimental effect on one’s socialabilities. First of all, of course having a lot offriends has numerous advantages and it isundoubtedly beneficial to one’s development, butbeing active on a social network isn’t anindispensable prerequisite for this. As anindividual, you can meet, talk, connect and sharefeelings and emotions in real life with yourfriends without any problems. People nowadaysare not more socially bonded than before theappearance of Facebook and other socialnetworks, because what Facebook did wasmerely shifting the face-to-face socialization toan online version of it. Moreover, you don’t needthe “Rock Fans” group on Facebook in order tomeet new people who are also interested in rockmusic, as you have real rock events and concertswhere you can meet with people with whom you", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-cpisydfphwj-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinFacebook isgood for democracy Social networks aid oursociety on multiple levels, one of them being thedemocratic process. This happens both inautocracies, where the democratic process isbasically nonexistent and in western liberaldemocracies where Facebook acts as amegaphone for the will of the population. Firstly,when talking about oppressive regimes,Facebook allows the population to organizethemselves in massive protests which can, intime, overthrow the government. This is ofparticular importance as the population cannotorganize protests \"offline\" in the real world,because government forces would quickly findthem and stop the protests before they evenstarted. These people need a safe house, wheregovernment intervention is minimized, so thatthey can spread the news and organize theprotests. The online environment is the bestoptions. We have seen this happening in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-cpisydfphwj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinOn this point,it may be true that children who get distractedeasily use Facebook as an excuse not to study,but that doesn’t mean that social networks arethe cause of this phenomenon. These childrentend to use them as social networks are veryaccessible. Almost every single moment you aresurrounded by technology that can connect tosocial networking sites; a smartphone, a laptopor a computer, which you can use to log in onFacebook. Even if it weren’t for these socialnetworks, those kids would likely still be getting20% worse grades than other students, as theywould just find other activities to replace it with.There will be no change in their mentality,perception of learning or process of decisionmaking. If the student is using Facebook at leastthere is a chance they are using it productively,for example, by participating in a Facebookgroup created by a professor for students of aparticular class, then the social network may", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-cpisydfphwj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinFacebookenhances people’s lives and brings numerousadvantages. Facebook provides information andsocial support through the creation of a networkof friends; sometimes this communication willbring them into contact with material that makesthem envious. The need then it to focus on thethings in Facebook that are positive. It is clearthat people prefer a Facebook which isconcentrated around subjects of interest, friends’updates and funny pictures rather than onewhich is constantly reminding them about theirfailures or about their acne. Therefore, users willtry to block any type of harmful information, asgenerally you dislike being reminded aboutthings that make you feel bad about yourself. Atthe end of the day, no matter of user, the accentwill always be on meeting new people, havingfun and making the connection with people thatyou already know stronger rather than searchingfor reasons to be envious on other people. If life", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-cpisydfphwj-con02a", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinFacebook hassome dangerous consequences Facebook isbecoming more and more integrated into ourlives, but unfortunately the uncertainty of who isat the other end of the computer is proving to bea massive threat to our mental and physicalsafety. First of all, undoubtedly, rape is one ofthe most serious and unforgiveable crimesanyone can commit, as it leaves permanentphysical and mental scars on women.Unfortunately, Facebook is used by troubled mento take advantage of naive women. They useFacebook in order to get in touch with theirvictims (often posing as someone who he is not),and after they get to know each other, after hegained the victims trust he deceives her intomeeting him, a mistake she’ll regret forever. Asphysical integrity is one of the rights mostfundamental rights, and as Facebook isfacilitating the violation of this right, it isabsolutely clear that these social networks are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-cpisydfphwj-con03a", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinFacebook hasa negative impact on learning For manystudents, the constant flow of news, statusupdates, pictures and comments which comesthrough Facebook every single hour is proving tobe a very distracting, which not surprisinglyaffects their educational progress. It negativelyimpacts learning. Studies show that studentswho checked in on social networks whilestudying had grades that were 20% lower thanthe grades of those who didn’t.(1) A 20%difference in grades can be the difference frombeing awarded a scholarship at a prestigiousuniversity at being obliged to enrol in thecommunity college, or very easily betweenpassing and failing. Education is one of the mostimportant things in anybody’s life as it greatlyaffects future prospects. Of course socialising isimportant as well but we should try to avoid onenegatively affecting the other. (1) Julie D.Andrews “Is Facebook Good Or Bad For", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-cpisydfphwj-con01a", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinFacebook isbad for life satisfaction Every single day, thereare millions of users sharing photographs,messages and comments across Facebook.Unfortunately, this type of “online socialization”that Facebook has initiated is nothing butdetrimental to the teenagers, the most frequentusers of the platform. The emotion which is mostcommon when staying online is envy. “Endlesslycomparing themselves with peers who havedoctored their photographs, amplified theirachievements and plagiarised their bons motscan leave Facebook’s users more than a littlegreen-eyed.”(1) Not only do they get envious,but they also lose their self esteem. As a result,they have the tendency to be isolated and find itharder to socialize and make new friends due tothe bad impression they have for themselves. Ina poll, 53 per cent of the respondents said thelaunch of social networking sites had changedtheir behaviour - and of those, 51 per cent said", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-cpisydfphwj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinIt is absolutelyregrettable that men use Facebook in order takeadvantage of certain women, but we must notforget that because of these very situationsFacebook and many NGO’s initiated campaignsto prevent these kind of tragedies happeningagain(1). Such campaigns have informedthousands of women about the dangers ofmeeting strangers, both the virtual world and inthe real one, and how to avoid them. Thesecampaigns both help women avoid the threat inthe first place and encourage them to make surethey are protected, for example by carryingpepper spray, so at the end of the day, asignificant number of women are now moreprotected against being rape because of thesesocial networks. Facebook has clearly notincreased the incidence of rape as statistics (2)show that the number of rape cases has droppeddramatically since the start of the world wideweb. Cyber bullying is potentially a problem. On", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-wsihwclscaaw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "warpeace science internet house would considerlarge scale cyber attack act warCyber attacksmight be disruptive, but they do not result indestruction, violence, injury and death the sameway traditional armed aggressions do. For themajority of businesses and citizens, disruptionsto online baking might be very inconvenient, butthey are in no way equal to actual bombings anddeaths. Targeted power grids, if they result inpower outages, is mostly a discomfort in contrastto actual killings and atrocities that happenduring wars. Plus, the infrastructure that reallymatters in a conflict, such as nuclear plants ormilitary weaponry, cannot be hacked as they arenot connected to the internet [13] [14].Developed countries might be very used toamenities and comfort of online services andcomputers, however, a definition of armedconflicts as acts of war is much more universalbecause everywhere a human life is moreimportant than any form of comfort. This is whypeople have a right to life and not a right to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-wsihwclscaaw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "warpeace science internet house would considerlarge scale cyber attack act warCyber attackscan do serious damage to the state Large scalecyber attacks can result in substantial harms tothe state equivalent to those of an armed attack.Many states are dependent on flawlessfunctioning of government and financial servicesonline, and attacking them would cause massdisruption. For example, massive cyber attackscan cause serious disruption to economy bytargeting financial, banking and commercialservices; they can target government websitesand steal confidential information that wouldcompromise country's security, as was the casewith USA in 2007 [10]; they could target powergrids and shut down infrastructure on a massivescale across the country. All these instancescause disruption and leave the targeted countryvulnerable with the government unable tooperate successfully. This way, for instance, alarge scale cyber attack from Russia on Georgia2008 caused massive disruption to government,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-wsihwclscaaw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "warpeace science internet house would considerlarge scale cyber attack act warWhile amodification to international law is needed interms of acknowledging the gravity of cyberattacks, it does not mean that these should beconsidered acts of war. There are many thingsthat states do that other states do not like andeven find harmful, but these things are notconsidered to be equal with acts of war. Insteadthey are things that states need to reachagreements over to control. War is the lastpossible resort in such cases, there are other lessdrastic options such as sanctions to encouragethe hostile state to desist.[27] Moreover, it isnot true that cyber attacks are not condemnedenough. The reason that countries generally donot engage in cyber attacks openly is because offear of international condemnation [16].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-wsihwclscaaw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "warpeace science internet house would considerlarge scale cyber attack act warCyber attacks areno different from traditional attacks The worldhas developed along with the new digitalmedium. Lots of crucial business andgovernment services have moved online. Whilethe military modernised in relation to digitaldevelopments, a definition of an act of war hasnot caught up with it yet. It is now beingsuggested that the digital domain is the newrealm of warfare for the 21st century. Stateshave already been using cyber attacks inhostilities and as acts of aggression against eachother. For instance, USA and Israel havereleased a virus Stuxnet that sabotaged parts ofIran's nuclear programme in 2010, followed byretaliatory cyber attacks by Iran on USA [7]. Inthe 1998 war over Kosovo the USA successfullyhacked Serbia's air defence systems, which leftSerbia vulnerable to air attacks [8] [9]. Cyberattacks are thus attacks that can be perpetratedby states against other states in an effort to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-wsihwclscaaw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "warpeace science internet house would considerlarge scale cyber attack act warAn importantthing about recognising something as an act ofwar is that it allows countries to retaliate. Thisincludes military retaliation that causes humancasualties, and political and economic sanctions,which impose suffering on the civilian population.The crucial difference between armed conflictsand cyber conflicts, is that in cyber attackspeople, military or civilians, do not actually getkilled. However, if we recognise cyber attacks asacts of war, this would allow an attacked state toretaliate with force resulting in human casualties.There is no way one could equate disruption incomputer services to that of loss of human lives,therefore recognising cyber attacks as acts ofwar would be disproportional and unjust.Serbia's example that included human casualtiesfollowing a cyber attack is not relevant as thecyber attack was as a part of a larger militaryattack.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-wsihwclscaaw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "warpeace science internet house would considerlarge scale cyber attack act warCurrently there isno way to legally respond to cyber attacks byother states Currently international law on howa state can respond to cyber attacks by anotherstate is lacking: it only covers cyber attacksduring armed conflicts or those are tantamountto an armed conflict [15]. An attacked state thushas no legitimate means to respond to cyberattacks. This leaves them no option ofself-defence, which is an important element ininternational law. Moreover, without internationallaw regulating cyber warfare between states,there is no actual illegitimacy for cyber attacks.Despite their far-reaching and graveconsequences, cyber attacks by other states donot feature heavily in the news. Few peopleactually know about cyber attacks between USAand Iran, which would be an unimaginablesituation should these states resorted to militaryattacks. This apparent lack of condemnation andattention in the wider society to cyber attacks", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-wsihwclscaaw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "warpeace science internet house would considerlarge scale cyber attack act warA definition ofaggression in traditional warfare is the act thatthreatens sovereignty, territorial integrity orpolitical independence of another state [26] – adefinition which is expected to be used withcyber attacks too. It is highly unlikely to see asmall scale cyber attack corresponding to thisdefinition. For instance, taking down a mediaweb page (as the Syrian Electronic Army did)does not threaten political independence ofanother state in a way that taking down all thegovernment websites, and thus rendering thestate incapable of functioning, does. Recognisingthat a cyber attack can be an act of war, doesnot mean that any cyber attack, will beconsidered such. In practice this same ambiguityis inherent in war – a country might consider it acasus belli if another’s military chases terroristsonto its territory but this would be similarlyambiguous if there were no casualties and it wasnot a direct attack.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-wsihwclscaaw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "warpeace science internet house would considerlarge scale cyber attack act warIn case ofnon-state actors attack, many practitioners ininternational law agree that the state can stillretaliate in self-defence if another state is'unwilling or unable to take effective action' todeal with attacks coming from within theirterritory [19]. This applies to traditional warfare,but the same way it can apply to cyberwarfare. Ifa country is not doing anything, or not doingenough, in order to ensure cyber security andpersecute cyber attackers, then the attackedcountry has a right to take measures againstcyber attackers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-wsihwclscaaw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "warpeace science internet house would considerlarge scale cyber attack act warCyber attacks aredifficult to trace Cyber attacks are very difficultto trace as cyber attackers hide their digitaltracks [20]. Cyber attackers also often launchattacks from poorly protected computers in othercountries, which in no way implicates that thestate was responsible for attacks – for instance,roughly 10% of spam comes from computers inChina, but that is not Chinese spam [21]. Thesituation is different with traditional warfare,where there is evidence of weapons used,uniforms spotted, and reports of witnesses onsite. Of course, we can expect states to lie aboutlaunching cyber attacks, thus China and the USAtrade accusations about responsibility for cyberattacks, but there is no good way to test thetruth. All of this means that an act of war wouldbe judged based on incomplete and misleadinginformation about another state’s involvement,threatening international peace and resulting inthe loss of human life for no good reason.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-wsihwclscaaw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "warpeace science internet house would considerlarge scale cyber attack act warDefinition of alarge scale cyber attack is extremelyvague Armed acts of aggression are a goodmethod of judging if an action is an act of warbecause they result in actual destruction,violence and loss of human life. Cyber attacks,on the other hand, do not and thus there is noobjective way to tell what scale of a cyber attackis enough to constitute an act of war. WhilePentagon claims a cyber attack that is equivalentof damage caused by traditional warfare as astandard, how is it supposed to be applied ifpretty much all of the cyber attacks have beenbloodless [24]? For instance, stealing largeamounts of confidential data from a country is alarge scale cyber attack, and could have animmense economic impact, but it is bloodlessand so how much damage does there need to bebefore it can be a casus belli? It is very difficultto measure the impact of even a very evidentand intense cyber attack, as NATO found out", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-wsihwclscaaw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "warpeace science internet house would considerlarge scale cyber attack act warCyber attacks areoften carried out by non-state actors Cyberattacks are often carried out by non-state actors,such as cyberterrorists or hacktivists (socialactivists who hack), without any involvement ofthe actual state. For instance, in 2007 a massivecyber attack launched on Estonia was blamed onRussia due to the then on-going tensionsbetween these two states [17]. However, theattacks on Estonia were generated from all overthe world; and even those from Russia could nothave been linked to the Russian authorities, whodenied involvement. Similarly, a huge wave ofcyber attacks dubbed GhostNet thatcompromised computers in 103 countries in2009 was blamed on China, not the least forhacking computers of Tibetan authorities.However, it could not be conclusively proven thatthis was an attack perpetrated by the Chineseauthorities [18]. Any retaliation against a statefor a cyber attack can never be certain to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-wsihwclscaaw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "warpeace science internet house would considerlarge scale cyber attack act warIt is unlikely thatstates would freely attack other states whenthere is unclear evidence as to who theperpetrator was. In any country that is going toengage in military action regardless of thereason there is intense public debate this wouldapply all the more if the reason was novel (forinstance, those on interfering against Syria'sAssad's regime), so we can expect publicscrutiny to apply to cyberwarfare aswell. Furthermore, there are also cases whencyber attacks can be traced to a particularcountry hostile country or even particular groupwithin the country. This can happen when thecountry or groups within it themselves admit tothe attack, as the Syrian Electronic Army,sympathetic to Assad's regime, cyber attackingUSA in 2013 [22]. Or through intensiveinvestigation. Tools to track cyber attacks arealso constantly being perfected. For example,IPv6 (the latest version of the internet protocol)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialChild grooming, andhaving a sexual relationship with a minor arealready criminal offences. If that doesn’t stop apotential predator, breaking the ‘facebook law’ inthe process is unlikely to. A teacher who intendsto abuse a child will still find ample opportunityto do so. This law takes a powerful educationaltool from the hands of good teachers while doingvery little to stop bad ones from actinginappropriately.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialElectroniccommunication facilitates sexualmisconduct. Social networking websites haveproven to be particularly effective for childgrooming by pedophiles [1] . Teachers arealready in a position of power and trust in therelationship with their students. Being allowed tocommunicate with students via facebook wouldgreatly facilitate misconduct by a teacher whowants to start an inappropriate relationship witha student, by giving him virtually unlimitedaccess to the students after school. In fact, manysuch relationships do involve some form ofelectronic contact1. By banning this form ofcommunication, the law would make it harder forteachers with bad intentions to carry themthrough. [1] Choo, Kim. “Online child grooming:a literature review on the misuse of socialnetworking sites for grooming children for sexualoffences” Australian Institute of Criminology.2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialEven assuming thechild already knows about the law and thereforethat online contact with their teachers is notallowed, which will often not be the case, a childwill trust the authority figure closest to him. Theteacher can easily convince the child that therule is not that important or that theirrelationship is an exception.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialA teacher-studentrelationship is not one between friends orequals. According to Carol Shakeshaft an expertin sexual misconduct by teachers: “[e]ducatorswho use social media for personal and intimateconversations and contact are not much differentfrom those who spend their time hanging outwith students at the beach. You have to ask whya teacher would do this. The honest answer isthat it rarely has anything to do with studentlearning. [1] ” Interacting with one’s teachersthe same way as with one’s friends, sharingpersonal information, can only erode the respectand distance that a teacher needs in order to bean authority figure and a mentor for her youngcharges. Even if such ‘friendships’ were entirelyinnocent, they would still cast enough suspicionon the teacher-student relationship to putconsiderable strain on the teacher’s role aseducator and their ability to do the job. [1]Shakeshaft, Carol. “Using Social Media to Teach:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialThis law assumes theworst of teachers and frames all teacher-studentinteraction in a negative way. Yet so manyeducators have found contact through socialmedia to be a powerful tool in facilitatinglearning and expanding knowledge. It may bemore appropriate to establish some guidelinesfor how to use such media safely andprofessionally, rather than banning their usealtogether.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialTeachers shouldalways be careful about what they post and howthey portray themselves on the internet, whetherthey are friends with their students or not. Suchpictures might surface even if students don’thave direct access to them. An educator shouldlead by example and someone who is of dubiousmoral character may not be the best-suitedperson to teach at a school in the first place.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialActing as a warningsignal for children at risk. It is very difficult for achild to realize that he is being groomed; theyare unlikely to know the risk1. After all, ateacher is regarded as a trusted adult. But, if thechild is aware that private electronic contactbetween teachers and students is prohibited bylaw, the child will immediately know the teacheris doing something he is not supposed to if heinitiates private electronic contact. This willtherefore act as an effective warning sign to thechild and might prompt the child to tell a parentor another adult about what is going on.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialTeacher’s personal lifemight undermine educational message. Accessto a teacher’s private information and photosmay lead to weakening her position as aneducator. How can a teacher convincingly speakagainst smoking or substance abuse if studentshave access to pictures portraying the teacherthemselves drinking or smoking [1] ? Forexample, a principal from the Bronx, who hadbeen trying to impose a strict dress code at herschool, was branded a ‘hypocrite’ by herstudents when a risqué photo of her was foundon her facebook page [2] . And even if theteacher will be careful not to post anythinginappropriate on her page, a friend oracquaintance might thereby undermining theteacher. A strict separation of personal andprofessional life would prevent such incidentsfrom happening. [1] Preston, Jennifer. ”Rules toStop Pupil and Teacher from Getting too SocialOnline”. The New York Times. 17 December", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-con03b", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialThis shift in the role ofthe teacher from educator to supervisor mayactually negatively affect teachers. What if ateacher sees her students post pictures ofthemselves in inappropriate circumstances,drinking or smoking or scantily clad? What if shediscovers cyber bullying? Does she have anobligation to intervene or contact the parents ofthe children involved? Might that do more harmthan good? What if the teacher fails to act and achild gets hurt? Should the teacher be heldprofessionally or legally responsible for thatfailure? Until clear guidelines are established onwhat exactly the responsibility of teachers wouldbe in such a situation, the supervision of socialmedia use by children should probably be left toparents rather than educators.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-con01b", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialEven if this were agreat educational tool, some kids may not haveaccess to it. Poverty or a parent’s life style choicemight leave kids without access to a computer orthe internet, preventing them from joining intosuch online discussions. This might make themfeel more isolated from their peers and leavethem behind in their work. The classroom is aspace where everyone can be equal and haveequal access to learning. The internet may notprovide equal access and may hinder somestudents as a result. The use of such resourcesmay also be to the detriment of other moretraditional methods. For example the teachermay feel there is less need to explain homeworkif anyone who has difficulties while doing thehomework can simply ask over the internet.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-con02a", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialThe law would violatefreedom of speech and association. Under thislaw a random person who the student has nevermet, even a potential predator, would be allowedto send a message via facebook or twitter. Andyet a teacher doing the same thing, regardless ofthe content of that message, would be instantlycommitting an offence. Every person is allowedto speak to and associate with whomever theychoose. That is a fundamental right that thegovernment is not allowed to take away [1] . Aperson’s status as a teacher should not be anexcuse to violate their rights. [1] Solove, Daniel.“Missouri Bans Teachers from Friending Studentson Social Networking Webistes.” The HuffingtonPost. 02 August 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-con04a", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialThe law would be hardto enforce. It would be difficult to find outwhether a student and teacher have had contactover the internet. If a teacher were having arelationship with a student, and this law was ineffect, both parties would try to conceal it fromothers and from the authorities. There is then aquestion about how the state would find outabout such behaviour. Would the state beallowed to access private facebook accounts,personal computers, or internet service providerrecords to make sure teachers and students arenot communicating with each other? That wouldconstitute a serious intrusion and privacyviolation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-con03a", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialTeachers can beessential in supervising cyberspace. Socialmedia has become the primary way in whichchildren interact with their peers. Theseinteractions are largely unsupervised by anyadult, and yet they have a fundamental impacton the development of the children involved.Adolescents use social networking websites togage peer opinion about themselves which maysubsequently influence identity formation [1] .With so much cyber bullying happening on suchwebsites, and postings of inappropriatebehaviour that may later surface to affect astudent’s chances of getting into college orgetting a job, it would be useful to have ateacher supervise these interactions to makesure no harm comes to the childreninvolved. [1] Pempek, Yermolayeva, andCalvert. ”College students social networkingexperiences on facebook.” Journal of AppliedDevelopmental Pshychology. Vol. 30. 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-con01a", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialSocial media can bepowerful educational resources. Many teachershave been using social media as an extension ofthe classroom, some of them setting updiscussion pages, or allowing students to contactthem about homework or things that they did notunderstand in the classroom, it allows theteachers to provide extra help whenever thestudent needs it. This keeps students interestedand makes learning fun by using a tool that theyare already fond of. The enormous success oftools like ‘The Khan Academy’, which usesyoutube videos to deliver lectures to kids, isproof of that [1] . It also allows even thosestudents who are too shy to speak out in class orask for help, to participate3. Tools like facebookand twitter have the advantage of beingready-made platforms that lend themselves wellto extending classroom discussions throughgroups, pages, pictures, and videos. Not allschools have access to the funding to set up such", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-con04b", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialThe state wouldn’tneed blanket access to teachers’ personalaccounts. If suspicions arose that a teacher werebreaking the law, as with all cyber-laws, thestate could subpoena the information needed asproof. This law would work mainly as a deterrentfor teachers to contact their students via socialmedia. Knowing that they’d be committing anoffence that could result in sanctions or losingtheir job, would be a strong disincentive againstit.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-nsihwbtiss-con02b", "title": "", "text": "n science internet house would ban teachersinteracting students socialSpeech can berestricted in order to protect the vulnerablegroups, like children, from harm. Such a lawdoes not attempt to keep educators fromcommunicating or associating with theirstudents. It merely insures such interactionshappen in an appropriate manner and forum.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceAnti-ballistic missilesystems are a largely unproven technology, andstill have many problems that do not make thema viable option for strategic defense, at least notat present. Furthermore, there is the excessivelyhigh cost of designing and building such asystem, which has been in development for 25years. It has cost billions of dollars over thedecades, including $53 billion between 2004 and2009, the largest single line on the Pentagon’sbudget for those years. For all this, only anunproven system of questionable efficacy hasbeen produced. It would be better to stopthrowing good money after bad trying to developa technology that may never be useful. Also,even if the technology were made effective, thesame technology could be used as acountermeasure by enemy countries against theinterception of their missiles, making the systemeven less effective, if not useless (Sessler, et al.,2000). Furthermore, the system does not protect", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceA strategic missiledefense shield will be an effective defenseagainst ballistic missile attacks targeted at theUnited States and its allies The missile defenseshield the United States intends to build is themost effective and complete ballistic missileshield ever devised. When fully armed with acomplement of anti-ballistic missiles both withinthe United States itself, and in allied nations inEurope, the shield will be virtually impregnableto external missile attack. This means the chanceof a nuclear attack succeeding against it will bevery unlikely, reducing the chance not only of afull-scale nuclear war between the United Statesand another nuclear power, but also againstmissiles fired by rogue states or terrorists, thebiggest threats in terms of actual use of nuclearweapons (The Economist, 2009). Technologicallyspeaking, anti-ballistic missile missiles havedeveloped by leaps and bounds in recent years.The current system being put into operation by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceNuclear capabilityhas historically created more stable internationalrelations between countries, as described in thedoctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).The United States and Russia never engaged oneanother in open conflict during the whole span ofthe Cold War, for example, for fear of setting offa nuclear cataclysm neither could survive (Waltz,1981). MAD breaks down, however, with theadvent of national missile defense systems. Thisis due to the fact that when a state cannotguarantee its second-strike, or even first-strikecapability it becomes vulnerable. Countrieswithout missile defense systems will bedefenseless against those that have them.Furthermore, as the technology is disseminatedand more countries possess missile defensesystems, stability decreases as it will become agamble as to which country can moresuccessfully counteract the offensive anddefensive missile systems of the enemy. Missile", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceAs a matter ofprinciple, every country, including the UnitedStates, has the right to defend itself to the bestof its technological and economic ability Thenation-state is the fundamental building block ofthe international system, and is recognized assuch in all international treaties andorganizations (Mearsheimer, 1993). States arerecognized as having the right to defendthemselves, and this right must extend to thepossession of a strategic national missile defensesystem. The United States has every right todevelop such a system if it will furnish a greatermeasure of defense for its citizens and interests.US military technology is the most advanced andprodigiously financed in the world, which is whyit is generally the United States that stands atthe forefront of new defense and combatsystems. The National Missile Defense programis simply the newest tool in the arsenal of theworld’s greatest military, whose purpose is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceIt is not alwayswithin the right of a state to develop weaponsand technology, since international treaties ban,for example, the development of chemical andnuclear weapons. Furthermore, when thedevelopment of weapons will be detrimental tothe state that builds them, it is in their interestno to do so. In the case of national missiledefense, the United States is angering severalcountries, particularly Russia, and potentiallyupsetting the balance of mutually assureddestruction (Harding, 2007). Clearly more than aright to self-defense must be considered whendeveloping new kinds of armament.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceConventional war isa nasty thing, and can be just as destructive asnuclear war, if not as immediate. The threat ofwar is only increased with the breaking down ofMAD, as countries will be able to engage oneanother without fear of the existential threat ofnuclear holocaust. Furthermore, if manycountries have access to missile defense systemsthey will likely be able to employcountermeasures against their enemies’systems, bringing the chance of nuclear weaponsdeployment back to the fore.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceA robust missiledefense shield will provide the protectionpreviously afforded by the doctrine of MutuallyAssured Destruction, allowing the US todismantle much of its dangerous nucleararsenal With a fully functioning missile defenseshield deployed, nuclear-armed ballistic missilesbecome obsolete, unable to ever reach theirtargets. This means countries’ strategicobsession with second-strike capacity, the abilityto return fire with nuclear weapons should theybe attacked by them (Mutually AssuredDestruction), will cease to be an issue, asfirst-strikes are destined to be wiped out beforethey hit a single target. What this means is thatcountries with missile defense systems can feelsecure without the need of retaining massivenuclear arsenals. This will alleviate the pressureto have stockpiles of warheads and will promotedisarmament. Mutually Assured Destruction hasbecome a far less secure strategy as nuclear", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceStrategic missiledefense technology is substantially moreadvanced and discriminating in application thannuclear weapons, making potential future warsless potentially devastating An operationalnational missile defense system renders nuclearweapons, and intercontinental ballistic missilesgenerally, obsolete. When a country can shootdown all enemy missiles, those weapons losetheir power. The future of war, once countrieshave access to the technology to build missileshields, will no longer be marked by fingers heldover the proverbial red button. Rather, theincentive for conflict between states armed witheffective missile defenses will be to seekdiplomatic solutions to problems. The technologywill likely be in the hands of many nations verysoon, as the United States has already providedthe technology to Japan and Australia, and willbe building defense batteries in Romania from2015 (McMichael, 2009). Furthermore, even", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceWhile missiledefense technology still has problems that needto be worked out, its future is very promising.The most recent technology, Aegis, is far moreeffective in testing than its predecessors and hasbeen deployed on a number of Navy warshipsand in Japan and Australia (McMichael, 2009).The technology will with time become extremelyeffective at stopping enemy missiles. In a worldwith more and more countries developingnuclear weapons, many who oppose the UnitedStates and its allies, it is imperative that theUnited States has an effective defense againstthem. A missile defense system is the mostpromising such defense.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceMAD is not aneffective means of maintaining world security. Itrelies upon states being too afraid to ever attackone another with nuclear weapons, but the riskof one doing so remains, irrespective of thedoctrine. In terms of deterring conventionalwarfare, that assumes that the state beingattacked would chose mutual destruction overpotential, transitory subjugation. MAD has toomany inherent risks and raises the very realchance, as weapons amass and proliferate, oftheir being used (Sagan, 1993). National missiledefense systems provide a very real defenseagainst not only full-scale attacks by otherstates, but against nuclear-capable rogue states,such as North Korea, which is seeking to developintercontinental ballistic missile technology of itsown. Should North Korea ever be able to attackthe United States or its allies with nuclearweapons, the world will need the ability tocounter it. National missile defense is simply a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceThe politicalconsequences of the system make the world lesssafe Many countries look upon the nationalmissile defense program of the United States asa serious threat to their security. Russia standsat the forefront of this group, and has for severalyears actively opposed the development of ananti-ballistic missile technology. If the program isa success and only the United States and itsclose strategic allies possess the ability todevelop such defenses, they will have a markedadvantage over all other countries in terms offighting ability, as the United States would beable to use its own ballistic missiles to intimidateand attack its opponents while being effectivelyimmune to retaliation. Fears over thedevelopment of the system have led Russia tomake extremely threatening postures on itsEuropean border; when the United Statesplanned to deploy a battery of interceptormissiles in Poland in 2008, Russia responded by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceThe system is anincredibly expensive venture that may not evenwork Research and development of effectivestrategic defense systems has been ongoingsince the Reagan administration, to little lastingbenefit. The US government has spent hundredsof billions of dollars in the past two decades ondeveloping missile defense technology, includingnearly $60 billion in the past five years, and stillit is incomplete and its effectivenessquestionable. Many scientists have attested tothe ineffectiveness of missile defense, as itcurrently stands. It is very difficult to hit a flyingmissile with another missile, and test-runs of thetechnology have been patchy at best (Sessler et.al., 2000). The dream of an effective missiledefense shield that can successfully interceptenemy intercontinental ballistic missiles has yetto come to fruition. It would be better to stopthrowing good money after bad and to fold upthe project entirely.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceMutually AssuredDestruction breaks down when national missiledefense systems are introduced, destabilizingworld security: Nuclear weapons create stability,as described in the doctrine of Mutually AssuredDestruction (MAD). Countries with nuclearweapons have no incentive to engage in openmilitary conflict with one another; all recognizethat they will suffer destruction if they choosethe path of war (Waltz, 1981). If countries havenuclear weapons, fighting simply becomes toocostly. This serves to defuse conflicts, andreduce the likelihood of the outbreak of war.When states have nuclear weapons they cannotfight, making the world a more peaceful place.Furthermore, armed with a nuclear deterrent, allstates become equal in terms of ability to doharm to one another (Jervis, 2001). If a largestate attempts to intimidate or to invade asmaller neighbor, it will be unable to effectivelysubdue it, since the small state will have the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-dssghsdmd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "defence science science general house supportsdevelopment missile defenceThe United Stateshas rarely bent the knee to internationalpressure with regard to issues directly affectingits security, nor should it. Not only does theUnited States have a right, as do all states, todefend itself against any potential foreignaggression, it is also the primary purveyor of thepublic good of international security, policing thesea lanes and serving as the United Nations’primary peacekeeper (Brooks and Wohlforth,2008). This role places the United States inparticular danger because it means it oftencontends with, and gains the enmity of, some ofthe most dangerous groups in the world. NorthKorea, for example, has been at odds with theUnited States for many years. Furthermore, theUnited States’ development of a missile defenseshield has allowed it to feel safer. It is thus morewilling to engage in dialogue concerning andimplementation of nuclear arms reductionprograms, as occurred with the recent New", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ascidfakhba-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allThere aremany ways to correct for the dearth of someworks on the market such as orphan works. Bysimplifying copyright law, reducing lengths ofcopyright and more robust searches for legalprovenance can all help correct for the shortfallswithout eroding an important part of law andmaterial rights. Or indeed the law might berevised simply to free works that have unclearownership from copyright by default. Creatorsshould retain, no matter how annoying it may beto would-be enjoyers of their work, control overtheir artistic output. Artists’ creations arefundamentally their own, not the property of thestate or society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ascidfakhba-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allChoosing torelease one’s work into the viral market may bea shrewd business and artistic move, or it mightnot. All of this depends on the individual artistand the individual work. Nine Inch Nails both hasthe money that they can afford to take the riskand the name recognition that means they canbe sure some fans will purchase the music, thisis not the case with most artists. Thus thedecision can really only be made effectively andfairly by the artists themselves. Trying to usurpthat choice through a state mandate only servesto undermine the artist’s creative vision of howhe or she wishes to portray and distribute theirwork to the world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ascidfakhba-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allAlthoughideas are not tangible intellectual propertygenerally, and copyright in particular, is far froma fiction. Rather it is a realization of the hardwork and demiurgic force that sparks thegeneration and fulfilment of artistic endeavour.The property right assigned over these things totheir creators is a very real one that recognizestheir fundamental right over these works asowners, and the right to profit from them. Theartist must have the right to prevent evennon-commercial use of the idea if it is tomaintain its value and so retain for the creatorthe ability to commercialise it. These protectionsare critical to the moral understanding of allproperty and must be rigorously protected, noteroded for the benefit of some nebulous notionof social good.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ascidfakhba-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allIt may becostly and sometimes ineffective to policecopyright, but that does not make them any lessof a right worth protecting. If artists or firms feelthat they might benefit from fighting infringers oftheir rights, they should have the right to do so,not simply be expected to roll over and give in tothe pirates and law breakers. The state likewise,has an obligation to protect the rights, physicaland intangible, of its citizens and cannot give upon them simply because they prove difficult andcostly to enforce. Furthermore, the ensuringhealth of the economy is a primary duty of thestate and this means aiding its domesticbusinesses and one of the ways it does that is byacting to enforce copyright both internally and ifpossible externally.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ascidfakhba-con03b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allFew artistsever see much profit from their work anyway,many choosing the life of bohemian squalor inorder to keep producing art rather than taking upmore profitable pursuits. Vincent van Gogh soldalmost nothing, but his drive to create neverabated. No doubt the true artists will continue tofeel the urge to create under this policy, and theloss of a few marginal cases must be weighedagainst the massive losses to art in general, suchas the huge curtailment of exploration of andresponse to existing works, which are oftenartistically meritorious in their own right, andalso the rendering unavailable of much of theartistic output of the world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ascidfakhba-con01b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allPeopledeserve recompense for their work, but thestifling force of current copyright prevents theproper sharing and expansion of the artisticcanon, to the intellectual and spiritualimpoverishment of all. Creative commonslicenses strike an important balance, by leavingartists with the power over commercial uses oftheir work, including selling it themselves, whilepermitting it to permeate the public spherethrough non-commercial channels. This is thebest way to weigh these competing needs in acomplex society. It is not preventing the creatorfrom profiting from his work. It is not a totalabrogation of people’s rights, but a giving over ofsome rights for the benefit of all.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ascidfakhba-con04b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allArtists rarelymake all that much money in the first place, anda great many only work as an artist part time.More importantly, they can still profit from theirart, since they retain exclusive commercial rightsto their work. Oftentimes they will actuallybenefit from operation under a creativecommons license because it provides widerdispersal of their work, which builds a broadername and market for their work.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-ascidfakhba-con02b", "title": "", "text": "arts science censorship ip digital freedomsaccess knowledge house believes allUponentering the public arena works of art take oncharacters of their own, often far different thantheir original creators did, or could have,imagined. The art is consumed, absorbed, andreimagined and takes on its own identity that theartist cannot claim full ownership over. It isimportant that art as a whole be able to thrive insociety, but this is only possible when artists areable to make use of, and actively reinterpret andutilize existing works. That art does, due to itsorigination belong more to the people, whoshould have access, even if the artist, likeBeckett has bizarrely rigorous feelings about thework.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-sghwbdgmo-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "science general house would ban developmentgenetically modified organismsThe fears aboutGM food have been nothing more than a mediaspin. The media have created a story aboutnothing due to headlines such as 'Frankenfood'.Simply because people are scared they assertthat there are not enough testing of the benefitsof GM foods. The proposition is mainly fallinginto a media trap because at the moment allreasonable precautions are being taken forensured safety. There is no reason why manydifferent strains of GM crops cannot be producedand planted - where this is not happening atpresent, it should be. However, the need formany different strains is not an argumentagainst some or all of those being GM. Adding orremoving genes from natural varieties does notmake the rest of their DNA identical.Furthermore, there is no concrete scientificevidence of what harm is done by the spreadingof GM pollen. [1] All these effects are consideredwhen a genetically modified crop is to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-sghwbdgmo-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "science general house would ban developmentgenetically modified organismsGeneticallymodified food is a danger to eco-systems. GMfoods also present a danger to the environment.The use of these crops is causing fewer strains tobe planted. In a traditional ecosystem based on100 varieties of rice, a disease wiping out onestrain is not too much of a problem. However, ifjust two strains are planted (as now occurs) andone is wiped out the result is catastrophic. Inaddition, removing certain varieties of cropscauses organisms, which feed on these crops, tobe wiped out as well, such as the butterflypopulation decimated by a recent Monsanto fieldtrial. [1] This supports the concerns that GMplants or transgenes can escape into theenvironment and that the impacts ofbroad-spectrum herbicides used with theherbicide tolerant GM crops on the countrysideecosystems have consequences. One of theimpacts was that the Bacillus Thuringiensis toxinwas produced by Bt crops (GMOs) on no-target", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-sghwbdgmo-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "science general house would ban developmentgenetically modified organismsThe immoralbehavior of some people towards this technologyis not a reason to ban it unless it can be shownthat more harm than good is caused. Thisresearch is important to deal with global climatechange which is reducing the landmass of theearth that can grow food, whilst the globalpopulation is rising. Regulation may be betterthan outright banning, as we do with manyaspects of business. For example gene patentingand the discovery of new genes is an area verysimilar to genetically modified foods. In the USgene patenting is allowed and when the companyMyriad Genetics found the gene BRCA1 andBRCA2 (connected with breast cancer) and madetoo many restrictions on the use of it (so it hurtpeople in general), the court stepped in andallowed others to use it, gave them more rightsover the “patented product”. [1] With this wesee, that there can always be regulation ofproducts if a company attempts to profit out of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-sghwbdgmo-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "science general house would ban developmentgenetically modified organismsGeneticallymodified food is too new and little researched tobe allowed for public use. There are twoproblems associated with scientifically testing theimpact of genetically modifying food. The first isthat 'Peer review' (the checking of scientific testresults by fellow scientists) is often madeimpossible by the unwillingness of biotechnologycompanies to give up their results for review.[1] Furthermore, government agencies are oftenunwilling to stop GM foodstuffs reaching the shelfbecause of the clout that the companies havewith their government. So in regards toresearch, there have not yet been unbiasedfindings showing that GMO crops are safe. It istrue, that in the US, there have been no adverseconsequences from over 500 field releases in theUnited States. U.S. Department of Agriculture(USDA) evaluated in 1993 data on geneticallymodified organisms regarding safety claims. TheUnion of Concerned Scientists (UCS) believes", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-sghwbdgmo-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "science general house would ban developmentgenetically modified organismsThis debateshould be decided on the basis of hard facts, notwoolly assertions and environmental sentiment.Until scientific tests show there to be some realrisk of harm from farming and eating GM foodthere is no case for a ban or a moratorium. Notonly is genetically modification well understoodbut extensive testing is applied to every new GMfoodstuff before it is placed on the market. TheEuropean Food Safety Authority explains thattests of GMOs include a comparative assessmentbetween the GMO and its non-GMO counterpartand there is a case by case evaluation of everysingle GMO entering the market – however,because products are so different there is no “bythe book” procedure for testing. [1] ResearcherNina Fedoroff from the Penn State Universityexplains: “Genetically modified foods are as safeto eat as foods made from plants modified bymore traditional methods of plant breeding. Infact, they are very probably safer, simply", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-sghwbdgmo-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "science general house would ban developmentgenetically modified organismsGMOs wouldcreate too much dependency on biotechnologycompanies The legislative framework andhistorical behavior governing and guiding theoperation of big business is geared towardsmaximizing shareholder returns. This propensityhas been demonstrated time and again andmight suggest that the GM companies are notmodifying the food in the interests of betterhealth, but of better profit. This is reinforced bythe nature of many of the GM modifications,including terminator seeds (infertile seedrequiring a re-purchase of seed stock eachseason), various forms of pest and herbicideresistance potentially leading to pests (andweeds) resistant to the current crop of chemicaldefenses. One of the more disturbingmanifestations of this is the licensing of genesthat are naturally occurring and suing those whodare to grow them, even if they are therebecause of cross contamination by wind-blown", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-sghwbdgmo-con01b", "title": "", "text": "science general house would ban developmentgenetically modified organismsGeneticmodification is unnatural. There is a fundamentaldifference between modification via selectivebreeding and genetic engineering techniques.The former occurs over thousands of years andso the genes are changed much more gradually.Genetic modification will supposedly delivermuch but we have not had the time to assess thelong-term consequences. [1] A recent study bythe Soil Association actually proves that many ofthe promises companies gave were false. GMcrops did not increase yield. Another example isa frost-resistant cotton plant that ended up notripening. [2] GMOs do not reliably produce thebenefits desired because we do not know thelong term effects of utilizing them. Given therisks, we should seek to ban them. [1] PusztaiA., Genetically modified foods: Are they a risk toHuman/Animal Health ?, published June 2001, ,accessed 09/02/2011 [2] University of Alberta,Genetic Ethics Lecture, published Fall 2008, ,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-sghwbdgmo-con02a", "title": "", "text": "science general house would ban developmentgenetically modified organismsGeneticallymodified organisms can solve the problem offood supply in the developing world. Thepossible benefits from GM food are enormous.Modifications which render plants less vulnerablefrom pests lead to less pesticide use, which isbetter for the environment. Other modificationslead to higher crop yield, which leads to lowerfood prices for all. However, This technologyreally comes into its own in developing countries.Here where water is at a shortage, modifications(which lead crops to needing less water), are ofvital importance. The World Health Organizationpredicts that vitamin A deficiency, with the useof GMOs, could be wiped out rapidly in themodern world. The scientists developed thestrain of rice, called “golden rice”, whichproduces more beta-carotene and this wayproduces 20 times more vitamins than otherstrains, creating a cure for childhood blindness indeveloping countries. [1] The fact that it has not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-sghwbdgmo-con03a", "title": "", "text": "science general house would ban developmentgenetically modified organismsGeneticallymodified organisms will prevent starvation dueto global climate changes. The temperature ofthe earth is rising, and the rate of increase isitself increasing. As this continues, foods thatgrow now will not be acclimatized to the hotterconditions. Evolution takes many years and wesimply do not have the time to starve while wewait for this to occur. Whilst there may be a vastsupply of food now, we need to look to the futureand how our current crops will withstand ourchanging environment. We can improve our foodsupply for the future if we invest in GM cropsnow. These crops can be made specifically todeal with the hotter conditions. Moreover,Rodomiro Ortiz, director of resource mobilizationat the International Maize and WheatImprovement Centre in Mexico, is currentlyconducting trials with GM crops to get them togrow is drought conditions. [1] This has alreadyin 2007 been implemented by Monsanto in South", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-sghwbdgmo-con01a", "title": "", "text": "science general house would ban developmentgenetically modified organismsGeneticallymodified food is no different from any otherscientific advance, thus should be legal touse. Genetic modification is entirely natural. Theprocess of crop cultivation by selective breeding,which has been performed by farmers forthousands of years, leads to exactly the samekind of changes in DNA as modern modificationtechniques do. Current techniques are just fasterand more selective. In fact, given two strands ofDNA, created from the same original strand, oneby selective breeding and one by modernmodification techniques it is impossible to tellwhich is which. The changes caused by selectivebreeding have been just as radical as currentmodifications. Wheat, for example, wascultivated, through selective breeding, from analmost no-yield rice-type crop into thesuper-crop it is today. [1] [1] Trewas A. andLeaver C., How Nature itself uses geneticmodification,Published January 6 2000,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-science-sghwbdgmo-con02b", "title": "", "text": "science general house would ban developmentgenetically modified organismsGM food will donothing to help solve the problems in developingcountries. The problem there is not one of foodproduction but of an inability to distribute thefood (due to wars, for example), the growing andselling of cash crops rather than staple crops topay off the national debt and desertificationleading to completely infertile land. Bob Watson,the chief scientist at the Department forEnvironment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), hasstated that GM technology is oversold. Theproblem is not that there is not enough food, butthat the food that is available is not beingdistributed. “Today the amount of food availableper capita has never been higher, how costs arestill low, and yet still around 900m people go tobed hungry every night” [1] . Instead of moneybeing invested into genetic modification, whatshould be looked at is which areas allow food togo to waste and which areas need food, and thena redistribution needs to occur. Better transport", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tsmihwurpp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "terrorism society minorities inequality housewould use racial profiling partIt is incrediblyunlikely that any randomly selected member of aparticular group would be attempting to commita crime. Racial, ethnic and identity groups areextremely large. Terrorist organisations, even alQaeda, rarely contain more than a few hundredmembers. The relative proportion of individualsbelonging to any particular identity group whoalso belongs to a terrorist organisation is likely tobe impossibly small. The impact of theperceptions of the communities involved,however, would be significant, allowing foraccusations of racism andpersecution. Statistically, profiling would havevery little impact: in 2005, US Airlines carried745.7 million passengers. [i] Faced with figureslike that random stoppages make far moresense. Although exact figures are not availableeven if just two or three million fell within theprofile group, it would be impossible to search allof them. The use of profiling, however, as a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tsmihwurpp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "terrorism society minorities inequality housewould use racial profiling partProfiling wouldhave caught many of the perpetrators ofterrorism in recent years. Profiling takes accountof many more characteristics than an individual’sethnicity. Targeted checks would have caught,for example, the so called Christmas DayBomber. Individuals who pay in cash for a oneway flight while carrying no luggage, as UmarFarouk Abdulmutallab [i] did, are a fairly smallgroup and it makes sense to targetthem. Profiling is a great deal more subtle thana decision to target a single ethnic group. It isentirely possible to identify patterns in thebehaviour of terrorists, drug mules andsmugglers, and to respond to thataccordingly. Obviously, the more refined theprofile can be, the better. It is incredibly unlikelythat an affluent, Caucasian businessman with areturn ticket for the following day is either asuicide bomber or a drug smuggler. Bothcommon sense and statistics show this to be the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tsmihwurpp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "terrorism society minorities inequality housewould use racial profiling partThe scale of flightsin Israel- both domestic and international- istiny. Compared with the North American andEuropean aviation markets, screeningpassengers entering and leaving Israeli territoryrequires an entirely different approach. Equallythe racial diversity of Tel Aviv is quite different toNew York and London. The Pew Research Centreestimates that there are 2.6 million Muslimsliving in the US [i] , a number equal to twice thepopulation of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv combined.The pressures on airports between a small statein the Middle East and the transportation hubs ofthe US and Europe are totally different. The veryaccount cited by Proposition talks about somepassengers being interviewed for up to half anhour, that is a rather different prospect whendealing with JFK or Heathrow. It is just not apractical solution. [i] “The future of the globalmuslim population”. Pew Forum on Religion andPublic Life, January 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tsmihwurpp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "terrorism society minorities inequality housewould use racial profiling partWhen you knowterrorists are likely to be members of particularnational and ethnic groups, it is simply morepractical to focus searches on those groups. Thereality is that all of the major terrorist attacksagainst Western targets in recent years havebeen perpetrated by young, Muslim men. Itdoesn’t require any prejudice at all to realise thatthey are the most sensible group to check andrecheck. Although it is important to respectpeople’s rights and liberties regardless ofethnicity or religious belief, a sensible securitypolicy must force police officers and securityofficials to make decisions based on factualinformation. Everybody- including mostmembers of the groups identified by profiling-has an interest in not being blown up on anaeroplane. They will, therefore, accept that thisis a regrettable necessity. Airport staff can onlystop so many people and it makes sense totarget groups that terrorists are likely to be part", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tsmihwurpp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "terrorism society minorities inequality housewould use racial profiling partThe presumption ofinnocence is a principle worth defending and animportant part of this is rejecting policingstrategies that assume certain groups are morelikely to be engage in criminal activity thanothers. In the last ten years, a few dozen people,at most, have been involved in terrorist acts atairports. Meanwhile, millions upon millions ofyoung, Muslim men have flown across continentsand oceans without the slightest disruption. It isboth unfair and foolish to target a single groupas being more likely to contain terrorists. Itbuilds resentment among the group concernedand is unlikely to reveal any practical resultsbecause of the numbers concerned.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tsmihwurpp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "terrorism society minorities inequality housewould use racial profiling partThe experience ofIsrael proves that profiling works Israel hasbeen using profiling for decades to identify thoseindividuals at airports that should be stopped,questioned and have their luggage thoroughlychecked [i] . Despite the massive threats thatIsrael faces, the Israeli state does not feel theneed to invade the privacy of most passengersbecause they simply know what and who theyare looking for. This approach has meant that,despite high odds, hijackings and bombings arenot the routine affairs on El Al flights that onemight expect it to be. As the focus for terroristatrocities has now become the US and the UK, itsimply makes sense to follow the example of anation that has been such a target since itscreation. [i] “Exposing hostile intent”.SecuritySolutions.com.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tsmihwurpp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "terrorism society minorities inequality housewould use racial profiling partThis oppositionargument is potentially contradictory. It arguesthat the majority of Muslims are reasonablepeople and then, on the other hand, that themoment reasonable security measures are putinto place there will be a massive increase inradicalised young people willing to act as suicidebombers. Everybody accepts that securitychecks are necessary at airports and for themost part they are applied universally. However,if opposition is correct, it would seem absurd tosuggest that millions of reasonable people wouldsuddenly take affront at the simple fact that theyhappen to be part of a social group that has anunusually high number of rogue elements.Indeed, suggesting such a thing could beconstrued as a racist act; implying that thepeople concerned are in some way incapable ofreaching this regrettable, if logical, conclusion.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tsmihwurpp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "terrorism society minorities inequality housewould use racial profiling partThe use of the term“racism” suggests that assumptions made byscreeners are based on prejudice, not fact.Profiling, which takes far more than race intoaccount, has a solid basis in fact. It is entirelysensible to attempt to prevent criminal acts bybeing particularly cautious in the investigation ofthose groups and individuals that are most likelyto pose a risk to other passengers. Risking thelives of innocent passengers in the name ofpolitical correctness is simply absurd. These aremeasures that protect the security of thousandsof passengers at the cost of minor inconvenienceto a few. Any reasonable traveller- Arab or not-would accept that there is a reason for theseactions in the same way that passengers realisethat delays caused by security controls andpassport checks are an unavoidable nuisance inan era of routine international travel.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tsmihwurpp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "terrorism society minorities inequality housewould use racial profiling partRandomly checkingpassengers’ identities is much safer thanallowing terrorists to know in advance who theauthorities are seeking. Making statements inadvance as to who is likely to be stopped atairports is the most dangerous action anygovernment could take. There are innumerableways in which it would be possible to perform aterrorist act, and random checks mean that allpossible routes are equally likely to beapprehended. By contrast, actively and visiblysubjecting members of particular ethnic groupsto stricter security checks will enable terrorists todetermine where surveillance in airports is at itsmost lax. The most dangerous terrorist groupsoperate on an international level, recruitingattackers from a wide range of backgrounds andethnic groups. It would therefore becomparatively easy for an organisation such as alQaeda to mount an attack using only individualswho do not conform to the authorities’ profile of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tsmihwurpp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "terrorism society minorities inequality housewould use racial profiling partProfilingexacerbates terrorism as it reinforces theperception that Muslims and marginalised ethnicgroups face prejudice. The reality is that if aplane can be held up with a box-cutter, a brokenglass bottle from duty free or flammable alcoholfrom the same source could be just asthreatening. However, increased use of airmarshals- armed plainclothes police officers whotravel secretly on certain flights- means thateven these desperate tactics are likely to beineffectual. Institutionalising prejudice andassumption will add legitimacy and grativas toterrorist propaganda that seeks to radicalisecurious or confused young people. Not only isprofiling ineffectual, it is likely to exacerbate thesituation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tsmihwurpp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "terrorism society minorities inequality housewould use racial profiling partProfiling is simplyinstitutionalizing racism an reduces minorities tothe status of second class citizens Profiling is, inthe end, simply wrong. Britain suffered fordecades from the ‘innocent until proven Irish’attitude of their security forces, which didnothing but engender resentment among Irishindividuals who were trying to live and work inthe United Kingdom. For western nations tomake the same mistake in their approach toMuslims would be the gravest folly. Aviationauthorities are, ultimately, under the control ofthe state, and if a government announces thatthey consider all members of a group to bepotential criminals, it sends out a veryprovocative message.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tsmihwurpp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "terrorism society minorities inequality housewould use racial profiling partIn other areas ofenforcement it is routine to use simple commonsense when identifying security risks. A group ofstudents coming off a cheap flight fromAmsterdam are simply more likely to have illegaldrugs in their possession than a group ofpensioners returning from a tour of museums inSt Petersburg. Of course it is important thatairport authorities should be vigilant and avoidmaking damaging assumptions, but that is noreason for them to be reckless. There are alimited number of people that can be stoppedand searched or questioned at an airport;wasting that time on passengers who areextremely unlikely to pose any threat presents asubstantial risk of peoples’ lives and safety.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-cpisydfphwj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinIt is true thata society in which information is widely availableto the public is desirable, but what must berecognized that this argument of “social platformpublicity” encounters two main problems. Firstof all, unless your information is lucky enough togo viral if you really want efficient onlineadvertising you will have to pay for it, even whenit comes to social networks. “When Facebooklaunched its log-out screen ads, reportssuggested it was charging $700,000 for them,but in reality they came bundled with a homagead commitment, too. Buyers say they’re nowselling log-out ads standalone for around$100,000.”(1). As a result, you can hardly callthem “free”. Secondly, online advertising comesmerely as a back-up or as an addition to full-timecampaign ads. No matter what kind of event weare talking about, if it is of general interest, theinformation will be distributed to the population.It will be either promoted by the company itself,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-cpisydfphwj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinThere areimmense problems with using Facebook tofacilitate protests in oppressive regimes. Firstly,due to the anonymity of users, it would beextremely easy for government forces todisguise themselves as being protesters and findout future protest locations, thus allowing themto be one step ahead every time to crush theprotest before it starts. Second of all, if all ofthese fail, the government could always shutdown ISPs (Internet Service Providers), exactlyin the way the Egyptian forces did. Their mistakewas that they didn’t shut them down soonenough, but it won’t be repeated by futureoppressive governments as they have the ArabSpring’s example.(1) [1] Surely, it is of greatimportance that people express their opinionsthrough any means possible, even through massprotest. For this reason, over time westernsocieties were shaped to encourage anydiscontented individual to express his or her", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-cpisydfphwj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinOn this point,there are two levels of analysis which willdemonstrate that, at the end of the day,Facebook has a detrimental effect on one’s socialabilities. First of all, of course having a lot offriends has numerous advantages and it isundoubtedly beneficial to one’s development, butbeing active on a social network isn’t anindispensable prerequisite for this. As anindividual, you can meet, talk, connect and sharefeelings and emotions in real life with yourfriends without any problems. People nowadaysare not more socially bonded than before theappearance of Facebook and other socialnetworks, because what Facebook did wasmerely shifting the face-to-face socialization toan online version of it. Moreover, you don’t needthe “Rock Fans” group on Facebook in order tomeet new people who are also interested in rockmusic, as you have real rock events and concertswhere you can meet with people with whom you", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-cpisydfphwj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinOn this point,it may be true that children who get distractedeasily use Facebook as an excuse not to study,but that doesn’t mean that social networks arethe cause of this phenomenon. These childrentend to use them as social networks are veryaccessible. Almost every single moment you aresurrounded by technology that can connect tosocial networking sites; a smartphone, a laptopor a computer, which you can use to log in onFacebook. Even if it weren’t for these socialnetworks, those kids would likely still be getting20% worse grades than other students, as theywould just find other activities to replace it with.There will be no change in their mentality,perception of learning or process of decisionmaking. If the student is using Facebook at leastthere is a chance they are using it productively,for example, by participating in a Facebookgroup created by a professor for students of aparticular class, then the social network may", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-cpisydfphwj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinFacebookenhances people’s lives and brings numerousadvantages. Facebook provides information andsocial support through the creation of a networkof friends; sometimes this communication willbring them into contact with material that makesthem envious. The need then it to focus on thethings in Facebook that are positive. It is clearthat people prefer a Facebook which isconcentrated around subjects of interest, friends’updates and funny pictures rather than onewhich is constantly reminding them about theirfailures or about their acne. Therefore, users willtry to block any type of harmful information, asgenerally you dislike being reminded aboutthings that make you feel bad about yourself. Atthe end of the day, no matter of user, the accentwill always be on meeting new people, havingfun and making the connection with people thatyou already know stronger rather than searchingfor reasons to be envious on other people. If life", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-cpisydfphwj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "computers phones internet society youth digitalfreedoms privacy house would joinIt is absolutelyregrettable that men use Facebook in order takeadvantage of certain women, but we must notforget that because of these very situationsFacebook and many NGO’s initiated campaignsto prevent these kind of tragedies happeningagain(1). Such campaigns have informedthousands of women about the dangers ofmeeting strangers, both the virtual world and inthe real one, and how to avoid them. Thesecampaigns both help women avoid the threat inthe first place and encourage them to make surethey are protected, for example by carryingpepper spray, so at the end of the day, asignificant number of women are now moreprotected against being rape because of thesesocial networks. Facebook has clearly notincreased the incidence of rape as statistics (2)show that the number of rape cases has droppeddramatically since the start of the world wideweb. Cyber bullying is potentially a problem. On", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies member statesIf thereis no equal access to education and trainingopportunities, this measure does not addressgender inequality. On the contrary, genderquotas are likely to bring inefficiencies becausecompanies face sanctions if they do not abide bythe legislation. Introducing this legislation onthe overall population of the EU rather thansimply on matters regarding qualified women willintroduce impediments to businesses acrosssectors. The EU member states uphold genderequality in the EU Charter of FundamentalRights. Therefore, women do not face particularinstitutional obstacles to their employment. Onthe contrary, they have the legal support of theEU law. Moreover, evidence shows the effects ofquotas are distortive. In the case of Sweden, theshort-term effects of quotas suggest somenegative impact on firm returns. The companieshad to reorganise their activities to compensatefor this consequence. [1] Even in Norway, many", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies member statesMorewomen in the labour market leads to higherGDP By introducing gender quotas to ensuregender equality, one could not only increase thelabour force by bringing more women but alsoenhance the labour productivity and the availabletalent pool in a country. This would stimulatebusinesses to expand, innovate, and compete.This process has an effect of raising tax revenueand social security payments. The overall effectis the positive growth of theeconomy. Therefore, addressing social injusticeand higher economic returns are mutuallysupportive goals. This argument is particularlyrelevant for qualified women who could be hiredat executive positions, but are prevented fromdoing so due to cultural beliefs, societalpractices, and lack of economic and institutionalsupport. A study by Asa Löfström on the linksbetween economic growth and productivity in thelabour market argues that if women’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies member statesThere isno clear and conclusive statistical data to supportthe long-term link between quotas and women’sparticipation on highest executive positions. Theintroduction of quotas around the world has notincreased the number of women on highpositions in some male-dominated sectors andthere is no certainty that such policy measures inthe EU will change the current status quo. Forexample, despite the 40% increase in women inexecutive positions, there was no significantchange in the number of female CEOs. Moreover, there should not be a one-size fitsall binding quota, but member states shouldcome with their own rules that change gendermentality in the respective country. Genderequality and women’s choice of career havecultural and industry-specific implications whichcommon gender quotas do not address", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies member statesGenderequality is based on fundamental human rightsendorsed by the EU which needs to beaddressed Gender equality at the workplace isan important principle that businesses shouldfollow. If we consider men and women to beequal then they should be equally represented atthe top levels of politics, society, and business.This is not simply a national issue, but a pan-EUproblem of justice and equal rights. Genderequality is linked to the fundamental humanrights that the EU endorses and the lack ofprogress in terms of women in high positions ofEurope requires a proactive stance. AsMorin-Chartier argues, the EU directives areabout being a model for one another and thequotas will serve as an archetype for othersworldwide. Therefore, the quotas are necessaryto encourage progress in this field as other toolshave not brought equal gender representation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies member statesGenderequality comes from the society. Businessesoperate in a different way than the overallsociety and imposing quotas on them will notnecessarily change the gender inequality.Businesses require skills to expand and progressand, therefore, quotas undermine them byaffecting their employment process. At the sametime, these measures do not address the originsof inequality which are linked to tradition andcultural background of a society and thus, willnot bring progress in this field.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies member statesIt isdifficult to evaluate whether a businessinstitution change its values due to the increasednumber of women on board. On the contrary,companies stick to their values and hire peoplewho behave according to them. Also, it may beearly to measure the positive impact of thequotas in Norway. A University of Michigan studyfound that the increased presence of women onboards in Norway led to slight losses incompanies’ value. [1] One of the possiblereasons is that women hired after the quotasimplementation often had less uppermanagement experience than the employeeshired before that and who had to leave theirposts, so companies could fulfil the quotas. [1]Sweigart, Anne. \"Women on Board for Change:The Norway Model of Boardroom Quotas As aTool For Progress in the United States andCanada.\" Northwestern Journal of InternationalLaw & Business 32.4, 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies member statesQuotasencourage women to pursue education andprofessional job positions Quotas attempting tomaximise the number of educated and skilledwomen in executive positions could improvecorporate performance and help raise nationalproductivity. But doing so will depend on keepingambitious, well-qualified women moving up themanagement ranks. Gender quotas willencourage more women to pursue education andcareer options leading to the top of executivepositions. Quotas create incentives for women toadapt their job preferences to the moreaccessible boardroom positions and developnecessary skills which would reduce the need forpositive discrimination in the future. Encouragedto develop relevant skills, women will contributeto the long-term talent pool and the economy.According to McKinsey report, women’s interestin being leaders increases as they progress fromentry level to middle management [1] which is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies memberstatesQuota-led gender equality in executiveboards will help shape a gender sensitive andhighly performing business environment. Thereare many reports showing that there is a positivecorrelation between the number of women onhigh positions and the companies’ performance.A report from The McKinsey OrganizationalHealth Index (OHI) argues that companies withthree or more women in top positions (executivecommittee and higher) scored higher than theirpeers. Companies that score highly on all theOHI measures have also shown superior financialperformance. [1] This is often related to thehigh overall education level of women on boards.In Norway, there has been some advancement infirms’ human capital as a result of the quotas,[2] which may result in increased profits in thefuture due to the increasing number of welleducated women. Female managers tend topromote a communal and collaborative style of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-con03b", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies member statesBindingquotas are more effective than most of the othertools, particularly voluntary quotas. Memberstates, however, could implement any otherpolicy instrument they find suitable alongside thequotas. Yet, binding gender quotas bring quickerresults especially in the short run. According tothe a report on gender quotas published by theEuropean Department, they are the mostsuccessful mechanism to narrow the gender gapin corporate boards and achieve the economictargets by giving the progress on women’sparticipation on boards. Once targets arereached, policy instruments of positivediscrimination will be abolished; therefore,gender quotas are the optimal solution due totheir quick effects as in the case of Norway.[1] [1] European Parliament, “Gender Quotas inManagement Boards”, 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-con01b", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies member statesGenderequality in the work force will most certainlyhave a positive effect on the economy. The USeconomy would have been 27% smaller withoutwomen expanding their job share from 37% to48% between 1970 and 2009, women went fromholding 37% of all jobs to nearly 48%. [1] Inaddition, the economic history of OECD showsthat a large proportion of post-war economicgrowth was due to the increased presence ofwomen in the labour market. [2] Theintroduction of quotas will ensure this moreskilled women working in many industries whichwill help these industries expand. A study by AsaLöfström on the links between economic growthand productivity in the labour market argues thatif women’s productivity level rises to the level ofmen’s, Europe’s GDP could grow 27% whichmakes women’s participation is of crucialimportance to Europe’s economy. [3] Suchgrowth is crucial for the EU in the context of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-con02a", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies member statesPublicand private institutions should hire people basedon skills not gender to achieve positive economicimpact Businesses advance when they hire thebest person for a job who can unite people andcreate value. These qualities are individual andenhanced through training rather than notgender-specific. Letting both private and publiccompanies to hire according to their needs andthose who meet them is a more efficient way toensure economic growth. In some countries inthe EU the proportion of women with relevanteducation is lower and such a measure will bringstructural inefficiencies in the short to mid - termfor the companies and the overall economy. Theempirical data from Norway, for example,reveals that after being exposed to a severelimitation on their choice of directors, boardsexperienced large declines in value. [1] Oftenwomen hired after the quotas implementationhad less upper management experience than the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-con03a", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies member statesThereare other policy options that are less distortiveand more advantageous for theeconomy. Quotas are discriminatory and couldbe anti-constitutional in countries like Francewhile there are other policy instruments thatcould be easier to implement. Rather thanimplementing quotas as a top-down approach,for example, there could be more access tocapital and less regulatory obstacles for startingbusinesses for women. However, women inOECD enterprise account for an average 30% ofall entrepreneurs and there are moreself-employed or firm-owners. These gendergaps are particularly large in Ireland, Iceland,and Sweden. [1] Entrepreneurs or individualsstarting up new firms are crucial to productivityin all countries. In the OECD area, the levels ofentrepreneurship are highest in countriesshowing the fastest growth. The number ofwomen entrepreneurs, as seen in female to male", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-con01a", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies member statesThere isno clear link between gender quota andeconomic growth As Pande and Ford found intheir report, countries often adopt gender quotasas a response to changing attitudes to women.However, these countries more often than notare Western advanced economies characterisedby efficiency. [1] Therefore, the correlationsbetween gender quotas and good economicperformance cannot be attributed entirely to thegender equality measures. Moreover, thecompetitiveness of the EU economies is damagedby domestic policies and the sovereign debt crisiswhich will have a larger negative impact on theEuropean economies rather than this measure.Therefore, the expected spillover effects on theeconomy are unlikely to be realised. [2] Suchsceptic views on quotas when accompanied bybad economic factors are shared by internationalinstitutions like the International LabourOrganisation (ILO). Breaking the glass ceiling", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-ghbgqeaaems-con02b", "title": "", "text": "gender house believes gender quotas eu areadvantageous economies memberstatesInefficiencies related to outcomes are notnecessarily related to the quotas. There areother factors affecting a company performanceregardless of changes in staff, such as thegeneral conditions of the industry, national andworld economies. The quotas allow for flexibilityin terms of technical solutions to different typesof companies and ensure women candidates aresuccessful in being selected for a certain share ofeligible places. It does not aim to undermineadvantages of existing decision-making, but tobring a change in the corporate world and tostrengthen EU’s competitiveness by using the fullcapacity of its talent pool. There are morewomen (59%) than men graduating fromEuropean universities [1] and their talent isunderutilised at high decision-making levelswhere they are necessary. Quotas that arelegally binding will bring quick results in thatregard. [1] European Parliament, “Gender", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believesfeministPornography does not objectify people,for they are portrayed as acting. Objects do notact, subjects do. Telling people what theycannot do is a greater loss of identity than anyway by which they may be portrayed bypornography, for only the latter can bechallenged. Sex is not negative towards women,repression is, sex is liberating not dehumanizing!The only thing that is dehumanizing is the beliefthat natural impulses as sex should havenegative moral conotation, including theexpression of it(in this case porn).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believes feministPorn isinherently dehumanising Pornographynecessarily objectifies people: it presents asexual desire, an urge, which is immediatelyattended by another person, often performingacts which we would find demeaning, until theoriginal urge is satisfied. The use of others forpleasure treats them as means to one’s ownends, and denies them any value as rationalsubjects with a will of their own. This affects,naturally, the participants in pornography, butalso their viewers who adopt corrupted notions ofwhat to value in others, and furthermore otherwomen who are later affected by men using thesame metric to interact with them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believes feministWomenmay indeed be harmed through these ideals.However, all forms of media, fashion posters, [1]and razors, all carry the same risk of peoplepotentially hurting themselves with it. This is notgrounds for a ban. Furthermore, placing theblame on pornography for this kind of attitudes isvery problematic in that it removes responsibilityfrom the real culprits in society, the men whotreat women in this manner when they are notacting. [1] See the debatabase debate ‘ ThisHouse would ban sexist advertising ’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believes feministThefeminist movement should not allow women tosell themselves In most cases, pornography isnot entered into willingly. Similarly toprostitution, the sale of one’s own body andone’s dignity is so drastic that consent is oftennot sufficiently informed to be legitimate. Thereare patriarchal structures in society that forcewomen into these industries, particularly whenthey are vulnerable and this seems to be a goodlast resort. This leads to a loss of integrity, astrong stigma in society, and most importantly,abusive conditions in the production process. Aswell as high risks of unwanted pregnancies orsexually transmitted diseases, violent sexpractices and abusive conditions after filmingoften occur (Lubben). [1] Furthermore, theharms of pornography do not exclusively affectthe consenting participants. Other women acrossthe world who are not supporting this industryare equal victims of society and the norms", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believes feministWhat is thedifference between working as a pornographicartist and working as a street sweeper, orsomeone who unblocks the drains? Neither ofthose is an ideal job, and will rarely be a youth’sfirst career option. Both involve the use of mybody for a sometimes unpleasant task. Yet oneof them is considered dehumanising, and theother a valuable service to society. The fact isthere is little difference between pornographyand any other job. The comparison toprostitution is invalid: the key problem faced byprostitutes is the lack of security, since it is set incontexts that make them particularly vulnerableto violence and abuse. In pornography, healthand security risks such as STDs are addressed inmany countries, and can be done so more: inCalifornia, for instance, porn actors are requiredto wear condoms on set. These problems can betackled in the same way as is the failure tocomply with regulations in any other industry.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believes feministWe live in asociety in which no judge will recognise “I saw iton the TV” as a valid excuse for a crime. Weallow people to watch violent films believing theywill be able to distinguish between pornographyand reality. For cases such as Ted Bundy, clearlyissues other than pornography must have beenat play: there have to be pre-existinganti-women values and, in such extreme cases,mental instability. Furthermore, the linkbetween pornography and violence is notintrinsic; it is nothing the feminist movementcannot change through greater influence and/orrestrictions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believesfeministPornography fuels unreachableideals Pornography presents a distortedperception of people, sexuality, andrelationships, which has a further effect on abroader societal level. It promotes unreachableideals of how both women and men should be inbed, and pushes both in the direction of what isidealised in pornography. This may push men tobe more dominating than otherwise and womento suffer from anorexia, low self-esteem, andpromiscuity. We can expect women to be themost affected by this, simply because the pornindustry is owned almost entirely by men, andbecause there are pre-existing patriarchalstructures in society ready to promote the ideathat women are there to serve men. Altogether,pornography merely promotes a new stereotype:that women are generally happy to have sex atany time, that they will respond positively to anyman’s advances, and if a woman does not, there", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believesfeministPornography eroticises violence Manyforms of media are often accused of incitingviolence, promoting stereotypes, orindoctrinating in some form or another. Whilethis is contentious, the key principle that ‘sexsells’ is more obvious. Pornography is not likeother media in that, while most other films areaimed at entertainment, this is aimed at arousal.That is, it is aimed at immediate and fully selfishpleasure, which is much more forceful andaddictive than mere laughter. The psychologicaleffect of pornography is harmful due to theassociations it conditions its audience to make. Iteroticises violence through portrayals (fake orgenuine) of rape and a general treatment ofwomen that is comparable to torture, yetpresented in a context that necessarilybiologically excites its viewers. Throughcontinuous exposure to the link between abuseand intense pleasure, this link is easily extended", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believes feministEven ifachieving a fully effective ban is impossible, it isthe responsibility of the feminist movement totake a stance and not condone practices thatharm women in practice and promote dangerousmessages. Making it illegal will limit it at least anextent, and due to all the harms pornographycauses the smallest improvement is an importantgoal. It is an exaggeration to claim pornographywould have such an effect. The reasons forbanning pornography would be the same as forbanning prostitution (coercion issues for theparticipants) and other forms of media that inciteto directly offensive acts towards particularlyvulnerable people. It is, rather, the actualsexual culture and view of people’s relationshipspromoted by pornography that leads to higherlevels of rape and harassment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believes feministTheconsent women supposedly show in thepornographic industry is no more valid than it isconsidered in prostitution or sex trafficking.Non-pornographic actresses are often coercedinto pornography by their agents or producers.The pornographic industry preys on vulnerableparties: poor, psychologically vulnerable, ordependent people. Furthermore, even if somedo give full consent, this does not apply to all thewomen who are forced into prostitution orpornography, raped, sexually harassed, orgenerally oppressed as a result of the harmsproduced by pornography. Pornography makesthe emancipation of women from menimpossible, and the feminist movement cannotcondone it even at the expense of a few womenwho want to express themselves. Other saferforms of art exist for this purpose.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believesfeministPornography liberateswomen Pornography is massively produced anddistributed: this provides women with a vastplatform through which to define their sexualidentity. This has been a great tool in the past: inthe 1920’s America, the flapper became a greatrole model for women by promotingrevolutionary values of a strong, sexual woman:she danced wildly in jazz clubs, was openlylesbian, and sexually active. This image spreadthroughout the country thanks to the boom ofthe film industry in the Roaring Twenties(Rosenberg). [1] Now pornography plays, or atleast can play, this same role. Pornographybreaks the taboo of sexuality for women, andpromoting the continuation of taboos is a labeland a stereotype which the feminist movementmust oppose. Instead, it should use pornographyto spread its values. There is nothing intrinsicabout pornography that makes it anti-women.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con04a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believes feministThefeminist movement cannot afford to alienateitself from society The term ‘feminism’ is oftenassociated with men-hating and the radical viewthat women are superior to men as opposed togender equality. This happens because extremefeminists who uphold such opinions areconsistently given greater media coverage byvirtue of having the loudest voices and creatingheadlines that sell. As a result, the feministmovement is currently lacking the support itdeserves and even those who take feministpositions often don’t want to call themselvesfeminists. (Scharff) [1] It would be a bad movefor it to further radicalise itself and attempt toban something as present in society aspornography. It will never work, and it willmerely make women and men more reluctant toespouse feminist ideologies for fear of beingassociated with a ‘hate group’. [1] Scharff,Christina, “Myths of man-hating feminists make", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believes feministAttemptingto ban it would only cause furtherproblems There is no guarantee that a ban onpornography would improve gender stereotypes:in fact, it seems to be quite the opposite.Pornography is a flourishing industry withincredibly high demand, and much like withprohibition in the past, it is naïve to believe aban can make a difference. It is actually evenharder with pornography, because of the easethrough which it can be distributed through thenet. Rather, a ban would expand the blackmarket with all the problems that come with ittoday: child and non-consensual pornography,violence, unhealthy conditions, and a generallack of regulations. Furthermore, the extent thata ban could ever limit pornography, this wouldlead to further problems. On one hand, thefeminist movement sends a worrying messagethat sex is harmful to women, and by extensionthat sex is for the benefit of men. Restoring a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believes feministFreedom ofexpression is essential for women Socialmovements should limit themselves to pushingfor the rights of social groups, not restrictingthem. The feminist movement, as a socialmovement, should not limit the voices of womenin the same way their oppressors havethroughout history. Banning pornography woulddirectly restrict the freedom of choice of womenwho want to manifest their sexuality and expressthemselves in revolutionary ways in art andmedia. Examples such as amateur andimprovised porn, which are independent of adirector, show the deep value of self-expressionand self-definition women can find in this form ofart. The desire of some actresses to becomeinternationally recognised as ‘sex symbols’,become porn stars, or simply convey that sex isfor women too, is a legitimate one, and not anact of desperation. This must be taken intoaccount in cases of pornography between", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con04b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believes feministThefeminist movement must, above all, strive toprotect the people who are oppressed byanti-women structures in society: it cannotignore the problems women face. Socialmovements are there because the rights ofminorities in society are being ignored: they arenecessarily going against the flow of publicopinion, and sometimes they need to be radicalin order to uphold the rights others ignore. A bigproblem requires big changes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-mmcpsgfhbf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "media modern culture pornography societygender family house believes feministIt issimplistic to assume that the problems womenface now, are the same that they faced in the1920’s. All they have in common is that, in somesense, women are used for men’s ends. In the1920’s it was primarily as housewives, but now,it is as sexual objects. The kinds of images ofwomen employed in advertisement and mostkinds of media testify to this, and in pornographythese views are expressed in a particularlyforceful way. Furthermore, it is a misconceptionto say that pornography can lead torevolutionary gender stereotypes whenfundamentally it depends on stereotypes, thesexy teacher/nurse/friends’ mother beingcommon themes. Through pornography, the bestwomen can achieve is to jump through one labelto another. Why? Because it is an industryfundamentally controlled by men, for men. As aresult, furthermore, there can be noself-expression when you are doing what a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epiasghbf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationAgainemployment needs to be contextualised withwhat type of jobs are provided and entered into.It remains questionable as to whether the mentalhealth of women improves if women areemployed to work within hazardous workenvironments, or where there is no jobsecurity. For example domestic workers remainvulnerable to different abuses - such as nonpayment, excessive work hours, abuse, andforced labour. Women may be vulnerable togender based violence on their way to work.Furthermore, street traders are placed in avulnerable position where the right to work is notrespected. The forced eviction and harassment offemale street-traders is a common story,underlined by political motivations. A recentexample includes the eviction of street hawkersin Johannesburg [1] . [1] See further readings:WIEGO, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epiasghbf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationFor rights tobe granted women need to be able to have aposition within trade unions, and policy change isrequired. A recent study shows fewer womenthan men are found in trade unions across eightAfrican countries looked at in a study(DailyGuide, 2011). The greatest degree of women’sinvolvement was from teacher and nursesunions, however, there remains a lack ofrepresentation at leadership levels. The lack of aunited, or recognised, women’s voice in tradeunions undermines aims for gender equality andmainstreaming for those women who areworking. Additionally, at a larger scale, policychange is required. Empowerment cannot occurwhere unequal structures remain - therefore thesystem needs to be changed. Governments needto engender social policy and support women -providing protection, maternity cover, pensionschemes, and security, which discriminateagainst women and informal workers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epiasghbf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationThe relationbetween employment, money, and householdpoverty is not a simple correlation when weconsider the type of jobs women are entering. Indeveloping countries work in the informaleconomy is a large source of women’semployment (Chen et al, 2004). In the case ofSub-Saharan Africa, 84% of women innon-agricultural work are in the informaleconomy (ILO, 2002). Only 63% of men work inthe informal economy. Women represent a largeproportion of individuals working in informalemployment and within the informal sector.Informal employment means employment lacksprotection and/or benefits, and the informalsector involves unregistered or unincorporatedprivate enterprises. Such a reality limits thecapability to use employment to escape poverty(see Chant, 2010). With wages low, jobs casualand insecure, and limited access to socialprotection schemes or rights-based labour", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epiasghbf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationYes educationmay help to determine the extent to whichlabour participation empowers women but it isthe participation itself that is the actual tool thatempowers. A well-educated woman who is keptat home doing nothing is not empowered nomatter how good her education might havebeen. In Saudi Arabia there are more women inuniversity than men yet there is 36%unemployment for women against only 6% formen (Aluwaisheg, 2013). The women areeducated, not empowered.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epiasghbf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationWith the rightto work within the productive sphere, theresponsibility of care becomes shared. This maytake some time but eventually equality will bethe result. If you consider the changes occurringwithin the developed world - such as improvedaccess to child-care facilities and the rise of stayat home dads, the integration of women intopaid employment shows changes in gender roles.The double burden may occur temporarily, but inthe long-run it will fade.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epiasghbf-con04b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationWithin Genderand Development the importance of bringingmen into the picture of gender discrimination hasbeen recognised. Therefore working with menwill change enable gender roles to be changed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epiasghbf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy international africa societygender house believes feminisationHow wedefine empowerment is broad - encompassing allchanges that women are able to make, throughagency, to tackle their subordinate position.Therefore labour force participation does provideempowerment. Labour participation provides anopportunity for women to control householdresources, demand rights, and organise for equaljustice. There is no silver bullet, or objective, toachieve women’s empowerment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-asfhwapg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "aw society family house would allow patentinggenesIn the twenty years of a patent’s duration,any prospective research is carried out in fear ofrecriminations and law-suits from thepatent-holder. Laboratories offering patentedgenetic tests for research studies have beenasked to “cease and desist” unless they refermaterials to or get a license from the patentholder 1. Where one company has the right ofexploitation, they possess a monopoly andinevitably will be able to charge what they like. Itis only after countries threatened or actuallyinvoked provisions of the WTO Treaty, forexample, that companies offered to decrease theprice of their Aids medicines for African countries2. Those provisions would have permitted thegovernments to grant compulsorylicenses.Further on, gene-patent holders canoften control the useof ‘their’ gene; if they havethe claim for the test, they can prevent a doctorfrom testing a patient’s blood for a specificgenetic mutation and can stop anyone from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-asfhwapg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "aw society family house would allow patentinggenesPatenting enables knowledgesharing Patents are typically granted for twentyyears only. After this period the monopoly ends.All companies ask is that for a limited time theyare able to benefit from their investments, andthat in that period if another company wishes topursue a project in their area then they shouldhave to give their permission for the use of thepatent. Patenting does not mean withholdinginformation in secrecy. On the contrary, patentsactively encourage openness in science, becauseif you were not able to disclose your findingswithout fear of exploitation, then you would keepyour findings secret. This would be to thedetriment of medical advancement. For examplethe Human Genome Sciences’ patented theirdiscovery of the CCR5 receptor gene, which wasthen discovered by other scientists at theNational Institutes of Health, that the smallnumber of people missing the receptor appear tobe immune to HIV 1. This could be done because", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-asfhwapg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "aw society family house would allow patentinggenesGenes are intellectual property thuspatentable The patenting office stipulates that asuccessful patent applicant must have foundsomething in nature, isolated it, and found a wayto make something useful with it.The genomeresearch of companies satisfies these criteria, sowhy should it be any different? The genomecompanies have invested resources to createintellectual property (patents), which refers to“creations of the mind.” Under US law includesintellectual property inventions, literary andartistic works, symbols, names, images, designs,and trade secrets. The law states, that anyperson who “invents or discovers any new anduseful process, machine, manufacture, orcomposition of matter, or any new and usefulimprovement thereof, may obtain a patent.” Inbiomedicine the patentable inventions includematerials, such as new drugs or new cell lines,and methods for deriving or growing them, suchas extraction or cloning techniques.1 1. Merz J.,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-asfhwapg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "aw society family house would allow patentinggenesOf course genes should be treated differentfrom any product or other invention; genes arethe very basis for human life and to claim thatanyone has the right to be regarded as the‘owner’ of a particular gene, which we all sharein our bodies, shows a venal disregard forhumanity. If companies want to patenttreatments which target specific genes, thenthat’s okay, but not the genes themselves.TheUniversity of Colorado explains: “Inventionsinclude new processes, products, apparatus,compositions of matter, living organisms, and/orimprovements to existing technology in thosecategories can be patented. Abstract ideas,principles, and phenomena of nature cannot bepatented.”1 1. Patents FAQ Patents FAQ,University of Colorado,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-asfhwapg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "aw society family house would allow patentinggenesWe are happy to put a price on our ideasand knowledge, which are as much buildingblocks of life as our genes. Each individualalready sells his ideas and has a price tag sopatenting makes no further devaluation than thatwhich is already there.Even if ownership ofanother person’s parts is immoral, moralitynever had a lot to do with gene patenting.Patentagencies allow such immoral things as poisons,explosives, extremely dangerous chemicalsubstances, devices used in nuclear powerstations, agro-chemicals, pesticides and manyother things which can threaten human life ordamage the environment to be patented. This isdespite the existence of the public order andmorality bar in almost all European countries.1Sowhy make a difference with gene patenting,which does not harm, but may actually benefit agreat amount of people. 1. Annabelle Lever , IsIt Ethical To Patent Human Genes?, UCL 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-asfhwapg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "aw society family house would allow patentinggenesFirstly, it is not self-evident, that peoplehave a right to use and possess something, suchas medicine that they did not create.So whyshould people have the right to use a productthat someone else discovered through the powerof their own cognitive abilities. Actually demandsto not patent and just research for the greatergood are contradictory to the government takingcare of all their people. The best way for thegovernment to encourage medical research thatprovides these benefits is through patents.Patenting of genes is therefore a right that isbased on the right to ownership of your ownthoughts and should therefore be granted to thecompanies / individuals. There is no consistentlegal basis for deciding that genes are notpatent-eligible without deciding that many other‘natural products’ are also ineligible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-asfhwapg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "aw society family house would allow patentinggenesPatenting inhibits research andtherapeutics The prevailing belief is that this isan area of such great importance and potentialbenefit to mankind, as such there should be no,self-interested impediment to genome research.The only barriers should be those ofconscience. The Human Genome Project is oneof the government funded projects that makesall its research freely and publicly available. Theyare not driven by profit and offer information ontheir discoveries for free enabling others to buildupon their findings. The problem with patents isthat companies claim ownership without regardtowards moral issues. It is purely in the pursuitof their profits that they decide not to allowothers to build on their findings and make theprocess of discovering treatments far moredifficult. An example of this is the Myriadcompany which, whilst holding patents on BRCA1 & 2, genes connected with breast cancer,prevented the University of Pennsylvania from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-asfhwapg-con04a", "title": "", "text": "aw society family house would allow patentinggenesA liability regime not patents. There arealternatives to the kind of blanket patenting thatstifles innovation and drives up prices . The mostobvious is to have no patents at all for geneswhich would result in a free for all but mighthave the result the proposition argues it would,that without any kind of pay back for theresearch no one will do the research in the firstplace. However there are alternatives thatprevent many of the problems of patents whilestill bringing in many of the benefits . This wouldbe to have some kind of rights for the discover.Unlike patents there would be no right to refuseor provide conditions for access to the discovery.This would be a use now pay later system.Anyone could research using the discovery orseek to commercialize it but would have to pay afee which would depend upon what theapplication was1. Palombi has proposed thecreation of ‘Genetic Sequence Rights’ “the GSRwould be administered using… the present", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-asfhwapg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "aw society family house would allow patentinggenesImmoral to own a human life Patentinggenes and DNA fragments is immoral because oftheir significance for human life and welfare. It isimmoral to own building blocks of the human life.Commercialization of human genes degradesvalue of human life. Once we give people thepossibility to put an ownership tag on genes(basics of life), there is people who value humanlife merely based on monetary value. Bidding forthe best gene, highest price and making thebasics of life the same as buying a car. AndyMiah in his essay on Ethical Issues in Geneticsargues: \"Evidence of such disaffection hasappeared most recently from the emergence ofRon's Angels, a company set up for theauctioning of female eggs and male sperm toinfertile couples seeking 'exceptional' children.Whilst numerous companies of this kind nowexist, Ron's Angels is interesting not simply forhaving arranged a standard and reasonable pricefor such genes; far from it. Rather, as indicated", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-asfhwapg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "aw society family house would allow patentinggenesPatenting drives up the cost of therapiesand renders them unaffordable to the poor Thegovernment and its laws should take care of alltheir people. Because the state is a constructbuilt by all the people, who all pay taxes tosupport it, laws should also be based to benefitthe greatest amount of people possible.In thecase of the Myriad company, which holds,together with the University of Utah ResearchFoundation, rights over tests for ovarian cancer,it prevented cheaper tests being offered to thepublic. As a result, Myriad is the only companythat can market a test for the mutations, and itcharges as much as $3,000 . That is a price thatfor many is inaccessible. Patients’ state: “Thereis no other, cheaper test that you could go get inanother laboratory, because they have theexclusive patent,” she explained, adding thatMyriad also controls the efficacy of thetest—second opinions are only available forcertain surgeries 1.Because patenting harms the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-asfhwapg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "aw society family house would allow patentinggenesPatenting in general is creating morepossibilities for patients than if there was nopatenting and less competition for development.Even if treatments and diagnostics for somediseases are expensive, they are at least thereand are beginning to benefit the people thatneed them most. If the government is thatconcerned for the well-being of its poor patients,the issue of private and public dis-allocations isfar more troubling than patents. However, if thegovernment does believe that such a treatmentin necessary for the greater good of the country,which happens in very few cases, there still aremechanisms to loosen patent rights. TheHastings Center explains that governments andother organizations can encourage research onneeded therapies, such as a malaria vaccine, bysetting up prizes for innovation related to themor by promising to purchase the therapies oncethey are developed 1. Other measures rely onvoluntary action. Patented drugs can be sold at", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-simhbrasnba-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "society immigration minorities house believesright asylum should not be absoluteThe conceptof a nation is an artificial one [1] – there is nological reason why we should draw lines on mapsand declare that people may not pass from oneside of a line to another without permission.Moreover xenophobia and racism can only betackled by exposure to people from othercultures, not insulation from them – and in anycase, policy should not be dictated by theprejudices of a few racists. [1] Anderson,Benedict, Imagined Communities: Reflections onthe Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London1991, p.5.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-simhbrasnba-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "society immigration minorities house believesright asylum should not be absoluteStates mustbe responsible to their own citizens first Therewill always be trafficking as long as there aren'topen borders. And we should maintain strictcontrols on both immigration and asylum. Statesmust focus on the needs of their people first, andthe reaction of citizens in accepting countries isquite rightly the feeling that their hospitality andgood intentions are being abused at the moment.The social harms that these feelings cause -suspicion, xenophobia, racism and disruption ofsocial harmony and tolerance [1] - are too largeand too damaging to the actual citizens of statesto justify the maintenance of a failing systemthat may help some few outsiders. Theresponsibilities of governments to their owncitizens must come first. [1] Lægaard, Sune,‘Immigration, Social Cohesion, andNaturalisation’, Centre for the Study of Equalityand Multiculturalism, p.2", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-simhbrasnba-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "society immigration minorities house believesright asylum should not be absoluteThere havebeen no serious links between terrorism and theasylum system. The 9/11 hijackers all had visasand recent terror cells in Europe have all been'home grown'. If anything an asylum systemprovides more security and border control forstates. Even if there was no asylum system,people would still flee persecution but insteadthey would be forced to turn to people traffickersto circumvent all border controls, and thus neverbe documented or assessed at all. This wouldalso increase the already huge numbers ofmigrants, especially women, who are exploitedby traffickers in sex and underground industries,and also the sheer number of people present in acountry of which the authorities have noknowledge.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-simhbrasnba-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "society immigration minorities house believesright asylum should not be absoluteThe WholeSystem is broken It is not clear that the systemworks at all. The majority of those who apply forasylum are working-age males, [1] which impliesthat there is a strong economic angle. And worsestill, even if countries decide that an applicanthas no basis to their claim they are frequentlyunable to deport them because they often gomissing, as 75,000 in Britain have, [2] orbecause, perversely, they may be punished onreturn to their country for having sought refuge.So essentially the asylum system provides aloophole for unrestricted immigration, which isboth expensive, and dangerous for states. In theage of global terrorism it is a huge risk to allowundocumented individuals to enter and roamfreely within any country. [1] Blinder, Scott,‘Migration to the UK: Asylum’, The MigrationObservatory at the University of Oxford, 23March 2011. [2] Whitehead, Tom, ’75,000asylum seekers have gone missing in past 20", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-simhbrasnba-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "society immigration minorities house believesright asylum should not be absoluteMuch of thefear of the asylum system being used byeconomic migrants is simply media hysteria andxenophobia. The vast majority of asylum claims(in the UK around 75%) are still rejected, whichshows the system works. [1] Also it is not beingabused in the way many people believe. Veryfew people are willing to leave their family andcommunity, pay to travel thousands of miles tonew country, in risky circumstances, with only asmall chance of being accepted there, unlessthey have real reason to fear for their safety. Thenumbers of people seeking asylum are nothistorically unprecedented either, and mostapplicants still come from countries we recogniseas dangerous, such as Iraq, Iran andAfghanistan. Compared to other forms ofimmigration the numbers who are accepted viathe asylum regime are negligible. [1] Blinder,‘Migration to the UK: Asylum’, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-simhbrasnba-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "society immigration minorities house believesright asylum should not be absoluteThe systemis open to abuse It is extremely difficult to tell ifsomeone is a genuine asylum seeker or not; forobvious reasons many will have little or nodocumentation, and all the evidence that theyhave suffered persecution may be in a farawaycountry and impossible to obtain. In many casesit may be impossible to prove that the personclaiming asylum is even from the country thatthey claim to be from. Asylum decisions aretherefore based largely on a judgement call bythe investigating officer on whether they thingthe person in front of them is being truthful ornot – that leaves the system open to motivatedpeople who are economic migrants or may evenpose a security threat.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-simhbrasnba-con03b", "title": "", "text": "society immigration minorities house believesright asylum should not be absoluteDemocraticnations can support like-minded groups in allmanner of other ways, such as funding andtraining opposition groups, giving theminternational representation, and by applyingpressure to oppressive governments. Withindividual asylum applicants they are still facedwith the same problem of assessing who hasgenuinely taken a “brave and noble” step, whichis very hard. Furthermore it is not at all clearthat the hope of asylum is a motivator towardspolitical action. Revolutions and resistance forcesexisted long before the creation of any formalasylum regime, and continue in thecontemporary absence of any access to them.Often by harbouring those who have opposedoppressive regimes, perhaps in a similarly violentmanner, states drastically reduce their ability tonegotiate with and apply leverage to theauthoritarian governments that are the problemin the first place.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-simhbrasnba-con01b", "title": "", "text": "society immigration minorities house believesright asylum should not be absoluteIt would benice to offer safety to everyone who genuinelydeserved it, but practically it is almost impossibleto tell who is genuinely fleeing persecution, andwho is simply seeking economic benefit. In manycases there may be a combination of the two.Tracking down the histories of applicants toverify their claim is frequently impossible, andenormously expensive. The point of moralobligations as opposed to legal obligations is thatit is the donor who decides how great theirsacrifice should be. States may perfectly fairlydecide to try to protect refugees in moreaffordable and uncontroversial ways, such asproviding aid to refugee camps and foreigngovernments who work nearer crisis areas.Accepting refugees is not obligatory.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-simhbrasnba-con02a", "title": "", "text": "society immigration minorities house believesright asylum should not be absoluteThe rights ofrefugees are a cornerstone of internationallaw Signatories of The 1951 Convention onRefugees have a legal responsibility to offerasylum to any foreign national who has awell-founded fear of persecution, for political,religious, ethnic or social reasons, and who isunwilling to return home. Moreover the refugeeis protected against forcible return when his lifemay be threatened, something which is anobligation even for countries which are notparties to the convention bust respect as it ispart of international customary law. [1] Thistreaty is one of the cornerstones of internationalhuman rights law, and as such states shoulduphold it to the letter. [1] Jastram, Kate, andAchiron, Marilyn, Refugee Protection: A Guide toInternational Refugee Law’, P.14.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-simhbrasnba-con03a", "title": "", "text": "society immigration minorities house believesright asylum should not be absoluteWe mustpractice what we preach Democratic nationspreach the language of freedom, human rightsand justice. They encourage those who liveunder oppression to oppose their rulers and worktowards these goals. This is all rendered hollow,and hypocritical if they then refuse to protectindividuals who are persecuted for taking thebrave and noble step of working to improve theirsocieties. Not only is this a moral failing butpractically very harmful too. It is in the interestsof democratic nations to spread democracy andpeaceful forms of government. If the people ofauthoritarian nations don't feel they have thesupport of other, then the incentive for them torisk everything and stand up in the name offreedom is diminished, and so too the bestchance of change in such oppressive regimes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-simhbrasnba-con01a", "title": "", "text": "society immigration minorities house believesright asylum should not be absoluteWe have aduty to help the persecuted The principles whichunderlie the asylum regime are as valid as ever.Millions still face persecution, death and tortureglobally because of who they are or because oftheir convictions. Democratic countries still havea moral obligation to offer protection to thesepeople. We all recognise it as a horrendousfailing by the countries who turned away Jewishrefugees in the early days of Nazism where boththe United States and the UK turned away largenumbers or refugees, [1] and only theDominican Republic was willing to take in largenumbers. [2] This should never happen again.Developed nations have both the wealth andsecurity to make them the best destinations forthose seeking refuge. [1] Perl, William R., ‘TheHolocaust conspiracy: an international policy ofgenocide’, 1989, pp.37-51 [2] Museum ofJewish Heritage, ‘”A Community Born in Pain andNurtured in Love” Jews who were given refuge", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-simhbrasnba-con02b", "title": "", "text": "society immigration minorities house believesright asylum should not be absoluteTheConvention on Refugeehood was written in, andfor, a totally different world. Its framers wouldnever have anticipated the ease with whichglobal travel is now possible, allowing hugenumbers both legitimate and illegitimate to applyfor asylum. Migrants can now move betweencountries with ease, 'shopping' for the place theysee as being softest. If democracies feel thesenumbers are too great they should always putrestricting them ahead of out of date laws.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireOppositionagree that the culture and law of a nation has aprodigious impact on the conscience of itscivilians. However, according to AlcindaHonwana, an anthropologist and authority on thetopic of child soldiers, the problem does not\"have its roots in African traditional culture.\" [i]Although culture has an impact on society, theissue of child soldiers is not affiliated withit. Side proposition implied that conscriptingchildren should be excusable if it is permitted byan authoritative body of local law. However, arelaws based on value-sets that do not aspire to anaccessible law making process more valid thanthe abiding law of that nation? No. Sideopposition believe that the \"rule of law is a legalmaxim according to which no one is immune tothe law.” The fundamental purpose ofgovernment is the maintenance and promotionof basic security and public order. Without it thenation will deteriorate. The proposition", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireTheproposition understates the extent to which theneeds of child soldiers are catered to byinternational justice bodies. The Paris Principles[i] , which are used to guide the formation andfunctions of national human rights organisations,state that “3.6 Children who are accused ofcrimes under international law allegedlycommitted while they were associated witharmed forces or armed groups should beconsidered primarily as victims of offencesagainst international law; not only asperpetrators... 3.7 Wherever possible,alternatives to judicial proceedings must besought, in line with the Convention on the Rightsof the Child and other international standards forjuvenile justice.” Although not strictly binding,an onus is placed on bodies such as the ICC toseek alternatives to the trial process whendealing with children. (The Principles define achild as anyone less than 18 years of age). Even", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireSideproposition are attempting to make an argumentin favour of reforming the ICC’s prosecutionguidelines, but are doing so in terms of theculturally relative definition of adulthood. Inother words, side proposition are trying todiscuss war, realpolitik and international justiceusing the language of social anthropology. Thisapproach is flawed. Arguments about theappropriate age to allow a child to hunt, to leaveschool or to marry pale beside the life-and-deathsignificance of participation in warfare. A childdoes not become an adult by acting like asoldier, and those who recruit children intomilitary organisations do not necessarily viewthem as adults. Indeed, children are seen aseasy targets for recruitment, due to theiremotional immaturity, their gullibility anddeference to those who wield authority. Childrenmay join armed groups out of necessity, and inthe interests of survival, but this does not mean", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireThe ICC is notlikely to target children or the leaders ofmarginalised communities when prosecuting theuse of child soldiers. Officials of states partieswho play a role in commanding and deployingmilitary units can be held liable for failing toprevent the use of child soldiers at a locallevel. If the agony of their circumstances forcesa community to recruit ever younger boys intoits militia, then officers, ministers or heads ofstate, along with the commanders of non-stateactors, can be brought to trial for allowingchildren to be used as soldiers. This will be thecase whether these individuals do so negligentlyor by omission. A guilty party need not engage ina positive act. ICC prosecutors and judgesexercise their discretion in order to avoid thetypes of injustice that the proposition describes.The lack of prosecutions relating to the ad-hocuse of child soldiers by pro-independence groupsin South Sudan underlies this fact [i]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireAs notedabove, the definition of adulthood acceptedwithin western liberal democracies is not acultural absolute. It can be argued that the legalcut-off point- be it sixteen, eighteen ortwenty-one years of age- is largely arbitrary.Children who care for disabled parents take onadult responsibilities inconceivable to manyundergraduate students. Many developing worldcultures would regard the under-emphasis ofpractical skills and physical training that exists inthe education systems of knowledge-basedwestern economies to be tantamount toneglect. In both war-torn Afghanistan andpeaceful Botswana, a boy of fourteen isconsidered old enough and able enough to hunt;to protect his younger siblings; to marry or to beresponsible for a harvest. Why should an Afghanichild or his parents be condemned for allowinghim to participate in the defence of hiscommunity? A family in a similar position in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireThe purposeof the resolution is not to eliminate conflict in thedeveloping world. Side proposition are merelyseeking to remove the harmful side effects of theway in which the use of child soldiers is currentlyprosecuted – the risk of criminalising childrenand teenagers, the stigma attached to being achild soldier, and the condemnation ofcommunities that rely on child soldiers forprotection. Children are already the victims ofatrocities perpetrated against civilians. Theyalready volunteer to engage in military service.Armed groups that target civilian populationshave already broken international law and haveproven willing to do so repeatedly. Children willalways be a target, whether or not they havesought out the means with which to defendthemselves. With the international communityunwilling to provide wide-ranging policing andsupervision of international legal norms, it is notjust to condemn individuals and communities", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-tlhrilsfhwr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "traditions law human rights international lawsociety family house would requireIt is notsufficient to observe that there exist groups thatuse brutality to recruit and control child soldiers.As accounts of conflicts in South Sudan andMyanmar show, politically motivated recruitmentof children is less common than childrenvolunteering through necessity. Side oppositionshould not overlook the fact that there are fewconstructive alternatives available to children insuch situations. Educational institutions are oftenthe first forms of state support to be withdrawnwhen war breaks out. Many children areorphaned as a result of the indiscriminatetargeting of civilians. Taking flight as a refugeemay postpone a child’s exposure to conflict, butis rarely useful in escaping it. Proposition havealready established that child soldiers do notoriginate exclusively within state-based bodies ororganised opposition groups seeking control of astate. They are just as likely to be the productsof necessity or non-western conceptions of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epsihbdns-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldPeople whomove to the cities have chosen to move fromtheir families and dear ones, because they wantto create a new and better life for themselves.Armed with great motivation, they enter thecities and are often prepared to undertake workthat others do not want to do, hoping to climbthe social ladder later on. Interestingly it is oftenthe case that those in slums have a higher rateof employment than those not living in slums. InUganda for example only 9% of young men areneither in school or employment compared to16% for those not living in slums. [1] Thisbenefits the development of the city and it isonly with this extra workforce that the city canfully develop, thus most big cities have at somepoint had slums, such as London’s East End inthe 19th Century. It might take time, but for thelong-term benefits of the cities, rural-urbanmigration should be promoted. An example ofthis slow kind of development is the progress", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epsihbdns-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldThe argumentis based on the idea that there is a lot ofinvestment that is just waiting to be made inrural areas. In reality, this is not so. Until thereare real investors who are prepared to changethe conditions of rural areas in developingcountries, it is morally bankrupt to force peopleto remain in an untenable situation as marketingmaterial for hypothetical investment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epsihbdns-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldThegovernment has a right to make some decisionson behalf of the people, but not any decision.Once the state acts against one group of peopleto further the interest of an already privilegedgroup of people it loses this right as the stateexists to protect everyone in society not just themajority or a privileged group. This is preciselythe case in this motion. People who live in ruralareas are already disenfranchised andcondemned to terrible conditions, and theproposal only serves those who want theircomfortable bourgeois life to be even morecomfortable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epsihbdns-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldThe principleat the heart of this debate is that of the rights ofthe individual. While it might be true that a largegroup of people make uninformed decisions, aban on any decisions in relation to where peoplelive will keep the individuals from making anydecisions, informed and uninformed. Thedamage to those who actually could improvetheir lives greatly outweighs the benefits,especially as the resources that would be neededfor this policy could be used to educate andinform people in rural areas and thus improvethe basis of their decisions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epsihbdns-con03b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldThis kind ofargument underestimates the capacity of humanpotential. People in rural communities devote alltheir efforts and their creativity towards gettingto the cities because they believe it is the bestfor them and their families. If they do not havethis option, they can devote that energy to theircommunity and make it grow to compete withthe cities. It is then the duty of the governmentthat imposes this restriction to support suchcommitments by giving them the right conditionsto improve their situation by investing in ruralareas as much as urban ones.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epsihbdns-con01b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldFreedom ofmovement is not an intrinsic human right, butrather a right that can and should be given bythe state where it is possible. For example thestate puts people into prisons; this infringes theirfreedom of movement. This is partially aspunishment, but the core rationale for this is toprotect the people outside of the prison frompotentially dangerous people. [1] But for that,there would be significantly cheaper and moreefficient ways of punishing criminals. The peoplewhose freedom of movement is restricted are athreat to people living in the cities and to theeconomy of the nation as a whole. In the betterinterest of the nation and to protect innocentpeople whose lives will be damaged byunrestricted migration, these people must acceptrestricted freedom of movement. [1] See thedebatabase debate ‘ This House believes criminaljustice should focus more on rehabilitation ’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epsihbdns-con04b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldWhile factuallytrue for developed nations, this point completelydisregards the reality of developing nations. Mostof the labour that is available is unskilled,whether it is in the rural or urban communities.There is little reason to believe that the poor willautomatically be able to gain better educationshould they move to the city. The harm causedby letting migrants flood the cities to lead amiserable life greatly outweighs that of havingone or two too intelligent farmers who miss outon their calling.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "test-society-epsihbdns-con02b", "title": "", "text": "economic policy society immigration housebelieves developing nations shouldNo amount ofconfusion can compare with the nearly anarchicalstate of places like Nairobi, where there is no lawand very little state. [1] In the current situationwhere there is a menacing trend that threatensthe very fabric of society, even if the law wouldnot work to its full effect, it is better for it towork partially than not to have it at all.Corruption is a separate issue that alreadyfesters in these regions under the status quo anddoes not need this extra policy to thrive. Thismust be dealt with separately, but it is indeedregrettable if a good policy is kept from beingput into practice from fear of a phenomenon thatis in no manner causally contingent upon thepolicy. [1] Maxwell, Daniel., “The PoliticalEconomy of Urban Food Security in Sub-SaharanAfrica.” 11, London : Elsevier Science Ltd., 1999,World Development, Vol. 27, p. 1939±1953.S0305-750X(99)00101-1.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This harm, realistically, is minimal. Those whowant to buy guns would still buy them illegallywithout 3D printers. Guns can be cheap in theblack market since they can be mass produced,and to print a gun one first has to purchase aprinter, the materials and often also theblueprints. This is similarly the case for otherillegal substances. The risk that things can beused for harmful purposes is not a sufficientreason, because those who want to harmthemselves or others have the means to do soalready. That is why the Madrid bombers wereable to develop their own bombs from theinternet before 3D printers had been developed:where there is a will, there will always be a way,and it is the will and not the way that it is everuseful to tackle.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Private 3D printers make it impossible toregulate illegal products As the technologydevelops, it seems likely that guns like the onecreated by Defense Distributed will continue toappear, becoming cheaper, more functional andmore accessible. While the US succeeded inpromptly removing the blueprints, removingblueprints from the internet will quickly proveimpossible as the phenomenon inevitablybecomes more widespread.5 This is dangerousfor all the same reasons that we do not allowpeople to produce their own weapons: we cannotensure criminals or mentally ill people do notgain access to them, and we cannot track themafter they have been used to commit a crime.Furthermore, they can be made of plastic, thusmaking them essentially undetectable to mostsecurity scans. When weapons become so easilyaccessible, crimes become easier for terrorists orcriminals to commit, and thus more crimes takeplace. By banning printers before blueprintsspread, we could avoid disasters such as the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "If you purchase a poor quality product, you arethe one to blame: this is already the case now ifone chooses to buy a cheaper product from aless reliable source. Under a 3D printer marketyou are still likely to be purchasing most of yourproducts from reliable brands with an incentiveto keep producing quality products as they wantyou to return and buy more of their products. Ifyou choose not to, you are aware of the risk youtake, and can easily inform yourself of the riskson peer review websites and forums beforemaking your choice.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Solid piracy will become as problematic as virtualpiracy Intellectual property law is split intocopyright, design protection, patents, andtrademarks. All areas can be easily infringed by3D printing.13 There is no meaningful way ofsustaining these laws against individuals whochoose to use 3D printers to benefit from thehard work of others. Much in the same way onecan steal music online, blueprints for productscan be decoded or stolen and subsequentlyreproduced at almost no expense. It may beimpossible to determine where this has beendone.14 This is unjust in itself, but it also createsa large deterrent from innovating by removingthe profit incentive. Corporations and individualswill be pushed away from creating high qualityinnovative products if they know their blueprintscan be pirated and spread online for free or forless than they themselves charge, making theireffort in creating them worthless. [13] Gehl,Mary. “The Implications of 3D Printing”,Technology, Koinonia House. September", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "3D printers promote uncontrolledconsumerism While 3D printing mayrevolutionise professional manufacturing andlead to less waste, in the household it promotesmindless consumerism. By producing anythingdesired cheaply and more accessibly, withouteven having to leave your house, they encouragepeople consume much more than they otherwisewould. This happens because individualconsumers tend not to be concerned about thesustainability implications of every purchase:they will do so even less when 3D printers allowinstant gratification. On one hand, it can makepeople more dependent on material possessions,which makes it harder for them to attain moresustainable forms of happiness. Additionally, thiseventually leads to more waste andoverproduction, reversing all the potentialbenefits of industrial 3D printing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Yes, perhaps in the short term the excitement ofa 3D printer will make people print more thanthey can make use of. In the long run, however,it is likely that by making goods more affordablefor everyone 3D printers will be able to reduceproblems of scarcity. When people have a moreequal access to necessities, material possessionscease to become such a symbol of power, andthey become less important for people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "For the people for whom the illegality of piracy isnot a deterrent, the illegality of owning adomestic 3D printer will not be an obstacleeither. Banning 3D printers may only result inlarge scale 3D printer manufacturingpiracy. Under this model, on the other hand,even if there is a slight infringement onintellectual property, a tax can be imposed onthe private ownership on 3D printers that is usedfor rewarding innovation.15 [15] See “Thishouse would abolish intellectual property rights”,Debatabase.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "This argument ignores the massive impact 3Dprinters can have on long-term sustainability, byproviding access to the goods the Third Worldneeds to get out of poverty.10 Food, water,medicine and shelter are examples of things thatare expensive to transport and difficult tospread, and yet can be produced by 3D printersat a much lower cost. When the things that arescarce in the third world become less scarce,developing countries will be able to competemore fairly with the Western world. Even in theshort term, these harms will not happen. Theonly short term consequence will be a shift fromthis labour-intensive form of production intoanother labour-intensive sector. A massivesurplus of cheap labour will still attract newinvestors in other sectors where 3D printers donot have a monopoly. This is already the casewith investment into call centres in India and thePhilippines11, and tourism throughout thedeveloping world12. [10] “A third-worlddimension”, The Economist. 3 November 2012. ", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Technology should not circumvent consumerprotection laws The great appeal of 3D printersis that they make consuming more efficient thannormal methods: however, normal methods areinefficient in part because they undergoimportant checks and balances. Without properregulations, standards are quickly dropped tosave money and the health of thousands ofconsumers is put at risk. Such is the case inChina, where consumer protection regulationsare inefficient.7 Through 3D printing thisbecomes a global problem. Any company, real orfake, can sell products online without themhaving been approved. This means that peoplemay buy dangerous products from unidentifiable,and thus legally unaccountable, companies.Shifting the burden of ensuring safety standardsaway from companies and onto consumers, whohave significantly less information, is a threat toconsumers’ health and safety. [7] “China againheads EU’s dangerous products list”, EUbusiness.16 April 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Household 3D printing can, in the short term,destroy developing economies All nations todevelop economically depend on the importationof capital. In most cases, this takes the shape oflabour-intense manufacturing. In fact, scarcelyany countries have developed withouttransitioning through having a largemanufacturing sector.8 It takes time for thesecountries to develop the capital andinfrastructure to enter higher barrier to entrymarkets, such as the service sector.Transitioning without of manufacturing istherefore not an option for the majority ofdeveloping nations, and the exceptions that havesucceeded in creating economic growth withoutlarge scale manufacturing, such as India and SriLanka, relied on spectacular luck.9 As a result,many developing nations depend on exportingcheap products to the developed world, whereconsumption is the highest. If demand for thegoods they produce is satisfied in the developedworld, such countries will be unable to export.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The difference is minimal between onlycompanies having 3D printers and extendingthem to households. Printer owners would, forexample, still have to purchase and transportprinting materials. Many printers still involvelarge levels of waste19, and these are probablythe lower quality printers that individualconsumers are more likely to afford.Furthermore, household printing can actuallyharm the environment by provoking people toconsume more than they would if price andconvenience were deterrents. Industrial printingon its own can make a significant difference interms of eco-friendly production: this should notbe compromised by dropping all limits onproduction. [19] Faludi, Jeremy. “Is 3D printingan environmental win?”, GreenBiz. 19 July 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is still a need for expertise: although theymake manufacturing easier, 3D printers requireknowledge that most people do not have. Mostpeople will still be unable to create mostproducts from scratch (and it may be dangerousto try). Individuals will therefore still have to relyon companies for their everyday needs. It is alsountrue that they will never have to leave theirhome, since they will also need to purchase andtransport printing materials.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Banning 3D printers wastes a chance forinnovation Right now, there are large barriers toentry for individuals and small companies tryingto enter any market. Economies of scale make ithard for them to compete with largemanufacturers, and they are additionally boundto slow and inefficient quality regulations. Thisseverely limits any kind of innovation. Thecollective possession of 3D printers wouldfacilitate creation. Anybody could have an ideaand implement it into a solid product, which ischeap to produce in your own home withouteconomies of scale. There are already examplesall over the world of people creating innovatingprototypes and attracting investors16. 3Dprinting therefore means that anyone can set upin manufacturing without large start-up costs.This means that the flow of ideas in society andthe discussion that accompanies it – such aspeople posting blueprints on blogs and forumsand improving each other’s products – woulddevelop infinitely faster than when it is limited to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The state should refrain from imposing bans InWestern liberal democracies, we generallyconsider an individual’s private sphere to beworth protecting. We only give the state licenseto violate it when something is objectively largelyharmful to that person or to society. Whensomething is not very clearly harmful we letpeople make their own decisions because thestate is not infallible in its judgements aboutwhat lifestyles are better than others. Therefore,simply saying that there is a risk that printerswill be misused is not sufficient grounds forbanning them altogether. If technology makes iteasier for people to do what they want, this is agood thing; if people then want to do things thatwe consider harmful this is a problem in itself.The solution is not to ban an entire means ofproduction in order to stop a minority fromproducing dangerous things, but to educatepeople about the risks so they can freely makebetter decisions. Making it harder for people todo bad things is useless, furthermore, since", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con04a", "title": "", "text": "3D printing opens the doors to a post-scarcitysociety Industrial 3D printing allows for acheaper, faster and more sustainable form ofproduction, but somebody still has to sell andpurchase the products. Household 3D printersgive people the possibility of producing otherwiseinaccessible things for a minimal cost, up tohundreds of times cheaper than their currentstore price20. Numerous websites, such asThingiverse21, already act as databases for freeprintable designs. This trend would allow peopleto save thousands on necessities: food,appliances, medicine, and human organs aresome examples. Even systems for powerproduction or more efficient ways of collectingsustainable energy could be created. This wouldmake scarcity disappear as we know it, and thustackle one of society’s greatest problems. This isa very long way off even with 3D printers but if itis to occur it is essential that the means ofproduction not be monopolised bycompanies. [20] Kelly, Heather. “Study:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Household 3D printers would reduce theenvironmental harms of consuming The more isproduced by 3D printing, the better: it makesconsuming much more environmentally friendly.They involve less transportation costs, no largescale factories, and by involving additivemanufacturing, they can use as little as only atenth of the material that subtractivemanufacturing would require.18 Whenhouseholds, and not only companies, haveaccess to 3D printers, companies will no longerhave to move products around the world, but cansell electronic blueprints instead. Furthermore,things are only actually produced after they havebeen purchased, reducing waste evenmore. [18] “Print me a Stradivarius”, TheEconomist. 10 February 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con05b", "title": "", "text": "The restrictions on what the state can ban areonly valid inasmuch as they protect fundamentalright. The supposed right to 3D printers is notfundamental, but is derived from a right to owngood things, if they are available. If the state canprovide an alternative that yields similar benefitsit does not actually infringe any fundamentalright by banning their domestic use. Forexample, industrial 3D printed manufacturingalso provides cheap and innovative products. Onthe other hand, the potential harms of domesticprinters are exponential, and we do not have aright to anything that causes harm to society.The state therefore has a mandate to ban 3Dprinters in households.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Democratising manufacturing gives people morefreedom Individuals are the most fit to decidefor themselves what they need and what theywant to be happy. When corporations attempt tomatch demand they do so imperfectly becausethey have to cater to large numbers of people.Letting people create and customise whateverthey want gives them, quite literally, an infiniteselection to choose from. This maximisesfreedom for the consumer and leads to a betterquality of life: most of your needs can be metexactly as you want them, without even havingto leave your home.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con04b", "title": "", "text": "A post-scarcity society is unrealistic. 3D printersstill come with large costs, in terms ofmachinery, materials and blueprints. Those thatcan afford the more complex printers and thehigher quality materials will benefit much morethan others. While these costs exist, and there isno near future in which they do not, scarcity willcontinue to be a problem. This is especially thecase since the need for expertise remains. Thevast majority of products of reasonable qualitywill still be produced by corporations with a profitincentive, and available only to those who canafford them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pscisghwbs3-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Household 3D printers will, in practice, hamperinnovation both from companies and individuals.Firstly, individuals will still be faced with thelarge barrier to entry of lacking sufficientexpertise to produce much of what they want.Any “flow of ideas” that may arise will only becomposed of low-quality designs. Secondly,individuals will have less incentive to innovatewhen the market is out of control and freedesigns are floating all over the internet. Anyattempt at differentiation is impossible. Thirdly,and more importantly, the problems withcopyright law once 3D printers are domestic willdeter both companies and individuals frominnovating. Revolutionary products require effortand knowledge to design: they will not becreated without a profit incentive.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-eegwiahbe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Despite Ethiopia’s economic dreams, demandrisk may mean a shortfall in profits. Internally,supply may exceed demand once the GERD iscomplete. The unaffordability of energy has ledto low demands for electricity in the past. Thepossible reductions in subsidies to repay loansfor building the dam will increase prices, whichwill then lower demand further [1] . Exportingthe energy may not work either. To export powerEthiopia needs neighbours with developedtransmission lines and a willingness to buy theelectricity. The weak economic position ofcountries like Sudan [2] and poor relations withothers suggest that international buyers won’t betoo forthcoming. [1] Wikipedia ‘Dams andHydropower in Ethiopia’ date accessed12/12/13 [2] World Bank ‘Project AppraisalDocument on a Proposed Credit in the amount ofSDR 26.44 Million’ 20 November 2007 p.20", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-eegwiahbe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Economic benefits of the dam for Ethiopia Thedam will produce significant economic potentialfor Ethiopia. In 2013, Ethiopia had to import125,000 metric tonnes of coal to fuel its powerstations. Over 50% of the country’s imports areorientated towards meeting its fuel demands [1]. If Ethiopia can replace these imports with itsown energy then it can make significant savings.The diverted money could be contributedtowards development, which would be assistedby greater accessibility to electricity. In additionto this, 12,000 jobs will be created [2] andEthiopia will become an energy exporter. Theexcess energy from powering Africa will beenough to supply the surrounding region, makingenergy a viable export market for Ethiopia to tapin to [3] . In combination with the greater accesselectricity dependent to income-generatingactivities, these factors give Ethiopia hope of apositive economic future. [1] Tekle,T. ‘Ethiopiaimports $1 billion in fuel from Sudan via Djibouti’in Sudan Tribune 30 March 2013 [2] Joy,O.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-eegwiahbe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "GERD will have environmentally positiveconsequences for the region. The majorenvironmental benefit is the clean and renewableenergy source. There is an unlimited supply ofelectricity and the production of this energy doesnot contribute to global carbon dioxideemissions. Another environmental benefit is thatthe dam will reduce the chances of floodingdownstream and drought, enabling the countryto better combat climate change which isworsening these factors [1] . Flood protectionwill prevent settled areas from being destroyedthrough rising river levels, benefitting Sudan andEgypt as well as Ethiopia. [1] Consulate Generalof Ethiopia, Los Angeles ‘Grand EthiopianRenaissance Dam’ data accessed 12/12/13", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-eegwiahbe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The dam is predicted to provide energy for all ofEthiopia When the dam is in full effect, it shouldbe able to provide the entirety of Ethiopia’spopulation with electricity. The United NationsFoundation placed access to energy as a highpriority for developing countries, it enablesaccess to key services and enables moreincome-generating activities [1] . If Ethiopiadiscontinued the project, then they woulddeprive their citizens of economic and healthsecurity. Using energy from a dam will have itsown benefits. The energy will be renewablesource and will provide energy security for thisdeveloping state, thus justifying the project. [1]The United Nations Foundation ‘What We do:Achieving Universal Energy Access’ dataaccessed 10 December 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-eegwiahbe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While in theory the 6,000 MW dam can power allof Ethiopia, the reality is quite different. Areas ofEthiopia, such as Ogaden and Eritrea-Ethiopianborder, are relatively unstable; making it hard tobuild a sufficient power grid in these regions. InOgaden, instability in the past led to thewithdrawal from the oil fields [1] , and thisconflict-zone will most likely make thecompletion of a national grid a problem. Thehurdles to producing the means to provideenergy to these areas means that there probablywill not be universal access to the GERD’selectricity. [1] Wikipedia ‘Ethiopia: Exports’ dateaccessed 10 December 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-eegwiahbe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Environmental Benefits of the GERD GERD willhave environmentally positive consequences forthe region. The major environmental benefit isthe clean and renewable energy source. There isan unlimited supply of electricity and theproduction of this energy does not contribute toglobal carbon dioxide emissions. Anotherenvironmental benefit is that the dam will reducethe chances of flooding downstream anddrought, enabling the country to better combatclimate change which is worsening these factors[1] . Flood protection will prevent settled areasfrom being destroyed through rising river levels,benefitting Sudan and Egypt as well asEthiopia. [1] Consulate General of Ethiopia, LosAngeles ‘Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam’ dataaccessed 12/12/13", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-eegwiahbe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "A contender to Natural Flow Theory is theDoctrine of Reasonable Use. This theory statesthat water can be used as long as it does notcause unreasonable damage to the flow. Whilethere will be some loss of water to evaporation inGERD reservoir, it is predicted to be minimalcompared to other dams in the region [1] . Thethreat from the irrigation projects can also bemitigated by developing more efficienttechniques, which is a high priority of the NileBasin Initiative [2] . [1] Water Technology‘Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Project’ Dataaccessed 12/12/13 [2] ‘Nile Water: Downstreamversus upstream countries’ 27 May 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-eegwiahbe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The colonial era agreement is outdated and doesnot apply to the modern world. Ethiopia’spopulation has now exceeded 90 million, which ismore than Egypt’s 83 million, and yet it only hasa small claim to the river. Many upstreamcountries, like Uganda, feel that the downstreamcountries have constrained and damaged themby denying access to majority of the Nile’s water[1] . These states have created a new agreementthe Cooperative Framework Agreement in whichthere is a “principle of equitable… utilization” andeach “state has the right to use within itsterritory”. [2] The upstream countries arguesupersedes the old colonial treaty if it ever hadany validity. [3] The Ethiopian government hasassured Egypt and Sudan that they will receiveenough water to live off comfortably. Sudan hasbeen satisfied by the rearrangements [4] whichimplies that Ethiopia will not deprive downstreamcountries of access to the Nile. [1]Schwartzstein, Water Wars [2] ‘Article 3’,Agreement on the Nile River Basin Cooperative", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-eegwiahbe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Ethiopia does not need another hydroelectricdam Ethiopia’s decision to become an energyhub has led to the construction of unnecessarydams in the face of viable alternatives. Ethiopiahas already constructed nine dams whichproduce more energy than the country consumes[1] . A significant disadvantage of these dams isthat droughts can lower their energy outputwhich, combined with lower river levels for ninemonths of the year, results in the dams beingineffective [2] . The Ethiopian government hasalready announced plans for a geothermal plantbeing built for 2018 to offset the disadvantagesof the current dams [3] . The geothermal plantcosts $0.7 billion less than the hydroelectricdam, and the company constructing it claim itwill produce twice as much energy as thehydroelectric dam when the latter is at its peak[4] . It would be more viable, therefore, to investin thermal energy rather than anotherhydroelectric project. [1] US Energy InformationAdministration ‘Ethiopia’ 30 April 2013 [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-eegwiahbe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Natural Flow Theory Natural Flow Theory (NTF)is the concept that every riparian user (landtouching the water) has a right to the waterunaltered and undiminished [1] . Dams tend notto disrupt water flow directly, however water useand evaporation from the large reservoirupstream from the dam could reduce the flow ofthe Blue Nile. In turn, this could affectdownstream countries. Evaporation from theAswan dam in Ethiopia amounts to around 14billion cubic metres [2] . The GERD will facesimilar problems, meaning that the downstreamcountries will have a reduced water flow. Thereservoir will also become a tempting target forlarge agricultural businesses as well. Thesecompanies, many of them foreign, have takenpart in ’land grabbing’ to secure water before forlarge irrigation projects [3] and could potentiallytap in to the large reservoir. A similar example isthe Colorado River, where dams and irrigationprojects have reduced the flow of the river andimpacted heavily on the river delta [4] . These", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-eegwiahbe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Egypt and Sudan will have their legal rightsinfringed The two downstream countries have acombined claim to a majority of the River Nile’swater. Through the Nile Waters Agreement, anold colonial treaty, Egypt and Sudan are owed 48billion m³ and 4 billion m³ of water from the Nilerespectively [1] . Each country also has a vetoon any upriver activity. Both of these rights areknown but ignored by the Ethiopian government,in violation of an internationally recognisedtreaty. This has led Egypt to be particularlyprominent in claiming that their rights are beingabused as 70 billion m³ of water from the BlueNile (which they are dependent on) is used bythe Ethiopians. This is a violation of the NileRivers Agreement and demonstrates Ethiopia’spoor position to justify the GERDconstruction. [1] Azikiwe,A. Water and theGeopolitics of the Nile Valley: Egypt confrontsEthiopia, GlobalResearch.ca", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-eegwiahbe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Geothermal power plants have their owndrawbacks as well. Prime sites are often far awayfrom population centres which means that thereare losses of electricity between the plant andthe customers. Drilling into heated rock is adifficult process and once complete there mustbe constant management to ensure that thesource is not overused [1] . [1] Siegel,R.P.‘Geothermal Energy: Pros and Cons’, TriplePundits 15 June 12", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cegwhwbhd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Hydroelectric dams require massive initialinvestments. True, dams generate cheapelectricity, when the dams are eventually built.But building dams is incredibly costly. Actualcosts for hydropower dams are almost always farhigher than estimated; in a number of cases, theactual cost was more than double the estimatedcost. The Itaipu Dam in South America cost $20billion and took 18 years to build. This was 488%higher than originally estimated. [1] Given thatthere are cheaper alternatives than large-scaledams for renewable and accessible energy, damsaren’t worth it from an economicperspective. [1] International Rivers, FrequentlyAsked Questions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cegwhwbhd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Hydroelectric dams provide cheap access torenewable energy In 2010, about 1.4 billionpeople had no access to electricity. [1]Hydropower provides a source of energy that ischeaper even than conventional coal. [2] Largedams can last for over a hundred years [3] andare easy to switch on and off according todemand, making them very cost-effective. Giventhat having no access to electricity makes workand study nearly impossible, alleviating globalpoverty by giving access to electricity is animportant step to take. [1] IEA, Access toElectricity, 2010 [2] Wikipedia. Cost ofelectricity by source. [3] WWF, Dam Right!,2003", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cegwhwbhd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "As well as benefits hydroelectric dams haveadded dangers. Dams increase the risk ofearthquakes, because the weight of thewater-reservoir impacts the Earth’s crustunderneath. [1] Moreover, big dams run the riskof bursting, causing massive damage in theirwake. The bursting of the Chinese Banqiao damin 1975 is estimated to have cost about 230,000lives. [2] [1] BBC News, ‘Earthquake risk fromdams’, 2002 [2] The New Internationalist, ‘Bigdams, big trouble’, 2003", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cegwhwbhd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Hydro electric dams reduce carbon dioxideemissions Hydroelectric dams burn no fossilfuels so emit no greenhouse gasses at all inproducing energy. Suppose we replace all coalfired power stations with hydroelectric powerstations. In 2010, over 42% of global electricityproduction was produced through coal,accounting for over 28% of global carbon dioxideemissions. [1] Since there is more than enoughpotential capacity for hydropower, [2] we couldhypothetically completely replace coal and evenother fossil fuels for electricity, thus helping cutdown greenhouse gas emissions massively. [1]IEA, Power generation from coal, 2010 [2]Energy Consumers Edge. Hydropower dams prosand cons.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cegwhwbhd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Hydroelectric dams don’t reduce carbon dioxideemissions. Dams currently hold off about 15% ofglobal freshwater runoff. If we want to sustainbiodiversity and river-related goods and services,we can’t easily increase the number of dams. [1]Also: building dams requires cutting downforests, which themselves are important tools incombating greenhouse gases, since theyconsume and ‘lock up’ carbon dioxide. Plus, theconstruction of the dams themselves releasescarbon dioxide. Finally: global energy demand isexpected to continue increasing, [2] meaningthat hydropower will probably just be added tothe supply and not replace coal. [1]International Rivers, Frequently AskedQuestions. [2] IEA, World Energy Outlook,2010, Executive summary", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cegwhwbhd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Hydroelectric dams can be used to provide floodcontrol and irrigation The large water reservoirscreated by hydroelectric dams can providefacilities for water sports and can become touristattractions themselves. The reservoirs can beused for irrigation to help farmers and can be ameans for flood control. A prime example of thisis the Tennessee Valley Authority, anorganisation responsible for flood control,electricity generation, economic developmentand even fertilizer generation in the TennesseeValley in the U.S., spanning parts of Alabama,Mississippi, Kentucky, Georgia, North Carolinaand Virginia. [1] [1] Tennessee Valley Authority,homepage.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cegwhwbhd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Hydroelectric dams don’t destroy communities,governments do. Building dams only violateshuman rights if the governments building themdo so. That’s why we never heard of large-scalehuman rights violations when the Hoover Dam inthe United States was built. Moreover,responsible dam builders in the InternationalHydropower Association have taken steps toensure they build dams with the utmost respectfor human rights, through the guidelinesmentioned above.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cegwhwbhd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Hydroelectric dams can mitigate methaneemissions. Dams can capture the methanereleased from their reservoir and even use it totheir benefit: an experimental project in Brazilshowed that hydroelectric dams can capture themethane and burn it to produce even moreenergy, whilst at the same time preventing themethane from being released. [1] [1] BBCNews, Earthquake risk from dams, 2002", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cegwhwbhd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Hydro electric dams destroy existingecosystems Large dams wreak havoc with theenvironment: they destroy habitats andecosystems both further upstream anddownstream. They prevent salmon fromswimming upstream to spawn. The water goingthrough them is often warmer and devoid ofnutrients, depriving downstream riverine wildlifeof their natural habitat. A shocking example isChina’s Three Gorges Dam, which ScientificAmerican called ‘an environmental disaster’.[1] [1] Scientific American, ‘China’s ThreeGorges Dam: An environmental disaster?’ 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cegwhwbhd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Hydroelectric dams destroy communities Whatapplies to the environment, also applies to thehuman communities. Building dams ofteninvolves relocating people and removing themfrom their ancestral homelands. For example,China’s Three Gorges Dam involved relocating1.3 million people, [1] involved severe humanrights abuses [2] and has had dire socialconsequences. [3] [1] CBS News, ‘ChinaCompletes Three Gorges Dam’, 2009 [2]International Rivers, Human Rights dammed ofat Three Gorges, 2003 [3] New York Times,‘Chinese Dam Projects Criticized for Their HumanCosts’, 2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cegwhwbhd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Hydroelectric dams increase methaneemissions Hydroelectric dams emit a lot ofmethane, which is an even more potentgreenhouse gas then carbon dioxide. Thishappens when the plants and vegetationsubmerged in the reservoir start to rot underwater: they then produce methane whichbubbles up and is released into the atmosphere.On balance, some dams produce moregreenhouse gasses than conventional powerplants running on fossil fuel. [1] [1] NewScientist, ‘Hydroelectric power's dirty secretrevealed’, 2005", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cegwhwbhd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Hydroelectric dams can mitigate the ecologicalimpact. Hydroelectric dams can take steps tomitigate their environmental impact. Forexample, for salmon, dams these days have ‘fishladders’, allowing them to reach their spawninggrounds. For these and other sustainabilitymeasures, the International HydropowerAssociation developed several guidelines andprotocols to minimize ecological impact as far aspossible. [1] [1] International HydropowerAssociation, Hydropower SustainabilityAssessment Protocol.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Climate Change, by dint of the complexity of themodel, is virtually impossible to plan for.Developing an adaptation regime would simplycreate an ever-changing model while removingnecessary intellectual and economic resourcesfrom the prevention regime that is already inplace. This would not only mean transferringresearch resources there is also government andregulatory activity as well as industrialcompliance structures and other outlays.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The shifts required will take decades to plan andimplement, they are alreadyurgent Transforming entire sectors of theeconomy and the resulting shifts in patterns ofmigration, training, employment and resourcingwill be both complex and complicated andrequire a massive logistical effort. Waiting untilthe world’s grain baskets are already dustbowlsor Manhattan is underwater is simplyunrealistic. Instead, nations individually andcollectively need to plan and begin to implementthe necessary changes now. Even the process ofachieving political agreement on some of thelikely changes could take decades. 2050 hasbeen widely seen as the date when the ravagesof Climate Change will be all too obvious; 30years is no time at all in diplomatic and industrialterms [i] . The financial costs of inaction onClimate Change have been estimated at $74tn,however that pails into insignificance with thebroader human costs [ii] . Against that the WorldBank has estimated that the costs of adaptation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This argument is predicated on the idea that it ispossible to build a model that would allow foradaptation. In the light of some of the challengescurrently posed by Climate Change that seemsimprobable. Without a clearer idea of whatadaptation would look like or what it could evenpotentially achieve, making it a priority againstsomething that can be shown to work seemsreckless in the extreme.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Prioritising prevention hasn’t worked It is ademonstrable fact that efforts to reduce carbonemissions haven’t worked. Despite theconferences, the treaties and the pledges; globalcarbon emissions continue to rise – up 6.7%from 2009 to 2010. [i] The world’s largesteconomies continue to be the worst offendersand, with the BRIC economies joining theirranks, that look set to continue. If you’ve beentrying something for over 20 years with nonotable success, then it seems sensible to trysomething else. Added to which, manyscientists, such as James Hansen, [ii] believethat a tipping point in the climate and broaderecosystem is imminent – with some suggestingthat it has already been passed [iii] . We need toaccept that Climate Change is not somethingthat may happen in the future but somethingthat is happening now. Extreme weather eventsare happening now, glaciers are melting now;the climate is shifting now, as is shown forexample by the sea ice levels which in 2012 were", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It’s been apparent from Rio onwards thatensuring action would require both patience andan acceptance that governments and industrywould only genuinely get on board when ClimateChange became an emergency rather than adistant theory. That is now starting to happen ina million ways, small and large. Changing thefocus to another 30 years project now would justallow for another set of delays and missedtargets.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The necessary research alone will take time andshould be a priority There are significantresearch challenges that need to be addressed interms of envisaging what an adaptation regimewould look like. For example how adaptationwould tie into to other types of change – social,economic, demographic, etc. Answering thesequestions, alone, will take time but are anecessary precursor to building a realisticadaptation routine [i] . The urgency here comesfrom the fact that it will take time to establishnew systems to work on this at an internationallevel. One of the difficulties demonstrated by theexperience of initial studies of climate changewas that it needed to be conducted on a globalscale, frequently involving complex andexpensive modeling systems. There are severalbackstages to establishing this and the majorityof relevant academics are currently working onprevention models rather than designing anentire new framework of prediction. Developingsuch frameworks will require the focus of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Renewables always looked like being ‘too little,too late’ and that now appears to be the case.Carbon based energy sources remain, massively,the major players of global energy productionand that looks set to continue to be the case. Itis time to take a mature response to that realityand manage the problem rather than pretendingthat a magical solution is going to be produced inthe form of technological breakthroughs innuclear or other energy technologies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Opposition concedes that adaptations will happenas individuals respond to climate change, it isonly fair and sensible that governments shouldmake sure those changes happen in a managedfashion. To take one, small example; theincreasing unwillingness of insurers to accept therisks of flooding for homes and businesses insome parts of the world requires a governmentalresponse; many of those who bought homes thatmay be affected by flooding bought that propertybefore they would have known about climatechange.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The focus on prevention should not be diluted Ithas taken three decades to drag most pollutingbusiness and many governments – and some arenot yet there – to this stage of accepting thatmitigation is necessary. Many remain unwilling toaccept reality and are only making thosegrudging efforts they have undertaken becauseof the full force of global public opinion and theefforts of some governments and internationalbodies. Moving that focus simply allows thosewho weren’t happy about the challenges ofcarbon reduction to go back to the bad, olddays. Equally it allows industries such as coal offthe hook at the very point when the pressure isreally starting to count [i] . Some of the mythsabout clean coal or the supposedlyenvironmental sensitivity of uranium mining arenow sinking into the public consciousness –saying ‘let’s do this instead’ would run the risk ofa return to business as usual. [i] MichaelMcCarthy. UK to push for global Greenaccounting system. The Independent. 10", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Adaptation is likely to hurt poorernations Pollution is a global problem, with thegreenhouse gas emissions of richer nationsimpacting on their poorer neighbours. Adaptationwould most likely take place on a predominantlynational basis, allowing those with the resources– built on their historical use of carbon energy –to find ways to adapt to some of the problemscaused by Climate Change, while poorer nationsare left without the capacity to do so. Only aglobal focus on combating the basic causes ofclimate change will tackle the problem in a fairand equitable way, as richer nations cut back ontheir carbon-enriched lifestyles whiledevelopments in technologies offer benefits tothe world as a whole rather than those who arealready carbon rich as a result of geological orhistorical accident [i] . [i] See the JamaicaDeclaration 1994.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Increasing oil costs make this the best time to befocussing on alternative energies The pressureto invest in carbon-light forms of energies isstarting to bear fruit as costs of oil make themfinancially viable. There are still enormousinfrastructural costs but allowing carbonenergy-based sectors to shift over to either shalegas or oil by taking the focus off prevention willmean that these incredibly polluting fuels areused – as the infrastructure is already in placeand it is more financially palatable – rather thankeeping up the pressure in favour of carbonreduction, energy efficiency and the growth ofrenewables. Germany and Denmark have provedthat an effective renewables market can be thefocus of a mature economy but that onlyhappened with sustained political pressure.Scotland is moving in that direction as are someUS states and other nations. Removing thatpressure now would be a huge missedopportunity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Some of the required adaptations areimpossible In some Climate Change scenarios –for example, a diminution of global oxygenoutput as a result of the effect of desalinationresulting from melting polar caps or enforcingreduced consumption of resources through theirmore equitable distribution – are eitherimpossible in biological or practical terms [i] . Asa result, the only available option is reducing thecarbon footprint of humanity as a species.Overwhelmingly, scientists agree that this is theonly solution. Adaptation is, in reality, anattempt to hide from ‘an inconvenient truth’.Nobody likes being told that there is simply noway around the problem but that is thereality. Some adaptations will, no doubt, happennaturally as people adjust but the focus ofgovernments should remain on prevention. [i]Stephen Leahy. “Climate Change ThreatensCrucial Marine Algae”, Inter Press Service. 8 May2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Seeing the fight against Climate Change as somepanacea for international inequality has alwaysbeen a non-starter. The rich nations are simplynot going to give up their competitiveadvantages in terms of production. However, asensible global response to issues such as themigration likely to result from some of theoutcomes of changing climates, might mitigatesome of their worse excesses.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-crasbmurcc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The mono-focus on prevention has, effectively,blinded the world’s governments to the real issue– that climate change is happening and willcontinue to happen. That is a process that willrequire great adaptation on behalf of everyone.As with any significant change, it needs to bemanaged. Economies and societies have beendramatically altered in the face of significantchanges such as warfare. It’s time to face up tothat reality.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear power is no better placed to deliver theamount of energy required. There is anunrealistic focus on nuclear power as a magicalsolution to climate change. Despite increasingdemand the amount of electricity beinggenerated by nuclear is projected to fall not rise.The share of nuclear energy will decrease from30% to 25% in electricity generation by 2020.According to current projections, the nucleargeneration capacity in the EU would fall by asmuch as 33 GWe by 2020; this fall would mostlyhave to be met by dirty power plants using gas,or particularly coal [1] . The focus on nuclearpower diverts attention from other renewables.In reality going nuclear would squeeze outrenewables. Indeed, the former Secretary ofState for Business Patricia Hewitt said in aCommons debate on a 2003 Energy White Paper:'It would have been foolish to announce …. thatwe would embark on a new generation of nuclearpower stations because that would haveguaranteed that we would not make the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Energy demands are increasing exponentiallyand nuclear power is the only renewable sourcecapable of matching it Although EU countriesare using energy more efficiently, demand forenergy continues to rise, especially in the neweastern European member states. The demandfor electricity is expected to rise by 8-9% by2020 meaning a much more urgent need forgenerating capacity [1] . At the same time worldenergy consumption is projected to expand by50% from 2005 to 2030 leading to high oil andgas prices [2] . The production of renewableenergy is not growing at a fast enough pace toreplace fossil fuels; wind, wave and solar simplycannot provide the quantities of energy required.It is possible – indeed, desirable - to combinenuclear power with other renewables, butnuclear energy is a crucial part of that mix as theonly option capable of producing the quantity ofenergy required. Nuclear power is actually moreefficient than any other power source: a gram ofuranium 235 contains as much energy as four", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear power plants are not much of animprovement over conventional coal-burningpower plants despite claims that nuclear is the'clean air energy.' Uranium mining, milling,leeching, plant construction anddecommissioning all produce substantialamounts of greenhouse gases. Taking intoaccount the carbon-equivalent emissionsassociated with the entire nuclear life cycle, notjust the nuclear fission itself, nuclear plantscontribute significantly to climate change and willcontribute even more as stockpiles of high gradeuranium are depleted1. Nuclear waste canremain radioactive for thousands of years. Itmust be stored for all this time away from waterinto which it can dissolve and far from anytectonic activity. This is virtually impossible andthere are serious concerns over the state ofwaste discarded even a few decades ago. Areport by the Environment Agency attackedBritain's disposal system as many containersused to store the waste are made of second-rate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Alternative renewables are inefficient for thecost Nuclear power is the most practicalrenewable energy source as all the others facemajor difficulties either in scaling up to provideenough to be a major component of nationsenergy mix, don't provide energy all the time,the 'base load', or cause other environmentalproblems. Nuclear is a proven technology withlarge firms that can build large amounts ofnuclear energy generation capacity. The mostefficient source of renewable energy has beenhydroelectric power, however, this usuallycreates more problems than it solves. Building alarge dam necessarily floods an enormous regionbehind the dam which in turn can displacethousands of people. There are also enormousecological costs to dam building. A classicalexample is the Aswan dam in Egypt along theNile. Not only did many thousands lose theirhomes but the yearly inundation of the Nile,which fertilised the surrounding land forthousands of year, was also stopped; the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear power is itself inefficient: For every threeunits of energy produced by the reactor core of aU.S. nuclear power plants, two units aredischarged to the environment as waste heat.Nuclear plants are built on the shores of lakes,rivers, and oceans because these bodies providethe large quantities of cooling water needed tohandle the waste heat discharge1. It is perfectlytrue that alternative energy is not efficientenough to serve the energy needs of the world'spopulation today. However, with investment allthese methods could be made efficient enough.Not enough has been done to make use of all thenatural energy sources that do not create thekind of damage nuclear power generationcauses. We need to develop more efficient waysto capture wind, water and solar power, toexplore other options and to reduce the level ofpower required. This is not an argument fornuclear power but one for greater resources tobe put to develop natural energy sources andhelp protect the planet for future", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There is almost always one renewable resourcethat a given country can exploit with sufficientinvestment; tides for islands, the sun forequatorial countries, hot rocks for volcanicregions. Any given country can in principlebecome self-sufficient in terms of renewableenergy. The global distribution of uranium ishugely uneven (much more so than fossil fuels)and the use of nuclear power therefore givescountries with uranium deposits disproportionateeconomic power. Kazakhstan became the world'snumber one supplier of uranium in 2009, andother major producers such as Russia, Namibia,Niger and Uzbekistan may not be reliable1. It isfar from inconceivable that uranium could besubject to the same kind of monopoly that theOPEC (Organisation of Petroleum ExportingCountries) places on oil. 1 'Kazakhstan plans tobecome global leader in uranium production by2009', Silk Road Intelligencer, 23rd July 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear power is clean and emits significantlyless CO2 than other renewable energysources In many senses nuclear energy is thecleanest of renewables. It does not produceemissions such as CO2 and greenhouse gases,which are harmful to the population and theenvironment. Roughly 700 million metric tons ofCO2 emissions are avoided each year in theUnited States by generating electricity fromnuclear power rather than some other source;according to the U.S. Department of Energy, thatis nearly equivalent to the CO2 released from allU.S. passenger cars [1] . It is true that it doesproduce radioactive waste but since this is insolid form it can be dealt with relatively easilyand stored away from centres of population.Furthermore, as new technology becomesavailable to allow the more efficient use ofnuclear fuel, less nuclear waste will be produced.(A recent example is the development of the fastbreeder reactor, which uses fuel much moreefficiently [2] ) [1] Max Schulz. \"Nuclear Power", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear power gives countries energy securityand self-sufficiency In addition, the use ofnuclear power reduces our foreign energydependency. The European Union is a netimporter for energy, and as such is reliant onRussia and Norway, predominantly, for oil andgas supplies. Events such as the dispute betweenRussia and the Ukraine over gas suppliesdemonstrated that the EU's energy can easily bedisrupted by political situations outside itscontrol1. It also means that the EU could bedrawn into disputes between Russia andneighbouring countries because it has a vestedinterest in the region. This could set a dangerousprecedent, where the EU could be intimidated byRussia, because the EU relies so heavily onRussian gas. Building more nuclear powerstations would ensure a more secure supply ofenergy, thereby avoiding the potential for energysupply to become a politically charged issue onan international scale. 1 'Russia-Ukraine gasdispute', Wikipedia", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-con03b", "title": "", "text": "We hear a lot about the depletion of supplies offossil fuels, however it is not mentioned thatthere is also a potential problem with the supplyof uranium: \"There is currently a gap in theamount of uranium being mined and the amountof uranium being consumed,\" states NuclearEnergy Corporation of South Africa (Necsa) CEORob Adam1. This would potentially be ok if it didnot look like we are approaching a uranium peak.The peak in supplies of uranium seems likely toarrive sometime between 2030 and 2040 withuranium being almost totally gone by 2070 or2120 at the latest. It is the peak that matters, asafter this point supply will not be able to keep upwith demand. If you take into account thatnuclear energy produces 16% of worldelectricity, and less than 5% primary energysupply, it seems impossible to me for nuclearenergy with current technology to ever satisfy abig part of the world's energy demand2. Itmeans that nuclear power is not a sustainablebase which we should be looking to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-con01b", "title": "", "text": "For nuclear power plants any cost figuresnormally include spent fuel management, plantdecommissioning and final waste disposal. Thesecosts, while usually external for othertechnologies, are internal for nuclear power.Costs are high compared to coal fired generationprecisely because the externalities associatedwith high carbon outputs are not taken intoaccount, whereas similar externalities relating tonuclear generation are. If costs are calculatedequivalently to coal power stations then nuclearpower is competitive. Also the cost ofconstruction and decommissioning of nuclearpower plants is often overestimated; the Frenchand Swedish nuclear industries estimatedecommissioning costs to be just 10 -15 % ofthe construction costs and budget this into theprice charged for electricity1. Nuclear is actuallyincreasing its competitiveness as gas and oilprices rise, new technology makes nuclear powermore efficient and construction anddecommissioning costs less. An OECD study in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Promoting continued nuclear research is againstour security interests Spreading the peacefuluse of nuclear power brings important securitybenefits. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty,whose signatories include every state in theworld apart from India, Pakistan and Israel (plusNorth Korea and Iran whose membershipfluctuates), is largely a provision for the sharingof nuclear power technology, which it promisesto share among members who do not producenuclear weapons (or, in the case of the 5 nuclearstates, who commit to a gradual and continualreduction in weapons stockpiles). This has seenstates including Brazil and Argentina abandontheir nuclear weapons programmes, in order togain access to nuclear power technology1. It is inour interest to promote peaceful use of nucleartechnologies, encouraging scientists to findemployment in an industry which is bothpeaceful and useful rather than selling their skillsto the highest rogue bidder. The treaty alsoestablishes and sets the remit of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear power is potentially extremely unsafe Itis unfortunately the case that the nuclearindustry has a bad reputation for safety. This isundeserved. The overwhelming majority ofnuclear reactors have functioned safely andeffectively for their entire lifetimes. The fourhistoric nuclear disasters (1957 Windscale Fire,1979 Three Mile Island and 1986 Chernobyl,2011 Fukushima, Japan) killed fewer people thanthe oil and coal industries have1. \"Themulti-agency U.N. Chernobyl Forum reported lastyear that 56 deaths could be directly attributedto the accident, most of those from radiation orburns suffered while fighting the fire. Tragic asthose deaths were, they pale in comparison tothe more than 5,000 coal-mining deaths thatoccur worldwide every year\"2. Further, the twomajor nuclear accidents, at Three Mile Island andChernobyl, were both in old style reactors, madeworse in the latter case by poor Soviet safetystandards. The Chernobyl disaster took place ata time when our understanding of nuclear issues", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The supply of uranium needed for nuclear poweris not actually unlimited, renewable orsustainable The projected lifespan of uraniummust be compared to that of oil, gas and coalwhich are irrefutably running out. Uraniumsupply is expected to last for over 200 years,which could be extended to 30,000 with moderntechnologies. There has not been sufficientresearch undertaken to explore new potentialsites, new forms or ways of prolonging the life ofthat which we already have access to. Forexample, it has been claimed recently that thereare potential alternatives to uranium which couldbe used in the nuclear process: \"There is alsoalmost always thorium, a lightly radioactivemetal, in the same ores, and it has to bedisposed of.\" This disposal would create thesame amount of energy as nuclear fission. TheUSA and Australia have potentially very bigmines for rare earths and they are going to beproducing Thorium as a waste product anyway,what better way to dispose of it than by creating", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear power is very expensive For nuclearpower plants any cost figures normally includespent fuel management, plant decommissioningand final waste disposal. These costs, whileusually external for other technologies, areinternal for nuclear power. Costs are highcompared to coal fired generation preciselybecause the externalities associated with highcarbon outputs are not taken into account,whereas similar externalities relating to nucleargeneration are. If costs are calculatedequivalently to coal power stations then nuclearpower is competitive. Also the cost ofconstruction and decommissioning of nuclearpower plants is often overestimated; the Frenchand Swedish nuclear industries estimatedecommissioning costs to be just 10 -15 % ofthe construction costs and budget this into theprice charged for electricity1. Nuclear is actuallyincreasing its competitiveness as gas and oilprices rise, new technology makes nuclear powermore efficient and construction and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The nuclear industry has a shameful safetyrecord and it is haunted by the constant risk ofmeltdown or explosion. \"No reactor in the worldis inherently safe. All operational reactors haveinherent safety flaws, which cannot beeliminated by safety upgrading. Highlyradioactive spent fuel requires constant cooling.If this fails, it could lead to a catastrophic releaseof radioactivity. They are also highly vulnerableto deliberate acts of sabotage, including terroristattack\"1. Chernobyl and Japan's Fukushima planthas shown the world what happens when coolingsystems fail. The effects on the local people andthe environment are devastating. It cannot be acoincidence that the rate of occurrence of certaintypes of cancer, such as leukaemia, is muchhigher in the population around nuclear plants. Itis perfectly true that modern nuclear reactors aresafer but they are not completely safe. It is notworth the risk. The dumping of nuclear wastealso presents a host of problems. The NuclearInspectorate in the UK has been very critical of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ogecephwgn-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Encouraging the further adoption of nuclearpower is against our security interests. Thescientific understanding and technology neededto generate nuclear power is the same as thatneeded to create nuclear weapons, and it is alltoo easy for rogue states to pretend they areonly interested in peaceful uses while secretlypursuing military applications. This is the routeIndia and Israel have followed, and that Iranmay well be following at present. The process ofenriching uranium to make it into fuel for nuclearpower stations can be a step towards furtherenriching it to make nuclear weapons. Used fuelfrom nuclear power stations can be separatedout to recover any usable elements such asuranium and plutonium through a method calledreprocessing. Plutonium is a by-product of thenuclear fuel cycle and can also be used to makenuclear weapons1. Even if the intentions offoreign governments are good, widespreadnuclear power plants are at risk of terrorism, inboth the developed and developing world. If a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "While Africa may not have the resources now topay for adaptation costs of $50billion or moreafter another fifty years of economic growth itmay do. Africa could afford the current$7-15billion if it were considered necessary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Africa does not have the resources to protectitself from climate change A report by theUnited Nations Environmental Project estimatesthat adaptation costs to Africa per year couldalready be $15billion, reach $50billion by 2050and anything up to $350billion by 2070. Fundingfor adaptation to Africa in 2011 was only$454milliion. [1] This is not a gap that Africa canmake up itself; in 2010 all spending on educationwas less than $50billion. [2] Africa can’t afford toadapt itself while responding to an expandingpopulation as well as its existing problems ofpoverty and disease. It is clear that developedcountries that do have the resources have tostep it and take responsibility. [1] Schaeffer,Michiel et al., ‘Summary’, Africa Adaptation GapTechnical Report, United Nations EnvironmentalProject, 2013 , p.xi [2] ‘Public spending oneducation; total (% of GDP) in sub saharanAfrica’, Trading Economics, , ‘Gross domesticproduct 2010’, World Bank,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "For most of the time they were emitting the westdid not have any idea of the consequences. Thedeveloped world therefore cannot be heldresponsible for emissions before the 1980s. Onthe other hand knowledge of the effects has notprevented developing countries from immenselyincreasing their emissions. Clearly the developedworld is still responsible for more emissions butthey are also responsible for developingtechnologies to reduce emissions such asrenewable power.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The developed world has the necessaryskills Many of the areas of adaptation are areaswhere the west has the relevant expertise;seasonal forecasting, adjusting farming –perhaps by engineering hardier plants, weatherinsurance etc. Africa does not have experience orexperts in many of the relevant areas, forexample Africa lags behind in bioscience, [1] soit makes sense for the west to provide theseexperts. And while they do so the west might aswell also pay the cost of these expertise and alsoprovide the necessary skills education andtraining to overcome these problems. [1]Wafula, Kevin, ‘Africa still lags behind onbioscience capacities, says Scientist’, AfricaScience News, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Climate change is already costing lives Lives arealready being lost to climate change; a report byClimate Vulnerability Monitor estimates thatalready almost 5million are lost per year toclimate change, even without the distortingnumbers from pollution there are 400,000deaths per year. [1] While attributing individualevents to climate change is difficult research byclimate scientists suggests that the lack longrains in Somalia in early 2011 is between 24 and99% the result of greenhouse gasses. Thisfamine has killed between 50 and 100 thousandpeople. [2] With lives being lost the urgency offunding adaptation to reduce these loses isclear. [1] Climate Vulnerability Monitor, ‘A Guideto the cold calculus of a hot planet’, DARA,September 2012, , p.17 [2] Straziuso, Jason,‘Global warming may have fueled Somalidrought’, Phys.org, 15 May 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Yes there are almost certainly some casualtiesalready to climate change but almost certainlyconsiderably less than either of these numbers;there have always been casualties due to ‘Heat& Cold Illnesses’ (35000) but are all theseattributable to climate change? Probably not.There were extreme weather events even beforeclimate change. Even if there are such deathsthis does not amount to meaning the developedworld should fund adaptation; just like not everyoutbreak of violence in Africa should beconsidered the responsibility of the developedworld not every natural disaster is.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The developed world will no doubt be willing toprovide expertise and some may even be willingto work pro-bono while doing work for poorercountries. The developed world should not bepaying for such work. Providing money to pay forwestern workers in Africa both invites corruptionand is really for the benefit of the developedcountries by providing work for western firms.[1] Instead the focus has to be on the transfer ofskills to Africans so that they can meet thechallenges from climate change themselves. [1]Moyo, Dambisa, ‘Why Foreign Aid is HurtingAfrica’, The Wall Street Journal, 21 March 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Why should developed countries pay becauseAfrica happens to be particularly vulnerable tothe effects of climate change? Western countrieshave nothing to do with Africa’s geography andclimate change vulnerability.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The developed world has the responsibility tohelp others The IPCC says that it is “extremelylikely” that human activities are the cause of thetemperature rise. [1] This means the biggesthistorical emitters have a responsibility to payfor the consequences. From 1900 to 2004 theUnited States produced 314,772 million metrictonnes of CO2 compared to China’s 89,243million metric tonnes and while India nowproduces more CO2 Germany over the sameperiod emitted three times as much. [2] Historymatters as much of the CO2 remains in theatmosphere for decades or hundreds of years. Itis the responsibility of those who caused theproblem to protect innocents from the fallout oftheir actions. [1] Harvey, Fiona, ‘IPCC climatereport: human impact is 'unequivocal'’,theguardian.com, 27 September 2013, [2]Vaughn, Adam, ‘A history of CO2 emissions’,Datablog guardian.co.uk, 2 September 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Africa will be among the hardest hit The IPCCstarts its chapter on Africa “Africa is one of themost vulnerable continents to climate changeand climate variability”. [1] It is also the poorestcontinent in the world so least able to cope. Inthe GAIN index by the Global AdaptationInstitute which measures vulnerability andreadiness for climate change eight of the bottomten are African states. [2] The changes to Africacould be dramatic; 40% of wildlife habitats coulddisappear, crop yields fall by 5% despite alreadybeing the lowest in the world and 70 million areat risk of flooding as sea levels rise. [3] Ifanywhere needs help from developed countriesin adaptation it is Africa. [1] Boko, Michel, et al.,‘Africa’, Climate Change 2007: Impacts,Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution ofWorking Group II to the Fourth AssessmentReport of the Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change’, IPCC, 2007, , p.435 [2] GainIndex, 2011, [3] Bloomfield, Steve, ‘Africa ‘willbe worst hit by climate change’’, The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Aid programs are already dealing with most of‘the low hanging fruit’ in terms of preventingdeaths and will continue to do so. Howeverproviding aid to other areas does not absolve thewest of the need to provide funds for adaptationwhen they have created the change in the firstplace.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "While countries like Australia are going to be hitby Climate Change they at least have theresources to carry out adaptation on their own.Poor countries don’t have the money so therewill not be any adaptation. The result will bemore natural disasters and deaths throughdisease both things that are seen as worthy ofproviding aid. I would be much better to helpprevent these disasters being too severe thanwaiting until they occur to provide aid.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Responsibility is not the developed world’salone First developing countries now produce alarge share of emissions; China, India and otherrising countries should also have to pay. Theyalso at the same time have increasing financialresources. Second even if countries bearresponsibility in proportion to emissions it doesnot follow developed countries should meet thecosts of adaptation. People have always adaptedto their climate as an essential part of survival[1] and the climate has always been changingeven if at a slower rate so why should thedeveloped world pay in this particular instance?That the west should cut its emissions so that itproduces no more than the average per capita isequitable. It is however not equitable for onegroup to have to pay for the adaptation of othersto their environment. [1] Clark, Duncan, ‘Whatis climate change adaptation?’, theguardian.com,27 February 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Adaptation won’t work Adaptation is simplyworking to reduce the effects of climate change,it will not prevent it from causing damage. Takehurricanes; adaptation would dictate that thebuildings should have been made out of strongermaterials and sea walls built to stop stormsurges. Yet as with any other form of disastermanagement there is a sensible amount to adaptif building a 10foot sea wall will stop 95% ofstorm surges is it really worth building one of20foot for twice the price to stop 99%? Manyforms of adaptation are directly contrary todemographic trends on the continent. Yeshardier crops can be introduced to mitigate theproblems of drought but will these also feed agrowing population? Yes people can migrate fromthose areas that will be worst hit but can theirneighbours take in the extra people? Forexample climate change is one cause of droughtin the Sahel, [1] to the south rainfall andflooding may actually increase in southernNigeria though it will be unpredictable. [2] The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There are other more urgent things to bespending money on Money should be spentwhere it can make most difference. The cost ofmany methods of adapting to climate change ishigh compared to the gain. The developed worldshould focus aid on areas that can do most goodrather than on adaptation. Even those who arguethat climate change will be very costly anddeadly implicitly agree that there are moreworthwhile things. In Climate VulnerabilityMonitor’s estimates of deaths the vast majority,3.1million, are due to indoor smoke. [1] Thishowever is something that is not solved throughadaptation to climate change but throughmitigation; by providing $25 cooking stoves.[2] [1] Climate Vulnerability Monitor, ‘A Guide tothe cold calculus of a hot planet’, DARA,September 2012, , p.17 [2] Aroon, P.J.,‘Secretary Clinton is promoting cookstoves tosave the world. Seriously’, ForeignPolicy.com, 22September 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Each country should tackle its ownproblems Every country is going to be affectedby climate change in one way or anotherdeveloped countries included. Australia has oftenbeen singled out as being a country that is“anti-climate” [1] but Australia is already beinghit by bigger bushfires and sudden floods and thecost on Australian infrastructure is estimated torise to $9billion per year by 2020 and continuerising, [2] and this is only one small slice of thecosts such as crop failures due to drought, healthproblems – there have already been increases indengue fever and malaria in Australia. [3]Developed countries which are also going to beseverely affected by climate change have aresponsibility to their own people first and shouldnot be paying for other countries to adapt. [1]Readfearn, Graham, ‘Australia slides down tobottom on climate change performance index’,theguardian.com, 18 November 2013, [2] TheClimate Institute, ‘Coming Ready or Not: CanAustralia's infrastructure handle climate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Many places today have not even done theminimum and need funding to help them do so.There can be no denying that some defences canmake a big difference; in 1900 Galveston was hitby a hurricane which killed up to 12000 people,15 years later after the building of a sea wallonly 53 people died in a similar hurricane. [1] Inmany cases this kind of adaptation is simplysensible policy to prevent disasters that shouldbe carried out regardless of climate change. [1]Morris, Julian, ‘The Terrible Toll of TyphoonHaiyan Doesn't Excuse Bad Policy’, reason.com,15 November 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cpiahwdwf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "In India 456 million people live on under $1.25per day, [1] it is absurd to suggest that Indiadespite having higher CO2 emissions than Japan,indeed almost double, [2] should have the sameresponsibility for cutting emissions, or for payingfor the consequences. [1] The World Bank, ‘NewGlobal Poverty Estimates – What it means forIndia’, 26 August 2008, [2] Boden, Tom, andBlasing, T.J., ‘Preliminary CO2 emissions 2010’,Carbon Dioxide Analysis Center,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephbesane-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "First of all, power plants operating on renewableresources are not as green as one might think.Hydroelectric and tidal power can harm waterecosystems, wind turbines can harm wildlife andsolar plants need a large space to be built on andare only really efficient in deserts. Nuclear powerstations are relatively green since they do notprimary produce any “dirty gases.” The onlyproblem is mining uranium and the nuclearwaste, which is increasingly able to be recycledand potentially reused as fuel for more modernnuclear plants. Furthermore, gas stations areoperating with non-renewable source of energy –natural gas. Therefore, when speaking aboutefficiency -nuclear power stations are generallymore effective than gas power stations [1] [2] –it is better for environment to operate on fewnuclear power stations rather than on many ofgas power stations. Nuclear power stations arenot flexible, but they can represent the base ofneeded energy, which does not fluctuate, andthe rest of needed energy which varies in time", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephbesane-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear energy goes against Green World Inorder not to harm environment, not to causeclimate changes, renewable power plants (wind,water, solar) should be used. However, these donot work together with nuclear power plants.Nuclear plants – giant very hot machines – aredesigned to operate at full speed (85%) all thetime. They are not designed to change theoutput quickly. Since they are very expensive tobuild, they are not economic unless operated atfull speed (also turning off and on is expensive).Solar and wind power plants are not stable(output varies because of natural factors) andthus need a backup, called a baseload. Nuclearplants are not a good backup for renewables. Weneed nimble plants in order to support wind andsolar plants. Nuclear power stations do not workwith solar, wind and water power stations,because they are running at full speed all thetime (because of economic and technicalreasons). Instead gas plants that can bepowered up and down as required are needed to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephbesane-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The essence of the argument may be correct,however, the basis is not. The stress tests wereto great extent based on unrealistic threats likestrong earthquake (which are extremely rare –almost non-existent in Europe away from theMediterranean) or crash of big airplane. In thesecases truly, lives could be endangered, however,the possibility of these cases ever occurring isnearly zero. Even if some investments in safetymeasures were needed (like in case of the safetysystems in case of blackout) implementation ofthose would be substantially lower than phasingout nuclear reactors and building a replacementcapacity of equal capacity from renewablesources.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephbesane-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear energy is non-renewable source Whilenuclear power it is often proclaimed as clean thisdoes not mean it is a renewable resource likewind, wave, or solar power. Nuclear power plantsuse uranium to produce energy, which, ofcourse, needs to be mined. Currently only 2.3%of uranium used in reactors in EU is mined in theEU [1] . Moreover, the world’s main uraniumdeposits are located outside the EU. The use ofnuclear energy thus undermines energyself-sufficiency of the EU. This may pose aserious threat to the future. Natural (and other)resources are usually used as the firstintermediates of diplomatic disputes. When acountry wants to exert diplomatic pressure onanother country (or bloc of countries like EU),trade bans or embargos are widely used. Forexample in 2009 Russia stopped gas supply toUkraine due to trade dispute between their twonational gas companies. Therefore, the supply ofuranium may be susceptible to diplomatic andtrade relations (which are often volatile) and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephbesane-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The main source, or fuel, for production ofnuclear energy does not have to be uranium,thorium can be used. While the number ofreactors may increase the consumption ofuranium may well actually go down as the nextgeneration of reactors will get more energy fromthe uranium they use. More specifically fourthgeneration reactors would reuse the uraniummultiple times up to the point where they may bemore than a hundred times more fuel efficientthan current reactors. [1] Furthermore, uraniumis not mined only in one specific country, but invariety of countries (Kazakhstan, Canada,Australia, Russia, Niger, United States). As wecan see, these countries differ from each other inany way – political situation, regime,relationships with other countries etc. Therefore,even in the case of war with one or few countriesfrom where uranium is obtained, the supply canbe established from other sources, othercountries. Therefore, there is a very littlepossibility of diplomatic pressure, since uranium", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephbesane-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear energy in Europe is currently consideredto be dangerous In the response to Fukushimaaccident European Commission carried out aseries of stress tests on nuclear power plants inthe EU to minimise the risk of such an accidentoccurring in the EU. The results were disturbing.According to the report European power plantsare not well prepared for an emergencysituation. Some of the power plants would haveless than hour to restore safety systems in caseof electric blackout. [1] Currently more than100,000 citizens live in proximity (30 km) of 111reactors. Should anything go wrong, many liveswould be endangered. The problems could beresolved by dramatic investments into the safetymeasures. However, these investments wouldrequire approximately €25 bn [2] . This is a sumindebted European Union cannot afford.Therefore shutdown and substitution of thesehazardous plants would be a much betteridea. [1] European Commission,‘Communication from the Commission to the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephbesane-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The phase out of the nuclear power stations maybe costly; however, it will happen sooner or lateranyway. Nuclear stations are constantly phasedout and new, more advanced plants are built intheir place. Old plants require constantinvestment in safety measures. The costs arethus inevitable. Abandoning nuclear power inmany cases need only involve committing to notbuild more nuclear plants. However, even if thecosts of phasing out were higher than costs ofsustaining network of nuclear plants, the gainfrom more safe, more environmental friendlyenergy would outweigh the harms. Concerningthe social costs, workers in nuclear power plantscould find jobs in broader energy productionmarket, since the technical requirements for jobsare not that different in different power plantsand there would still be demand for jobs in theenergy sector.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephbesane-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Having only one plant also poses a risk that ifsomething goes wrong it creates a high risk ofblackout for whole region the plant is supplying.Additionally we need to remember the immensecost of nuclear power plants. Olkiluoto 3 hassuffered from immense overruns and spirallingcosts which have more than doubled to 8.5billion Euros. [1] When a wind turbine is about2.5 million Euros then well over 3,000 turbinescan be built for the same cost. [2] [1] Koistinen,Olavi, ‘Suomenkin uusi ydinvoimala maksaa 8,5miljardia euroa’, Helsingin Sanomat, 13December 2012, [2] ‘How much to windturbines cost’, Windistry, accessed 18 November2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephbesane-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear research is necessary for the future ofgreen energy Historically a lot of the oppositionto nuclear power has been about the waste theygenerate and that it will remain radioactive fortens of millennia. No one therefore wants nuclearwaste in their neighbourhood making thepollution from coal and gas plants seem pale bycomparison. Yet this is an objection that isincreasingly outdated and what had been theAchilles heel of the nuclear industry is beingturned into a strength. The EU has a chance tobe a world leader in nuclear power generation.With the fourth generation of nuclear reactorswhich are much safer than current models andcreate almost no nuclear waste currently beingdesigned. [1] Moreover an even more advancednuclear plant, this one based upon fusion ratherthan fission is currently being built in theProvence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southernFrance. It is an experimental reactor that will notproduce any waste at all and could helprevolutionise clean power. [2] Only if Europe", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephbesane-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Phasing nuclear out would be too expensive Anyphase out of nuclear energy in the EU would betremendously costly, to an extent indebtedEurope cannot afford. First costs stem fromclosing of nuclear reactors. These would includesafely disposing or sealing all radioactivematerials involved in production, closingbuildings, dismantling the generators etc. In theUK the Nuclear Decommissioning Authorityestimates that 19 nuclear plants in the UK thatare set for decommissioning will cost £70 billion.[1] Secondly, new generation of power plantswould need to be built. Suitable places wouldneed to be found, land bought and prepared forconstruction, power plants and electricitynetwork constructed. These alone would costsums counted in billions of euros regardless ofwhether these plants are renewable or not.Moreover, social costs would have to beincluded, since many highly specialised jobs inthe nuclear power industry would beirrecoverably lost. The nuclear power industry in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephbesane-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Highly efficient when operating at high rates Thenuclear power plants have huge energy outputs.That means we can produce energy faster atlower price, due to the high energy density ofuranium (we can extract far more energy from itthan from any other source). Thanks to this fact,there is no need to build many power plants,since a few nuclear plants can easily supplywhole country, for example in Slovakia only 2power plants supply more than half of electricenergy. This is beneficial because residentsobject to having power generation nearby,building one nuclear plant affects many fewerpeople than the number of wind turbines thatwould be needed to generate the same amountof electricity. The nuclear power plant being builtat Olkiluoto in Finland will produce 13TWh peryear [1] equivalent to more than 3000 windturbines. [2] This has the additionalenvironmental benefit of requiring fewermaterials for construction. [1] ‘Olkiluoto 3 –Finland’, Areva, accessed 18 November", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephbesane-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The most recent power plants such as Olkiluotoare third generation plants. Fourth generationplants are still decades away. Yes research intoFusion must continue but the plant that is beingbuilt is simply a test plant and even it won’t befully testing until 2027, it would be decades afterthat before any commercial plants come intooperation even if everything works. Researchinto both types but particularly fusion areseparate from the nuclear power plants thatEurope currently has. These could all be shutdown without any impact on research. Moreoverwhy spend billions on research when we alreadyhave technologies that provide clean electricity?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The problem with this argument is that itprioritizes the enjoyment of some individualsover others with no real justification. The greywolf, for example, went extinct in theYellowstone region in the first place becausehumans considered it a pest and a threat tolivestock and so hunted it to extinction. Clearlythese people didn't enjoy the 'diversity' the greywolf provided. We don't usually give somethingthe force of law regarding animals just becausesome people enjoy it. For example, the UK hasnow banned fox hunting even though a greatmany people found it to be a source of pleasureand recreation. [1] If everyone desired theprotection of all endangered species, there wouldbe no need for this law, but the fact that a law isneeded to restrain human action shows that noteveryone 'enjoys' this biodiversity in the sameway. [1] BBC News “'More foxes dead' sincehunt ban”. BBC News. 17 February 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Aesthetics An environment with a great diversityof plant and animal species in it can act as asource for art and entertainment, enriching thelives of humans. Thus the preservation ofendangered species is an important part ofensuring this diversity continues to exist sopeople and enjoy and be inspired by the manyvaried kinds of life on this earth. A good exampleof this is the re-introduction of the grey wolf intoYellowstone Park in the United States (where ithad previously become extinct due to humanaction), which added to the biodiversity of theregion and caused a greater influx of tourists intothe park. [1] People enjoy being surrounded bydifferent kinds of nature, and so protectingendangered species is an important part ofprotecting human enjoyment. [1] Wilcove, D.S., & Master L. L. “How Many EndangeredSpecies are there in the United States?”.Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3[8].October 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Superior human intellect and sentience onlymeans that we should make sure we considerthe moral ramifications of our actions, not thatwe should take any particular action as a result.It is entirely in keeping with this for us toconclude that human life and enjoyment aremore important than animal life and speciessurvival, and so for us to decide not to protectendangered species when this (as it by definitionalways will) infringes upon human benefits andenjoyment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Protecting endangered species protects theinterests of humans Protecting endangeredspecies helps protect humans: Humans actuallybenefit in a large number of ways from theprotection of endangered species and thuscontinuing biodiversity. Firstly, the diversity oflife and living systems is considered by manyscientists to be a necessary condition for humandevelopment. We live in a world built on acarefully balanced ecosystem in which all speciesplay a role, and the removal of species from thiscan cause negative consequences for the wholeecosystem, including humans. [1] There is alsothe potential for almost any species to holdcurrently-unknown future benefits to humansthrough products they could provide. Oneexample of this is the scrub mint, an endangeredplant species which has been found to contain ananti-fungal agent and a natural insecticide, andthus holds great potential for use that benefitshumans. [2] Endangered species have also beenknown to hold the key to medical breakthroughs", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This argument fails to take into account the costsof protecting endangered species and weighthem against the potential harms of thembecoming extinct. In a world where only 5% ofplant species have been surveyed for theirpotential medicinal value, [1] this meansprotecting the survival of the other 95% purelyfor the potential value that only a fraction ofthem may possess. All of this means denyingdevelopment human development now, by notopening areas up for agriculture or notconstructing housing. These are very real costswhich impact upon peoples' lives, and may evenoutweigh those scientific and medical advanceswhich may or may not be found in currentlyendangered species. [1] Kurpis, Lauren. “WhySave?” EndangeredSpecie.com. Copyright1997-2002.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "By this argument, no human generation couldever decide that protecting a species is moretrouble than its worth and so let it becomeextinct, as there would always be the theoreticalpossibility of a future generation that mightregret this choice. Every choice we make as ageneration constrains and widens the choicesavailable to future generations. If we protectendangered species and therefore limitagricultural and housing land (to protect theirenvironments) we deny future generations moreplentiful food supplies and better housing. Wemay even deny the existence of more humans inthe future by not having enough food to feed apopulation which could grow faster if the foodsupply was greater. We cannot allow the remotepossibility of future regret to cause us to takeactions which a great many people will 'regret' inthe present.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Humanity bears a moral responsibility to otherspecies Human moral responsibility to otherspecies: Humans are unique and unprecedentedin life on earth in that their intelligence andsentience far surpasses that of any other speciesever known to have existed. Humans are notsimply forced to kill or ignore other species byinstinct alone, as other species are, but rathercan make a variety of choices based not only oninformation but on moral grounds. Thus with ourgreater power comes a greater responsibility toact in a moral fashion, and not simply toprioritize our own human good over that of otherspecies. The ability of animal species, forexample, to feel pain and suffering is somethingwe should consider and try to avoid, as werecognise that pain is bad for ourselves, and thusmust be bad for animals as well. Similarly if webelieve our own survival is a good thing, weshould recognise that the survival of otherspecies is also a moral good, and act accordinglyto protect endangered species.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Humanity owes a moral responsibility to futuregenerations Human moral responsibility tofuture generations: Species extinction is anirrevocable occurrence. Outside of the film'Jurassic Park', extinct species cannot besummoned back from the grave once humanaction has put them there. This means that whena current generation makes the decision not toprotect an endangered species and thus allowshuman action to drive it to extinction, this deniesfuture generations the ability to make up theirown minds about the pros and cons of thesurvival of that endangered species, especiallyconsidering that they might want that species toexist for the aforementioned scientific, medical,aesthetic or moral reasons. For example, there isa great modern-day interest in the dodo speciesof bird which was hunted to extinction inMauritius in the 17th Century. [1] The opinion ofmany in the modern world today is one of regretat the bird's extinction and that it should havebeen protected, but a lack of consideration of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Other species may allow species other thanthemselves to die out, but they fail to do thisbecause they act purely based on instinct andtheir instincts do not dictate to them to saveother species. Humans, however, are capable ofacting for a far greater number of reasons andafter more consideration. For example humansare capable of empathy with other species andunderstanding that their pain and sufferingmirrors our own, and thus that we shouldprevent it on moral grounds. What makeshumans special is that they are more thoughtfulthan any other animal, and thus the moralstandards for our behaviour are much higher.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "These possible harms can be outweighed by thegains we make as humanity from protectingthese species. It is important to note that theway we benefit from protecting endangeredspecies extends benefits not just to the currentgeneration but to future generations in terms ofthe preservation of biodiversity for scientific andaesthetic reasons. By contrast, allowing farmersto hunt to extinction species which are a threatto their livestock is only a short-term gain whichapplies almost exclusively to the farmersthemselves and not to humanity as a whole.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The term \"endangered\" is inconsistentlyapplied The practical difficulties of the'endangered' status: The complications whichhave grown up surrounding the 'endangered'status given to some species are in themselves agood reason to do away with this cumbersomeand harmful practice. It should firstly be notedthat it can be incredibly difficult to get speciesremoved from the 'protected' lists even oncethey have been added even when their numbersshow they are no longer in jeopardy. The greywolf again serves as a good example; it isconsidered to be 'endangered' (and thusprotected) in the United States, as there are only3,700 such wolves in the lower 48 States today,despite the fact that an estimated 58,000 greywolves live in the wild in Alaska and Canada. [1]This is clearly an example of a misapplication ofthe 'endangered' label but which is incrediblydifficult to revoke once it has been given, due topressure from ecological groups and themedia. The sort of laws used to 'protect'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Human rights trump those of lower animals Whyhuman rights always trump animal rights: It hasalready been established that laws protectingendangered species cause harm to humans bydenying them the opportunity to engage inbehaviour they would otherwise desire to do. Theproblem with this is that it elevates 'animalrights' to an equal plane with human rights andtherefore restricts human life and happiness.This is wrong as humans enjoy superior mentalfaculties to animals and also have greatersentience, meaning that humans are aware oftheir pain, suffering and the opportunities deniedto them (for example through laws restrictingland development) in a way in which animals arenot. As a consequence, we should cause humansto have less happiness in life in order to protectthe lives of 'endangered species', as animals'lives, 'happiness' and suffering are lessmeaningful than that of humans.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Species extinction is an inevitableprocess Species extinction is a part of thenatural world: Within evolution species naturallygo arise and later become extinct as theystruggle to adapt to changing environments andcompetition with other species. This be regardedas a part of the 'survival of the fittest' whichdrives evolution. Most extinctions that haveoccurred did so naturally and without humanintervention. It is, for example, estimated that99.9% of all species that have ever lived are nowextinct, and humans have existed at the sametime as only a fraction of these species. [1]Therefore it cannot be claimed that species goingextinct will somehow upset the delicate naturalbalance or destroy ecosystems. Ecologists andconservationists have in fact struggled todemonstrate the increased material benefits tohumans of 'intact' wild systems over man-madeones such as farms and urban environments,which many species simply adapt to. [2]Therefore any claims that humans causing the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Protecting endangered species can harm humancommunities Protecting endangered species canharm humans: Protecting endangered species bydefinition means restricting activity that humanswould otherwise want to do, be it by turningwoodland into farmland, turning meadows intohousing developments, or by preventing us fromeliminating 'pest' species which kill livestock ordamage crops. For example, the reintroductionof the grey wolf into Yellowstone Park hasincreased once more the risk to livestock in theregion and caused economic harms to ranchersthere. [1] Some of these species may even posea threat to human lives, which may have beenwhy they were hunted to extinction in the firstplace. In any case, less agricultural land and lessland for housing can only mean higher food andhousing costs (due to their decreased supplies inthe face of a rising human population) forpeople, which has a detrimental impact uponhuman life. [1] Bailey, Ronald. “Shoot, Shoveland Shut Up”. Reason.com. December 31, 2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This argument fails to note that states restricthuman behaviour towards animals with the aimof protecting animals in many situations, not justthat of 'endangered species'. For example theaforementioned fox hunting ban, which outlawedhunting foxes with dogs as it was deemedexcessively 'cruel' to the animal, even thoughmany people enjoyed the practice. [1] This isdone not only because humans are able to holdthemselves to a higher moral standard thananimals but also because animal suffering tendsto produce a negative emotional response inmany humans (such as amongst those whodisliked the suffering of foxes in hunts andpushed for the ban), and thus we prevent humansuffering by preventing animal suffering. [1]BBC News “'More foxes dead' since hunt ban”.BBC News. 17 February 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-achbessbp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This is argument for the reform of these laws,not against the laws themselves. Laws could alsobe introduced, for example, to require loggers toallow a certain percentage of their trees to reachthe appropriate age for woodpecker nesting, orbetter review panels created to considerremoving the 'endangered' label when it is nolonger appropriate. These laws can shift as wesee incentives shifting in order to ensure thatgood behaviour in incentivized overall.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-raceeghg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "To say the job numbers are questionable is anunderstatement. The Department of State issueda report in August putting the estimated numberat between 5-6000. [1] Furthermore,Trans-Canada, one of the major shareholdershas backed off larger estimates in public, floatingfigures in the 20-25,000 range. TransCanada'sinitial estimate of 20,000 — which it said includes13,000 direct construction jobs and 7,000 jobsamong supply manufacturers — is far moreconservative. [2] Why the discrepancy? TheWashington Post investigated and found that thesame author of the Keystone report, RayPerryman also wrote a report predicting massivejob gains from a Wind Farm project. Among thepredicted jobs were: “51 dancers andchoreographers, 138 dentists, 176 dentalhygienists, 100 librarians, 510 bread bakers, 448clergy, 154 stenographers, 865 hairdressers, 136manicurists, 110 shampooers, 65 farmers, and(our favorite) 1,714 bartenders.“[3] Furthermore all of these estimates ignore", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-raceeghg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Job creation The XL Pipeline project has thepotential to create a large number of jobs, bothin its construction, and in refining and processingat its terminal points within the UnitedStates. Keystone Pipelines has produced areport which indicates that the Pipeline shouldcreate 118,000 jobs, with as many as 250,000 intotal after spinoffs have been counted. [1] LaborUnions have accepted this line and areaggressively lobbying for the Pipeline, [2] eventhough it means siding with Republicans andagainst their own party. Furthermore, Politiciansranging from Jon Huntsman to Bob Casey haveembraced the job-creating p[3]otential of theProject. [1] The Perryman Group, ‘The Impact ofDeveloping the Keystone XL Pipeline Project onBusiness Activity in the US’ June 2010, [2] Fox,Liam, ‘Unions Back Keystone XL PipelineThreatens Clash with Occupy Movement’, NewsJunkie Post, 3 December 2011, [3] Kessler,Glenn, ‘Keystone pipeline jobs claims: abipartisan fumble’, Washington Post, 14", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-raceeghg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Canada’s friendship with the United States isbased on shared values, interests and a sharedlanguage, things it does not and never can sharewith China in the foreseeable future. As such,while delaying approval of the Keystone Pipelinemight well cost the United States a pipeline, it isunlikely to cost America Canadianfriendship. Furthermore, while the delay of thePipeline project may well have made the Chinesebid more attractive, the fact that the Chinesegovernment already owns 10% of the Canadianoil industry and was willing to put up the money[1] for a Pipeline is an indication that they maywell be willing to a build a second Pipeline oftheir own regardless of what the United Statesdoes, even if it does not make economic sense inthe short-run. [1] Radia, Andy, ‘Should theHarper government allow Chinese ownership ofAlberta’s oil sands’, Canada Politics, 13 October2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-raceeghg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The pipeline will reduce American dependence onMiddle Eastern and Latin American oil Currently,the United States imports nearly two-thirds of itsPetroleum, with the leading suppliers includingnations such as Nigeria, Venezuela and SaudiArabia. [1] Due to political instability and thedifficult US relations with these nations, USsupplies cannot be considered secure, and withthe results of research into alternative sources ofenergy being decades away from fruition theUnited States needs alternative sources of oiltoday. One option is Canada, which isindividually already the United States’ singlelargest energy supplier. Canada’s knownreserves total 179 billion barrels, placing it thirdbehind Saudi Arabia, but some estimates haveput its total at as high as 2 trillion barrels.[2] The XL Pipeline project would help bring thisoil overland into the United States. On theCanadian end, the increased market accesswould lead to rapid development, which in turnwould increase Canadian capacity to the level to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-raceeghg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The XL Pipeline, upon its completion wouldsimply be replacing one source of Oil dependencywith another. And what Canada makes up for inpolitical friendliness, could be undone by the factthat US oil would be coming from a much smallernumber of sources. Furthermore, resolving USsupply problems will not solve the global energyshortage that will arrive as Oil deposits shrinkand Chinese demand rises. Oil will remain asource of political instability. The only true pathto energy independence is to find alternativerenewable sources that do not leave the UnitedStates and the rest of the world dependent onresources that are limited both in amount and intheir geographical locations. The XL Pipelinemight even undermine these efforts as it willcreate a false sense of security.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-raceeghg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Rejecting the pipeline bid would worsen USrelations with Canada Canada’s Oil reserves willbe of major strategic value in the next century.Currently the United States is Canada’s preferredtrading partner and strategic ally, both becauseof a history of past cooperation, and because theUS is both more willing and able to supportCanadian claims to the Arctic than China. ThePipeline would consolidate this relationship,ensuring that the development of Canada’sreserves would occur with the American marketin mind, because once built, it would be far moreexpensive to build a second Pipeline than tosimply use the existing one. The United States,is not however, Canada’s only option. Canada isdetermined to sell the oil one way or another,and an American refusal will not save theenvironment. What it will do is make Canadalook elsewhere. The Canadian governmentpublicly floated a joint-Canadian-Chinese pipelineproposal which would bring the oil to the Pacificafter the Obama Administration delayed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-raceeghg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Almost any form of producing and transportingoil risks an environmental disaster if things gowrong, as was demonstrated in the summer of2010 by the major British Petroleum spill in theGulf of Mexico. Historically however land-basedPipelines have been far safer than Oil Freightersor off-shore platforms because of the ease ofaccess, which means that spills can usually beresponded to rapidly. The real damage with theBP Spill was due to its isolated location in deepwater and the consequent difficulty of reachingit. Furthermore, fears of the carbon emissionsare flawed because they are based on theassumption that if the Pipeline is not approvedthe Tar Sands will not be developed. But this isnot the case. The Canadian Government hasalready shown interested in an alternativeChinese proposal which would see a Pipeline builtto deliver the oil to the Pacific, and eventually tothe Chinese market. [1] If the oil is going to beburned one way or another, it is best for theUnited States to do it, because the United States", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-raceeghg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "America should not become more dependent onoil A successful development of the Pipelinewould deepen the Unite States’ dependence onOil, and undermine the drive towards renewablefuels. Historically, consumers switch fuels notwhen alternatives are available, but wheneconomic forces cause costs to rise to such apoint that it becomes inefficient not to switch.This is one reason why the EU has found suchsuccess with taxes on gasoline which brought itsprice above 4$ a gallon long before it reachedthat price on the market. The result was a rushto adopt smaller and more fuel efficient cars, andto ration other energy consuming hardware. Themain result of the Keystone Pipeline will be tolower fuel costs in the short-term, under pricingelectric cars and alternative fuel sources. Whengas prices finally rise, as they eventually will, theUnited States will find itself far behind the rest ofthe World in renewable technology. Given thatrenewable technology will be one of the majorsources of economic power in the next few", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-raceeghg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Environmental risks There are seriousenvironmental factors that should be fullyexamined before any decision is made toapprove the Pipeline project. For one thing, thePipeline will mostly extract Oil from Tar Sands.Extracting oil from tar sands is much morecomplicated than pumping conventional crude oilout of the ground. It requires steam-heating thesands to produce a petroleum slurry, thenfurther dilution. One result of this process, theCanadian Environmental Ministry says, is thatgreenhouse gas emissions from the oil and gassector as a whole will rise by nearly one-thirdfrom 2005 to 2020 — even as other sectors arereducing emissions. [1] Former NASAClimatologist James Hansen has suggested thatif the Pipeline is completed it is “Game Over forthe Planet”. [2] Furthermore, the path of theproposed Pipeline will bring it close to theOgallala Aquifer which provides 30% of theUnited States’ total irrigation supply and 82% ofthe drinking water to the 2.3 million people who", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-raceeghg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "History does show that renewable technologytends to develop when it is economicallyefficient. Alternatives to fossil fuels will be foundwhen fossil fuels are too expensive to buy, andtherefore people are willing to buy what isinitially an inferior product. It is only then aftergeneral adoption, that the inferior product willimprove to the point at which it is equal to theproduct it is replacing. The fact is that as long asthere are large scale supplies of fossil fuelsavailable, and those supplies are plentiful enoughto be affordable, consumers will be unwilling toaccept the inferior performance they will getfrom electric cars, or the inferior comfort ofsmaller vehicles. The EU, with a far superiorpublic transportation system is a bad comparisonwith the United States, as it is likely that theprice at which Americans would accept the samesort of compromises is much higher, and noamount of environmental concern or preachingabout alternative energy will generate thepolitical capital to force them to if they don’t", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-assghbansb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Bullfighting has existed for thousands of years inthe cultures it is practiced in, and yet thesecultures have not become inherently barbaric orbloodthirsty, so arguments that say bullfightinghas such effects on people are simply incorrect.What is at stake is not just 'entertainment' butrather something that many in these bullfightingcountries perceive as being an art form intrinsicto their culture. Madrid has recognized andprotected bullfighting not as a sport but as an artform.(1) Bullfighting supporters in Europe haveeven campaigned for UNESCO World Heritagestatus for bullfighting.(14) This cultural valuemakes bullfighting particularly significant andjustifies any suffering the bull may endure.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-assghbansb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Harming animals for entertainment is immoral Ifa creature suffers then there can be no moraljustification for refusing to take that sufferinginto consideration. All animals are sentientbeings that experience joy, happiness, fear andpain, in the same way that human beings do. AsBentham previously noted, it does not matterthat they cannot express this suffering in thesame way as humans can (by speaking about it)or reason about their suffering in the same way-the important thing is that they can suffer in thefirst place. We can have no right whatsoever tomake them suffer for our 'enjoyment'. If anytorture inflicted to an animal deservescondemnation, bullfights are the worst kind oftorture since they are performed solely in thename of entertainment. We must end theanimals' torture and stop these shows ofbrutality and violence. It is too small a step fromthe intentional infliction of pain on an animal tothe torture and killing of humanbeings.(5) Bullfights perpetuate the idea that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-assghbansb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Many cultural and sporting events involve seriousrisks. Football, American football, rugby, boxing,acrobatics, and many other cultural and sportingevents involve serious, inherent risks to humans.But, they are not banned. Bullfighting shouldnot, therefore, be alienated for the risks that itentails. Also, the risks of bullfighting bring outcourage and bravery. If there were no risks,there could be no bravery in bullfighting. Thematador wants to take these risks so that he candemonstrate his courage, and the fans honorthat ultimate risk-taking. These risks should notbe shunned, but celebrated, just as they oftenare in other cultural and sporting events.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-assghbansb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Bullfighting is a form of animaltorture Bullfighting constitutes animal torturebecause it is exactly the suffering of the animalfrom which the entertainment of the crowd isdrawn, and the level of suffering inflicted is onthe level of that caused by torture. JeremyBentham argued that \"Cock-fights andbull-fights, the chase of the hare and the fox,fishing, and other amusements of the same kind,necessarily suppose a want of reflection or awant of humanity; since these sports inflict uponsensitive beings the most lively sufferings, andthe most lingering and painful death that can beimagined.\"(1) The want of humanity even inmodern bullfighting is shown by the sadisticcruelties inflicted on the bulls: According toanti-bullfight veterinarian José Zaldívar, in thegreat majority of cases, the matador missed thevital spot that would cause the bull to diequickly. \"These provoke internal bleeding. It is aslow, agonising death – as the high acidity oftheir blood proves.\"(2) At the end of the fight,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-assghbansb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Bullfighting is not about torturing for enjoyment;clean and quick kills are what is prized most bythe bullfighting community. If a matador fails todeliver such a kill, and the bull suffersneedlessly, then he will be jeered and shamed.This dynamic demonstrates a clear sense ofdecency within the bullfighting community.(8) Itis naïve to pretend that the alternative for bullsand cows is a long, happy life in the meadowsand then a natural death. Rather, bulls and cowsare kept and bred for their meat and eventualslaughter, a process which can be made to seemjust as horrific as bullfighting if the samedescriptive language is used. There is nosignificant moral difference between watching abull die in a bullfight for enjoyment and having acow killed to make meat so people can enjoyeating it. Must not it be so, according toBentham's logic, that eating meat for enjoymentdisplays as much 'want of humanity' asbullfighting? Indeed, in many ways bullfighting isat least more honest: the violence is clear and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-assghbansb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Bullfighting is too dangerous to humans tojustify Many matadors are gored each year. In2010, famed matador Julio Aparicio was gored inthe throat by a bull during the Festival of SaintIsidro. The bulls horn went through his neck andthroat and up through his mouth. Suchgruesome scenes, and the risks that matadorsmust take with their lives, have no place in amodern society.(7) The culture and audiencepressure of bullfighting actually increase thedanger for matadors. The bullfighters perceivedand praised as 'the best' are the ones that comeclosest to the bull, letting its horns pass inchesby the fighter’s side, etc. The greater the risk forthe bullfighter, the greater the reward from thecrowd. The bullfighter is not trying to stay as faraway as possible in order to make a riskless kill;they are trying to demonstrate their courage andbravery in the face of potentially fatalrisks.(8) In Spain and most other countries withbullfighting, the horns of bulls are not shaved,but rather kept sharp, increasing the danger for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-assghbansb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Tourists will visit Spain and other bullfightingcountries regardless of whether or notbullfighting exists, and as people become moreethically aware and act accordingly while onholiday, tourist attendance at the shows looksset to fall even further. Indeed, a pollcommissioned in April 2007 found that 89% ofthe British public would not visit a bullfight whenon a holiday.(11)(3) Therefore the loss of touristincome will be minimal, as bullfighting does noteven appeal to most tourists. Those profitswhich do ensue from bullfighting generally endup in the hands of a small bullfighting elite, notthe general population. Moreover, almosteverywhere bullfighting requires significantgovernment subsidies to function. The subsidiesthat prop up this declining industry take moneyaway from serious social problems such asaccess to public health, education,infrastructures, the elderly, public safety, socialhousing and environmental policies.(11)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-assghbansb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Many traditions have been defended for theircultural, traditional value. Stoning women forimmodesty is one of them. Suchtradition-for-tradition's-sake arguments do notactually prove anything, as cultures areconstantly evolving and changing -the ban onbullfights can be just one more suchchange.(11) The bullfighting tradition is basedon cruelty to bulls, and so simply being 'old' and'traditional' is not enough of a justification.Cruelty is cruelty no matter where in the world ithappens. Our understanding of animals hasimproved a great deal in recent times. There isno place in the 21st century for a ‘sport’ whichrelies on animal cruelty for ‘entertainment’.Moreover, people need not see a bull die in orderto understand death. Video, pictures, books, andnews reports all make it possible for individualsto learn about and understand death. It'soccurring around us naturally all the time. It iscompletely unnecessary, therefore, to artificiallyproduce death in the bullfighting arena in order", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-assghbansb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Bullfighting is no more harmful than thealternatives for bulls and cows Robert Elmsargued in 2010 that \"Those who see bullfightingas cruel are, of course, right. It is cruel that manshould breed and kill animals for his enjoymentwhether as a dinner or a dance. But to my mindthe life of an Iberian fighting bull, athoroughbred animal which lives to a minimumage of four, roaming wild, feasting on Spain'sfinest pasture, never even seeing a man on foot,is far superior to that of the many thousands ofBritish bulls whose far shorter lives are spententirely in factory conditions and killed in grimabattoirs so that we can eatbeefburgers.\"(10) Moreover, Bulls arecelebrated and honored in bullfighting. In mostbullfighting countries, bulls are honored asmystical creatures of immense strength andbeauty. Statues of bulls regularly stand outsideof bullfighting stadiums, and depict the animalsin the most majestic, strong, and beautiful waypossible. These statues frequently standalone", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-assghbansb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Bullfighting is economically important for someregions \"The ban will be economically disastrousfor Catalonia, and not just because of directlosses,\" the head of Spanish bullfighting lobbygroup Mesa del Toro, Eduardo Martin Penato,told the online edition of daily newspaper Publicoin January of 2010. Following the ban inCatalonia, sector representatives could demandas much as 400 million euros in damages incourts to compensate for losses caused by theban, including to hotels, restaurants and otherestablishments.(12) A conservative lawmaker inthe Catalan parliament noted that this \"is enoughto build six hospitals, 100 schools or fight againstunemployment.\" Top Spanish matador El Julisaid about the Catalonia ban that it \"would causebig losses for an important economic sector,which provides a livelihood for many families.\"The bullfighting sector directly employs about40,000 people in Spain, according to some sectorestimates. International accounting network BDOhas also estimated that bullfighting generates", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-assghbansb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Bullfighting is an art-form and an importantcultural tradition Ernest Hemingway said aboutbullfighting that it is \"a decadent art in every way[...] if it were permanent it could be one of themajor arts.\"(9) Bullfighting should thus not beunderstood as simply a 'bloodsport' with somecultural connotations but rather as an inherentlycultural art form. The poet Garcia Lorca said inthe 1930s that bullfighting is \"the last seriousthing in the modern world\".(10) In many waysthe seriousness of watching a life-and-deathstruggle in the arena is nothing short of poeticand this significance is perceived not only by theaudience and the bullfighting community but inthe wider culture of the nations which currentlypermit bullfighting. Robert Elms argued in 2010that, in nations which do not practicebullfighting, “Our squeamishness means that weprefer death which is mechanical and invisible,while the Spanish understand that it is part of acycle.[...] It is a public celebration of death (asubject we prefer to hide from in Britain) which,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-assghbansb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is nothing noble or poetic about the deathof a bull in a bullring. The bulls in a standardbullfight are drugged and confused animals,debilitated and run in circles by others who stabthem with spears before the matador approachesto make the \"kill shot\" with his sword. Anyonewho believes this fight to be fair is mistaken. Bythe time a matador approaches to actually killthe bull, the animal typically has enough spearsin his neck and back muscles to prevent himfrom fully lifting his head.(7) By contrast, mostnations have laws regulating slaughterhouses toensure that animals killed for meat endure aslittle pain as possible. The animal is unaware of'dignity' or 'poetry', but rather only knows itssuffering, and consequently this all that the stateshould take into consideration, with the logicalconclusion being to ban bullfighting to protectthe animal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This would certainly make sense if it wasexpected that the cull would eliminate bovine TBhowever this is not the case. The estimatedreduction in bovine TB cases is expected to onlybe 16% as a result of a cull of 70% of badgers inan area. [1] This is because only a smallproportion of badgers, possibly as low as 6% andat most 30-40%, have bovine TB. [2] Anotherreason is that other animals, such as deer andfoxes, also can pass on bovine TB. [3] Clearlymost of the cost in terms of compensation willtherefore remain. There may be some small costsavings but these are marginal. [1] Ghosh,Pallab, ‘Badger cull will reduce cattle TBinfections slightly’, BBC News, 28 September2012, [2] Packham, Chris, ‘like Owen Paterson,I had pet badgers. But their real place was in thewild’, theguardian.com, 27 August 2013, [3]Worral, Patrick, ‘FactCheck: the badger cull –what we know and what we don’t know’, Channel4 News, 27 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A cull would save on the cost of compensation tofarmers A cull would be much cheaper than thecost of compensating farmers for their losses asa result of bovine TB. The cost of the disease tothe taxpayer is estimated to be £1billion over thenext ten years – mostly as a result ofcompensation payments for farmers. This costalso damages farmers’ livelihoods as the averagecost of a TB breakdown on a farm is £34,000 ofwhich the farmer has to pay £12,000. [1] Bycontrast the cost of the cull is estimated to be£1000 per square kilometre per year meaningthe trials for the culls would cost a total of£2.2million. This then is considerably cheaperthan the cost of the disease so will be savingboth farmers and taxpayers a considerable cost.[2] [1] ‘Bovine TB (tuberculosis)’, Departmentfor Environment, Food & Rural Affairs,26March 2013, [2] Agencies, ‘How badger cullpolicy was reached’, The Telegraph, 27 August2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Clearly such actions would be against the law. Ithas been made clear that even if there were tobe a cull the protections that currently exist forbadgers would continue to exist as before anycull. For individuals to be taking the matter intotheir own hands if there is no cull would be illegaland should be punished as such.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A cull is needed to prevent bovine TB Bovine TBis a disease that affects cattle. When a herd isinfected the animals in question need to beslaughtered to prevent the disease getting intothe foodchain. The UK’s Chief vet, Nigel Gibbonsargues that the risk of infection of humans willincrease if there is no cull. [1] Since theprotection of badgers in 1992 there have beenincreases in the numbers of badgers and at thesame time an increase in infections. In 1992there were only about 800 infected herds but by2012 that had increased to 9000. Scotland,which has only 10% of the UK’s badgerscompared to 25% in the South West of Englandhas very low prevalence of bovine TB. [2] Itseems clear that we need to halt the spread ofbovine TB to prevent the infection of humans anda badger cull has to be a part of the answer. [1]Bawden, Tom, ‘Chief vet: We need badger cull toprevent spread of TB to humans’, TheIndependent, 30 May 2013, [2] ‘Bovinetuberculosis statistics and costs’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Some of the costs are largely illusionary. Yes westop food that is tested positive from bovine TBfrom getting into the food chain but this ignoresthat the tests are not accurate so there is likelymeat that is infected getting into the foodchainanyway. Bovine TB is mostly in parts of cattlethat are not eaten and cooking kills the TBbacterium. At the same time almost all milk ispasteurised so again the bacterium is killedposing no risk to human health. [1] The maindifficulty with the argument that a cull willprevent TB is that we do not know which wayinfections run. Do badgers infect cattle or theother way around. Currently the evidencesuggests that it is cattle that infect badgers thisis why there are areas with high badgerpopulations without bovine TB problems such asthe north of England. It is all but certain that anylarge jumps in infection over large distances arethe result of cattle to cattle transmission. [2]Looking at the chart presented it is clear that thebiggest jump from under 2000 to over 5000", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "If there is no cull farmers will simply carry outtheir own killing Without a cull farmers willsimply take the issue into their own hands inorder to protect their herds. If the governmentwill not act on the issue of badgers then farmerswill feel they are left with no choice. According togroups that aim to protect badgers there arealready an estimated 9,000 badgers killed eachyear through gassing, poisoning, and baiting.[1] [1] Jenkinson, Stephen, ‘Protect the Badger,Why Bother?’, South Yorkshire Badger Group,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "A vaccine for cattle does not yet exist in a formwhere it is possible to tell the difference betweena vaccinated cow and a cow infected by bovineTB. This means that vaccinated cattle wouldhave to be treated the same way as infectedcattle so would not be salable. Vaccination is not100% effective and would run the risk of othercountries banning exports. [1] Vaccination ofbadgers on the other hand is costly with the firstphase of the welsh trials having amounted to£662 per jab despite the vaccine itself costingmuch less. [2] [1] ‘Cattle Vaccination’,Department for Environment, Food & RuralAffairs, 24 January 2013, [2] ‘NFU Cymru slamsbovine TB vaccination costs’, NFU Cymru, 29January 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "In this instance the question is one of balancingsuffering. Yes culling will result in a certainamount of suffering from badgers but not cullingand letting TB run rampant causes suffering incattle. To humans cattle are much more valuablethan badgers as we have several uses for theirproduce. It is clear that if there has to besuffering it should be badgers, not cattle that doso.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Culling could increase rather than reduceTB There have been trials of culls of badgersbefore and they have not been successful. In arandomised badger culling trial in 30 areas ofEngland each measuring 100km2 it was foundthat “removing badgers by culling was found todisrupt their social organisation, causingremaining badgers to range more widely bothinside and around the outside of culled areas.”The result of increased movement was “Proactiveculling was associated with a 25% increase in theincidence of cattle TB on neighbouring un-culledland.” [1] Reactive culling can result in evenhigher increases with the risk of bovine TB morethan doubling. [2] Clearly this could be dealtwith through a complete cull that would notencourage movement of badgers but as thebadger remains protected this is not possible.There are also difficulties with knowing howmany badgers there really are because they liveunderground and only come out a night.Counting by numbers of setts is unreliable when", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-con04a", "title": "", "text": "A relaxation in cattle controls, not badgers,caused the problem Bovine TB was almosteradicated in the UK yet the number of caseshave shot up since the 1990s. The causehowever is not badgers. Rather it is the result ofBSE and Foot and Mouth disease which resultedin huge numbers of cattle being destroyed. Tohelp the cattle farmers get back on their feetrestrictions were all but lifted and cattle weremoved all over the country. It is notable that theIsle of Man, which has no badgers, does havebovine TB. [1] John Bourne, who led a trial ofbadger culling, suggests the cattle movementcontrols should be tightened before anything asdrastic as a cull is undertaken. “The cattlecontrols in operation at the moment are totallyineffective… It's an absolute nonsense thatfarmers can move cattle willy-nilly after only twotests. Why won't politicians implement propercattle movement controls? Because they don'twant to upset farmers.” The problem is that thetests are not accurate so herds can pass the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There are other options to a cull Culling badgersis just one option for reducing the incidence ofbovine TB. We are forgetting that the rate ofbovine TB is increasing mostly because the UKwas very successful at wiping out bovine TB inthe past. In the 1930s the national infection ratewas around 4 in 10 cattle, this was reduced toless than one in 1000 in the mid-1960s. [1] Thiswas done by removing infected cattle; this is stilldone today but that it was so successful in thepast shows that other methods work. Badgersare not a new species in the UK and would haverepresented the same risk in the 1960s. Alsopotentially a better option is vaccination. Thiscan be done either by vaccinating the badgers,or most effectively by vaccinating the cows.Wales has opted to go for a vaccination ofbadgers, a field study has found that vaccinationcan result in a 74% reduction in the proportion ofwild badgers testing positive for TB. [2] It canalso be done comparatively cheaply by usingvolunteers (the same people who are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Culling badgers is inhumane The culling ofbadgers will not be done in a humane way. Theintention is that badgers will be shot by trainedmarksmen but according to the RSPCA “Theiranatomy makes it difficult to shoot afree-roaming badger” the result is likely to belarge numbers of injured badgers with manyescaping “suffer agonizing deaths underground.”[1] As badgers are sentient beings we should beseeking to avoid causing them harm andsuffering. [1] RSPCA, ‘RSPCA deeply saddenedby start to badger cull’, politics.co.uk, 27 August2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-con04b", "title": "", "text": "As opposition itself has stated we do not knowthe exact cause of the transmission of bovine TBand the increase in cases. Badgers are almostcertain to be one cause if the increase so theymust be dealt with. There are already controls onthe movement of cattle; they need to have testsfirst and this has not halted the increase sosomething else needs to be tried.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwcb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "An area of 100km2 is not particularly large thusmaking it possible for badgers to be moving intoareas where there has been no culling. In a moregeneral cull this would not be possible as thebadgers would simply be moving into other areaswhich have also seen culls.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pwshwdotsc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Out of town centres distort urban growthpatterns. Because they are not organic growth,out of town centres often warp localinfrastructure provision. So, while (for example)they may have good access roads built, there willbe fewer amenities built at the same time, andsubsequent residential development whichfollows in the path often grows too quickly toincorporate the sort of planned towninfrastructure which developed in moretraditional, carefully planned town centreenvironments. Because out of town centres oftendo not clearly serve a particular residential area,they distort growth as it means that, rather thanresponding to a residential area's needs, thecentre is built and attracts residentialdevelopment around it for convenience,regardless of whether this is the mostappropriate planning approach for localcommunities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pwshwdotsc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Out of town centres bring development in theirwake. Out of town centres bring development intheir wake. As out of town centres are often builton aesthetically unappealing \"brownfield\" sites,the injection of large investment by a retailer is avote of confidence in the area and this has aknock-on effect in the local economy. The out oftown centre acts as a magnet for further positivedevelopment locally. Other amenities andhousing will typically start to congregate near theshop and the centre creates a boom for the localeconomy. This is not only true in the initialconstruction stages, it will also apply once it isup and running, as retail staff will typically berecruited fairly locally. In Edinburgh, themulti-million development of the out-of-townshopping centre in Livingston is believed to havecreated more than 1500 jobs alone1. 1Edwards, G. (2005, July 28).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pwshwdotsc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "t of town malls do not serve shopper interestswell. It is time-consuming for shoppers to visitout of town centres because of their distancefrom population centres and the tendency fortheir access roads quickly to become cloggedwith traffic. This can eradicate any time savingfrom the convenience of having shops or retailcategories clustered in a single geographicallocation. They also marginalise parts of society.For example, people without access to cars areeffectively excluded from actively using them.This especially affects some social groups, e.g.the poor and the elderly. Ultimately, if out oftown malls reduce their town centre shoppingoptions, they will have less not more shoppingchoice.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pwshwdotsc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Malls promote competition and serve consumerswell Hypermarkets and malls promotecompetition and so serve consumers well.Because of their huge purchasing power andeconomies of scale, large retail chains with hugeoutlets such as Wal-Mart, Tescos and Carrefourcan offer products much more cheaply thansmaller high-street rivals. The convenience andgreater enjoyment offered by out of town mallscan also push urban shopping centres intoimproving their own provision for consumers.This can be seen through improvements in theurban environment, better policing, cheaperparking and more ease of access, and theprovision of entertainment and special events(e.g. farmers markets, foreign markets andstreet festivals) to draw shoppers in from a widerarea. The public have voted with their feet, in2003 48% of everything bought in Britain wasbought in out of town stores1. 1 Watkins, M.(2003, June 27). The phenomenon of out of townretailing in the UK. Retrieved August 4, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pwshwdotsc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Out of town retail developments actually reduceeffective competition because smaller urbanoutlets are not able to compete with them onprice. In the United States for example, Wal-Martpays workers the bare minimum and importsgoods produced for a lot cheaper overseas1.Local stores cannot compete. After a while theurban shopping centre will become \"hollowedout\", with most stores shutting and only a fewniche retailers or stores catering to poorer andless mobile social groups remaining. Once thiscompetition is removed, the out of town storescan put up their own prices, especially as mallsand other out of town retail centres are activelyplanned to reduce direct competition withinparticular retail sectors (e.g. only one large foodretailer, only one Do-It-Yourself store, only, onlya few shoe shops, etc.). 1 Freeman, R. (2003,November 21). Wal-Mart collapses U.S. citiesand towns. Retrieved August 4, 2011, fromExecutive Intelligence Review:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pwshwdotsc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Out of town shopping malls offer a bettershopping experience Out of town malls offer abetter shopping experience. It is easier forshoppers to visit an out of town retaildevelopment than an urban or town centreshopping area. Typically, out of town malls offeraccess roads which are not crowded and plentyof \"free\" car parking. This is welcomed byshoppers and is in contrast to many city centreor high street shopping areas. It is alsoconvenient for shoppers to be able to make theirpurchases under one roof. In an out of townshopping centre, shoppers are typically able tocomplete their purchases in one covered mall,and perhaps even in one giant store. This is lesstime-consuming and less stressful than the moretraditional experience of needing to visit multipledifferent shops. In addition, the interiors ofshopping centres are actively managed and soare typically clean, relatively safe and may offertheir own entertainment (e.g. skating rinks,cinemas, live music). This is typically less true of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pwshwdotsc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Out of town shopping centres do not damagelocal communities, they strengthen them.Shopping is easier, more convenient and moreaccessible than before, leaving more time forcommunity activities. Furthermore, they act ashubs for community cohesion, teenagers can usethe entertainment facilities, parents can shop.Any residential opportunities that arise only'hollow' the community out for a short period oftime, the influx of investment in the area(propelled by the shopping centre's presence)will ensure that the town and the shoppingcentre gradually close back together.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pwshwdotsc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Out of town retail developments need not be badfor the environment. Out of town centres areoften built on land that would otherwise bederelict (e.g. Sheffield's Meadowhall Mall orBluewater in Kent) and so, if anything, improvethe quality of the area. Building modern retailoutlets large enough to be economic in urbancentres would also involve a great deal ofdestruction and the sacrifice of historic buildingsand local character. Local pollution can begreatly reduced by using modern energy-savingdesigns which are not possible in city-centrelocations, and by providing bus and light-railservices from nearby population centres.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pwshwdotsc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Out of town malls damage town centres Out oftown malls damage town centres. Because theout of town developments are remote from thetown centre, shoppers go there without passingthe urban shops, which eliminates theopportunistic purchases which form a large partof many small shops' custom. They also damagethe sense of community spirit. Out of towncentres are typically managed by national firmsand house chain shops, whereas the town centrewill normally have a larger proportion of locallyowned and run shops. Not only does thisencourage a net outflow of money from the localcommunity, it also reduces local involvement inthe town centre, which can have a negativeknock-on effect on civic pride and municipalparticipation. In Douglas, Arizona shops in thetown centre have been forced to close due to aloss in sales to out-of-town centres. According toa 2010 report, over 23% of all spending ongroceries was spent outside of the town itself,causing at least one major store in-town to fold", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pwshwdotsc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Out of town centres damage local communities'identities Out of town centres damage localcommunities' identities. In addition to thedamage they do to local trade and civicidentification, out of town centres are often farenough out of town that they are not clearlyregarded as forming part of the local community.Frequently they lie outside the jurisdiction of theurban council, and so contribute nothing to thelocal area in taxes. One proposal has suggestedusing additional taxes on out-of-town retailers toensure that British high streets can be eithermaintained or revived1. Furthermore, as out oftown centres start to attract residential buildingnearby, this can \"hollow out\" the communityidentity and economic viability of the originaltown. 1 Travel Weekly. (2011, May 19).Out-of-town retailers 'must fund town centrerevival'. Retrieved August 4, 2011, from TravelWeekly:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pwshwdotsc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Out of town retail developments are bad for theenvironment Out of town retail developmentsare bad for the environment. They encouragepollution because they are further from towncentres than traditional retail units andencourage the use of cars for fairly short,environmentally harmful journeys. They alsofrequently involve the destruction of large areasof countryside, not only to accommodate theretail development itself, but also the parking,access roads and secondary development thatusually follows. This is made worse by thestandard one or two story design of modernmalls, which results in wasteful sprawl. Efficienturban development, by contrast, tends to goupwards (or downwards) in multi-storeybuildings, often with parking below andapartments above retail space. Friends of theEarth, an environmental lobby, has recentlypushed a ban in Northern Ireland on allout-of-town shopping centres, arguing they'increase consumption and waste and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-pwshwdotsc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Out of town shopping centres represent asensible, efficient land use. Large-scale shoppingdoes not sit well with residential behaviour. Forexample, early morning deliveries and late-nightshopping can create a lot of noise. In atraditional environment where shops areimmediately beside residential areas, this is anuisance to local residents; this is not the case inout of town sites. Only out of town locations offerthe retail industry the space it needs to function.To run an efficient modern shop, large amountsof space with particular planning needs oftenhave to be used. This is often incompatible withdensely populated, built-up areas where retailunits are largely unable to be altered significantlyto meet modern needs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-echbcatspct-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The costs of establishing and administering acap-and-trade system could be substantial. Itdemands that a cap be set, monitored, andenforced. This is a highly complicated process,given the size of the energy market, and woulddemand substantial administrative oversight.Further, should the monitoring not be perfect,given the size and power of the firms involved, itis likely that they will be able to find loopholes inorder to deal with the problem. A carbon tax ispredictable, as are most simple tax systems. Acap-and-trade system, on the other hand, issubject to market fluctuations, speculation, andvolatility. This could have a bad effect on energyprices. Specifically, if the market becomessubject to speculative attack, it would be likelythat energy companies would have to offset therisks in the market by raising energy prices.Further, such market volatility could lead tocertain energy companies being unduly punishedfor changes in the market that they simply couldnot have predicted. [1] [1] “Carbon Markets", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-echbcatspct-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Cap and Trade is More Economical Than aCarbon Tax \"The efficiency [of a cap-and-tradesystem] comes with the \"trade\" part. Let's sayyou have two power plants, each emitting 100tons of carbon per hour. The first can reduce itsemissions by 20 tons at a cost of $5 per ton, andthe second can reduce its emissions by only 10tons, at a cost of $30 per ton. Clearly theefficient thing to do is to make the formerreduction rather than the latter, with the ownerof the second plant paying the owner of the firstplant to offset the first owner's extra costs [bybuying carbon credits and the \"right\" to pollutefrom the first plant].\" [1] This technique allowseffective emissions reductions to occur at thelowest cost. Hence as this is less disruptive tobusiness they are more likely to be on board andnot try to get around a cap and trade systemusing accounting methods in the same way thatthey might with a tax. A cap-and-trade systemis more flexible in the global economy. Nationsthat adopt a cap-and-trade system can later link", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-echbcatspct-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "A carbon tax essentially considers all carbonemissions harmful to the environment, andwarranting of equal punishment so is thereforefairer. A cap-and-trade system only punishescarbon emissions above a certain level, treatingonly certain kinds of emissions as \"bad\". Acarbon tax, therefore, sends a strong message topolluters that all their emissions are harmful,that they should be phased out, and that theyshould invest in environmentally-friendly sourcesof energy. This dramatic message may beparticularly important if we view global warmingto be a serious crisis. Companies are evenwilling to pay a premium for the stabilityprovided by this system [I1] ; the premiumbeing the tax itself, and the lack of the potentialfor profit through the trading of carbon credits.Further as a system that is easy to understand itis easier for directors to allow their firms to easein to the system. [1] [1] Ugur Akinci, “CarbonTax Versus Cap And Trade Approaches to GlobalWarming – Part 1.” Doubletaxes.com 2007 [I1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-echbcatspct-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Cap and Trade is Better at reducing carbonemissions than a carbon tax. A cap-and-tradesystem provides companies with credits if theyare able to reduce their emissions below anestablished level. They can then sell thesecredits for a profit. So, if a company takes actionto reduce its carbon emissions below thedesignated level, than it can make a profit. Thisis a powerful market incentive that is more likelyto cause companies to invest money in findingways to reduce their carbon emissions. A carbontax, conversely, only provides the incentive ofcutting costs, and does not offer this importantprofit motive. With cap-and-trade emissions aremuch more likely to be meaningfully reduced,specifically because the cap is static and as suchnations can choose to raise and lower it as theywish. Within this mechanism, market priceswould simply reflect the availability of credits. Assuch, nations can guarantee a reduction incarbon emissions just by reducing the number ofcredits in the market. Finally, because cap and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-echbcatspct-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "A tax on carbon by comparison to a cap andtrade system provides a much more powerfulmessage regarding the importance of carbonpolicy. Whilst a trade system seems to thegeneral public and to an extent to firms, likesimply another product to manage, a tax carriesvery strong connotations owing the severity ofother taxes levied by governments. As such itprovides a stronger incentive for firms to changetheir attitudes toward carbon. Further, a capand trade system is flawed because oftenpolluters will pollute heavily before the systembegins. As the only way to implement cap andtrade is to do so based on past emissions (or riskbeing incredibly unfair), this means that manycompanies will emit as much as possible so thattheir baseline emissions will be set highly enoughto give them a measure of leeway. Further, acarbon tax system is much easier to changebased on the effects of the policy on climatechange in the future. Whereas a cap and tradesystem must deal with changes to the market of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-echbcatspct-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "A Cap and Trade system is fairer toproducers Carbon emitting energy industriesemerged long ago, before anyone thought aboutthe environmental impact of this industry. It iswrong to suddenly consider all energy productionthat involves carbon emissions a social \"harm\",after decades of thinking to the contrary. Modernenergy producers should not be punished fortheir participation in an industry whoseemergence pre-dates concerns of globalwarming. Further, A cap-and-trade system is\"fair\" because it rewards \"efficient\"-polluterswhile punishing \"non-efficient\" polluters: Giventhe above argument, this is a more reasonableapproach to rewarding and punishing an industrywhose emergence pre-dates the environmentalconcerns surrounding carbon emissions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-echbcatspct-con03b", "title": "", "text": "A carbon tax would be more likely to pass onproblems to consumers. With the tax being asclear as it is, firms could quite easily appeal tothe public and claim that it is the governmentthat is causing them to change prices. Given theinelastic nature of the markets for energy andfood, if a number of core companies were to takethis action at the same time, then it could simplylead to the government taxing people more forthe mistakes and harm that firms cause. Whilstthe public bear some measure of responsibilityby consuming the firms’ products, the majorityof the cost should be borne by the firm. This isespecially true in energy markets where it isimpossible for consumers to simply avoid usingenergy altogether. Moreover, businesses are in abetter position to control and improve theefficiency of their operations than theircustomers are. Given that a cap and tradesystem results in a lower loss for firms it is lesslikely to be passed on to the people instead.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-echbcatspct-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The basic problem is that a carbon tax would beseen as a new tax. New taxes are typicallyunpopular. This makes it hard for politicians tosupport a carbon tax, as they are beholden totheir constituents, and their likely desires toavoid such a tax. This in itself makes it unlikely aCarbon Tax would ever beimplemented. Further, a carbon tax wouldrequire complicated enforcement mechanisms.These mechanisms would impose anadministrative burden on the state more severethan that created by a cap-and-trade system. Ina carbon tax, emitters would pay a tax for everytonne of carbon emitted. This requires that thegovernment know precisely how much carbon isbeing emitted by energy producers. This is noteasy to determine, and requires that agovernment put in place monitoringmechanisms. Deploying these mechanismsuniversally would be very complicated,expensive, and require much administration.Then, ensuring that all these monitoring devices", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-echbcatspct-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Carbon Taxes Are More Progressive bothPolitically and Economically than Cap andTrade Carbon taxes are progressive and helpeconomically marginalised communities to amuch greater extent than cap and trade.Currently, affluent businesses, individuals andlegal persons usually emit a much larger amountof carbon than poor people. A flat tax onemissions causes a significant amount of moneyto be redistributed from the rich to the poor.Moreover, the poorest in society are often thefirst and worst affected by environmentaldamage. They lack the capital necessary to moveout of areas affected by problems such as smogand water pollution. A carbon tax is aparticularly useful system of redistributivejustice, because money made from taxing firmscan then be reinvested into finding greenerenergy solutions. Specifically this money can beinvested in green energy companies that havealready shown progress in producing goods thatreduce carbon consumption. As such, a carbon", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-echbcatspct-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Cap and Trade will Harm EnergyConsumers Carbon trading would harm smallerand start-up business to a significant extent. It iseasier for wealthy companies to reduce theircarbon consumption as they have a greater levelof wealth and thus a greater ability to do so. Assuch under a market mechanism they wouldhave more credits. Poorer businesses would haveto buy carbon credits from the richer ones,compromising competitiveness; in addition,small business parks and areas attractive tostart-ups would potentially become sinkholes forpollution under the proposition. The resolutioncould undermine the efficiency and profitabilityof small but agile engineering and manufacturingfirms, such as the mittelstand businesses thathave recently flourished in Germany. Thevolatility of cap and trade markets means thatfirms would have to insure against the marketsturning against them. In practical terms, thismeans that following the implementation of acap and trade scheme firms would have to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-echbcatspct-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Cap and Trade is Less Feasible Than a CarbonTax Carbon taxes are useful owing to thetransparency behind them. It helps companiesworking for green causes gain a strongreputation and support among the publicbecause they are seen to be paying for theirpollution. A cap and trade system is significantlymore difficult to understand and as such thismeans that there will likely be less public willbehind the system and thus a lesser incentive fortransparency. A cap-and-trade system demandsthat the government determine the emissionsbaselines for companies, the allocation of carboncredits, and the monitoring and enforcement ofall of the above. This is a major administrativeburden. A carbon tax would be simpler andrequire less oversight, and would cost domestictax payers less. The complexity of acap-and-trade system would make it easier forcompanies to cheat. This is largely because theenforcement of this system would be difficult andopen to manipulation by skilled lawyers,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-echbcatspct-con02b", "title": "", "text": "A \"regressive\" tax is one that disproportionatelyburdens poorer groups. The amount of moneypayable under a regressive tax gets lower aspayment taxed increases, or the activity taxedbecomes more productive. Energy consumptiongenerally makes up a larger portion of thepersonal budgets of poorer groups. This isbecause their budgets are significantly smallerand they tend to purchase a greater deal ofperishable goods. Specifically, durable goodssuch as new sets of cutlery etc. tend not toincrease the level of carbon consumption in ahousehold. However, perishable goods such asfood often need to be cooked. Companies thatare subjected to a flat carbon tax that cannot beoffset by carbon credit training are likely to passon some of their tax liability to consumers in theform of increased prices. As has already beenestablished, the cost of consumables and energypurchases constitute a greater proportion of theincome of poorer households. A flat carbon tax,even if levied against businesses and industrial", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "We agree that speciesism is wrong but we do notthink that refusing animals rights is speciesistbecause there are relevant moral differencesbetween animals and humans. And even ifrefusing animal rights is speciism, there isnothing wrong with speciesism in the first place.It is natural to value the lives of one's ownspecies more than those of another speciesbecause we are programmed that way byevolution. We are expected to care more aboutour own families than about strangers andsimilarly to value the lives of our own speciesmore than those of animals. It is only naturaland right that if we had to choose between ahuman baby and a dog being killed we shouldchoose the dog.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Speciesism is wrong Just as racism is wrongfuldiscrimination against beings of a different raceand sexism is wrongful discrimination against abeing of a different gender, speciesism iswrongful discrimination against a being of adifferent species. Wrongful discrimination occurswhen there is no other reason for thediscrimination except the mere fact that thebeing is of the race, sex, or species that theyare. For example, if an employer refuses toemploy a black woman over a white womanbecause she has an inferior qualification this isjustified discrimination whereas if he refuses toemploy the black woman simply because she isblack then this is wrongful discrimination. Humanbeings are speciesist towards animals becausewe sacrifice their most important needs for ourtrivial desires: their life for our enjoyment of aburger. You might think that we are allowed tohave special relationships to people that aresimilar to us but there is a difference betweenspecial relationships and being active cruel and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Equality requires that two beings are actuallyequal on some fundamental level. Human beingshave certain essential similarities that makethem equal. These do not stretch to animals.Human beings are able to distinguish right fromwrong while animals have no notion of ethics.We are thus able to consider what kind of asociety we want to live in and we are affectedwhen we feel that there is social degradation.Animals, however, do not have this sense. Wehave fundamental dignity which animals do not.This is clear in the fact that animals do notexperience shame or embarrassment, desirerespect, or have a notion of self. Furthermore,human beings can consider their future and haveparticular desires about how they want their lifeto play out. These are different for everyindividual. This is why we are concerned withchoice and protecting individualism and religion.Animals on the other hand are concerned onlywith immediate survival. They have onlyinstincts, not individual desires and wants. For", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Even if we did think that animals were lessintelligent than humans beings they should beprotected by rights Babies and individuals withlearning disabilities may lack intelligence, asense of justice and the ability to conceive oftheir future. We ensure that babies and thelearning disabled are protected by rights andtherefore these factors cannot be criteria bywhich to exclude a being from the rights system.Therefore, even if animals are not as advancedas human beings they should be protected byrights. An inability to know what's going onmight make being experimented on etc evenmore frightening and damaging for an animalthat it may be for a human being.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Animals are intrinsically worthy of rights becausethey are sentient Sentience is the property ofbeing conscious. Sentience brings with it theability to experience. There is a massivedifference in the way that we treat sentient andnon-sentient beings instinctively. We see nothingwrong with forming relationships with one’s petsbut we tend to deem people with emotionalrelationships to objects mentally ill. Here we aretalking about something more thansentimentality but rather the kind of relationshipin which one is concerned with the other party’semotional wellbeing. We even feel concernedabout the wellbeing of sentient beings whichwhom we do not have a personal connection. Forexample we may feel upset when we see a dogrun over on the road. This would be a verydifficult reaction to how we might feel if we seean object crushed by a car. We feel moraloutrage at the clubbing of seals. The instinctiveway which we differentiate between these twocategories relates to the type of value they have.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "First off, you are appealing to instincts which noteveryone has. People who work on farms arehappy to slaughter animals. A lot of people donot own pets simply because they do not feelany affection towards animals and care more formaterial objects. Many people do not care aboutthe clubbing of seals. It is human beings ofcourse who perform these clubbing, murdersharks, poach etc. Furthermore, it is irrationalthat people care about their pets because cowsare equally as sentient as animals yet people arehappy to eat veal and battery farmed beef andclearly do not care about the cow. People treatpets as property. They buy and sell them, putthem down when they contract illnesses that aretoo expensive to treat, give them away whenthey move houses etc. These are things thatthey certainly wouldn’t do to human beings. Ifyou want to argue according to what humans doinstinctively then we instinctively value humansmore than animals and are happy to eat and killanimals. Furthermore, we do not think that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "We do not analyse human beings on a case bycase basis but rather by what distinguisheshuman beings as a whole, as a species. Infantshave the potential to become rational andautonomous etc. The profoundly retardedrepresent flawed human beings. Retardation isnot a human characteristic just as being3-legged is not a characteristic of a dog thoughthere are both retarded humans and 3-leggeddogs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Even if animals are able categorize images inphotographs and learn sign language, they arestill phenomenally less intelligent than humanbeings. They will never study philosophy orperform brain surgery or even invent a wheel.Furthermore, intelligence does not prove theability to self-actualise. Mourning others does notprove that animals value their own lives. Perhapsit implies that animals enjoy company butwhether they consider the value of theircompanion's life and their future potential isquestionable. Without the ability to value one'sown life, life itself ceases to be intrinsicallyvaluable. The farming of animals does involvedeath but it is difficult to prove that death isintrinsically a harmful thing. Pain is certainly aharm for the living but animals are farmed arekilled very quickly and they are stunnedbeforehand. Animals on farms do not know thatthey will be killed so there is no emotional harmcaused by the anticipation of death. There is noevidence that the painless killing of animals", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Animals are equal to human beings. It is truethat animals and human beings are different. Itis also true that men are different from womenand children from adults. Equality does notrequire beings to be identical. It is true thatwhilst many people argue women should havethe right to abortion, no one argues the same formen because men are unable to have anabortion. It is similarly true that whilst mostpeople believe all human beings have a right tovote, no one argues that animals deserve a rightto vote – even those who support animalrights. Equality does not mean that beings alldeserve the exact same treatment. It meansrather that we consider equally the equalinterests of animals and humans. If we deemamount A to be the maximum amount ofsuffering a person be allowed to endure, thenthat should apply equally to an animal, thoughhumans and animals may suffer differentamounts under different circumstances. Theprinciple of equality advocates equal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Even if it matters whether or not humans andanimals are similar, humans and animals are infact similar enough that both should be grantedrights. We have already noted that beings donot need to be similar in order to be equallymorally considerable. Assuming but notconceding that this is false, we will prove thatanimals are in fact incredibly similar to humanbeings, so much so that we should grant themrights. First of all, animals have an equalcapacity to experience pain. While we are unableto know exactly what other humans or animalsare experiencing, we can make inference fromwhat we observe. According to Peter Singer:“Nearly all the signs that lead us to infer pain inother humans can be seen in other species...Thebehavioural signs include writhing, facialcontortions, moaning, yelping or other forms ofcalling, attempts to avoid the source of pain,appearance of fear at the prospect of itsrepetition, and so on”. [1] In addition we knowthat animals have nervous systems very like", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "We clearly have direct duties to animals if wecondemn the clubbing of baby seals and likeactivities. Furthermore, it is not enough simply tostate what duties we do and don't have. Thereneeds to be a reason why we do not have directduties to animals. What distinguishes them fromhuman beings that might answer this question?We would argue that there is nothing. Animalsunlike other 'property' can suffer and feel painand have an interest in living.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "We are morally responsible creatures and we cansurvive perfectly well without being cruel toanimals. Animals are different because they needto hunt to survive and are not morallyresponsible. The interests they satisfy by beingcruel to other animals (namely the need to eat)are momentous whereas the human need towear a fur coat or have a tasty burger instead ofa vegetarian pasta dish is trivial. We even useanimals for entertainment, something that bydefinition is unnecessary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Animals are not moral agents It makes no senseto give animals rights because they cannotmakes decisions about what is right and wrongand will not try to treat us in an ethical mannerin return. Why make them a moral agent bygiving them rights?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Most rights have no bearing for animals Theright to dignity would mean nothing to ananimal. Animals are incapable of beinghumiliated and are not harmed by being reducedto human servitude. A dog is not ashamed of itsnudity or having to eat out of a bowl and wear aleash. Animals happily copulate and defecate infront of humans and other animals. What exactlyan undignified action might be for an animal it isdifficult to say. The right to education, to vote,to fair trial, to be innocent until proven guilty, toprivacy, marriage, nationality, religion, property,freedom of thought, freedom of speech, workersrights and shelter all seem impossible to apply toanimals. If we specially tailor rights to animalsthen how is that different to the status quowhere we have certain laws protecting animals?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Animals have no interests or rationality Somephilosophers argue that only beings that are ableto make rational choices can have moral rightsbecause the function of rights is to protectchoice. Animals are not able to make rationalchoices because they can only follow instinct,they cannot follow logic. Some philosophersbelieve that the function of rights is to protectinterests. An argument from R.G. Frey arguesthat animals do not have interests because theydo not have language. In order to desiresomething one must believe that one does notcurrently have that something and thereforebelieve that the statement ‘I have x’ is false. Onecannot have such a belief unless one knows howlanguage connects to the world. Animals can’ttalk so they certainly are unable to know what itis that the sentence ‘I have x’ means in the realworld. Therefore animals cannot have desires.Without desires animals cannot have interests. Ifthe function of rights is to protect interests thenanimal rights serve no purpose. [1] [1] Frey,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "We only have indirect duties toanimals Philosophers such as Immanuel Kantargue that we only have indirect duties towardsanimals. This means that we may not treatanimals in such a manner that our actions are inconflict with our duties towards human beings. Ahuman has no duty towards a dog not to kick itbut a human has a duty towards the dog's ownernot to damage his property. Pigs and cows arenot loved by any human being so we cause noharm when we kill and eat them. Though thefarmer may have owned the cow before, the beefbecomes our possession when we purchase it.Wild animals are not owned by any human beingso we may do to them what we wish. Somepeople argue that cruelty towards animals canlead to cruelty towards humans but there is noevidence that people who work inslaughterhouses are more violent towards otherpeople. In fact, there seems little connection atall between how people treat animals andhumans. A slave driver may adore and pamper", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con05b", "title": "", "text": "There is no reason why the rights we grantanimals need be the same rights that we granthuman beings. There may be laws that protectanimals but these will be taken more seriously asrights because of the status we give to rights.Furthermore there are several rights that doapply to animals: the right to life, freedom ofmovement and the right not to be subjected totorture.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "We are at the top of the animal hierarchy andshould treat other animals accordingly in order tofurther our own species. We have always beensuperior to animals. Just as a lion can killantelope and a frog can kill insects, so toohuman beings have struggled their way to thetop of the food chain. Why then can we notexercise the power we have earned? Animalsexercise their power and we should do the same.It is our natural obligation to do so. The reasonwe have always killed animals is because weneed them. We need meat to be healthy and weneed to test medicines on animals to protect ourown race. We use animals to further our ownrace. This too is surely a natural obligation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "If only rational beings should be protected byrights then we should not protect babies orprofoundly retarded people; but this is absurd.Animals do make choices according to theirpreferences e.g. lions choose a mate and dogschoose a spot to lie in the sun One is able tohave interests without language because it iseasily possible to be aware of a desire andunderstand that desire even if one does not thinkof that desire in words. Furthermore, there issome evidence that animals have languages oftheir own e.g. dolphins, birds.The challenger canalso reject either theory of rights in favour of theother.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-aelmmhbahr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is a different between being morallyresponsible and being morally considerable.Human beings are both. Moral responsibilityimplies a duty and therefore a capability to act inan ethical manner. Animals can not of course bemorally responsible as they do not have theintellectual capacity to ascertain what is rightand wrong, only instincts as to how to survive.We cannot expect animals to be morallyresponsible but this does not mean that humanbeings do not have a duty to be morallyresponsible. It would be ideal for all beings to actin an ethical manner but only humans arecapable of considering ethics and therefore weare the only morally responsible beings. Moralconsiderability refers to whether or not a beingdeserves to be treated in an ethical manner.There is a burden on the proposition to show whymoral considerability relies on being morallyresponsible. Profoundly retarded human beingsand babies are unable to be morally responsibleand yet we consider them to be morally", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "To worry about animal rights more than humanrights is not sensible. When the two arecompatible, this is a good thing, but in this casethe ban would have the effect of forcing Jewsand Muslims to choose between keeping theirreligion and eating meat. This is a moreimportant concern than animal welfare: althougheating meat is not an essential part of life, it isnot reasonable to deny it to someone.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "We should treat animals well It is important totreat animals as kindly as we can. Not causingharm to others is among the basic human rights.Although these rights cannot be said to applydirectly to animals, we should extend them acertain respect as living, sentient beings, and asa minimum we should avoid causing themunnecessary harm. [1] Moreover, taking animalwelfare seriously will accustom us to consideringthe effects of our actions in other contexts, andhelp us be generally sensitive tocruelty. Inflicting unnecessary harm on animalsis therefore a bad thing. Many governmentsalready have many policies aimed at preventingthis. For example, in 2004 the UK passed a lawbanning hunting with dogs on the grounds that itis cruel. [2] The Council of Europe and through itthe European Union already requires stunning,with an exception for religious practices. [3]Removing this exception is the best course foranimal welfare. Killing animals for food may notbe philosophically wrong – after all, many", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Doing something democratically doesn’t make itright or fair. No matter how much you care aboutanimal rights, you have no right to force otherpeople to do the same. The fact that youdisagree with them doesn’t make themwrong. We generally accept that the state maycontrol what people do in order to protectsociety. This proposed ban goes beyond thatremit, as religious slaughter of animals does notcause harm to other people. That being the case,it is unjust to stop them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Slaughter without stunning is painful for theanimal Slaughter without stunning is painful forthe animal. All slaughter methods which do notinvolve stunning work by bleeding the animal sothat it suffers brain-death. This is normally doneby cutting the neck. Depending on the species ofanimal, it can survive for anything between 20seconds and 2 minutes after this. Althoughanimals can’t tell us if they are in pain, the bestmetrics we have – brain activity, eye movementand making sounds – indicate that the animalsare in pain during this period. [1] Rendering theanimal unconscious stops it feeling painimmediately. When we have two methods ofkilling the animal available, it is inhumane to usethe more painful one. It follows that we shouldrequire stunning. [1] Federation of Veterinariansof Europe, ‘Slaughter of animals without priorstunning’, FVE Position Paper, FVE/02/104,2002,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The evidence as to the amount of pain an animalfeels is by no means clear. Many of the studiesshowing the animals suffer have been criticizedfor not carrying out the slaughter in the wayprescribed by religious law. Moreover, otherstudies claim that cutting the throat in this waystops blood flow to the brain so rapidly that ithas the same effect as a stun. Despite all theevidence that religious slaughter does causepain, the opposition to this remains scientificallycredible, and so we can’t base a governmentpolicy on one or the other.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "To successfully remove such meat from the foodchain, any ban would have to extend toimporting such meat. Under this model, Jewsand Muslims would literally be forced to becomevegetarian – a radical and discriminatorysuggestion which significantly breaches theirrights. Consumers may very well want to bebetter informed about their meat. But labelingsystems have been proposed which wouldaddress this concern without a ban. It also needsto be said that many non-religious abattoirs arealso inhumane. To be fully ethical, any suchlabeling system would have to label all theanimals where the stun didn’t work, and shouldalso take account of the way the animals wereraised and transported. Banning just religiousslaughter is not a consistent moral position, andshouldn’t be government policy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Animal welfare is a legitimate political aim It isimportant for animal rights to be represented inpolitical discourse. The animal rights movementhas many supporters. People for the EthicalTreatment of Animals (PETA) has 3 millionmembers worldwide. [1] In the UK, the RoyalSociety for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals(RSPCA) and the Royal Society for the Protectionof Birds (RSPB) are both in the 15 wealthiestcharities. [2] The point of democracy is thatpeople decide collectively how they want theirstate to run. In one poll in the UK, 45% of peoplebacked a ban on shechita. [3] Democracyrequires that we take this seriously, and if theanimal rights movement wins the debate thenwe should implement a ban. [1] ‘MembershipServices’, People for the Ethical Treatment ofAnimals, accessed 30 May 2013, [2] Rogers,Simon, ‘Britain's top 1,000 charities ranked bydonations. Who raises the most money?’,guardian.co.uk, 24 April 2012, [3] Rocker,Simon, ‘Forty five per cent of Britons ready to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Since this meat is often sold unlabeled, thisaffects everyone Meat from animals slaughteredwithout stunning can turn up anywhere. Someparts of each animal are not used in kosher food,and they are generally sold on the normalmarket. This means any supermarket productcould turn out to have such meat in it. Halal foodis even more common, and many places servehalal meat as standard. [1] So we cannot justconsider the religious community: this meatreaches everyone. People with concerns aboutthe way their food is produced would bedistressed if they knew they were eating meatwhich had been inhumanely slaughtered. Thefact that they don’t actually know is neither herenor there – we should bear in mind their ethicalpositions. Everyone is eating the meat, soeveryone has a say. Banning the production ofthis meat would remove it from the food chainand help make sure people know what they’reeating. [1] Fagge, Nick, ‘Halal Britain: Schoolsand institutions serving up ritually slaughtered", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Stunning is only unreliable when done badly. Allof the objections listed represent cases wherebest practice was not being followed. It isimportant to implement stunning properly, butthere are plenty of stunning methods which,when carried out properly and carefully, havebeen shown to be fully effective. Religiousslaughterhouses are not immune to failureseither, with the most common reported problembeing an insufficiently sharp knife. The samereport cited by opposition condemns the religiousslaughter of animals and says “when shechita isperformed on chickens in Britain, only about halfthe birds have both their carotid arteriescompletely severed by the cut” allowing brainactivity to continue for up to 349 seconds. [1]Requiring stunning will improve the base line ofwelfare we are working towards, and we canthen start to worry about ensuringcompliance [1] Stevenson, Peter, ‘AnimalWelfare Problems in UK Slaughterhouses’,Compassion in World Farming Trust, July 2001, ,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Although we want to protect freedom of religion,it is not as fundamental as other rights. Whentwo rights clash, we have to decide which shouldtake precedence – for example, your freedom ofaction is limited by my right not to be punched inthe face. Further, we will normally resolveclashes so as to first stop physical harm, followedby emotional or other harm. Freedom of religion,though important, comes further down thelist. In this case, the more “fundamental” of therights in play is the right of the animal to beprotected from unnecessary pain. It is moreclosely linked to reducing suffering, which anappropriate goal for society. So in this particularcase, we should put the animals first.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "When done properly, religious slaughter is asgood as any other Much of the research whichsuggests that religious slaughter causes pain isflawed. To show that the method is necessarilypainful, you would have to watch a trainedperson with perfect equipment. However, manystudies into slaughter have observed religiousslaughter done in a way which doesn’t meet thereligious requirements, and so doesn’t tell usanything about the real world. For example, onestudy of shechita done in New Zealand used aknife which was half the length required byJewish law, making it more likely to tear thewound and cause pain. [1] These are not trivialdetails – they materially affect the humanenessof the process. As well as this, campaignersoften conflate different types of slaughter inways that are not scientifically accurate.Different animals – horses, cattle, sheep,poultry, rabbits etc. – and even different breedsof animals react differently to both the slaughterand the stunning. Before we can assess the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The problem is not a significant one The animalwelfare movement should be tackling moreimportant things. In the UK, only about 3% ofcattle, 10% of sheep and 4% of poultry areslaughtered without stunning. [1] Farming andtransporting causes the vast majority of the painin the life of a given animal before it ever arrivesat the slaughterhouse. This is a much moreimportant issue, as it affects every animal, notjust the small proportion slaughtered withoutstunning. From the slaughter to the animalactually dying is normally within 20 seconds, andcan be as low as 2 seconds, depending on thespecies of animal. [2] The distress caused by thisin not significant in the grand scheme of things.Given that the animal is being slaughtered, somediscomfort is inevitable, but religious slaughter –even if it is more painful than slaughter withstunning – can hardly be described as prolongedor systematic cruelty. [1] Rhodes, Andrew,‘Results of the 2011 FSA animal welfare surveyin Great Britain’, Food Standards Agency, 22 May", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Attacking religious practices makes religiousgroups uncomfortable Banning religiousslaughter will be perceived by religious people asa direct attack on their faith. Historically,religious minorities have been susceptible topersecution, and these groups tend to remainquite sensitive. Often, people seeking todiscriminate against a group will jump on thebandwagon of legitimate criticism and turn it intopersecution. Religious slaughter has been used inthis way in the recent past: a proposed ban inthe Netherlands received much support fromanti-Muslim groups. [1] This sort of persecutionmakes minorities less likely to integrate intosociety and compare values with us, which isexactly what we would like toencourage. Appearances matter greatly inpolitics. All too often, the media focuses not onwhat is actually happening but on how peopleand politicians are talking about it. When asenior British politician was reported as havingcalled a police officer a “pleb,” the result was", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Most stunning methods are not reliable Thestunning methods in general use can and do gowrong. Electrical stunning requires the right sizeof charge, applied to the right place for the rightamount of time. If done badly, the stun itself cancause pain, and can even fail completely. In onesurvey of Bristol abattoirs, not a single one wasfully compliant with best-practice. Captive boltstunning must also be done at a specific point onthe animal’s head. A 1990 study found that in asmany as 6.6% of cases, cattle had beeninsufficiently stunned, and 2.6% actually had tobe shot again (one reported worst-case involveda cow being shot six times). Poultry slaughteroften takes place on a mechanized productionline, which causes serious concerns. Birds aredragged through an electrically charged waterbath to stun them, but a 1993 study showed that13.5% of birds were receiving shocks prior tobeing stunned – again, causing needless pain.Some birds lift their heads out of the bath,avoiding the stun completely. [1] Other, similar", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con05b", "title": "", "text": "The animal welfare movement can tacklewhichever problems it wants to. It is absurd foropponents of the movement to try and tell uswhat our agenda must be, or that we shouldn’tregard this as significant. Moreover, if we keptasking, “why are we spending our time on this,”we would never get anything done at all. Itmakes sense to pick achievable targets, and aban on religious slaughter is achievable partlybecause of the relatively limited nature of theproblem. We can exploit the momentum thisgives our movement to make further progress onother issues.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The rights of humans are more important thanthe rights of animals Animal rights are notgenerally accepted as universal rights in thesame way as human rights are. If we want tohave a shared society, it is necessary to granteach other certain rights, such as respectingpersonal autonomy and property. Because wereciprocate, we are able to work as a wholewhich is greater than the sum of its parts. Thereare different philosophical theories as to thesource of these rights, but the important thing iswhat they allow us to achieve. It is generallyaccepted that the right to a religion is one ofthese rights, as for many people religion isfundamental to their identity – most estimatesfor the number of religious people in the worldare over 80%. [1] In comparison, animal rightsare in no way critical to society. In our debate,freedom of religion is clashing with causing painto animals. The former, being a human right,should take precedence over the latter, ananimal right. Although we would not give blanket", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The government should not be racist, but neithershould it be so politically correct as to paralyzeitself. Religion is not a blanket defense againstthings which the country decides it is notprepared to allow. Religious groups must beprepared to engage constructively with thosearound them, discussing and comparing values –this is intrinsic to “integration into society.”Knee-jerk reactions against any challenge totheir way of life completely miss the point, andthey must think about our values just as wethink about theirs. It is our responsibility tomake sure the debate does not get hijacked byracists, but if we do this sufficiently well we cansuccessfully cast the debate as legitimatecriticism rather than oppression.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-ahwbsawhnbsf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Without accepting the premise that the two typesof killing cause equal pain and it is only if theslaughter is done badly that there is a problemthe slaughter is more likely to be done badly withreligious slaughter. Training people to doreligious slaughter well is harder than trainingthem to do other kinds of slaughter. Inparticular, the latter is more mechanized, so aslong as the equipment is properly maintainedmany problems can be avoided. Religiousslaughter is much more prone to humanerror. It will be much easier to teach people bestpractice and improve animal welfare if we requirethem to use the simpler methods, where lesstraining is required. This is a more efficient wayof improving animal welfare than studying amyriad of different types of knife etc.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cehwirtrnp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The nuclear industry around the world hasalways sought to improve the rights andprotections of workers in uranium mines and tolessen the environmental impact of those miningactivities [i] . Compared to the environmentalimpact of coal and oil withdrawal, uranium isrelatively harmless. Compared to the spacetaken up by windfarms with their impact on thelocal environment and the devastation that canbe caused by Hydroelectric, this is a low impactindustry. [i] Press Release. “EnvironmentalAspects of Uranium Mining”. World NuclearAssociation. February 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cehwirtrnp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The nuclear industry is constantly judged oncriteria that do not take its externalities intoaccount Nuclear puts great store on the fact thatit is a ‘clean fuel’ however this assessment tendsto ignore several factors in terms of social andother costs. Although much attention has beengiven to the possible harm of dealing with fuelrods at the end of their life, much less is given tothe mining of Uranium in the first place. To takeone of many examples, in 2006 the Navajonation won a lengthy legal fight to preventUranium mining ever taking place on their land.Similar efforts by communities in Latin Americahave been less successful. The industry bearsnone of the costs for the illnesses, poisonedrivers, fatalities and other costs of this process[i] . [i] Laurie Fosner. “Uranium Mining in theNavajo Nation”. Sprol. 20 June 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cehwirtrnp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "All societies inherit problems from previousgenerations this age has acquired a globalpopulation that has increased seven-fold in thecourse of two generations and has a desperateneed for energy. Nuclear power fills that needand consistently works to ensure that itsbyproducts are rendered harmless. No industryhas put more work into ensuring that it does notleave a mess behind it – nor is any industryunder more scrutiny on the subject. The NuclearIndustry has routinely accepted its responsibilityto future generations in a way that other sectorsof the mainstream energy sector have refusedto.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cehwirtrnp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The nuclear industry has constantly requiredgovernment bailouts and has never beencommercially viable in an open market Thenuclear industry is always keen to point out howcheap it is to produce a therm of energy throughsplitting an atom. However, these figures tend toleave out a few details such as the decade oftaxpayer’s dollars it takes to build a nuclear plantin the first place or the 20,000 years it takes toreprocess the fuel rods afterwards. In everynation with a civil nuclear industry, the tax payerhas been paying through the nose to keep itrunning. Even with all of this support, the priceof nuclear industry is still not competitive. In theUS alone the bill is running at over $150m inhard cash [i] , when British Nuclear Fuels Ltd(BNFL) had to start facing up to the costs ofreprocessing its spent fuel in 2001, the Britishgovernment was required to underwrite the costof 2.1 billion pounds in that year with ananticipation of ten times that during theforthcoming years. The alternative would have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cehwirtrnp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The costs of protecting oil supplies aresignificantly than any externalities created by thenuclear industry. In addition to which mostsectors of the renewables industry have yet toeven turn a dollar. Solar power, for examplewould have to compensate the enormousquantities of land it takes up to even cover itsown costs [i] . Of course there are externalitiesin the production of nuclear power, as there arein any other industry – especially the energysector. If the oil industry had to carry the cost ofwars in the Middle East or the reparations due forclimate change it would be bankrupt tomorrow.If tidal power providers had to pay for the longterm damage to coastlands, no-one would eventhink about floating a barrage. By any standardsnuclear is relatively cheaper and runs a muchcleaner ship than most parts of the sector. [i]Simon Grose. “False Dawn of Solar Power”.Cosmos. 25 October 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cehwirtrnp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "It is simply unethical to invest in an industry thatwill leave the problems it creates to be dealt withfor thousands of years into the future Werehumankind to stop all nuclear energy usetomorrow we, as a species, would have to dealwith the repercussions of nuclear power for fourtimes longer than human civilization has so farexisted. Polluting our own age is one thing but tobequeath such a heritage to generations as yetunimagined let alone unborn. To give this somecontext, in the case of just one isotope,plutonium 239 – the most poisonous substanceknown to mankind – had the Ancient Egyptiansused this as an energy source to build thepyramids we would still be dealing with it todayand it would still have 235,000 years to go.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cehwirtrnp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is interesting to note that the only placeswhere nuclear energy has provided a dominantshare of the national energy market are France,Russia, Canada (specifically Ontario) and now,increasingly China. All of which have heavilycentralised energy markets. Indeed thecorrelation between bureaucracy, the possessionor desire for a nuclear arsenal and the use ofoverpriced nuclear energy appears to go beyondcoincidence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cehwirtrnp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear power has, worldwide, received billions,if not trillions, of dollars of investment. Bycomparison the renewables industry has receivedtiny grants from central government and, despitea lack of funding and running forty years behindin terms of the attention of governments, it isholding its own with an expanding market share.As of the 8th of July 2011 the US was morereliant on renewable energy than nuclear [i]according to the Energy InformationAdministration. All of this was accomplisheddespite massively disproportionate funding.According to the primary Congressional report onthe subject: “Energy research and development(R&D) intended to advance technologyplayed an important role in the successfuloutcome of World War II. In the post-war era,the federal government conducted R&D onfossil fuel and nuclear energy sources to supportpeacetime economic growth. The energy crisesof the 1970s spurred the government to broadenthe focus to include renewable energy and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cehwirtrnp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Renewables are mostly unproven, experimentaltechnologies being developed on a small-scalebasis that is not ready to take up the gap tomove away from fossil fuels under climatechange agreements The renewable sector is arapidly changing market moving in betweenmicro-renewables and massive offshore projects.It is a fascinating area as an emergenttechnology field but it lacks stability both interms of technology andinvestment. Realistically nuclear power is goingto have to play an important role in bridging thegap – at the very least – on the road away froma carbon dependent economy [i] . Thetechnology and funding is simply not in place forany renewable technology to take up the hardlifting from oil and coal yet. [i] G PaschalZachary. “The Case for Nuclear Power”. SFGate(San Fransisco Chronicle). 5 February 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cehwirtrnp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear power has a proven track record inFrance, Canada and Russia and an increasingrole in new energy markets There are alreadystable markets for nuclear power around theworld with plants providing a consistent share ofenergy to the consumer. Although there are nowrenewable suppliers providing some share oftotal demand it is rare for them to haveestablished relationships with either suppliers ormajor industrial consumers. There are, howeverestablished models of how nuclear power can beblended into an integrated energy supplysystem.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cehwirtrnp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There is no instance in which renewable energyhas been able to provide a major share in theenergy market Despite the best intentions ofmajor players in the energy market, renewablefuels have simply not been able to keep up withdemand. It has a limited role in supplyingelectricity and virtually none in any otherarea. Although Nuclear is poor in the provisionof non-electrical energy as well it has proved amore consistent form of energy in every arenathan renewables. It has proved to be cleanerthan any form of fossil fuels. With technologicaladvances it is the obvious fuel of the future and,as a result deserves further funding andresearch.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cehwirtrnp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is useful to deal with the idea that nuclear is aCO2 free fuel. When the entire fuel cycle isconsidered then Nuclear power is a directcontributor to climate change emissions [i] . Itis then possible to add in additional carbonfootprints such as the emissions caused bybuilding and staffing a large plant. It is also aquestion worth asking as to when climatechange-related pollution became the onlystandard. There are plenty of other ways ofpolluting the environment and belching outirradiated gases into the ocean would seem tomeet that standard. [i]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephwcear-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The Arctic covers a huge area, of course thereare some parts that should be protected. Just aswith any other area in the world, areas of specialscientific or environmental significance should beprotected. However, just picking a line on themap and saying ‘no drilling north of here’ makeslittle sense. Why not a degree further south – ornorth? Protection should be awarded on a site bysite basis, just as it would be anywhere else inthe world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephwcear-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The Arctic is a diverse but fragileecosystem Mineral extraction is not a cleanprocess [1] and the Arctic is acknowledged as afragile ecosystem. In addition to the pollutionthat using these fuels will cause elsewhere in theworld, the process of extraction itself is fraughtwith risks. There is some destruction causedsimply by the process of building and runningrigs with everything running normally, but thenightmare scenario is a major spill. [2] Let’s beclear, with the best will in the world, there will bea spill; difficult and unpredictable conditions,gruelling tests for both the machinery and theengineers that manage it, and a track record thatleaves a lot to be desired in far more habitableand accessible environments. There are twodifficulties posed in terms of an off-shore (orbelow-ice in this case) spill. The first problem isthat stopping the spill would be vastly morecomplicated logistically than anything previouslyattempted, making previous deep-seacontainment exercises seem simple by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephwcear-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There is no reason to believe that a warmingarctic will be a more competitive arctic or thatthe littoral powers will not be able to share theresources the region provides. Norway andRussia managed to fix their maritime borders inthe Barents sea in order to exploit the potentialresources there. [1] There being resources toexploit can just as often provide a motivationcooperate because if this does not happen thenno one can exploit the resources. [1] Brigham,Lawson W., ‘Think Again: The Arctic’, ForeignPolicy, Sept/oct 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephwcear-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The Arctic should be saved for futuregenerations As we are using the resources of somuch of the planet we should think about ourlegacy to future generations and leave theresources of the arctic to future generations.There are several reasons why we should doso. First of all drilling in the arctic means drillingin some of the harshest conditions on earth; withmany of the projects being set up it meansdrilling in deep areas of the ocean that wereinaccessible only a couple of decades ago. It alsomeans drilling in freezing conditions while beingpotentially vulnerable to icebergs. Disasters likethe Deepwater Horizon in the Gulf of Mexicohave shown that oil companies are not preparedfor oil disasters in deep water and repair wouldbe more difficult a long way from civilization.[1] While the technology for this does not yetexist in future it probably will. It makes sensethat we should leave such hard to reachresources until it is possible to extract it easilyand safely. In the mean time we should be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephwcear-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This is oil and gas that we already know aboutand already have the expertise to exploit. Thetechnology that we don’t yet have will only bedeveloped if there is a demand for them – if thedemand is now the technology will be developed.There is little point in us leaving this particularfuel to future generations when we are the firstgeneration that has the technology to exploitsuch deposits. Future generations may improveon the technology and make it safer but thefundamental capability, the breakthroughs thatmake it possible have already happened. Futuregenerations on the other hand will have theirown breakthroughs in terms of new forms ofpower and new discoveries of fuels. They arethen much less likely to need these resourcesthan we do now.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephwcear-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "A treaty similar to the Antarctic Treaty wouldprevent competition The opening up of the arcticOcean through climate change also opens upterritorial claims as where there are resources atstake states are keen to make a claim so as toexploit them. For example in 2008 Russia’s thenPresident Medvedev stated “Our first andfundamental task is to turn the Arctic into aresource base for Russia in the 21st century.” [1]Such competition for resources can lead toconflict as is increasingly being shown in the Eastand South China Seas. The Antarctic Treatyhowever freezes these territorial claims, aswould our proposed treaty. It also bans militaryactivity so preventing any completion fromgetting out of hand. [2] The proposal would alsoban the exploitation of the Arctic’s resources soreducing the cause of any conflict. [1] Keating,Joshua, ‘Medvedev makes a play for Arcticriches’, Passport Foreign Policy, 17 September2008, [2] ‘The Antarctic Treaty’, Secretariat ofthe Antarctic Treaty, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephwcear-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is noticeable absence in the list ofcountries set to replace the Middle East; Thatabsence is Russia. It is hard to see how beingsubservient to Putin – with nuclear weapons anda massive military – is preferable to going cap inhand to the House of Saud. It is also unclear thatthis will be a benefit in terms of security andconflict. These countries are so dependent on oilthat undermining their economies in this waycould lead to more, not less conflict.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephwcear-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The obvious response to ‘growing demand’ beinga problem would seem to be to reduce demand.When this has been attempted by states, therehave been complaints that this was an unfairburden on business. Once the market adjusted,by increasing price, the same people demandedthe right to increase supply. There is notparticularly a growing demand for mineralresources; there’s a growing demand for energyand transport, it’s time to get serious about new,cleaner ways of meeting that demand. It has tobe remembered that oil and gas from the arcticis not cheap; oil projects in the region costbillions before they even begin extracting. It isalso questionable whether there really is 160billion barrels of oil – it has not been explored sowe do not know how much is there. To take anexample of just such an uncertainty in a muchless extreme environment China claims theSouth China Sea has up to 200 billion barrels ofoil [1] while the US Energy InformationAdministration thinks it is between 5-22 billion", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephwcear-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Creating jobs and opportunities The areascovered are among the least developed in theworld. Standards of education and income forindigenous peoples are very low and, to date,there has been little to motivate any nation to doanything about that. For example Canada israted the 6th in the world by the UN’s HumanDevelopment Index but if the same index wasrating Canada’s First Nations it would be 76th.[1] However, oil companies have alreadyinvested billions into exploration and the futurenor these areas – as well as employees withexisting skills in mineral extraction could beprotected and enhanced by the opportunitiesoffered by these new areas fordevelopment. With those directly created andsaved jobs come, literally, millions of others intransportation, distribution, energy supply andmanufacturing and other sectors that depend onaffordable energy costs. First nations in thoseareas that have oil booms have considerablybetter employment prospects; in Canada", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephwcear-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Relieving areas of conflict such as the MiddleEast Currently the main supplies of oil and gasare from the Middle East with more coming fromAfrica and in the western hemisphere fromVenezuela. These oil producers include manyunstable regimes; many of them engaged inappalling human rights abuses against their owncitizens. This is because regimes with suchnatural resources buy off their people meaningthere is little accountability. [1] In addition to theobvious ethical issues that are created bycontinuing to fund brutal regimes that happen tobe sitting on billions of barrels of crude, it’s alsoeconomically risky to be so much in the pocket ofsuch regimes. Securing energy security has longbeen an ambition for much of the West. TheCarter Doctrine of 1980 “an attempt by anyoutside force to gain control of the Persian Gulfregion will be regarded as an assault on the vitalinterests of the United States,” was a directresponse to the oil shocks of the previousdecade. [2] In Canada, the USDA and the Nordic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephwcear-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There is a growing demand for mineralresources Improving the lives of its citizens isone of the most important roles of the state. Andin terms of improving lives economic growth isusually considered the most important economicgoal. [1] And in order to grow cheap fuel isneeded. Nuclear energy is still precarious, andexpensive, and renewable technologies cannotcome close to meeting the existing needs of thewest, let alone those of Russia, China, Brazil,India and the rest. We are confronted with astark reality – either use new sources of oil andgas while investing in replacement technologiesor see a collapse in standards of living and lifeexpectancy around the world. There is much tobe said for less carbon-based economies but wedon’t have one yet. Until that option is available,the lights need to be kept on. The area north ofthe Arctic Circle is thought to contain as much as160 billion barrels of oil, more than a quarter ofthe world's undiscovered reserves. [2] There arecosts to exploiting those reserves – some of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-environment-cephwcear-con02b", "title": "", "text": "To start with, let’s not believe the line that localcommunities see this as an unadulterated good –they have very real concerns about the impacton their qualities of life. [1] It’s also untrue thatworkers elsewhere in the world see this as purelybeneficial; many of these workers live with thetoxic results of drilling and refining oils and theyhave expressed their concerns about the healtheffects. [2] Yes there is increased infrastructurebut much of it is not of the sort that benefitscommunities, like oil pipelines. The one group forwhom there is unalloyed joy at this prospect is asmall one that comprises the owners andexecutives of oil companies. If opposition wantsto make the case that some people want to keepthe money flowing, fine. But at least be honestabout who those people are. [1] Macalister,Terry, ‘Arctic resource wealth poses dilemma forindigenous communities’, The Guardian, 4 July2011. [2] Sturgis, Sue, ‘Pollution from oilrefinery accidents on the rise in Louisiana.’,Southernstudies.org, 3 December 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Those same studies suggest that individuals dolittle extra to protect themselves, as theyconsider sexual offences to be suitably rare thatthey can plausibly tell themselves it won'thappen to them. This is exacerbated by the factthat most sexual offences are committed bysomeone who the victim knows. If they alreadyknow the person, they are likely to considerthem a limited threat, as the popular perceptionof sexual offences is still one of an offencecommitted by a stranger. Furthermore, peopletend to be highly trusting of their own impressionof people. Finally, the harms from neverengaging with former sex offenders in acommunity are set out at Opposition ArgumentTWO.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "This helps people protect themselves and theirfamilies People can use the information aboutthe offenders in their area to ensure this. It isespecially useful to have a modus operandi; if alocal offender is known for typically abductingpeople walking on their own at night, people canalter their behaviour to ensure they always havecompany, or get a taxi after dark. More directmeasures can be taken, by avoiding contact withthat person, or avoiding entering into a closerelationship with them. Furthermore, moregeneral measures can be taken to be morevigilant, install better locks, and avoid leavingvulnerable people alone. Some studies1 suggestthat there is an increase in measures taken toprotect other people where this information isgiven. 1 Zgoba, K., \"Megan's Law: Assessing thePractical and Monetary Efficacy\", December2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The option given to the police and victim to notdisclose the information undermines theprincipled claim in Proposition Argument Twothat people should be free to determine theimportance of the information on their own; thisdenies them that freedom in some cases. Givencases where there is a risk of vigilantism are theones which excite the most public feeling, thesecases may be the ones which people feel aremost important to know about.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "This acts as a deterrent. Knowing that, if theycommit an offence, their name, photograph, anda description of their crimes will be widelypublished deters people from committing theoffence in the first place and equally ofreoffending. Firstly, this is because there arestrong moral norms preventing such behaviour;this policy acts not only to reinforce those moralnorms (by clearly designating people whocommit such an offence as being worthy ofshaming), it also increases the consequences ofbreaching such norms. Specifically, potentialoffenders will realise the harm this may cause totheir personal relationships, and any futurerelationships – these are typically things peoplevalue, and so people will act to minimise thisharm. Further, if someone is willing to commit asexual offence, it is reasonable to assume theyvalue sexual encounters. Such publication maylimit their opportunity to access such encountersin the future, and therefore the policy aims tooperate such as to minimise what a person", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, within relationships; a person looking tocommit such an offence is unlikely to be deterredbecause they expect that, because of theexistence of the relationship, they will not beconvicted of such an offence. Also, sexualoffences against a partner are often anexpression of a dominating power within arelationship. In such a case, the offender doesnot expect the offence to be reported due to thecontrol (s)he holds over the victim. As such, thesize of the penalty is less important, as they donot expect to receive it. The secondcircumstance such offences are committed isagainst a stranger, typically in public. When aperson is willing to act in breach of such clearmoral norms, they are less likely to be concernedabout this being published broadly, and so thedeterrent will be weaker. These are exacerbatedby the fact that many sexual offences arecommitted in times of passion, where a person’sdecision making is focused heavily on theshort-term – and so the possibility of a future", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Freedom is not an absolute good; onlysomething that typically advances overall utility,as we understand that people are normallybetter placed to maximise their utility, being theonly ones with knowledge of their desires andvalues. This, however, is not such a case – asthe opposition arguments below suggest, thiscauses harmful consequences that outweigh anyclaimed benefits of utility. Furthermore, this areaseems to be one where the police are betterplaced to determine the importance of theinformation, given their expertise in offendingand re-offending , and especially given thetendency on behalf of the public to panic, andplace more importance on past convictions thanit factually requires.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "How this would work This policy involves anactive disclosure campaign, through websitesand the newspapers, where a sex offender hastheir name, their photo, their address and thenature of their crime published on a website, orin the local media. It may include postercampaigns about individuals for particularlyserious crimes, with the aim of both informingpeople and causing shame. It may be sensible toallow the police to not disclose the information inthe following circumstances; 1) where asignificant risk of vigilantism exists, 2) where it isagainst the wishes of the victim, and 3) where itmay jeopardize an ongoing criminalinvestigation. Early studies showed that Megan'slaw in the United States had high rates ofvoluntary compliance, between 70 and 80% andrising, proving that the policy is practical1. 1Simpson, Rachel, ''Megan's law' and other formsof sex-offender registration', NSW ParliamentaryLibrary Research Service, Briefing Paper NBo.22/99, November 1999,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The state has a duty to maximise freedoms. Allstates in some way limit individual freedoms, byrequiring them to follow laws and enforcing theselaws with the coercive power of the state.However, such limits can be justified in so far asthey advance others freedoms; limiting PersonA's freedom to kill enhances Person B's freedomto live. States therefore derive their legitimacy todeny freedoms from their advancement ofoverall freedom. This policy enhances thefreedom of people to defend themselves andtheir family by providing them with informationabout offenders (see Argument Three), andallows them to determine for themselves theimportance of that information1. 1law.jrank.org, 'Sex Offences", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While such an argument may act to limit thevalue of the deterrent effect, it does notcompletely remove it; there will remain someadditional deterrence to some potentialperpetrators of sexual offences. This is becausesome potential offenders will consider thepotential harm to themselves of their action, anda greater potential harm will mean they are lesslikely to commit these offences.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Clearly, vigilantism is a problem; however, theproviso in the policy should act to limit this, aswhere there is a threat of harm the informationwill not be released. Furthermore, it will bepossible to offer people under threat policeprotection. Finally, a strong justice system islikely to limit vigilantism, as people perceivejustice as being done, and are therefore lesslikely to resort to acts of individual violence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The harms of stigmatization and alienation. Thisharm mainly refers to the possibility ofre-offending, which occurs in approximately 30%of cases over a six-year period (although notethat the figure is for committing any otheroffence, not another sexual offence)1. Whensociety labels such people in a very public way ascriminals, it may be difficult for them toreintegrate in society. This is because peoplewho know of their crimes will be less willing toengage with them, whether they knew thempreviously or not. Specifically, it will be verydifficult for businesses to employ them if theyare publically known to have been convicted of asexual offence, because of the possible publicoutrage this would cause. Previous offenders aretherefore likely to be distanced from society,shunned by old friends, likely to have difficulty inmaking new friends, and likely to find it difficultto find employment. It may further encouragethem to make friends with those with similarbackgrounds. This makes them feel outside", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Expense. As alluded to in Counterargument Fourabove, sexual offences are typically committedwithin relationships, or by someone the victimknows; around 80% according to some studies1.These proportions are also probably larger, inthat rape by an acquaintance is less likely to bereported, as a victim is better able to normalisethe incident as a misunderstood sexualinteraction. This indicates that a deterrent effectis less likely to work, because of the lowerchance of the offence being reported, and therelative power within any such relationship. Theoffender is less likely to respond to thatdeterrent, as they perceive it as so unlikely tooccur to them. 1 National Center for Victims ofCrime, \"Acquaintance Rape\", 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Who commits sexual offences? As alluded to inCounterargument Four above, sexual offencesare typically committed within relationships, orby someone the victim knows; around 80%according to some studies1. These proportionsare also probably larger, in that rape by anacquaintance is less likely to be reported, as avictim is better able to normalise the incident asa misunderstood sexual interaction. Thisindicates that a deterrent effect is less likely towork, because of the lower chance of the offencebeing reported, and the relative power withinany such relationship. The offender is less likelyto respond to that deterrent, as they perceive itas so unlikely to occur to them. 1 NationalCenter for Victims of Crime, \"AcquaintanceRape\", 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Allowing the population to know where sexoffenders are would encouragevigilantism. Vigilantism is a real threat to thosepublicised as sexual offenders, especially thosewhose sexual offences involve children. Forexample, in the UK a vigilante published adatabase naming almost 10,000 paedophiles1,and some misdirected vigilante attacks havebeen committed against those with no criminalconvictions, such as a paediatrician2. Therefore,there is the possibility of harm occurring in thatoffenders who have served the punishment thejustice system feels is adequate being subjectedto further punishment and violence.Furthermore, there is the possibility of mistakesbeing made and people being subject to violencefor no reason. 1 The Telegraph, \"Internetvigilante publishes database naming 10,000paedophiles\", November 2010, 2 TheIndependent, \"Vigilante mob attacks home ofpaediatrician\", August 2000,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-sshwnasso-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, given the low % of offenders who commitserious crimes within 6 years is around 10%1,this seems like it may be a marginalissue. Furthermore, it seems unlikely thatpeople who already know someone will stopassociating with them merely because of theirstigmatization. Family, for example, tend to bevery forgiving, as are close friends, who arelikely to believe their long-term view ofsomebody is more accurate and to forgive amistake. Such people will be able to ensure aperson is not alienated from all society. Thismay also be a benefit; if an offender has atendency to commit sexual offences withinrelationships, it may be useful to limit hisrelationships (or at least warn their partner ofsuch a tendency), such that this is not likely tooccur again. Finally, it can be shown that if thispolicy does increase the deterrent effect tofirst-time offenders, this may be more important.This is because some people will be preventedfrom ever being imprisoned, associating with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "How can it be that only tobacco companies getsingled out and told not to advertise theirproducts, while many others (such asprescription drugs) are allowed to market theirproducts? There are many products which arehugely dangerous, take alcohol for example.Whilst drinks can be advertised, in the UK theymust also carry a drink responsibly warning. Whycan tobacco companies not do the sameespecially when you consider how much moreimmediate the danger from alcohol is?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Restrictions reach out to the generalpopulation A ban or high restrictions is a goodmeasure to diminish the effects of smoking insociety, because unlike the spreading ofinformation (which is usually done by schools /clubs), governmental restrictions or a total banwill ensure the access of measures to the wholepopulation. Through a ban on advertisement orhigher taxation those citizens not involved inactive educational structures get educated aboutthe problem. Studies on the ban ofadvertisements show that bans actuallycontribute great amounts to the reduction ofsmokers. \"The tobacco industry employspredatory marketing strategies to get youngpeople hooked to their addictive drug,\" said DrDouglas Bettcher, Director of WHO's TobaccoFree Initiative. \"But comprehensive advertisingbans do work, reducing tobacco consumption byup to 16% in countries that have already takenthis legislative step.\"1 So because thesemeasures can drastically decrease smoking when", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "While a government has a responsibility toprotect its population, it also has a responsibilityto defend their freedom of choice. The law stepsin to prevent citizens causing harm to others,whether deliberately or accidentally. However, itshould not stop them taking risks themselves -for example, dangerous sports such asrock-climbing, parachuting or motor-racing arelegal. It is also legal to indulge in otherhealth-threatening activities such as eating lotsof fatty foods, taking no exercise, and drinkingtoo much alcohol. Banning smoking would be anunmerited intrusion into personal freedom. Asthe proposition points out, cigarettes are notdangerous because they are defective; ratherthey are inherently, potentially, harmful. Butpeople should still be allowed to choose to buyand smoke them. A better comparison is tounhealthy foods. High cholesterol or a highintake of fat can be extremely harmful, leadingto heart disease, obesity, and other conditions;but manufacturers of these products are not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Restrictions benefit the health of thirdparties This argument is built on the premisethat a ban or higher taxation in practice will leadto less smokers, especially protecting thefamilies of smokers and other non-smokingcitizens from potential health risks andpremature death. Smoking also has widereffects, not simply restricted to smokersthemselves. So-called 'passive smoking' isbecoming an important issue: in a smoke-filledenvironment, non-smokers are also exposed tothe risks associated with tobacco. Especiallywhen it comes to homes and families there is ahigh likelihood of \"passive smoking\". Researchsuggests that partners of smokers have anincreased chance of developing lung cancer,even if they do not use tobacco products. Recentresearch even shows, that according to theJournal Archives of Pediatrics, children living inhouseholds of smokers are more prone to mentalillness, depression and attention deficit disorder(ADHD)1. So because restrictions on smoking", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "First of all, a ban on smoking might just lead topeople deciding to turn on to the black marketfor tobacco, not solving the problem of passivesmoking or any other effects. Same also goes forthe possibility of higher taxation, people mightjust choose a relocation of funds due to higherprices of cigarettes. Further on, if we do acceptthe premise, that smoking will maybe decrease,the evidence for passive smoking is very slimindeed, with very few controlled studies havingbeen carried out. At most, those who live withheavy smokers for a long period of time mayhave a very slightly increased risk ofcancer. Also it is true that smoke-filledenvironments can be unpleasant fornon-smokers, but there are reasonable andresponsible ways around this - smoking rooms inoffices and airports are an excellent example.Some bars and restaurants may choose to benon-smoking establishments, giving customersthe choice to select their environment. Allowingpeople to make their own, adult decisions is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The state has to take measures to protect thehealth of its citizens There is little doubt thatsmoking tobacco is extremely harmful to thesmoker's health. In the US, for example,research by the American Cancer Societysuggests that tobacco causes up to 400,000deaths each year1 - more than AIDS, alcohol,drug abuse, car crashes, murders, suicides, andfires combined. World-wide some 5 millionpeople die from smoking each year2 - one everyten seconds - which estimates suggest will riseto 10 million by 2020. Smokers are up to 22times more likely to develop lung cancer thannon-smokers, and smoking can lead to a host ofother health problems, including emphysemaand heart disease. In a democracy the peopleelect leaders and trust them with a term, wheretheir duty is solely to look after the wellbeing ofthe country and its citizens. The politicians,having the resources and time, are well equippedto make a better and more informed decision onactivities dangerous to the individual, others and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Smoking is not a real choice, as nicotine is anaddictive drug - in fact; recent allegationssuggest that tobacco companies deliberatelyproduce the most addictive cigarettes theycan. Up to 90% of smokers begin when they arebelow the age of 181, often due to peerpressure; once addicted, continuing to smoke isno longer an issue of freedom of choice, but ofchemical compulsion. Like other addictive drugssuch as heroin and cocaine, tobacco should bebanned since this is the only way to force peopleto quit. Most smokers say that they want to kickthe habit", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "People often express concern about taxesharming the poor, since they are both most likelyto smoke and the least able to afford it. Butwhen tobacco prices are kept low, more poorpeople use tobacco, and thus waste more of theirmoney on it. In Bangladesh, as prices haveremained low over the years, per capita spendingon tobacco has increased. While raising taxesmay harm some poor individuals who are unableto quit, in many situations this problem isalleviated by the existence of alternate low-costtobacco products. To the degree that these areminimally advertised and unpalatable, they maybe a resource to the addicted while beingunlikely to attract the uninitiated. In addition, ifthe policy benefits a large number of poorsmokers but harms a few, then the decision mayhave to be made to tolerate the harm in order tobenefit the many. Negative effects can beaddressed through programs to help the poorquit, or to subsidize a food substance generallyconsumed only by the poorest1. 1 PATH Canada", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Democratic systems should educate on smokingrather than restrict it The principle of democracyis to let people make their decisions and toensure, that the decisions they make are asinformed as possible. Due to the maximization ofan individual's happiness the government shouldonly have the possibility to give information totheir citizens and let them all decide, how theywant to make use of their freedom ofchoice. One of the options is a targetedcampaign against smoking and information onsmoking harms. Actually, the National Bureau forEconomic research states that there has notbeen enough investment in counteradvertising,which is designed to reduce consumption andalso fits into the framework of a responsefunction.\"The counteradvertising responsefunction slopes downward and is subject todiminishing marginal product. The levels ofcounteradvertising that have been undertakenare small in comparison to advertising. Theempirical work finds evidence that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "This will open up a black market The lesson ofprohibition of alcohol in America in the 1920swas that banning a recreational drug used by alarge proportion of the population merely leadsto crime and contraband. A case of this is India,where the contraband trade of cigarettesconsists of the international brands that aresmuggled into India and the duty evadedcigarettes manufactured domestically by smalland unscrupulous manufacturers. \"With steepduty increases over the last few years thissegment has grown exponentially,\" the TobaccoInstitute of India states1. Not only is there acase to be made for a flourishing black market,countries lose with this control over the productsand can harm their citizens even more with notcontrolling the consumed substances. 1 AshishSinha, High tax on cigarettesmaking contrabandmarket flourish, The Financial Express, published11/05/2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Smoking is a choice of lifestyle the governmentshould not intervene with Freedom of choice iswhat differentiates democracies fromdictatorships, autocracies or any other form ofgovernment. It goes by the principle, that theindividual is free to do, whatever he or shewants, as long as this choice does not limit thefreedom of choice, bodily integrity or any otherhuman right of another individual insociety. This also applies to smoking. While thelaw steps in to prevent citizens causing harm toothers, whether deliberately or accidentally itshould not stop those taking risksthemselves. The state allows individuals tomake lifestyle choices that endanger their life allthe time. Because there is not differencebetween smoking and the other life endangeringactivities, banning or severely regulatingsmoking would be an unmerited intrusion intopersonal freedom.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Regulation harms safety and the poorpopulation Cigarettes are so common that thereis hardly any chance all the people will stop.What will happen is that policies, regardingtobacco regulation or banning will mainly restrictthe possibilities of the poor. In 2009, in the US,a law to triple the federal excise tax on cigaretteswas signed, which meant that the federal tax oncigarette jumped from 39 cents per pack to$1.01 today. The administration projects, thatsuch a \"sin tax\" will bring in at least $38 billionover the next five years. Smokers, usuallycoming from lower socio-economic backgrounds(getting welfare, unemployment or disabilitychecks instead of paychecks) still pay the wholecigarette tax, while they do not get the sameamount of funding as others. Anyone concernedabout widening income inequality should havesecond thoughts about this distribution of the taxburden1. Effectively this means, that while ahigher financial burden might not causeproblems to high and middle class smokers, it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Most people who smoke tobacco are law-abidingnormal citizens who would like to stop. Theywould not resort to criminal or black-marketactivities if cigarettes were no longer legallyavailable - they would just quit. Banning smokingwould make this happen and massively lightenthe burden on health resources of the countriesin which it was banned. The reason why suchactions may have happened in India wasprobably poor regulation of the market or mainlypoor execution of already set out rules.Something that is easily preventable inWesternized countries.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-adhgphwfrs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Rather than the state pouring money intocampaigns, they should spend it on other moreimportant things, such as improving the healthsystem, infrastructure or other, more importantthings. The UK Department of Health doubled itsmedia spending from less than", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The ban is unnecessary because it will prove tobe useless. Although the Bloomberg-appointedBoard of Health gave their rubber stamp ofapproval to Mayor Bloomberg’s proposal, severalboard members voiced their apprehension of theban and its effectiveness. Board member, Dr.Michael Phillips brought up the fact that the banunfairly targeted establishments regulated by thecity because those regulated by thestate—7-Elevens and grocery stores—wouldcontinue selling larger sodas. The ban alsofocuses on sugary drinks alone. [1] \"We're reallylooking at restricting portion size, so theargument could be…what about the size of ahamburger or the jumbo fries, and all that kindof stuff?” The mayor himself said in the MSNBCinterview that the goal was to target portion size.[2] Yet, somebody can easily buy four 16-ouncedrinks and be worse for it. The people could alsopass the deli and patronize the grocery store forlarge sodas, affecting the Deli’s business whilestill maintaining high sugar intake. The ban", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The ban is necessary to confront the growingproblem of obesity in NYC. Although risingobesity levels in the city have been a major issuein New York City recently, any measures alreadyenacted have failed to curb the growing numbersof obese New Yorkers. The Bronx has the largestpercentage of overweight adults, a staggering 70percent; the other four boroughs also have seenincreases in the past decade. Sixty-two percentof Staten Island adults are overweight; followedby Brooklyn, at 60 percent; Queens, at 57percent; and Manhattan, at 47 percent,according to city health data. [1] The New YorkCity Department of Health has enacted severalprograms promoting healthier living such ashealth fares in low-income areas and the Adopt ABodega initiative, through which local bodegas orsmall delis and groceries agree to sell producefrom family-owned, local farms, providinghealthier foods to New Yorkers for reasonableprices. But the results, or rather lack of them,show that education and access are not enough.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There is no obligation on the city to protectcitizens from their own choices. Citizens areresponsible for their own bodies including whatthey eat and drink. Making any part ofgovernment responsible for this would mean aneed for much more regulation on almostanything that would protect lives. In this case itwould require a much tougher response thansimply a partial ban that only affects largedrinks. Moreover if there is such an obligationwhy is it the obligation of the city while the statedoes not have such an obligation with regards to7-11s?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "There is precedent of paternalistic governmentpolicies in NYC. The principle of paternalism,that the state may interfere with another person,against their will, with the motivation ofprotecting that person from harm, [1] underlinesa wide range of policies and laws across theUnited States, and there is already a precedentfor such paternalistic laws particularly within NewYork City. New York City, under the leadership ofMayor Bloomberg, has enacted regulations onsmoking, restaurants’ use of salt and trans fats.Laws prohibiting marijuana, cocaine, and otherpotentially harmful drugs are made with the goalto protect citizens. Seatbelt laws and theprohibition of cell phone use while driving allinfringe upon a person’s freedom of choice buthave been accepted for their inherent positivecausation meaning there will be less deaths andinjuries in accidents. Paternalistic policies aremade to maintain the public’s safety andwell-being with the assumption that thegovernment “knows best.” Mayor Bloomberg’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The ethical implications of paternalism are thatthe government is taking away personalfreedoms because the government presumesthat it “knows best” for the population.Paternalism inherently assumes that individualscannot be trusted to make its own decisions.Personal freedom, however, is a cornerstone ofthe United States; The Constitution and the Billof Rights guarantee individual’s freedoms, limitthe role of government, and reserve power tothe people. [1] A competent person’s freedomsshould never be infringed upon, even for thatperson’s own good. John Stuart Mill wrote, “. . .the only purpose for which power can berightfully exercised over any member of acivilized community, against his will, is toprevent harm to others. His own good, eitherphysical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. Hecannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbearbecause it will be better for him to do so,because it will make him happier, because in theopinion of others, to do so would be wise, or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The City has the obligation to protect itscitizenry Thomas Jefferson said “the purpose ofgovernment is to enable the people of a nation tolive in safety and happiness”. [1] As an electedgovernment led by Mayor Bloomberg, thegovernment of New York City is obligated to leadthe city in a positive direction. In Bloomberg’scase it was among his campaign promises “Toachieve the biggest public health gains in thenation” and given his record with the smokingban this kind of proposal is the obvious way toachieve such a goal. [2] as the Soda ban is notan infringement upon personal rights but anecessary public health measure. The ban onlarge sodas does not prohibit the consumption ofsoda, it simply impedes negative choices for poornutrition. [3] The City has an obligation topromote healthy living as a form of keeping itscitizenry safe and the New York City Departmentof Health and Mental Hygiene clearly states‘Ourmission is to protect and promote the healthof all New Yorkers’. [4] “Obesity is a nationwide", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "First how democratic the governance of the cityis does not detract from the right of the citygovernment to restrict the size of soda drinks.The system of government has not been changedin order enact this particular regulation. Secondit must be remembered that Mayor Bloomberghimself was elected. He was elected to a thirdterm with 51% of the vote compared to 46% forhis Democratic rival. [1] To be elected for a thirdtime in a Democrat stronghold gives him a gooddeal of electoral legitimacy. [1] Goldman,Henry, ‘Bloomberg Wins Third NYC Mayor TermBeats Comptroller Thompson’, Bloomberg, 4November 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of choice is not absolute; it does notmean the consumer should be free to buywhatever they want from wherever they want.For example there is no expectation forrestaurants and stores to always have both Pepsiand Coca Cola. In this instance freedom of choicein terms of size is not absolute; there is thefreedom to have as much soda as the consumerdesires they simply have to buy it in smallerportions. Arguing that representatives’ not beingable to choose whether to enact this legislation isalso restriction of choice ignores that Bloomberghimself is an elected politician that was chosenby the people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Ban Would Be a Barrier to FreeEnterprise The proposal for this ban on largesodas would only affect businesses regulated bythe NYC Board of Health. Restaurants, delis, foodcarts, and concession stands at theaters andstadiums would be affected because they areconsidered Food Service Establishments (FSEs).The ban would exclude grocery stores,7-Eleven’s, and other establishments that arenot considered FSE’s but are regulated by theState. Consequently, the ban cause the FSE toface repercussions as they would have to serveless soda (the goal of the ban), but also thisselective, non-universal ban could encourageconsumers to patronize other establishmentswhere they would not be affected by the ban.There is currently a level of demand for largesodas in the market, but the ban would place abarrier on that whole sector of the market. Itwould be the government directly impeding freeenterprise by providing different sets of rules forcompeting stores. In addition, New Yorkers", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "It is undemocratic to have the law pass throughthe board of health. While the City has the rightto exercise its abilities within the law to protectand aid New Yorkers, it must do so as ademocratic body representing its constituents.The soda ban, whether it would actually doanything to curb obesity, is wrong because itisn’t representative of the people. CouncilmanDan Halloran spoke at the ‘Million Gulp March’ inprotest of the ban: “Mr. Mayor, if you want tomake a law, go through your legislature, andmake the law. Do not try to backdoor it throughan administrative agency that is unaccountableto the people.” [1] Mayor Bloomberg’s attemptto pass this ban without the input or approval ofthe people is undemocratic. The New York CityHealth Department is an eleven-personcommittee appointed by the Mayor. [2] Thus,there is a large risk of Mayor Bloombergexercising his personal will through this branchwithout any regulation. The proposed soda banwould be a fiat with the rubber stamp of approval", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The Soda Ban is an infringement upon thepersonal right to choose Although the soda banis not a blanket prohibition of sugary drinks, theproposed ban impedes the public’s right tochoose. ‘Big Government’ has become animportant issue to many who view the extensivearray of government regulations and laws asexcessively interventionist and intruding. [1] ByMayor Bloomberg proposing this ban, hecontinues a trend of the government curbingcitizens’ rights to choose, and interfering in thepersonal lives of its citizenry. The governmenthas no right to be restricting the size ofsomeone’s portions, this is the governmentregulating one’s diet. This ban inherently affectsthe consumer’s right to choose because it isprevents the choice of a larger size of soda. TheMayor hopes to influence New Yorkers’ choicestoward better nutrition. Moreover MayorBloomberg’s method is not through arepresentative legislative body but through hispersonally appointed Board of Health (2), [2] the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhgwtnychrrs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There are only slight price differences between34 and 18-ounce sodas. McDonalds andCoca-Cola corporations were pushingindependent franchises to lower the price ofsodas to one dollar. [1] While the goal of the banis to cut down the consumption of soda, thegovernment has the right to put their citizens’health needs above free enterprise. Thenon-universality of the ban is unfortunate butthis ban is merely a small step in the direction ofcurbing obesity rates. The fact that restaurantswill not be able to serve gigantic portions of sodawill not push New Yorkers from eating at thoserestaurants to eating their meals at 7-Elevens.These are clearly two separate markets; one forpurchasing drinks the other for consuming themwith meals. It is therefore wrong to concludethat this is any kind of barrier to freeenterprise. [1] Ziobro, Paul, ‘McDonald's BetsPricing Drinks At $1 Will Heat Up Summer Sales’,The Wall Street Journal, 18 March 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "If a parent gives into pressure from a young childso easily, even when she knows it’s the wrongthing to do, then she has bigger parentingproblems to worry about than the presence oftoys in fast food meals. The government cannotpossibly step in to eliminate all temptations andnegative influences on children’s choices. Parentsneed to be firm and provide their kids with theguidance necessary to choose what is best.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Making it easier for parents to raise their childrenwell. As well meaning as parents may be intrying to guide their kids toward betternutritional choices, they face a formidableopponent: the fast food marketing machine thatspends over 4 billion dollars on advertising ayear, much of it targeted directly at kids [1] .This can create enough ‘pester power’ [2] fromthe kids themselves, seduced by the toy thatcomes with the meal, that it can persuadeparents to make bad choices they wouldn’totherwise make. By eliminating at least one layerof negative pressure, this law would help parentsmake those healthy choices that they alreadyknow are best. [1] Philpott, Tom. “The fast-foodindustry’s 4.2 billion marketing blitz.” Grist.November 10. 2010. [2] “San Francisco Happymeal Toy Ban Takes Effect, Sidestepped byMcDonald’s.” Huffington Post. November 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is important to instil good habits in children atan early age. But the manner in which it is doneis equally important. Kids should be taught tomake choices based on what is best for them,through information and appropriateexplanations, rather than just being shieldedfrom potential dangers. That kind of behaviour,predicated on reason and understanding, willhave a far more lasting impact on the way theymake choices, than just protecting them fromtemptation, with which they will inevitably haveto cope later in life.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Marketing aimed at children should be subject tostrict regulations. Unlike adults, children are notable to make healthy decisions for themselves.They don’t understand what calories, sodiumcontent, or saturated fats are. They are unableto comprehend the long-term effects that fastfood might have on their health anddevelopment. On the other hand, a toy isinstantly appealing to them and offers astraightforward incentive to opt for such a meal.As long as the negative consequences cannot beexplained to kids in a clear and compellingmanner, we should not make unhealthy foodeven more desirable for them. We should notallow children to make bad choices based oninformation they don’t understand [1] . [1]Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity. “FastFood FACTS: Evaluating Fast Food Nutrition andMarketing to Youth.” Yale University. November2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Children may have a strong preference for acertain type of meal over another, but youngkids don’t buy their own food. Parents do. And ifkids might not understand that fast food is badfor them, their parents should. If a child is eatingtoo much fast food, that is not a marketingsuccess, it’s a parenting failure.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Even if we were to accept that the governmenthas a role in combatting the so-called ‘obesityepidemic’, that does not justify it taking anymeasures it deems appropriate. The governmentshould at the very least be able to prove thatthere is some link between the toys sold with thefast food meals and the rise in obesity. After all,the toys have been around since the late 70s.The ‘obesity epidemic’ is a far more recentphenomenon.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Bad nutrition habits start duringchildhood. Giving away toys with meals that arecalorie laden and of poor nutritional qualitycreates an emotional attachment between thechild and fast food [1] . This bond will then followthat child into adulthood, making it harder forher to make better nutritional choices in order tobecome a healthy individual. This ban wouldbreak that bond and make it easier for childrento grow up to be healthier adults. [1] Storm,Stephanie. “McDonald’s Trims Its Happy Meal.”The New York Times. July 26, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Obesity is a public health issue . All around theworld, obesity has become a serious threat topublic health. And the problem starts early on. Inthe US, for example, 17% of youth are obese4.Obesity itself has many consequences; mostobviously on health such as increasing the risk ofnumerous diseases like heart disease, there arehowever economic costs both for treatment ofthese diseases, lost working days and due to lessobvious costs such safety on transport and itsresulting fuel cost. [1] Tackling obesity istherefore well within the purview of governmentpolicy. A failure to act might seriously affect theeconomic productivity of the nation, and evenbankrupt healthcare systems [2] . A measurelike the toy ban would be a first step to tacklingthe problem at the root, preventing children fromgrowing up into obese adults. [1] Zahn, Theron,“Obesity epidemic forcing ferries to lighten theirloads”, seattlepi, 20 December 2011, [2]“Obesity ‘could bankrupt the NHS’”. BBC. 15December 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While McDonald’s may have found a way tocircumvent the ban, the significant pressure thatwas applied to them in the process led thecompany to improve the quality of the HappyMeal, by providing clients with fresh fruit andhealthier drink options. Therefore, the ban couldbe considered a success.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This is not exactly a ban on the sale of fast foodto children. This ban does not affect the optionsof bad foods that parents can continue to feed totheir young children if they choose to do so. Theywill even be able to continue buying happy meals– simply without the toy. It merely alters theincentives slightly toward promoting better,healthier choices by making fast food lessappealing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The ban is ineffective in addressing the problemof obesity. Studies have shown that only a verysmall amount of the calories consumed bychildren come from foods like the Happy Meal.And while kids are eating at fast food restaurantsat an alarming rate, it is their parents who makethe decision to take them there 93% of the time.Of the kids who do want to go to McDonald’s,only 8% cite the toy as the primary reason.Therefore, this piece of legislation seems totackle a perceived problem rather than a realone. Legislators would be better off focusingtheir attention where it matters: providinginformation to parents about making betterchoices for their kids, and improving the qualityof school lunches, which are actually provided bythe government and are eaten by kids everysingle day, often as their main meal [1] . [1]Eskenazi, Joe, and Wachs, Benjamin. “How theHappy Meal ban explains San Francisco.” SanFrancisco Weekly. January 19, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Such bans are easy to side step. The SanFrancisco ban has already been circumvented byMcDonalds who has started selling their HappyMeals without the toys and then selling the toysseparately for a nominal price [1] . Banning thesale of any toys in fast food restaurants would bedifficult without prompting legal action from thecompanies. The steep legal costs of defendingsuch a law would waste public resources thatcould easily be put to better use. [1] Eskenazi,Joe. “Happy Meal Ban. McDonlad’s OutsmartsSan Francisco.” San Francisco Weekly. November29, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "This ban constitutes serious governmentalintrusion into parental responsibilities andprivate choices. Parents, not politicians, shouldbe responsible for guiding the choices theirchildren make and the food they eat, especiallywhen they pay for it with their own money.Parents may have other reasons for wantingtheir children to have the meal with a toy, forexample the toy is a useful distraction for thechild. Governments should not try to imposetheir own idea of what constitutes appropriatefood choices for children on parents and onbusinesses. Governments may aim to promoteand educate, but imposing bans on privatebusinesses goes too far [1] . [1] Martinez,Michael. “Mayor vetoes San Francisco ban onHappy Meals with toys.” CNN. November 132010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwsytpsctpf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Of course there is no such thing as a silver bulletsolution to a problem as complex as childhoodobesity. This ban would need to be part of abigger push to regulate the fast food industry’smarketing to children and to provide kids andparents with better choices and information. Thatdoesn’t mean the ban has no merit or that itwould not play a beneficial role in the fightagainst obesity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The problem with studies that claim to provethere is no harm with multiple vaccines, are thatthey are studies that are firstly based on ethicalrestrictions. A test that would conclusively provethe harm of multiple vaccines would requiredeliberately denying certain children inoculation.Secondly, they monitor only the generalpopulation (in preliminary studies they excludecertain risk groups) and in studies after theadministration of vaccines usually contributesome of the negative results to otherenvironmental factors. Studies are therefore inno way conclusive and do not disprove fully theclaim that there is no harm connected withmultiple vaccines.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Multiple vaccines cause no harm Despite fearsto the contrary, multiple vaccines cause noharm. Being given immunization in many casesmeans that people receive a weakened virus.Many believe that because of this they will havea weakened immune system and also suffer fromlong term body harm. The evidence suggests thisis not the case, and that combined vaccinationscause no adverse harm in the vast majority ofcases. A University of Louisiana study, in whichmore than 1,000 children underwent in-depthneuropsychological tests after receiving a seriesof vaccinations, found that ‘there was noevidence of neurodevelopmental delays ordeficits associated with on-time vaccination’.[1] Further, multiple vaccinations, which ensurenot only that children get their vaccinations butthat they do so as quickly as possible, areassociated with ‘improved performance’compared with a control group that received thevaccinations individually and therefore moreslowly [2] . Therefore, not only are multiple", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Even though major science research has shownthat there is no link between syndromes such asautism and multiple vaccinations, a major aspectproponents of the theory claim is the ingredient“Mercury”, that may cause many of the problemsfor brain cells and other behavioral functions. Forexample according to a study, Mercury that ispresent in MMR “readily crosses the blood-brainbarrier, preferentially targets nerve cells andnerve fiber and degrades them”. [1] [1] DavidThower, A review of evidence betweenVaccination and regressive autism, NTL World ,accessed 06/13/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Multiple vaccines serve millions with improvedimmunity Multiple vaccines do the job ofindividual vaccines, but more efficiently andfaster. Vaccines work because our body has anatural defense system called the immunesystem. The immune system recognizes foreignbodies such as viruses and bacteria and createsantibodies to destroy them. Once your immunesystem has had contact with a particular virus orbacteria it knows how to protect the body againstit. Vaccines use the body’s ability to do this tohelp protect us against diseases that mayotherwise be deadly. Vaccines contains part ofthe virus or disease and when injected stimulatethe body to create antibodies to fight andneutralize the disease. Multiple vaccinesspecifically are more efficient in delivering suchvaccines than separate, individual injections.Combined vaccines reduce the number ofnecessary injections by a third, meaning lesspain and less possible side-effects. Combinedvaccines also reduce the time that children are at", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While multiple vaccines serve many, there aregreat concerns for individual members of society.This is why the United States government, forexample, has established the “Vaccine InjuryCompensation Funds”. The mission of thesefunds is that: “The VICP was established toensure an adequate supply of vaccines, stabilizevaccine costs, and establish and maintain anaccessible and efficient forum for individualsfound to be injured by certain vaccines.” [1] Thecompensations are given, according to the HRSAto victims of the followingvaccinations: “Diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis(DTP, DTaP, Tdap, DT, Td, or TT), Haemophilusnfluenza type b (Hib), Hepatitis A (HAV),Hepatitis B (HBV), Human papillomavirus (HPV),Influenza (TIV, LAIV) [given each year duringthe flu season], Measles, mumps, rubella (MMR,MR, M, R), Meningococcal (MCV4, MPSV4), Polio(OPV or IPV), Pneumococcal conjugate (PCV),Rotavirus (RV), Varicella (VZV), Any combinationof the vaccines above, Additional vaccines may", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The problem with current testing is that, whilethey provide some control groups usually thosewith rare reactions are not included in trials(because it may represent even less than 1 % ofthe population in a country). So even thoughthere is deliberate screening for rare reactions, itis very likely that such events do not even getdetected. The policy is that if serious reactionsare found when the vaccine is in widespread use,the vaccine may be withdrawn. But by then ithas made already damage and endangeredhuman lives. Further on, due to ethical concernsvaccine trials may deliberately exclude membersof high risk groups and so prevent conclusiveconsequences for those groups. So whilevaccines may be safe for the general population,they represent a high risk for parts of thepopulation for which trials have not been donedue to different reasons. [1] [1] Why it isimportant to monitor vaccine safety, Center fordisease control and Prevention, , accessed07/10/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Multiple vaccines do not cause autism In 1998,Dr, Andrew Wakefield started a big campaignagainst multiple vaccinations, when his research,published in The Lancet (a medical journal) astudy on how MMR jabs increase the likelihood ofchildren for autism. Because it was published in awell-known magazine it was considered a reliablesource. Since then several studies (31 accordingto the NHS) disproved the claims made by astudy. They’ve proven there is no link betweenMMR vaccinations and autism. [1] Further onthe World Health Organisation explained in 2003,that autism, especially in countries with highvaccination rates has not increased. The WHOstates, that: “Autistic spectrum disorderrepresents a continuum of cognitive andneurobehavioral disorders including autism. Theprevalence of autism varies considerably withcase ascertainment, ranging from 0.7 – 21.1 per10 000 children, with autistic spectrum disorderestimated to be 1 – 6 per 1000.” [2] Based onthat evidence we see, that not more children", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "All vaccinations are tested rigorously before theyare approved, and tracked afterwards Allvaccinations are tested rigorously before theyare approved for use. As vaccinations representan important and potential harmful intrusion inan individual’s body, it is very important thatthey are safe. This is especially clear whengovernments decide to make immunizationobligatory; they have to be sure they administerto their citizens safe vaccinations. Based on theincrease in the number of compulsoryvaccinations in different countries, manygovernments have also stocked up on thefunding of vaccination controlling of offeredimmunization treatments. Such stockpiling wouldonly occur if they were confident that thevaccines have passed through a rigorous testingprocess. Furthermore, even after beingapproved, organizations exist, like the UnitedStates Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System,as a center for tracking adverse events related tospecific vaccines. If the events classified as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The mere fact pharmaceutical companies makeprofits from their vaccines is not evidence ofanything other than innovation and soundeconomics. It wouldn’t matter how hardpharmaceutical companies wanted people tobelieve vaccines were safe, if they were harmful,the evidence would be quickly apparent. The factonly a few people have been compensated fordamages resulting from vaccines is testamentnot to the will of pharmaceutical companies todeny the ill effects of their vaccines, but ratherproof that in the overwhelming majority of cases,the vaccines are safe and effective.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The American board of Pediatricians states that:“Studies on the diversity of antigen receptorsindicate that the immune system has thecapacity to respond to extremely large numbersof antigens. Current data suggest that thetheoretical capacity determined by diversity ofantibody variable gene regions would allow for asmany as 109 to 1011 different antibodyspecificities. But this prediction is limited by thenumber of circulating B cells and the likelyredundancy of antibodies generated by anindividual.” And further on, the board explainsthat: “If vaccines overwhelmed or weakened theimmune system, then one would expect lesserimmune responses when vaccines are given atthe same time as compared with when they aregiven at different times. However, the followingvaccines induce similar humoral immuneresponses when given at the same or differenttimes: 1) MMR and varicella 2) MMR,diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP), and OPV 3)hepatitis B, diphtheria-tetanus, and OPV 4)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Cases prove that vaccines have badconsequences for children’s health Humanbodies are different and react to drugsdifferently. Especially when there is not just oneforeign substance, but let us say 24 of themgiven to a human body over a period of time,there is increased risk that at least one of thesubstances may cause damage to the body. Thedrugs can damage an individual for life. Thecase of Robert Fletcher can be used as anexample (reported by the Telegraph): “Theseizure occurred ten days after the vaccination.Robert is severely disabled as a result ofvaccination. Mrs Fletcher said: “Robert is nearly19 but mentally he is like a 14-month-oldtoddler. He can’t stand unaided and he is doublyincontinent. He can’t speak except to say ‘Hi,Mum’ or ‘Hi, Daddy’.” [1] Robert Fletcher is notthe only one with such severe symptoms andworse is that physicians never can be sure whatthe outcome will be. So multiple vaccines aredangerous, as they have no predicted outcome", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Pharmaceutical companies want people tobelieve it’s safe The vaccination market is largeand very profitable; as such, pharmaceuticalcompanies have an interest in and the cloutrequired to ensure that vaccines that are harmfulare not reported as such. Up to the year 2003manufacturers' profits on vaccinations have risenas the average cost to fully immunize a child at aprivate physician's office has climbed 243% since1986, from $107 to $367. The most prominentbeneficiaries have been the two producers whodominate the U.S. market for DPT and poliovaccines, Connaught Laboratories ($300 millionin U.S. sales last year) and Wyeth-LederleVaccines & Pediatrics ($350 million). U.S.revenues for both companies have increased300% since 1986, estimates David Molowa,international pharmaceutical analyst at the WallStreet investment firm Bear Stearns. In thesame time only a few people have beencompensated for the loss or impairment of theirchildren due to vaccines. [1] Further on in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "More vaccines together destroy the immunesystem Giving just one vaccination shot to abody means injecting in it a virus. Thesubsequent process is justified as follows, usingthe example of a polio vaccination: “The vaccineis a clear, colorless sterile suspension forsubcutaneous injection. IPV contains strains ofthe 3 types of polioviruses (Types 1, 2, and 3).After some time has passed, produces protectiveantibodies in the blood (serum immunity)” asstated by Brown University. [1] So by this logic,the more vaccines are combined and giventogether the more viruses are induced to thebody of a child. This could potentially cause aweakened immune system if the antibodies didnot form as expected. Dr. Neustaeder Randalstates that in 1996 a study (published in the NewEngland Journal of Medicine) found out that thetetanus vaccine, for example, disables theimmune system in HIV patients. Tetanusvaccination produced a drop in T cells (cellswhich should protect the body from any", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhgamvs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Every single medicine has some side effect, butwe don’t ban all medicine. In most casesvaccinations may have some mild sideeffects: “DTaP/IPV/Hib: The vaccines againstdiphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio and Hib maycause redness and swelling on the site ofvaccination, which lasts a few days. Babies mayhave a mild fever for up to ten days following thejabs.PCV: Redness and inflammation at theinjection site affects about one in seven children.Mild symptoms of irritability, raised temperatureand digestive disturbance may occur.MenC:Swelling and redness at the injection site iscommon. Some toddlers have disturbed sleepand some a light fever within a few days of theirjab. Older children may complain of a mildheadache. MMR: Cold symptoms, a fever andswollen salivary glands may be noticed inchildren any time from a few days to three weeksafter their MMR jab. Some may develop a rash orlose their appetite for up to ten days.” [1] Theside effects are very low compared with those", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is wrong for donors to attempt to change thepolicies of a sovereign state. Each state hasequal rights, which include the right to be freefrom interference from any other group [1] . TheWest is therefore violating state sovereigntywhen they attempt to change domestic policieswhich they dislike [2] . African governmentshave a right to self-determination without theinterference from the West; they are no longercolonies. [1] Political Realism in InternationalRelations Karpowicz, K 02/04/13 [2]Quandzie,E. Anti-gay aid cut: Bring it on, Ghanatells UK 02/11/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Cutting aid could produce a change in policydirection If the West did decide to reduce aid toAfrican states it could pressure African states tochange their policies on homosexuality. Africa isrenowned for the dependency on aid. Analystsclaim that this dependency negates the need forAfrican economies to reform, relying instead onforeign governments and NGOs [1] . Thisreliance on aid could be exploited to alter policywithin those African countries that are unable toact economically independently. This policy hasbeen successful in the past. When Britain cut£19m to Malawi in 2011 for arresting two menfor marrying; there was a reversal ofgovernment policy in the African state and allanti-homosexual laws were suspended [2] . Theequality created by this policy change wouldallow greater access to retroviral drugs and otherHIV/AIDS treatment for the gay community.Laws outlawing homosexuality, and the stigma ofthe false connection between HIV andhomosexuality, have decreased the accessibility", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The international community has an obligation tohelp poorer countries, and cannot simply walkaway from it over an issue such as this.Exploitation, through imperialism and othermeans, has been a major feature of Westernrelations with Africa. From colonial policies tocurrent trade agreements the West has exploitedAfrica [1] . The West now has an obligation tocompensate Africa for the damage whichexploitation has done to development. Aid isconsidered to be vital to ensuring national andinternational security to the world, removingdonations could result in destabilisation aseconomic links between the government andpeople deteriorate [2] . [1] Annan calls for endto ‘unconscionable’ exploitation of Africa’sresources, Stewart, H 10/05/13 [2] UnitedNations The 0.7% target: An in-depth look", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Persecution of homosexuals is morallywrong From a moral perspective, it is wrong todiscriminate against someone for their sexuality.Everyone should have equal rights; Hilary Clintonstated that ‘gay rights are human rights’ [1] , thederogation of such rights is a serious moralaffront. There is evidence that homosexuality isnot optional [2] . Discriminating on sexualorientation is therefore the same asdiscriminating upon factors such as race andethnicity. Even if changeable it would be thesame as discrimination on the basis of identity orreligion. Same sex relations are victimless whichcalls in to question whether it could ever bedefined as something to be criminalised. Whilstsome may point to male on male rape, thesefigures are low compared to male on femalerape. In the U.S. where homosexuality is legal,only 9% of rape victims were male and only asmall proportion of those being male on male [3]. Criminalising and institutionally embeddinghatred against homosexuality has served to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There are many in Africa who believe that sexualorientation is a matter of choice and view the actas unnatural. Religious groups in particularoppose male homosexuality due to sodomy beingviewed a sin [1] . If a certain act is viewed as asin, and it is optional, then it is only logical thatthis activity should be prohibited under law. In asense, it is moral to have laws restrictinghomosexuality in place via this logic. [2] TheU.S. and other Western states should notcondemn African states and reduce aid forlegislating in a way they consider moral. [1]Islam and Africa ‘Islam and Homosexuality’ [2]Should donors rethink aid to states thatpersecute gay people? Ware,G. 25/01/12", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Western Money, Western Discretion WhenWestern States threaten to cut aid, they arereferring to their own money. This money shouldtherefore be spent at the discretion of thedonating country. In 2012, the USA’s and UK’sbudgets for aid were £12.2 billion [1] and £9billion respectively. The UK’s spending is set toincrease to about £11.3 billion by 2014 [2] . Thisis money which could be spent to ease economichardships at home, as many newspapers havepointed out [3] , however it is given to othercountries to aid them instead. Donating statesalso spend a great deal of time attempting toconvince their citizens that giving aid is a gooduse of their money. Should they oppose a policywhich they see as discriminatory then it isunderstandable that they should use theirdiscretion when donating aid. [1] Britain secondin world for aid spending Dixon, H. 04/04/12 [2]Aid: how much does the UK spend, why it’s soimportant and how it works. Provost,C. &Tran,M. 20/03/13 [3] Britain leads the way in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Cultural Imperialism has major advantages to itas well. Culture and identity has been usedthroughout history as a tool for fuelling theflames of conflict, leading to the mass genocidessuch as that of Rwanda [1] . This aspect ofculture incites hatred against those who mightotherwise not be targeted, such as homosexuals.[2] The desire to stamp out such attitudes doesnot represent a diminishment of African culturesimply a change. Similar attitudes were held inthe west until recently. African culture hassimilarly changed in the past; the comparativelyrecent introduction of Christianity to much of thecontinent (the exception being Ethiopia) wassuch a change. [1] RothKopf, D ‘In Praise ofCultural Imperialism’ in Foreign Policy, no. 107(1997) pp.38-53 [2] Ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "While there are those who oppose gay rights inthe West, there are many which support themand government policy does not have to runalong the lines of consensus constantly. 2013saw victories for gay marriage in the UK with theroyal assent of the Marriage (same sex couples)Act [1] and in the USA with the removal of keyelements of DOMA by the Supreme Court [2] .Those who still oppose homosexual rights arebecoming the political periphery in theseWestern states. The current legislative successdemonstrates that unity on same-sex rights isgrowing, and that it is not hypocritical to exportthis to the international stage. [1] Marriage(Same Sex Couples) Act 2013’ Parliament of theUnited Kingdom 17/07/13 [2] US SupremeCourt in historic rulings on gay marriage BBC27/06/13", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The reduction of aid will cause innocent people tosuffer A reduction of aid to Africa will likelyaffect the most vulnerable in society rather thanthe politicians who can adjust the law. TheAfrican continent shows signs of growth, but40% of sub-Saharans live below the poverty line[1] . Cutting aid to states that criminalisehomosexuality will increase poverty amongindividuals who have no influence over theirgovernment’s policy. This is an issue which bothAfrican states and African LGBT (Lesbian, Gay,Bisexuals, Transgender) groups agree upon [2] .Ahmed Lawan, a senator from Nigeria, arguedthat there needs to be more dialogue anddiplomacy if the West is to convince them [3] .Should aggressive policies be used to leveragepolicy change, such as reducing aid, then Africannations will be deterred from makingpro-western changes to legislation. LGBT groupswant donor countries to ensure that aid isdistributed more evenly, and guarantee that aiddirected towards human rights reaches", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Cultural Imperialism Cultural Imperialism is the‘the practice of promoting a more powerfulculture over a least known or desirable culture’[1] . Culture provides an identity which isnaturally coveted. Attempting to impose mainlyWestern, liberal values on Africa equates to adilution of African culture. Globalisation hasspread US culture throughout the world [2] . Thishas led many to lament the weakening of uniquecultures, claiming that the USA is drowning outall cultures that do not agree morally withthemselves [3] . The United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)stated ‘that respect for the diversity of cultures,tolerance, dialogue and cooperation, in a climateof mutual trust and understanding are amongthe best guarantees of international peace andsecurity’ [4] . Attempting to change Africa’sattitude towards homosexuality is an attempt toincrease the influence of Western culture on thecontinent. These cultural ties to attitudes onhomosexuality are so powerful that even strict", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There is not universal endorsement of fullhomosexual rights in the West The adoption ofgay rights is by no means universal in the West,so why should Africa have to change theirpolicies? US Christian evangelical groups haveopposed the Obama administration’s policytowards homosexual rights in Africa. The Justicefor Gay Africans campaign group claim that thesegroups have worsened hostility on the continentthrough action that they have taken in Africa [1]. Domestically there is opposition to gay rights aswell. The Defence of Marriage Act (DOMA), whichwas signed into law by a Democrat President anda Republican congress, enabled states to refuseto recognise same sex marriages [2] anddemonstrates the opposition to gay rights indonor countries. One in six homosexuals andbisexuals have been the victims of hate crime inthe UK, with only one in ten cases resulting in aconviction demonstrating homophobic attitudesin the UK [3] . The lack of consensus in the Westtherefore makes it hard to morally justify the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ssiahrgmhwc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Reducing funds is an unfortunate, althoughnecessary, mechanism for pressurising thepolitical elite to legalise homosexuality. Africa’sdemocracies, such as Nigeria, have to besensitive to the needs of their citizens. Evendictatorships have to maintain a grasp on thepeople’s will. Once the African population startsto feel the impact of reduced aid, the only viableway to remedy the situation will be tore-legislate on the same-sex issue. Foreign aidstruggles to reach those who need it the mostanyway, with corruption in the Ugandangovernment (and the disappearance of £1.3million) causing the UK to cut aid to Uganda in2012 [1] . The funding itself is then redirectedaway from African governments, but will reachthose who need it the most throughnon-governmental organisations which willnegate the suffering predicted by critics [2] . [1]BBC ‘UK cuts aid to Ugandan government’16/11/2012 [2] Gray,S. ‘Minister confirms UKwill redirect aid, not cut it, for human rights", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwbutffs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A ban on trans fats will cause specific harmswhich cannot be fixed by switching to other fatsor food preparation methods. Particularly hardhit would be small businesses, who wouldstruggle to make the transition because they nonot have the budgets to research alternativeways to make their products taste the same andso are likely to end up at a disadvantagecompared to their bigger rivals. Moreover allbusinesses would suffer from reduced shelf lifefor their products.(7) Such a ban does not makeeconomic sense, and despite propositions claimstrans fats cannot always be easily replaced. Weuse trans fats because they work well. Forexample they are needed in hydrogenation inorder to convert liquid vegetable oils in to beingsolid, needed for example to make margarine,the amount of trans fats used for this can bereduced but not eliminated. Moreover, MichaelMason of The New York Times argues: \"forpreparing certain kinds of foods, there are fewalternatives besides the saturated fats that have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwbutffs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Healthier equivalents of trans fats exist It iseasy and inexpensive to replace trans fats withother, less harmful products without significantlyaltering the taste of the food. Kraft eliminatedtrans fats from its Oreo cookies, with little publicperception of any change in taste.(1) Similarly,the Wendy's restaurant chain tested a new fryingoil in 370 franchises, with customers not noticinga difference in taste. Denmark imposed anational ban on trans fats with which evenMcDonald's has complied.(1) Replacements fortrans fats will get cheaper and cheaper withtime, as they are used more frequently and asthe companies that produce and distribute themincrease their sales volumes and are able to sellthem for lower prices. Since trans fats are notirreplaceable, objections for the sake ofconsumer freedom are also unconvincing. Aswith lead added to paint, trans fats areunnecessary additions to products that can causesignificant harm. Most people remain ignorant ofthe presence of trans-fats in their food, and of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwbutffs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The American FDA considers the use of trans fatsto be 'generally safe'.(1) The British FoodStandards Agency says the UK's low averageconsumption of trans fats makes a complete banunnecessary.(6) These organisations are alreadysupposed to regulate foodstuffs and monitortrans fats, if they agreed that they needed to actsurely they would. For individuals consideredespecially vulnerable to the effects of trans-fatconsumption, such as the old or the poor, thegovernment should consider education, not aban. Moreover, the real issue here isn't abouthealth, but about the right of a citizen of a freecountry to choose to eat whatever foods hewishes. The role of government is not to restrictthe freedoms of its citizens but to protectindividuals and to defend their right to act freely.Informed, adult individuals have every right toeat whatever fattening, caloric or artery-cloggingmeals they please. Government health boardshave no right to restrict the foods law-abidingcitizens choose to put into their own bodies.(10)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwbutffs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Trans fats are uniquely unhealthy One of thepurposes of government is identify possiblethreats to health and protect the people fromthese threats. The fact that some governmentregulations seem 'silly' or misplaced, or cannoteasily be understood by lay-people is not acompelling argument for having no regulations atall, or for not having regulations in the case oftrans fat. The commentators who denounce the'nanny state' do not indicate what, if any,regulations or styles of regulation they approveof. Do they think there should be no inspectionsof restaurants by health inspectors? Noregulation at all of food or drug safety by theFood and Drug Administration? Somecommentators think that people should beencouraged to study the dangers of trans fatsand make their own judgements about what toeat. But people have limited time to do researchon such matters. It makes sense to delegate theresearch to a central authority, so that instead of300 million people trying to learn about trans", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwbutffs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The state should ban trans fats to protect thepublic One of the purposes of government isidentify possible threats to health and protect thepeople from these threats. The fact that somegovernment regulations seem 'silly' or misplaced,or cannot easily be understood by lay-people isnot a compelling argument for having noregulations at all, or for not having regulations inthe case of trans fat. The commentators whodenounce the 'nanny state' do not indicate what,if any, regulations or styles of regulation theyapprove of. Do they think there should be noinspections of restaurants by health inspectors?No regulation at all of food or drug safety by theFood and Drug Administration? Somecommentators think that people should beencouraged to study the dangers of trans fatsand make their own judgements about what toeat. But people have limited time to do researchon such matters. It makes sense to delegate theresearch to a central authority, so that instead of300 million people trying to learn about trans", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwbutffs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Many large and small chains have already madethe transition to alternatives to trans-fat, so it isentirely possible. These alternatives will getcheaper with time as they are used morefrequently and as the companies that produceand distribute them increase their sales volumesand are able to sell them for lower prices,meaning that small and individual restaurantswill indeed be able to afford them and survive.Moreover, the health concerns in this debateoverride purely economic concerns or the closureof small businesses, as lives are involved.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwbutffs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Health experts agree that banning trans fatswould save thousands of lives specificallybecause the substance is dangerous even whenconsumed in very low quantities. They are simplya dangerous additive, which adds no extra valueto food. 'Taste' considerations are simply a redherring, as switching to other fats would produceno meaningful change in taste, as has beendemonstrated by several large food corporationswho have made the shift without disappointingtheir customer base. The fact that otherfoodstuffs may be dangerous is an argument forbetter education or regulation regarding them, or-if merited -their own bans, but is not a caseagainst banning trans fats. Trans-fats aresignificantly different to all the other unhealthyfoods listed by side opposition, as trans fats areeasily replaceable by less unhealthy substitutes,which things like sugar are not.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwbutffs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The government should provide information toconsumers, not restrict choice Milton Friedmanargued in the 1980s: \"If we continue on thispath, there is no doubt where it will end. If thegovernment has the responsibility of protectingus from dangerous substances, the logic surelycalls for prohibiting alcohol and tobacco. . . .Insofar as the government has information notgenerally available about the merits or demeritsof the items we ingest or the activities weengage in, let it give us the information. But let itleave us free to choose what chances we want totake with our own lives.\"(11) George MasonUniversity economist Don Boudreaux asks what atrans-fat ban is a model for: \"Petty tyranny? Orperhaps for similarly inspired bans on othervoluntary activities with health risks? Clerking inconvenience stores? Walking in the rain?\"(12)Morally the government should be consistentwhen it bans things, the sale of an undeniablydeadly products such as tobacco is sometimesallowed so far less dangerous substances should", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwbutffs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Banning trans fats in uneconomical A trans-fatban would hurt small restaurants the most.Carlie Irwin argues: “Since most of the bigchains have already started the process ofeliminating trans-fat from their food, the banwould be no big deal to them. But small,independent restaurants are another story. Thepotential ban has small restaurant ownerssweating and nervously eyeing their deep fryers.As the St. Louis Business Journal points out,many small restaurant owners don’t have theability to effectively and efficiently reformulatetheir menu items. So banning trans fat couldmean that your favorite independently-ownedfried chicken joint down the street will beshuttering its doors.”(17) Consequently, atrans-fat ban would breed legal exceptions andinconsistencies. For example, in Illinois bakerieswere exempted from their ban becauselawmakers knew that it would drive up theircosts and hurt the bakeries specialty items. Manyother small businesses would be similarly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwbutffs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Trans fats are not uniquely unhealthy The issuewith trans-fat is that there is no bettersubstitute. The fact is that the substitutes arealso as bad, if not worse, than trans-fat itself. Bybanning trans-fat, restaurants will have to adoptthese substitute substances, thus underminingthe work of the government. This process is awaste of our resources as the government willhave to spend huge amount of money to bringabout a ban on trans-fat without getting anypositive outcome. The trans-fat ban would onlyhave clear benefits if it were to cause a generalreduction in the overconsumption of high-fatfoods, but a restaurant ban on one ingredient willnot achieve this. This will mean that money willbe wasted as increased costs will be passed on tothe consumer while there is no benefit.(8) Transfats are not uniquely and excessively unhealthy.Sugar is unhealthy. Salt is unhealthy. Runnyeggs, rare meat, processed flour, nearlyanything consumed too frequently or excessivelyis potentially dangerous. We would not ban these", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwbutffs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Calling for an \"education campaign\" to informconsumers of what they are eating may soundsufficient, but this is very often just not enough.No matter what the government does, people willsimply miss the \"instructional\" informationprovided by the government and will continue toconsume trans fats without full informationregarding its negative effects. In suchcircumstances, it is the government's job to stepin a take action through a ban or othermeasures. Moreover, when a harmful trend suchas the use of trans-fats becomes endemic andentrenched, it becomes increasingly difficult forcitizens to always be aware of the fact that afood has trans fats in them and make the\"choice\" to eat or not to eatthem.(15) Producers include trans fats intofoods without adjusting labelling, furtheraffecting consumers’ ability to purchase foodsthat do not include trans-fats. The trans fatshidden in many processed foods are worse for aperson's health than saturated fats. In 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is not cruel if it can be shown that thisrestriction is in the patient’s own interest. Thestatus quo prevents patients from living out theirlast days on a stream of experimental drugs. Weprevent drug companies from using them asrisk-free testing (under your policy drugcompanies would presumably be able to shrugoff any responsibility for adverse consequencesby saying that it was the patient’s choice to tryan experimental drug), and allow them insteadto receive the appropriate support for someoneat the end of their life, and come to terms withthat. Further, it is important to remember thatdrugs at this stage are not necessarily miraclecures! If someone is refused access to a trial thisis normally to reduce the risk of adverseconsequences: it is wrong to give someone anexperimental drug that could negatively impactthe quality of their final days.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "It is cruel to deny people the last hope At apoint when all ordinary medical avenues havebeen expended, and the outcome appears bleak,new treatments still undergoing trials can beseen as the last hope. People are often aware ofthe existence of currently experimental drugs,they are likely to research into possible cures,and indeed there may have been attempts bytheir doctor to get the patient onto thetrial. However, not everyone who could benefitfrom treatment is accepted onto a clinical trial:some trials, at some stages, restrict theirrecruitment to, for example, patients with nocomplicating factors or other illnesses. It isunethical and cruel to make people live out theirlast days knowing that there was something thatcould have helped, but to which access wasrestricted through no fault of their own: thus,you should allow anyone with a terminal illnessaccess to such treatments.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "First, note that the reason for the existence ofthe placebo arm is to determine if the drug ismore effective than placebo, so in some casesthe drug will not be, and nothing will have beenlost! Second, for this point to stand, it has to beshown why the present generation should beprioritised above all future ones: theconsequences of giving the present patients aslightly increased chance of survival is tonegatively impact patients in the future in amyriad ways (see opposition arguments). Third,there are a number of reasons to doubt that thisis, in fact in the present patient’s best interest: itis not the case that terminally ill people have‘nothing to lose’ and can therefore be used ashuman guinea pigs (providing there is an, as yetunspecified, probability of survival). Thelarge-scale provision of un-trialled drugs maywell result in side-effects denigrating the qualityof the patient’s remaining years. Finally, thepractical consequence considered can besidestepped through a) better supervision of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of Choice We live in a free society, andaccept that people have the right to do as theyplease; including exposing themselves to risk, aslong as in so doing they do not harm others(Mill’s harm principle).1 To deny people theright to choose to take drugs that are stillundergoing testing that, whilst they are risky,may save their lives, is a violation of thisprinciple: in choosing to expose themselves tothat risk, no-one else is harmed and indeed inthe long run others may be saved as a result ofthe tests. Further, with the assistance of medicalprofessionals and other support, the decision totake this risk can easily be well-informed andconsensual. 1 Wilson, Fred, \"John Stuart Mill\", inEdward N. Zalta (ed.), The StanfordEncyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012Edition),", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is not the case that this is a policy with noharms other than to the person with a terminalillness (see opposition arguments). Second, itseems unreasonable to suggest people aremaking a free and informed choice in thisinstance: no-one has sufficient information fortaking the drug to represent anything but agamble; this is why there is a need for tests.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "It is unethical to force a ‘volunteer’ to take thechance of being randomised onto the placeboarm of a trial Under the status quo, someonewith a terminal illness is offered two choices:death, or to join a trial (where such trials exist).However, when they join a trial they face thepossibility that they will be given a placebo, notthe drug. Whilst this is probably in the bestinterest of future patients (a good clinical trialwill determine the efficacy of the newtreatment), it rides roughshod over the rights ofthe current patients (not to be sacrificed forfuture generations) and the duty of physicians toact in the best interests of their presentpatients. There are two consequences here: thefirst is that it is morally dubious to use thepresent patients as mere means to an end,rather than acting in their own best interests,especially where, if randomized to the placeboarm the outcome of death is a certainty. Thesecond consequence is a practical one:compliance with the trial is lessened at the point", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is no reason why, under this model, youcould not retain suitable precautions to ensurethat this doesn’t happen. For example, youcould continue the obligation for companies tosell the drug at cost (they would, naturally,continue to be incentivised by the huge profitsthey expect to make when the drug is licensed).Further, you could impose financial sanctions oncompanies that refused to take appropriateaction towards completing testing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "First, this may well be overridden by theindividual rights of present patients (seeproposition arguments). Second, the greatertime taken to recruit is one that may be offset bygreater numbers: whilst the trial will be of alower quality (no control group, etc.) there willnevertheless be a greater number of peoplewilling to take the drug (people who wouldn’thave wanted to be part of a trial, but are willingto try the new treatment). Consequently, it maywell be possible to compensate for the otherproblems with the trial. Further, alternativetrialling models can be employed, for exampleusing patients who choose not to take the drugas the control group. Whilst you lose the benefithere of having a double-blind trial (as under thestatus quo), you gain in terms of the benefits tocurrent patients.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "This gives people false hope If these drugs aremade available, you risk giving many peoplefalse hope in the last days of their lives. People,particularly when in desperate situations, tend tooverestimate a treatment’s efficacy. Given thatthese treatments are still undergoing the trialprocess, it is possible that they are ineffective, orhave side-effects that outweigh anybenefits. Thus, to allow such drugs andtreatments to be handed out during the testingprocess, there is a great risk of giving peoplefalse hope. This is especially the case given thecompromised role of the physician in thisscenario: ordinarily, if a patient wants anexperimental drug, they can have a discussionwith their physician that stresses the ‘in trial’nature of the drug, and thus the uncertainty of itworking. Subsequent experiences (theinconveniences of trials; filling in forms andreceiving expenses) reinforce the idea that thesedrugs were experimental, and that the bulk ofthe benefit from the trial accrues for future", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-con04a", "title": "", "text": "This policy enhances the role of drug reps andadvertising, at the cost of evidence-basedmedicine By allowing anyone who is critically illto use experimental drugs you enhance thealready dubious role of drug company reps:especially in the USA, (where doctors do notoperate under the NHS guidance found in theUK), there is already a problem of patterns ofprescription being altered by the techniques ofdrug reps, rather than by evidence1. Wheredrugs are for sale before they have completedtesting, there is even less evidence available,and therefore less ability for physicians tocontest the claims of either reps or their ownpatients (who may have heard of the drug duringtheir own research). Hence you magnify theproblem of potentially ineffective of even harmfulprescription. 1 Harris, Gwyn, ‘Pharmaceuticalrepresentatives do influence physicianbehaviour’, Family Practice, Vol.26 2009,pp.169-70,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "This reduces the incentive for pharmaceuticalcompanies to complete the testingprocess Testing new drugs is a very expensiveprocess, in 2000 the average cost was estimatedat around 86 million for the large scale phase IIItests1 however this is contested and it could bemuch higher it represents 40% ofpharmaceutical companies R&Dexpenditures, which since a recent estimated thedevelopment cost of a drug can be up to$5.8billion (due to including failures) the cost oftrials would in some cases then be $2billion,2which is currently funded by pharmaceuticalcompanies. They fund these tests because it iseither impossible, very difficult or very risky toaccess large markets before testing has beencompleted (e.g. in the USA companies are onlyallowed to sell new drugs “off-study”, i.e. duringtrials, at cost3) If you allow all terminally illpatients access to experimental drugs, youreduce the incentive for companies to continuetesting their products: they will have access to a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Disastrous impact on medical trials We needmedical trials. It is important to have largegroups of recruits, which can often be verydifficult: a problem with the speed at which newtreatments for rare diseases is the rate ofrecruitment (and therefore the length of timetaken to complete the trial)1. If you pass thismotion, trials will face large problems withrecruitment, an area where there are alreadysometimes shortages2: if people can get accessto the drug without a) the possibility of beingplaced in the placebo arm or b) inconveniencesof being part of a trial, there is a reduced chanceof them choosing to enter thetrial. Consequently, the sample size in trials willbe decreased. This will have a couple ofoutcomes: First trials will take a longer time tobe completed as a result of fewer volunteers andthis is bad for patients currently taking the newdrug as well as for future patients. This isbecause it will take longer to determine thesafety of the drug meaning if it is dangerous", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Drugs that are still undergoing clinical trials donot have a complete void of information aboutthem. Presumably this policy covers drugs thathave completed at least some testing in humans(say, phase one of the trials), and therefore atleast some information would be available onwhich doctors and patients could base theirdecisions. Further, it is implausible to suggestthat doctors are entirely under the sway ofadvertisers: whilst drug reps under the statusquo have some influence in getting a doctor touse one drug rather than another, this is ininstances where there is little to choose betweenthose products, and (importantly!) both arelicensed, safe and effective. They would clearlynot be so reckless as to blindly follow a drugs repand prescribe an untested product to theirpatient.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hpessghwgt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Doctors are trained in the presentation of newsto their patients. This includes the delivery ofbad news, and the dispelling of media-myths.Patients with terminal illnesses are oftenwell-informed about their disease, and (inparticular those with chronic conditions) oftengain a good understanding of the possibilities offuture treatments. The risk that they may all getcarried away on a wave of false hope is,consequently, minimal. Patients in thiscircumstance are more than capable of reaching,in conjunction with their physician, an informeddecision regarding experimental drugs, andmake a choice accordingly. The moderate risk ofsomeone making an error in no way outweighsthe chance of giving someone some more timewith their family. Countries that already allowaccess to treatments that have not completedtrials do not just allow the doctor to simplyproscribe the drug as with any other. Rather thedoctor will need to apply for access to the drug.1In addition the drugs company will also have to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Although the use of virtual networks and doctorsmay provide solutions to share knowledge itcreates other difficulties. The use of VDP as aneducational tool clearly has downsides. First it isnot designed for training; if it were why not usea tool specifically for training? As the VDP is notany educational benefits have to be consideredsecondary. Unlike with a specifically educationaltool there is no way for the experts to test thatthe knowledge they are passing on is beinglearnt or that their advice is beingfollowed. Additionally, if the use of virtualdoctors is educating medical officers on theground does it ensure the newly trainedprofessional will stay in Zambia? The biggerpicture of what the officers do, and whether thegovernment implement competitive labourpolicies, requires consideration.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The network approach: promoting learning Theuse of ICT and creating a network of professionalexperts enables learning and knowledge transferbetween health workers and academics. Inaddition to the brain-drain, whereby skilledhealth professionals continue to emigrate fromZambia, Zambia also shows a slow rate oftraining of new health workers. Therefore theVDP provides a vital learning tool. VDP providespractical skills by healthcare workers to learnfrom first-hand experience while having accessto a field of experts, or advisers, able to answerany questions. The quality of healthcare will beimproved as workers in remote locations aregiven access to information and correct answersfor diagnosis. A global pool of skills can be drawnupon, and utilised, when required.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Mobility remains a key issue across Africa. TheWDR (2009) identifies three key sources foreffective integration: institutions, infrastructure,and interventions. Infrastructure includessystems that facilitate the geographicalmovement of goods, services, people, and ideas- such as roads. The reality of a mobile clinictherefore relies heavily on having theinfrastructure to support flexibility, mobility, andfrequent movement. Mobile clinics still won’t beable to reach all patients that need their help;public investment is required into infrastructuresuch as roads and railways first. The project canonly work if mobile clinics are able to be mobile.Further, even if they are mobile it doesn’tnecessarily ensure people become ill when themedical officer happens to be visiting.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Taking healthcare beyond basic needs Not onlydoes VDP improve access to primary health carebut the networks developed between differenthealth advisers mean changing health demandscan be met. Across Africa there is now a shift inthe type of diseases prevalent. Increasing ratesof non-communicable disease are being recorded- for which advisers can provide ongoingsupport. Additionally, there remains a need toimprove understanding and treatment of mentalhealth issues within rural areas in particular.Concern with mental health requires greaterrecognition across Africa. Finally, data can becollected on health issues affecting rural areasfor targeted intervention.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Tackling access: working in rural areas Zambia’shuman resource crisis in healthcare is mostprominent in rural areas. Poverty remainswidespread and despite Zambia’s high economicfortune as a result of copper during the 1960s ithas become a heavily-indebted poor country.The World Bank (2013) classifies 76% ofZambia’s poor as residing in rural areas. Withdisparities in access to health prevalent, Zambianeeds to train new doctors and nurses to ensurethe population can access health care. The VDPis therefore tackling the issue of access withinrural, and remote, areas. Access to health is ahuman right, and the VDP is ensuring such rightsare become a reality in rural areas and ruralpopulations. Mortality and morbidity can bereduced as rural health workers are able todiagnose and treat a wider range of conditions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Zambia needs to improve its health care systemin general, not work on implementing a virtualprogramme. Physical contact is still necessary fordiagnosis and treatment. Alternative schemesare being used to meet health needs andimprove the structure of Zambia’s health system.For example, the Clinton Foundation and DFID[1] have invested in the provision of communityhealth workers. These programmes invest intraining community health workers acrossZambia’s rural regions. The health workerstrained are therefore physically located withinthe regions. This is much more important thanhaving virtual doctors on call. [1] See furtherreadings: Clinton Foundation, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Can the VDP go beyond basic needs and rightswhen the scale, and scope, of basic need is solarge? Figures show a negative image not only ofphysical health, also the environment in whichpeople live in. The maternal mortality ratio iscalculated at around 590 per 100,000 and infantmortality (under 1) stands at 53 per 1,000 livebirths. However, only 61% of the populationhave access to improved drinking water; and48% are able to access improved sanitationfacilities (UNICEF, 2013). Can we rely on NGO’sproviding the VDP to fulfil basic needs when thechallenges are so large?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "A study carried out by Masiye (2007) indicatesonly around 40% of Zambia’s hospitals can bedefined as efficient. There remains a significantproblem of resource wastage in Zambia’shospitals and the hospitals are technicallyinefficient in producing, and delivering, services.Health goals cannot be achieved in Zambia ifhospitals continue to function inefficiently. Thisraises concern as to how the hospitals cope oncereferrals are sent? Is the wider health systemadequate? Outsourcing of medical professionsinto rural areas, and making improvements inthe speed and quality of referrals does notresolve the issue of hospital quality. AlthoughVDP’s can act to significantly reduce the numberof inappropriate referrals investment, training,and improved management, is still requiredwithin Zambia’s hospital system. Additionally,improved access to drugs is needed. Drugshortages have been reported due to corruptionscandals - funding provided to supply drugs inthe health sector have previously gone missing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Flexibility of mobile clinics The use of mobileclinics and ICT in health not only tackles issuesaround location accessibility to health, bytravelling into remote areas, but also theflexibility provided through the clinics mobilitymeans a larger population can be seen andtreated. Virtual doctors are flexible; one doctorcan be providing his or her expertise throughnumerous local doctors and nurses at any time.They can help staff with much less training makethe correct decisions. By using mobile clinics thelocation is flexible - and can be altereddepending on variations in social need andseasons -, and the time individuals can accessthe clinic is flexible. Mobile clinics are moreresponsive to demand.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Speeding up referral Each mobile clinic will beequipped with vital tools and equipment, andstaffed with a medical assistant, amidwife/nurse, and project officer. Furthermore,the presence of a medical staff team means anumber of services can be provided for women,men, and children. The team are able to carryout tests on the ground, and if required refer thepatient to a hospital. Referrals are made by thestaff, with all required information passed on tothe hospital and an appropriate appointmentmade. The VDP makes each actor within thereferral and treatment process aware of theirposition and role. The VDP appropriatelydelegates jobs; thus improving the system ofhospital referrals and minimising unnecessarycosts from inappropriate referrals.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Technology will only be required within themobile clinics, to enable the VDP networks to beused. It is a key component, but not the onlyfoundation of which the VDP is based on. Thismeans that the clinics can carry equipment toensure access to the internet remains – such asa satellite connection. Furthermore, significantdevelopments have been made in Zambia’stechnological revolution. Internet connectivityhas improved in rural areas; and pioneeringmovements across rural areas - such as theimplementation of solar-powered internet -means connectivity is spreading into rural,remote, Zambia.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Today the inclusion of private stakeholders inproviding access to health is proving to be asustainable approach. To achieve developmentalimpact the public sector is no longer the keysource or actor. Although increased support bythe government - both financial and political -may be required in the future it is notfundamental for the implementation stage. TheVDP can continue to grow and be sustainablethrough the work of private organisations andfunders. The state can later step in and expandthe system nationwide when it is fullydemonstrated. Private partnerships are changinghow health-care is provided and itssustainability.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Resolving the health service crisis? To whatextent does the VDP resolve the lack of healthservice professionals in Zambia? Two caveatsemerge. Firstly, the project shows howintervention from international organisations canwork against trade union demands andemployment issues. The project is introducing amodel of outsourcing. The medical staff do notneed to be based in hospitals so reducinggovernment costs and decentralising employees.Recent strikes by nurses [1] showsdissatisfaction with work conditions andoverwork. It raises concern over the motives ofthe VDP. Is the VDP encouraging socialprotection and an ethical work environment forall medical professionals? Or is the VDP anescape mechanism to keep wages low andneglect demands made by working nurses? Amajority of the expert ‘virtual doctors’ employedare volunteers. Ultimately then the governmentmight consider the VDP a good excuse not toinvest in training Zambian doctors. Secondly,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Will virtual doctors be used? Even if VDPs doimprove access to health services we cannotassume the health services will be used. The useof traditional healers, and practices, remainspopular across rural Zambia [1] . If thepopulation is unwilling to use modern medicinethen providing better access to that medicine willbe of little benefit. If formally trained doctors andmedicines are not accepted, or trusted, bycommunities then the resources being spent onVDPs would be much better spent on educationto encourage people to make better use of thefacilities they already have than introducing newtechnology based solutions that will simply bemore likely to be rejected. [1] See furtherreadings: Bansal, 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "A dangerous reliance on technology? ICT isproviding innovative solutions to resolve manysocial problems across Africa. However, is therenow a dangerous reliance on technology? Noteveryone has access to mobiles and signalremains precarious. When answers, diagnosis,and treatment, are reliant on using technology inthe field it needs to be ensured that the servicefitted in mobile clinics will remain reliable forfield health workers. Additionally, it needs to beensured that the network of global professionalsfrequently check messages for updates andrespond as quickly as possible. The quality ofhealth service cannot be improved if theresponse time remains low due to insufficienttechnology or connectivity. The scheme requirespartnerships to telephone and informationtechnology companies. The reliance ontechnology is also danger when we consider whatinformation the technology used is actuallyproviding. The VDP will mainly involvetext-based emails and messages to provide", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "How sustainable? A key issue that needs to beraised is funding. Currently the VDP is funded bya range of corporate partners - includingMicrosoft and Google. However, for the project tobe sustainable in the long-run investment isrequired from a wider range of bodies, andfurther partnerships need to be formed with thepublic sector. The government needs to beincluded as a funder and supporter. The neglect,and exclusion, of the government withindiscussion on health projects - such as VDP -only acts to remove their responsibility andobligation to tackle the social dilemma.Healthcare is the responsibility of government,not the NGOs and private firms that areproviding VDP.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Figures showcasing the popular use of traditionalpractices, and medicine, do not show the reasonsbehind use. It fails to recognise the degree ofchoice and the nature of treatment provided. Ifpeople don’t have access to modern medicinethen they will go to that which is available. Theanswer then is to increase access to modernmedicine to provide the alternative.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dhiahwivdp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The VDP is providing a number a solution to thelack of human resources within Zambia’s healthsector. VDP is enabling the growth of local jobs,for Zambian nationals. Although there are nocurrent figures to estimate the amount of jobsthat will be provided within the health sector, theVDP has currently been rolled out into six sitesand continues to expand. New clinics will beset-up across Zambia, as well as Tanzania,Malawi and Kenya. A growing body of healthworkers will be required to maintain the VDPnetwork; reducing the doctor to populationdisparity in Zambia.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The added cost to public healthcare that comesas a result of diseases brought upon by smokingis vastly outweighed by the amount of moneygovernments around the world receive in taxeson tobacco. The UK currently takes around 60%of the cost of a pack of cigarettes in tax duty. In2008, the US took over $16 billion in tobacco taxrevenue1. Such high tax duties and revenues canhardly be justified if smokers are not even to gethealthcare for their money. And without thetaxes, cigarettes would be much cheaper,encouraging more people to smoke. Moreover,because smokers tend to die earlier thannon-smokers, per head the average health carecosts are lower than those of non-smokers2. 1Tax Policy Centre, US Tobacco RevenueStatistics, 2 USA Today, 15 Jul 11, Do smokerscost society money.. Accessed 15 Jul 11.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Smokers are a drain on economicresources Smokers contribute adisproportionately large amount to the cost ofhealthcare. They are a drain on resources. In theUK it is estimated that up to 9,500 beds areblocked daily by smokers, and that up to eightmillion doctor consultations are required on theirbehalf each year. A well-informed smoker,unable or unwilling to quit, might assume anincreased risk for himself but he would also beindirectly increasing the likelihood of othersbeing unable to access necessary healthcare andthis is not fair. Allowing smokers to take scarcebeds or organs needed for transplants - thatcould otherwise go to those suffering fromgenuine misfortunes - is an unjust allocation ofresources.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Many smokers do not choose to harmthemselves, they simply can't help it. The 1988US Surgeon General's report on the addictivenature of cigarette smoking provides proof ofwhat is now widely accepted – smokingcigarettes is highly addictive. Moreover, thereare high correlations between people smokingand being under stress or having parents thatsmoke. All of this suggests that people do notnecessarily choose to smoke and may not beable to choose to give up. Given that smokerscan therefore be portrayed as suffering frominvoluntary addiction, it would seem sensible totackle this addiction alongside physical healthissues, as oppose to dismissing smokersaltogether.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "As smokers have a higher chance of harm fromsurgery due to complications arising from theirhabit, it is more efficient to prioritizenon-smokers Failure to quit smoking beforesurgical procedures increases cardiac andpulmonary complications, impairs tissue healing,and is associated with more infections and othercomplications at the surgical site. For example,in a study of wound and other complicationsafter hip or knee surgery, no smoker who quitbeforehand developed a wound infectioncompared with 26% of ongoing smokers and27% of those who only reduced tobacco use.Overall complications were reduced to 10% inthose who quit smoking compared with 44% inthose who continued1. This means that surgerycosts more on average for smokers and is alsoless likely to be effective. Treating more smokersmeans devoting more resources for lowerresults. Therefore, prioritizing non-smokers, atleast in certain areas of healthcare, would bebeneficial to society as a whole. 1http Peters,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The law would act as a deterrent againstattempts to conceal a smoking habit to procurehealthcare There are realistic ways a policy ofdenying healthcare access to smokers could becarried out. Insurance companies already asklots of health-related questions, often includingwhether their client is a smoker, when assessinglife insurance premiums. In these cases, you arerequired to give details of your lifestyle by law.Of course, some people do not, however this isto be expected since no law is one hundred percent effective. Sanctions exist to discouragedishonest behaviour. A similar model could beput in place requiring a declaration of smokerstatus to the health authority. Indeed, manydoctors already enquire about their patients'smoking statuses on an informal basis. It is alsoparticularly hard to lie about being a smoker fortwo reasons. First, other people inevitably seeyou smoking. This means an abundance ofwitnesses in the case of a dispute, and thus adisincentive to lie. Second, people require", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Denying, or even reducing, access to healthcarefor smokers is impractical, and therefore anunrealistic policy goal. First, the extent to whichcare is denied is questionable. Does theproposition model include denying palliativecare? If it does, this literally means leavingpeople to suffer agonising pain in emergencieswhile they try to locate private prescriptionpainkillers, if they can afford them. Further, doesit include denying emergency procedures such asresuscitation in the case of a heart attack? If itdoes, where are patients supposed to go? Privateemergency rooms are few and far between, ornon-existent, in many countries – never mindprivate ambulances. Second, in order toencourage smokers to stop smoking, the processneeds to involve reactivating access tohealthcare if smokers quit. But any cut-off pointat which the right is re-activated will necessarilybe arbitrary. Some studies have suggested that,for instance, teenagers do irreparable damage totheir respiratory systems even if they stop", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Smokers may have a higher chance of harmfrom surgery due to complications arising fromtheir habit, but this is not a phenomenon specificto them. Cardiovascular disease, or heart diseaseto most people, is the number one killer of menand women in the United States1. It is caused bythe build-up of fatty deposits that clog thevessels - those at risk are often smokers, but canjust as often be those who are overweight, havediabetes or simply high blood pressure. As such,it is not justified to single out smokers whenthose with unhealthy diets can just as easilycause complications in their surgeries. 1. DailyNews, 13 Jul 11, Cardiovascular disease: Defendyourself by lowering the risks.Accessed 14 Jul11.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There is no evidence that limiting access tohealthcare would act as a deterrent. In fact, inthe developing world, where a smoker would onaverage have worse access to healthcare,tobacco consumption has increased significantlyover the last decade.1 Furthermore,governments have indeed acted to discouragesmoking through a variety of methods. Thesehave included advertising campaigns andbanning smoking in public places and they seemto have worked. Cigarette use in the developedworld has declined over the last 50 years. In theUK, smoking rates have dropped by half between1974 and 2009, from 45% down to 21%2. Amajority 59% have never taken up the habit3. 1World Health Organization, The Tobacco Atlas, 2Daily Telegraph, 22 Jan 09, Lowest ever numberof smokers after public ban and healthcampaigns.Accessed 14 Jul 2011. 3 DailyTelegraph, 22 Jan 09, Lowest ever number ofsmokers after public ban and healthcampaigns.Accessed 14 Jul 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The added cost to public healthcare that comesas a result of diseases brought upon by smokingis vastly outweighed by the amount of moneygovernments around the world receive in taxeson tobacco. The UK currently takes around 60%of the cost of a pack of Many people have towait for surgery when they have fallen ill orgotten injured through no fault of their own.Many of the people they are waiting behind havefallen ill out of choice. This includes smokers whohave contracted diseases as a result of theirhabit. There is a vast array of information, easilyavailable to smokers, on the dangers ofcigarettes. If despite this, a person chooses tosmoke anyway then it is unfair that others whohave fallen ill out of genuine misfortune shouldhave to wait in line behind them for healthcare.This problem is particularly in acute in states thathave universal healthcare, where non-smokersare forced to wait in a queue for treatmentbehind those who have negligently madethemselves ill smoking. In Britain for example,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Denying access to healthcare for smokers wouldact as a deterrent, discouragingsmokers Governments should do everythingthey can to discourage smoking. They alreadyattempt to do so in a number of ways, such asthrough ensuring graphic health warnings arepresent on all tobacco packaging. Many stateshave also introduced legislation banning smokingindoors in an attempt to discourage the habit.However, smoking is still a massive problem -millions of people still do it. The refusal ofmedical treatment to smokers would surely be amassive deterrent to current/potential smokersfrom continuing/starting the habit. The safetynet of modern healthcare being pulled fromunderneath them would be a powerful incentiveto give up the habit, and reduce the estimated$100 billion that the White House believessmokers cost the economy annually through lossof productivity1. 1 USA Today, 15 Jul 11, Dosmokers cost society money.. Accessed 15 Jul11.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Denying access to healthcare for smokers willnot hurt the economy, for the health care costsof smokers are substantially larger than those ofnon-smokers. In fact, 'health care costs forsmokers at a given age are as much as 40percent higher than those for non-smokers' .Furthermore, though the opposition points outthat because smokers die younger, averagehealth costs are in fact lower than non-smokers,denying access to healthcare will have twoeffects which will cancel each other out: morepeople will give up smoking, increasing grossmedical costs for the state, but those who don'twill die younger for they won't get treatment,which will offset the previous rise.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There are realistic and practical ways in whichthe policy of denying healthcare to smokerscould be carried out. Smoking is a habit that hasclear and demonstrable physical effects, whichoften correlate with the regularity and longevityof the habit; doctors are trained to recognizesuch symptoms and do not need patientconfirmation. Furthermore, if the bill made itquite clear that healthcare was to be denied topresent smokers, the hypothetical presented bythe opposition is easily negated. The goal of sucha bill would to be to ensure that both smokersgave up the habit and non-smokers did not takeup the habit. In this case, the man taking upsmoking is in the wrong and is acting contrary tothe law. He would have little room for complaint.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Denying access to healthcare for smokers willlead to thousands of people being turned awayand potentially dying from preventableillnesses The denial of access to healthcare forsmokers is a policy that will directly lead to theturning away of millions of people, merely formaking one perfectly legal, if ill-advised lifestylechoice. In a state like France, where 20 per centof the population, 12 million people, aresmokers, such a policy would leave a largeminority unable to access basic healthcare forissues that may be unrelated to their smokinghabit . Furthermore, it may lead to the ridiculoussituation whereby smokers are dying frompreventable diseases despite hospitals beingunder-utilized, as a fifth of the population is nolonger allowed in.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Denying healthcare to smokers is a restriction onpeople's liberties Whether or not you believe itshould be, smoking tobacco is legal. At the sametime, healthcare is regarded as a fundamentalhuman right, alongside rights to education, foodand water. Denying someone healthcare is toimpede upon his/her basic liberties and thiscannot be justified when, in the eyes of the law,they have done nothing wrong. Criminals havethe right to healthcare – it is often that you hearthat the trial of a war criminal is being delayedwhile they receive treatment. Take the cases ofRatko Mladic or Slobodan Milosevic for example1. If healthcare is given to men who havecommitted genocide then surely it should begiven to smokers. Also, if a Government adoptsthe line that one's behavior determines the kindof health service one receives then what is tostop that Government applying such a mantrabeyond smoking and controlling the practices ofthose they govern in any number ofways? 1. and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Denying healthcare to smokers alone isvictimization The denial of healthcare, anestablished right, without the citizen doinganything either immoral or wrong is pure andsimple victimization. Suppose you are a doctorand you have two patients waiting for a hearttransplant. Patient A is 65. He does not exercise,has never had a job and has committed a seriesof crimes throughout his life. Patient B is in his20s, with a first class degree from a gooduniversity. He is a trained doctor himself andwants to go and work in the developing world, tohelp people suffering from leprosy. But Patient Bis a heavy smoker. Should you thereforeprioritize patient A? It seems problematic tovictimize smokers, particularly consideringsmoking is legal. If you are going to discriminateagainst smokers then surely you shoulddiscriminate against alcohol drinkers and peoplewho do extreme sports as they are alsoknowingly endangering themselves. Smokingreduces life expectancy by 2.5 years for men,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Denying access to healthcare for smokers willhurt the economy Economically, the healthcareof the nation is important for maintaining aproductive workforce. Do we really want to loseotherwise functional members of the workforcethe first time they contract an aggravated throatinfection and cannot afford, or delay for financialreasons, a simple course of antibiotics? Quiteapart from productivity, as The Guardian notes,smokers in the United Kingdom also contributeover £10 billion to government coffers throughthe tobacco tax 1. To lose this source of revenuewill do more to hurt national health services thanthe occasional complication in surgery granted toa smoker. Lastly, because smokers die youngerthan non-smokers, though they cost more peryear, over their lifetime their average healthcosts are lower than those of longer-living,non-smokers. 1.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-con05b", "title": "", "text": "Goods provided by the state, like healthcare, areoften, and necessarily, subject to certainprovisions. For example, in order to getunemployment benefits, a person must provethat they are regularly looking for a job and ameans to get themselves off benefits. Denyingaccess to healthcare for smokers does not meandenying them healthcare access forever; theycan regain unlimited access if they stop smoking.Therefore, prioritizing non-smokers forhealthcare in certain cases is not impeding uponsmokers' basic liberties but a recognition thatthose who care about their own health enough tonot smoke should be prioritized.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Denying healthcare to smokers isimpractical There are several reasons whylimiting access to healthcare for smokers couldprove impractical. Ultimately they surround theissue of how you define who is a smoker. Oneman might have chain smoked for 20 years butgiven up for a year, since a bill limiting access tohealthcare for smokers was passed. Meanwhile,another might have been smoking cigarettes nowand again just for the past year. Who would beprioritized if the two were on a waiting list for thesame operation? If the law penalizes anyone whohas ever smoked then it would not providenearly as strong an incentive to stop smoking.But, if the law does not penalize anyone who hassmoked, then choosing whom to punish wouldseem quite arbitrary. Furthermore, what isstopping people from simply lying about howmuch/whether they smoke? They might notshow any obvious signs of being a smoker. Evenif they do, they could claim to have given up,work around fumes or be a victim of passive", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-con04b", "title": "", "text": "In practice, it is both viable and beneficial, incertain cases, to prioritize non-smokers forhealthcare. Where there is more chance of atransplant being successful in a non-smoker forexample. It is true that people can knowinglydamage their health in other ways, such as drugtaking or alcohol abuse and it may well be viableto limit access to healthcare in these cases also.This does not mean that every factor in apatient's life must be scrutinized in order todecide where they are placed on a doctor'swaiting list. In public policy, the line must bedrawn somewhere. Prioritizing non-smokers canmean that more people can be helped with sameamount of resources and, where this is the case,it should be practiced.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghhwdsas-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The opposition fails to recognize the impact thatsuch a policy will have on smokers. Access willonly be denied to smokers who continue tosmoke once the bill is in place, if it is proven thatthey have given up, they will be free to accesshealthcare. Therefore, the only smokers who willbe turned away, and who will potentially die frompreventable illnesses are those who place theirhabit above that of their life.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "To not promote abstinence is not a neutralposition, it is a position the implicitly encouragessexual promiscuity. Children are at risk of severepsychological and physical harm from having sextoo young, and should be encouraged not to doso. Promoting ‘safe sex’ is implicitly encouragingsex by implying that it is safe and a normal thingto be doing. This will encourage young people tobelieve that there is no risk when this is not thecase even if they do follow the prescriptions theyhave been taught about sex.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Abstinence is an outdated view, based onreligious teaching, which may be a personalchoice but is not to be expected as the norm foreveryone Young people express their sexualityas part of their development to adulthood. It isnot having sex that is a problem, but havingunsafe sex or hurting people through sexualchoices. Refusing to promote safe sex wouldmean not moving with the times. Just becauseschools do not promote safe sex does not meanthat adolescents will not experiment with sex.They will already be exposed to sexual imageryand ideas of sex so it is necessary that they aretaught properly how to remain safe. Schoolsmay also want to talk about abstinence at thesame time; it is a way of keeping sexually safe.However schools have to recognise that themajority of pupils are unlikely to stick toabstinence regardless of how much the schoolpromotes it. It is therefore necessary for theschool to also promote and educate about safesex.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The problem with mandatory sex education isprecisely that it presents that information in anorganised fashion – by the state. In doing so theright of the parents to raise their children inaccordance with their structure of beliefs isusurped.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Ignorance about sex is the primary cause of thespread of sexually transmitted diseases(STDs) The spread of AIDS in the 80s and 90sshowed that education and information is moreimportant than ever as exemplified by the sloganin the British 1980’s advertising campaign toprevent AIDS ‘AIDS: Don’t Die of Ignorance’. Thecampaigns were credited with credited withchanging behaviour through warnings on advertsand informing through an information leaflet. [1]This shows that education can work even whenstarting from scratch. Giving sex education inschools is crucial to the spread of information toeach successive generation, and may besupplemented by frank discussion at home. [1]Kelly, Jon, ‘HIV/Aids: Why were the campaignssuccessful in the West?’, BBC News Magazine, 28November 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While a serious disease, AIDS transmissionmakes up only a tiny proportion of sexuallytransmitted infections each year. [1] Firstly theharm of these infections has always beensatisfactorily low before public Sex Education,and secondly even if mandatory public educationdid have a substantive benefit it would notoutweigh the infringement on the moral freedomof the parents. [1] Health Protection Agency,STI Annual Data Tables", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "True, but nor does it make sense to make theclasses mandatory once the child reaches an agewhere it is legally able to decide whether it wantsto partake of them. Nor does this mean thatthese classes need to be promoting safe sexrather than simply teaching the facts andencouraging abstinence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The information age makes attempting to hideinformation on sex impossible The internetprovides a vast amount of easily accessibleinformation about sex, of varying degrees ofquality. Most children in the west now haveaccess to the internet and are therefore likely tohave access to this information on sex, or atleast educational materials on sex even if thechild’s access to the internet is controlled. Giventhat it is impossible to prevent children fromaccessing this information if they really want to,it makes sense to present it to them in anorganised and accurate fashion. Rather thanallowing children to find information on their ownthrough what may well be unreliable resources itis necessary that they should get good reliableinformation. That this information when there issafe sex education comes from the school meansthat the children know that they information isreliable. They can then use this information tohelp them decide how reliable any furtherinformation they may find from other sources is.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Restricting information to children is inconsistentwith the age of consent With the age of consentbeing 16 and with young people being able tovote at 18, it does not make sense for parents tohave control over whether their childrenattended sex education classes right up until theage of 19 or whenever they finish full timeschooling. The age of consent means that thereis clearly a need to be taught about sex fromthat age of consent. This is something thatcannot be guaranteed to happen in all individualhouseholds if left to the parents whereas it canbe ensured in schools.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Parents often know nothing (or worse, are armedwith dangerously naive delusions) of the sexualstate of their children. The picture painted byabolitionists is inaccurate – the process ofdeciding what is taught in schools involvesparents’ groups and school governing bodies ona school-by-school basis, so parents do have arole in deciding what is taught. But ultimately,the state should be involved in educating thewhole child, not just in doling out academic ideas– and should work hard to safeguard sexualhealth of youngsters, a field near-impossible toseparate from sex education. This is a subjectjust as important for the development of youngpeople as the conventional subjects such asmaths and English. The role of ‘teacher’ has tochange with time. Once, teachers only instructedthe children of the well-off or acted as a branchof the church, now they teach everyone in asecular society. As their role changes, they mustremain responsible and obey the law: thus, thescaremongering of suggesting teachers will", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Our children are sexually active. They aremaking decisions that can affect the rest of theirlives. They should be able to choose responsiblyand be well-informed about the likely outcomes.They should know about sources of free or cheapcontraception, who to turn to when pregnant or ifthey suspect they have a venereal disease, howto use contraception to avoid both, and, contraryto the impression of abolitionists, they should betold the benefits of abstinence. How can you tellpeople about that if you refuse to discuss sex?How can you imagine they will take you seriouslyif you turn a blind eye to something so many oftheir peers are doing? They need an externalsource of support to resist peer pressure, andhave sex later rather than sooner: lamentably, itis presumed amongst many young people thathaving unprotected sex with many partners at anearly age is the norm and they encourage othersto do it (and attempt to humiliate those thatdon’t). We need mechanisms to support thosethat want to resist that pressure: sex education", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Children are bad decision makers Sex educationinforms children about sex, and then invitesthem to make a choice. But as demonstrated allthe time, children are bad decision-makers, oftenchoosing what is bad for them. That is why adultsociety often needs to decide for them – whatthey should eat, what they should watch on T.V.,when they are mature enough to be able tochoose whether or not to drink or smoke. Surelysex is just as important as those things – just asdangerous, just as potentially destructive. Theabdication of our responsibility in the sexualarena is shameful; we should be unafraid tosimply tell children this is something they cannotdo, aren’t mature enough to consent to yet – aresponsibility we seem to shrink from eventhough it is reflected by the stated aim of societyenshrined in the law of the age of consent.Lessons implicitly lauding the pleasures ofintercourse are entirely contrary to that aim.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Sex education for underage children underminesthe law Sex education classes for those underthe age of consent undermines the law. It says,‘don’t do this – but given that you are, do this,this and this.’ This sends a terrible messageabout the law – that breaking it isn’t serious,that authority (as represented by teachers)tacitly approves of that illegality, will tolerate itand even encourage it. Sex education fails totell our children clearly what is right and what iswrong. And remember that these are children,who need clear boundaries to guide theirbehaviour, and who may not understand thesubtleties appreciated by liberal educationalists.In any case, so few teachers want to teach thissubject that the quality of teaching is awful.Those that do end up teaching it are often theoddest characters in the teaching establishment.Many teachers happy to ‘cover’ other subjectsare uniquely embarrassed by this one, or objectto it on moral grounds and will not do so, leavingit to the most liberal members of staff.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Responsibility for children's moral and sexualupbringing is not the responsibility ofschools This is none of the state’s business.Teaching this subject en masse in a classroomreduces it to biological notions, groupembarrassment and crude jokes. Furthermore,children have never needed this from the state:left alone, they learn from their family andsurroundings and grow naturally into adultswithout the state’s involvement. Few things areresponsible for parental disaffection witheducation more than the teaching of sex andsexuality in ways contrary to theirwishes. Parents have a right to determine themoral environment in which their childrendevelop and this is a huge intrusion into thatright. That moral environment has beenmanipulated again and again over the last fortyyears by a liberal teaching establishment set onundermining traditional values and beliefs. Sexeducation has been a prime weapon in that socialengineering. That tool should be taken away", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Sex education leads to experimentation andearly intercourse, and indirectly encouragespromiscuity Sex education leads toexperimentation and early intercourse, andindirectly encourages promiscuity. The mostmoral form of Sex Education says ‘you shouldn’tdo this, but we know you are,’ thus pushingchildren to consider their sexual existence beforethey need to or indeed should. Thus sexeducation’s message is invariably confused – onthe one hand, by saying ‘here are the perils ofteen sex – so don’t do it,’ and on the other hand,‘here is how to have teen sex safely.’ Less moralforms start by saying, ‘the best form of arelationship is a loving, constant relationship’and then say, here are the ways to useprotection if you’re not in such a relationship’ – alogic which presumes children are in sexualrelationships to begin with. The justification forthis is that ‘adolescents know all about sex’ – anidea pushed in our permissive society so muchit’s almost a truism – but contrary to that bland", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Well taught sex education does no such thing.Sex and responsibility classes must tread a fineline, first stressing the importance of waitinguntil ready before having sex, and pointing to thephysical benefits of fewer partners and startingsex later – but must then move on to the realityof modern Britain’s sex-ridden teen culture,without applauding it, and try to decrease thevery high levels of STDs and pregnancy. Yes,that’s hard to do – but that doesn’t mean weshouldn’t do it. On the contrary – it’s one of themost important duties society faces today.Arguments about poor teaching apply equally tomaths. We often have to try to recruit teachersin unpopular fields – true, difficult, but hardlyunique. The answer is to improve teachertraining, both for new graduates and forpractising teachers, and to bring in outsideconsultants from the health and social welfaresectors, who have deep experience in this area.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-oeghsshwpsst-con02b", "title": "", "text": "That logic might sound impressive – but it’s thesame one that fails to control underage drinking,underage smoking, the watching of rated moviesby those forbidden to do so, the eating of badfood – and underage sex. It’s the same poorparental logic that has seen a generation ofchildren grow up divorced from the societyaround them, children who die from drugsoverdoses and whose parents say (honestly), ‘Ijust had no idea.’ It’s time to talk to our youngpeople about what they do – honestly, frankly,without frightening them into dishonesty anddeception. To do otherwise perpetuates the cycleof ignorance about youth society, andperpetuates the status quo of being able to donothing to change it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Force feeding is undignified. The World MedicalAssociation considers “Even if intended tobenefit, feeding accompanied by threats,coercion, force or use of physical restraints is aform of inhuman and degrading treatment.” [1]This is treatment which the European Conventionon Human Rights prohibits in Article 3 on theprohibition of torture. [2] The patient’s right torefuse treatment should be respected even ifthey are mentally ill. (N.B. Anorexia is notrecognised as a mental illness in everycountry). [1] World Medical Association, ‘WMADeclaration of Malta on Hunger Strikers’,2006 [2] European Court of Human Rights,Convention for the Protection of Human Rightsand Fundamental Freedoms’, 2010, P.4", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Anorectic patients are not able to make thedecision for themselves. Anorectic patients aretypically treated under mental health legislation(e.g. the UK 1983 Act). They do not make a freechoice because they are not rationally able toweigh up decisions and consequences, they ‘feel’fat when they obviously are not and are irrationalas they are willing to starve themselves to thepoint of death when suicide is not their intent.[1] The patient is not “capable of formingunimpaired and rational judgements concerningthe consequences” (British Medical Association1992). There have been court cases that haveconfirmed that force feeding should be allowedwhen a patient is considered mentally ill. Forexample the case of “B vs. Croydon HealthAuthority” in 1994 it was judged, that B (aborderline personality disorder patient, whichinvolves suffering from an irresistible desire toinflict-self-harm) can be force fed, even thoughshe did not give consent to the treatment. Thecourt explained that because she was not aware", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Far from helping solve the patient’s psychologicalproblems force feeding is just as likely toexacerbate the problems and make them muchless willing to seek out treatment, somethingthat they are often already unwilling to do. [1]While it may be the case that when starvedpeople over-estimate their own size those whoare anorexic in the developed world did not startout starved so there must have been a differentinitial cause of the anorexia that will need to befound and solved, there are numerous differenttypes of psychological treatment that can help dothis. [2] [1] Jimerson, Shane R. et al., ‘EatingDisorders: Treatment’, 2002, [2] NHS Choices,‘Treating anorexia’, 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Life is more important than dignity Life is moreimportant than dignity, many medical treatmentsare unpleasant or painful but they are necessaryto preserve life. Without force feeding theanorectic patient will often die. In Australia about80 per cent of all anorexic children requiredhospital admission (from 101 cases), and ofthose, 50 per cent required tube feeding as alife-saving measure to manage starvation. [1]When a patient requires emergency treatmentdoctors should do what is necessary to save thepatient’s life. Psychological problems can only betreated if the person is alive. Treatment for thepsychological problem should be considered togo hand in hand with saving the patient’s life asin the B vs. Croydon Health Authority whereforce feeding was ruled to be complemented theuse of other methods to treat her psychiatricproblems. [2] [1] McLean T., Half of anorexickids need force feeding, 2008, , accessed07/22/2011 [2] Keywood K., B v CroydonHealth Authority 1994, CA: Force-Feeding the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Life is more important than dignity. None theless there is a significant difference betweensomeone who is in an emergency condition beingtreated without their consent and someone whohas previously refused treatment being forced tohave treatment. Patients are allowed to makedecisions doctors believe are unwise. [1] [1]Patients.co.uk, ‘Consent To Treatment (MentalCapacity and Mental Helth Legislation)’ 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "When it comes to hunger strikes the WorldMedical Association says that “Forcible feeding isnever ethically acceptable.” [1] While there areobviously differences in terms of the objectivewhen it comes to the consent of the patient thereis no difference. In both cases the patient doesnot want to be force fed and understand whatthe consequences may be. [1] World MedicalAssociation, ‘WMA Declaration of Malta onHunger Strikers’, 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Force feeding can help psychologically. Ahealthier body weight is necessary to be able totreat the patient’s psychological problems.Studies in Minnesota show that when normalvolunteers were starved, they began todevelopment anorectic patterns. Theyover-estimated the sizes of their own faces byapproximately 50%. This shows the impact ofstarvation on the brain. [1] [1] Fedyszyn &Sullivan, ‘Ethical re-evaluation of contemporarytreatments for anorexia nervosa’, 2007, , P.202", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "In the first instance, doctors should always act tokeep a patient alive Medical ethics say that adoctor has a responsibility to keep the patientalive to administer treatment. In the UK DianaPretty was denied the right to die by the Houseof Lords even though she consistently requestedit. The Israeli Courts ordered the force- feedingof political hunger strikers arguing that in aconflict between life and dignity, life wins. Indiaprosecuted a physician who allowed a hungerstriker to die. The medical profession take theirresponsibility for life very seriously on a globallevel.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Yes there will be negative consequences to sucha step as force feeding however this is only donewhen it is absolutely necessary and the negativeconsequences of not doing so are much worse.Doctors will only force feed if they are convincedthat doing so is for the good of the patient,indeed they are prohibited from taking such astep if it is not absolutely necessary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Short term success is all that is necessary tosave a life. Once the anorectic patient is out ofdanger then more long term treatments can beexplored. This means working out how to reducethe fear of food and of weight and if the patienthas become worried about going to hospital thenat least there is time to sort that out as well.While emergency force feeding has to be within ahospital not all treatment has to take place insuch an environment and ongoing psychologicaltreatment can take place elsewhere.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Anorexics need to be able to trust theirdoctors. The most successful policies are whereanorectic patients feel safe and trust theirdoctors so are willing to go to clinics voluntarilyas they feel that they are in control of thesituation. [1] Conversely an anorectic patient’sfear of weight gain, especially forced weight gainin hospital is an obstacle to treatment. If ananorexia nervosa sufferer thinks that they will beforce- fed they may be less likely to seektreatment or advice. [1] Susic, Paul, ‘AnorexiaTreatment and the Unwilling Patient’, , accessed07/21/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The focus should be on palliative care. Somedoctors advocate focusing on palliative care(relief of pain but not treatment of cause) due tothe low full recovery rates of anorexia sufferers.Research Studies show that over 10 years onlyapproximately 20% of patients recover. Thosepatients who are sufferers for more than 12years are unlikely to ever recover.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Force feeding strategies may cause physicalharm Force-feeding has negative consequences.If the patient is dangerously thin and is thenforce-fed, it can led to Hypophosphataemia(reduction of phosphates in the blood) whichcauses heart failure. Anorexics are characterisedby self-denial and often do not come forwardvoluntarily. Indeed it according to Dr Sackeranorexia is often not even about food rather \"Bystopping food from going into the body, whatthey really feel is they can be in control of theirbody.” [1] This desire is actively harmed by forcefeeding as a result they are even less likely tocome forward voluntarily if they are faced withthe possibility of force- feeding. [1] CBS, ‘A verythin line’, 02/11/2009, , accessed 07/22/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Compulsory treatment is not a long termsolution. Compulsory treatment may only besuccessful in the short term. In the long term itdoes nothing to reduce the fear of food, weightand hospital felt by the patient and is a barrier totreatment. Hospital admission often has a worseoutcome for the patient; there are increasedmortality rates which are then even higher forthose who are admitted against their will. [1]Suicide accounts for 27% of anorexia deaths. [2]Compulsory treatment may make the patientmore depressed and at greater risk fromharm. [1] Fedyszyn & Sullivan, ‘Ethicalre-evaluation of contemporary treatments foranorexia nervosa’, 2007, , p.201 [2] BBC News,‘Compulsory treatment ‘helps anorexics’’, 1999", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Palliative care is defeatist and does not attemptto cure the problem. Recovery is always apossibility and that is what doctors should bestriving for “In a 10 year follow up of 76 severelyill women with anorexia, Eckert et al found that18 (24%) had fully recovered, about half had abenign outcome, and only five (7%) had died.”[1] Doctors do not often have to deal with severeor chronic anorexia. Just because it is a very longtreatment schedule that can be harrowing for adoctor, this not a reason to settle for palliativecare. Better support structures ought to be put inplace to enable the doctor to fulfil their obligationto the patient. [1] Williams, Christopher J. et al.,‘We should strive to keep patients alive’, 1998,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mchdhgwhwff-con02b", "title": "", "text": "In 1997 the Mental Health Act Commissionopened the door to allowing force feeding ofanorexic patients in the UK by allowing thecompulsory admission of anorexics to hospital.This change of policy did not reduce the numberof patients being admitted for treatment whichhas gone up from 419 in 1996-7 to 620 in2005-6. [1] [1] Disordered eating, AnorexiaNervosa Statistics (Uk), , accessed 07/22/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A range of health programs are alreadyavailable. Many employers offer health insuranceand some people deliberately choose to work forsuch companies for these benefits, even if thepay is a little lower. Other plans can bepurchased by individuals with no need to rely onan employer. This means they are free to choosethe level of care which is most appropriate totheir needs. For other people it can be perfectlyreasonable to decide to go without healthinsurance. Healthy younger adults will onaverage save money by choosing not to pay highinsurance premiums, covering any necessarytreatment out of their own pockets from time totime. Why should the state take away all thesepeople’s freedom of choice by imposing aone-size-fits-all socialist system of healthcare? Human resources professionals will still beneeded to deal with the very many otheremployment regulations put in place by thefederal government. Instead of employees beingable to exercise control over their health care", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Current health care systems are notsustainable American health insurancepayments are very high and rising rapidly. Evenemployer-subsidised programs are veryexpensive for many Americans, because theyoften require co-payments or high deductibles(payment for the first part of any treatment). Inany case employee health benefits are beingwithdrawn by many companies as a way ofcutting costs. For those without insurance, arelatively minor illness or injury can be afinancial disaster. It is unfair that many ordinaryhard-working Americans can no longer afforddecent medical treatment. Moving to a systemof universal health care would reduce the burdenon human resources personnel in companies. Atpresent they must make sure the company isobeying the very many federal laws about theprovision of health insurance. With a universalsystem where the government was thesingle-payer, these regulations would not applyand the costs of American businesses would be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The United States government cannot afford tofund universal health care. Other universal socialwelfare policies such as Social Security andMedicare have run into major problems withfunding. Costs are rising at the same time thatthe baby boomer generation are growing old andretiring. Soon tens of millions of boomers willstop contributing much tax and start demandingmuch more in benefits than before. In such asituation we cannot afford to burden the nationwith another huge government spendingprogram. Nations that provide universal healthcare coverage spend a substantial amount oftheir national wealth on the service. Withgovernment control of all health care, caps willbe placed on costs. As a result many doctorswould not be rewarded for their long hours andimportant roles in our lives. The road tobecoming a doctor is long and hard; without thepresent financial rewards many young people willnot choose to study medicine. Current doctorsmay find that they do not want to continue their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Health care would substantially reduce overallcosts With universal health care, people are ableto seek preventive treatment. This means havingtests and check-ups before they feel ill, so thatconditions can be picked up in their early stageswhen they are easy to treat. For example in arecent study 70% of women with healthinsurance knew their cholesterol level, while only50% of uninsured women did. In the end, peoplewho do not get preventive health care will gettreatment only when their disease is moreadvanced. As a result their care will cost moreand the outcomes are likely to be much worse.Preventative care, made more accessible, canfunction the same way, reducing the costsfurther. [1] In addition, a single-payer systemreduces the administrative costs. A different wayof charging for the care, not by individualservices but by outcomes, as proposed byObama’s bill, also changes incentives from asmany tests and procedures as possible to asmany patients treated and healed as possible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While the idea that better access to preventativemedicine will quickly and drastically lowergeneral medical care costs is an incrediblenotion, it sadly is just that – a notion. As anaside, the same argument – lowered costs –could be made for simply improving the existingtactics of preventative medicine without the needto invest into universal coverage. Returning tothis proposition though, while it might berealistic to expect some reduction in costs fromimproved prevention, those would very unlikelyever amount to a significant amount – andcertainly not an amount that would makeintroducing universal health coverage a feasiblestrategy. [1] Universal health care will causepeople to use the health care system more. Ifthey are covered, they will go to the doctor whenthey do not really need to, and will becomeheavy users of the system. We can see in othercountries that this heavier use leads to delays intreatment and constant demands for moreresources. As a result care is rationed and taxes", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There are several reasons why health careshould not be considered a universal humanright. The first issue is one of definition – howdo we define the services that need to berendered in order for them to qualify asadequate health care? Where do we draw theline? Emergency surgery, sure, but how aboutcosmetic surgery? The second is that all humanrights have a clear addressee, an entity thatneeds to protect this right. But who is targetedhere? The government? What if we opt for aprivate yet universal health coverage – is thisany less moral? Let’s forget the institutions for asecond, should this moral duty of health care fallsolely on the doctors perhaps? [1] In essence,viewing health care as a right robs us of another,much more essential one – that of the right toone’s own life and one’s livelihood. If it is notconsidered a service to be rendered, than howcould a doctor charge for it? She couldn’t! If itwere a right, than each of us would own it, itwould have to be inseparable from us. Yet, we", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Health care programmes currently do not offerequality of care The United States as a wholespends 14% of GDP (total income) on healthcare. This includes the amount spent by thefederal government, state governments,employers and private citizens. Many studieshave found that a single-payer system would cutcosts enough to allow everyone in the USA tohave access to good health care without thenation as a whole spending more than it does atthe moment. Medicare, a government-run healthcare program, has administrative costs of lessthan 2% of its total budget. The current systemof health maintenance organisations (HMOs) hasdestroyed the doctor-patient relationship andremoved patients’ ability to choose betweenhealth care providers. Patients find that theirdoctors are not on their new plan and are forcedto leave doctors with whom they haveestablished a trusting relationship. Also, patientsmust get approval to see specialists and then areallowed to see only selected doctors. Doctors", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Healthcare has been recognised as a right Thetwo crucial dimensions of the topic of introducinguniversal health care are morality and theaffordability. Paragraph 1 of Article 25 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights states thefollowing: “Everyone has the right to a standardof living adequate for the health and well-beingof himself and of his family, including food,clothing, housing and medical care andnecessary social services, and the right tosecurity in the event of unemployment, sickness,disability, widowhood, old age or other lack oflivelihood in circumstances beyond his control.”[1] Analyzing the text, we see that medicalcare, in so far, as it provides adequate healthand well-being is considered a human right bythe international community. In addition, it alsostates, that this right extends also to periods ofunemployment, sickness, disability, and soforth. Despite this, why should we considerhealth care a human right? Because health is anessential prerequisite for a functional individual –", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Profits do drive innovation. But there is nothingout there that would make us believes that theprofits stemming from the health care industryare going to taper off or even decrease in auniversal coverage system. In short in asingle-payer system, it’s just the governmentthat’ll be picking up the tab and not the privatecompanies. But the money will still be there. Anexpert on the issue from the Brigham andWomen’s Hospital opined that this lack ofinnovation crops up every time there is talk of ahealth care reform, usually from thepharmaceutical industry, and usually for reasonscompletely unrelated to the policy proposed.[1] Whereas the opposition fears new researchinto efficiency of medical practice andprocedures, we, on the other hand, feel that’sexactly what the doctor ordered – and doctors dotoo. [2] [1] Klein, E., Will Health-Care ReformSave Medical Innovation?, published 8/3/2009, ,accessed 9/18/2011 [2] Brown, D.,‘Comparative effectiveness research’ tackles", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It is not, in fact, universal health care itself,that’s inefficient, but specific adaptations of it.Often, even those shortcomings are so blown outof proportion that it’s very difficult to get thewhole story. Universal health care can come inmany shapes and sizes, meant to fit all kinds ofcountries and societies. When judging them it’soften useful to turn to those societies forcritiques of their coverage systems. Despite thehorror stories about the British NHS, it costs60% less per person than the current US system.Despite the haunting depictions of decades longwaiting lists, Canadians with chronic conditionsare much more satisfied with the treatmentreceived than their US counterparts. [1] Weshould not let hysterical reporting to divert usfrom the truth – universal health care makes alot of economic, and, more importantly, moralsense. [1] Krugman, P., The Swiss Menace,published 8/16/2009, , accessed 9/18/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Universal healthcare is not affordable No policyis created, debated or implemented in a vacuum.The backdrop of implementing universal healthcoverage now is, unfortunately, the greatesteconomic downturn of the last 80 years.Although the National Bureau of EconomicResearch declared the recession to be over, weare not out of the woods yet. [1] Is it really thetime to be considering a costly investment? Withestimates that the cost of this investment mightreach 1.5 trillion dollars in the next decade, theanswer is a resounding no. Even the Center onBudget and Policy Priorities – a left leaning thinktank – opined that the Congress could not comeup with the necessary funding to go ahead withthe health reform without introducing some veryunpopular policies. [2] Does this mean universalhealth care should be introduced at one time inthe future? Not likely. Given that there are norealistic policies in place to substantially reducethe “riot inducing” US public debt [3] and thetrend of always increasing health care costs [4]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Universal healthcare stifles innovation Profitsdrive innovation. That’s the long and short of it.Medical care is not exception, albeit the situationis a bit more complicated in this case. The US’scurrent system has a marketplace of differentprivate insurers capable of making individual andoften different decisions on how and whichprocedures they’ll choose to cover. Theirdecisions are something that helps shape anddrive new and different practices in hospitals. Asimple example is one of virtual colonoscopies.Without getting into the nitty gritty, they oftenrequire follow up procedures, yet are verypopular with patients. Some insurers value thefirst, some the other, but none have the powerto force the health care providers to choose oneor the other. They’re free to decide forthemselves, innovate with guidelines, even newprocedures. Those are then communicated backto insurers, influencing them in turn andcompleting the cycle. What introducing asingle-payer universal health coverage would do", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Universal healthcare systems are inefficient Oneof the countries lauded for its universal healthcare is France. So what has the introduction ofuniversal coverage brought the French? Costsand waiting lists. France’s system ofsingle-payer health coverage goes like this: thetaxpayers fund a state insurer called AssuranceMaladie, so that even patients who cannot affordtreatment can get it. Now although, at facevalue, France spends less on healthcare andachieves better public health metrics (such asinfant mortality), it has a big problem. The stateinsurer has been deep in debt since 1989, whichhas now reached 15 billion euros. [1] Anothermajor problem with universal health careefficiency is waiting lists. In 2006 in Britain it wasreported that almost a million Britons werewaiting for admission to hospitals for procedures.In Sweden the lists for heart surgery are 25weeks long and hip replacements take a year.Very telling is a ruling by the Canadian SupremeCourt, another champion of universal health", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-fhhphwisu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "We need to analyze this issue from a couple ofdifferent perspectives. The first is this trillion perdecade cost. Is this truly a cost to the Americaneconomy? We think not, since this money willsimply flow back into the economy, back into thehands of health care providers, insurancecompanies, etc. – back into the hands oftaxpayers. So in this sense it is very muchaffordable. But is this a productive enterprise?For the millions of people that at this verymoment have absolutely no insurance andtherefore very limited access to health care, theanswer is very clear. In addition, the reform willmore or less pay for itself, not in a year, noteven a decade – but as it stands now, it’s beendesigned to have a net worth of zero. [1] Lastly,just because we live in a bad economic climatedoesn’t mean we can simply abandon all sense ofmoral obligation. There are people sufferingbecause of the current situation. No cost canoffset that. [1] Johnson, S., Kwak, J., Can WeAfford Health Care Reform? We Can't Afford Not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwilfepe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "People will only make better choices regardingtheir food only if people actually read thelabels. A survey of Irish consumers found thatreading labels is rare. In fact, 61% of men and40% of women never read the labels on foodbefore they make the purchase. [1] In addition,when labels are actually read, they seem to workonly in more affluent parts of the society and sothis is only going to have any effect in tacklingobesity in one segment of society. [2] [1] Hills,S., Half of all consumers ignore food labels,published 2/24/2009, , accessed 9/17/2011 [2]Kersh, R., Obesity & the New Politics ofHealth Policy, published in February 2009, ,accessed 9/17/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwilfepe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Food labeling helps people make better choicesregarding their food Given that there is a globaltrend of increasing numbers of overweight andobese people, [1] food that is fattening andtherefore contributes to this problem needs to beclearly labeled so people can avoidthem. Research shows that having thisnutritional information helps people make betterchoices. Up to 30% of consumers reconsiderbuying a food item after reading the food labeland finding out what’s inside [2] . Another studypoints out that there were “significant differencesin mean nutrient intake of total calories, total fat,saturated fat, cholesterol, sodium, dietary fiber,and sugars” when people could go ahead and usethe information about the food they wereconsidering buying. [3] It is therefore clear thatmaking more information about food available,especially in the form of readily available foodlabels, helps people make choices that will helpthe fight against obesity. [1] Elseth, M., Obesitynumbers rise in 28 states, published", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwilfepe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "For every company that actually makes an effortto create a program of healthy products, thereten that use labels to promote a “functional food”gimmick. More and more products are beinglabeled with the “health food” and “functionalfood” labels. One strong example of that is the“contains added vitamins and minerals” label inthe U.S., with foods being fortified with vitamins– so seemingly improved for the better. Yet theU.S. population’s vitamin deficiencies are at anall time low. An epidemiologist at the Universityof Pennsylvania also notes that thesefortifications and the labels that come with themare mostly a tactic used to distract consumersfrom actual nutritional problems – those ofexcess. [1] [1] Narayan, A., Figuring Out FoodLabels, published 5/2/2010, , accessed9/17/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwilfepe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Food labeling is an important form of consumerprotection It is a basic right for us as consumersto know what it is we eat. Today more and morefoods that we buy are processed [1] , theyinclude many harmful additives, causingconditions such as hyperactivity in children [2] ,or are advertised as health food, but are inreality loaded with sugar or salt [3] . It istherefore necessary for consumers to be madeaware of all their food contains in order to makesafe and healthy choices for themselves andtheir families. [1] Parvez, S., Processed foodexports rise 41pc, published 3/26/2009, ,accessed 9/15/2011 [2] Rosenthal, E., SomeFood Additives Raise Hyperactivity, Study Finds,published 9/6/2007, , accessed 9/15/2011 [3]Smellie, A., That 'healthy' bowl of granola hasmore sugar than coke... and more fat than fries:Busting the diet food myths, published5/21/2011, , accessed 9/15/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwilfepe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Food labeling rarely helps consumers find outwhat exactly it is they are eating, because of theconvoluted names companies use to describeingredients. Forcing companies to label fooddoes not mean they will actually make thoselabels easy to understand and useful. Even whenit comes to things as important as commonallergens in food, it is very difficult to understandwhether it is included or not. [1] [1] WebsterFamily Wellness Center, Confusing terms makefood labels difficult to understand, published5/7/2011, , accessed 9/17/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwilfepe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Food labeling encourages food companies toprovide food more in tune with consumervalues Innovation is inevitable. That holds truefor food industry as much as any other industry– and the food companies want to share theirprogress with the consumer to benefit from it.With the impact food labeling has on consumerchoices, companies turned the issue on its head,producing food that is more in tune with whatthe people want and using labels to tell us aboutit. An example is PepsiCo’s “Smart Spot”program that is intended to help consumersidentify healthier products – products thecompany developed as a consequence ofconsumer pressure for healthier drinks thatcontain less sugar. What is more, the strategyproved very profitable for the company, with thesmart spot products sales increasing 13 percentor three times as fast as the rest of the business.[1] We see that companies were able to adaptto the pressure labeling created with excellentproducts, in tune with consumer values, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwilfepe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Although we agree that it is the role ofgovernment to ensure a fair marketplace, we donot agree that the case described should beincluded in this definition. What we see is simplyconsumers reacting in accordance to their values– and currently the public opinion is quiteopposed to the introduction of GMOs into theirdiets (71% in EU). [1] So it is only natural thatproducts that include them are valued less. Italso goes to show that these products should belabeled, so that consumers can make informeddecisions in accordance to what they believe –something much more important in this casethan a company’s profits. [1] Bonny, S., Whyare most Europeans opposed to GMOs? Factorsexplaining rejection in France and Europe,published 4/15/2008, , accessed 9/17/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwilfepe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There are two things we need to respond with inthis case. One regarding the current state oflabels and the other the strategy of fightingobesity. It is a fact that the current label designsleave something to be desired. If currently only acertain (but not at all negligible) percentage goahead and actually read the labels that does notmean that labels are inherently ineffective. Itmight just as well, if not more likely, mean thatthe current design of labels is simply notattractive and useful enough for people to payattention to. Therefore efforts are being made torevamp the food label to improve itseffectiveness. [1] As to the second, food labelsare but a weapon in our arsenal against fightingobesity. It might be that on their own they willnot defeat the epidemic, but they certainly play akey part of the overall strategy. [2] [1]Associated Press, New food nutrition labels fromFDA coming, published 9/3/2011, , accessed9/17/2011 [2] Benassi, M., The launch of adynamic process, published in May 2006, ,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwilfepe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Food labeling allows companies to deceiveconsumers What we have seen with introducingvisually impressive food labels is that companiesstarted adopting similar visual elements topromote their products in a dishonest way. Let’stake for instance Dannon’s Activia, which wasmarketed as health food (with very convincingpackaging that went with that strategy). Thelabels claimed that the product helped improvedigestion by hastening it. Yet the FTC (FederalTrade Commission) found this claim to befalse. On a similar note, Kellogg’s Rice Krispiesfeatured packaging purporting that the productboosted immunity. Again, the regulator foundthis untrue. [1] We see that the companies, soin essence telling consumers to trust informationon the packaging, can easily misuselabeling. [1] Singer, N., Foods With Benefits, orSo They Say, published 5/14/2011, , accessed9/15/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwilfepe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Food labeling introduces unfair prejudice againstcertain products Requiring companies to labeltheir products a certain way might unfairlyinfluence the sales of this product. Let usobserve this point on the example of GMOs infood. For instance, a study investigated theinfluence of labeling a cornflakes product withdifferent variations on the theme of containingGMOs. The packaging might say that the productcontained \"USDA approved genetically modifiedcorn\" or \"may contain genetically modified corn\",basically stating the same thing. Yet the firstproduct was evaluated much more favorablythan the second, with a 6% price perceptiondifference. [1] Considering that GMOs areconsidered safe by the health authorities, [2] itwould be unfair to prejudice against theseproducts by specifically targeting them, whenthey pose no risk to health. [1] Onyango, B. M.,et al., U.S. Consumers' Willingness to Pay forFood Labeled 'Genetically Modified', published inOctober 2006, , accessed 9/15/2011 [2] WHO,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwilfepe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Food labeling does not change consumerbehavior Food labels may include useful dietaryinformation, but they will not significantly impactactual consumption for two reasons. The first isthat people don’t really read or use the labels. Astudy at WSU shows that only 41% of menactually read the labels. The women did better,but still only 59% of them actually read thelabels – which does not mean they actuallyunderstood or heeded the advice on them.[1] The second reason concerns the connectionbetween actually getting the information andacting on it. Research on posting calories onrestaurant menus shows that customers actuallyordered slightly more calories compared tobefore the information was made available.[2] Thus we see that food labels are not enoughto nudge customers towards better and healthierfood choices. [1] Warman, S., Reading foodlabels can help battle obesity, published9/16/2010, , accessed 9/15/2011 [2]Hartocollis, A., Calorie Postings Don’t Change", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgwhwilfepe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "These examples do not really demonstrate thatfood labels do not work or are deceptive butrather that consumers should be educated betterabout how to actually read and recognize them –something the consumers themselves want, afact known now for decades. [1] On the otherhand, stricter regulations on packagingadvertising are being called for as well, attackingthe problem from another perspective. [2] Wecontend that better educated consumers on theone and better regulations on the other willuproot this problem at hand. In addition, thisjust goes to show that food labels are anythingbut ineffective – they just need to be known andregulated better. [1] Hackleman, E. C., Foodlabel information: what consumers say they wantand what they need, published in 1981, ,accessed 9/17/2011 [2] Neuman W., U.S. SeeksNew Limits on Food Ads for Children, published4/28/2011, , accessed 9/17/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is difficult to assess the true harm caused bycannabis. There are limits to the scope forinformation on its effects because of its illegalnature1. However, it is widely acknowledged thatthere are links between cannabis use and mentaland physical health problems2. It is also widelyacknowledged that excessive cannabis use canharm relationships and prevent people fromacting as functional members of society.Cannabis is generally smoked with tobacco andcannabis users are more likely to drink alcohol.Regardless of whether cannabis itself is worse foryou than tobacco or alcohol, it is still bad for youand therefore it should remain illegal. Thereason alcohol and tobacco are legal is notrelated to their effect on our health. They(alcohol and tobacco) are legal as they haveexisted in this country since long before lawswere passed in relation to health and were farmore popular than cannabis so it would havebeen much harder to ban them. Cannabis isillegal not because it supposedley is worse but", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Alcohol and tobacco are more harmful drugs, yetremain legal. Although cannabis can have someharmful effects, it is not nearly as harmful astobacco or alcohol. Research by the BritishMedical Association shows that nicotine is moreaddictive. In England and Wales, cannabis wassaid to have helped cause 17 deaths, comparedto 6627 for alcohol and 86,500 for tobacco1. Astudy, published by The Lancet, that scoresdrugs out of 100 for the harm they cause theuser and others, gave alcohol 72, tobacco 27 andcannabis 202. Given that tobacco and alcoholare more likely to harm the user and otherpeople, it seems ludicrous that they should belegal and cannabis should not be. Thelegalization of cannabis would remove ananomaly from the law. 1 TDPF. (n.d.). DrugRelated Deaths. Retrieved July 20, 2011, fromTransform Drug Policy Foundation: 2 TheEconomist. (2010, November 2). Scoring Drugs.Retrieved July 20, 2011, from The Economist:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Legalizing cannabis would not stop the criminalswho currently sell it from continuing to commitcrimes. They could simply diversify theiractivities. Many of them would already be dealingother drugs or involved in other criminalactivities. The legalization of cannabis couldsimply give them a legitimate base from whichthey may operate. In order to end the \"war ondrugs\" and the problems of violence associatedwith it, all drugs would have to be legalized.While some debate the harmful effects whichcannabis may have, few argue that drugs likeheroin and crack cocaine do not present aserious threat to people. To sell these kinds ofdrugs legally would be irresponsible and wouldruin lives, families and communities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "People should be allowed to do whatever theywant to their own bodies It is important that wehave the liberty to do what we want to our ownbodies. People are allowed to eat or drink to theirdetriment. In many countries it is legal to takeone's life. Why then, should people not beallowed to harm themselves through cannabisuse? (Assuming that cannabis use is harmful. Inmost cases, this is highly debatable.) Smokingcannabis may have effects on others, such asthrough the effects of passive smoking.However, regulation has been brought in tominimize the effects on others for alcohol andcigarettes, such as bans on smoking in publicplaces, and the same thing could be done forcannabis.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While individual liberty is an important good,there are cases in which a Government can bejustified in behaving in a paternalistic manner,even to prevent individuals harming themselves.Few people debate the law that you must wear aseatbelt in cars, for example. Moreover,cannabis can harm others and many of the waysin which it does so would not be possible tocounter with regulation. In the words ofphilosopher George Sher, \"Drug use harmsstrangers by involving them in the collisions,shootouts and other catastrophes to which theimpaired and overly aggressive drug users areprone. It harms family members by deprivingthem of the companionship and income of theiraddicted partners. It harms fetuses by exposingthem to a toxic and permanently damagingprenatural environment. It harms children bysubjecting them to the abuse of theirdrug-addled parents\"1. 1 Wolff, J. (n.d.).Regulation of Recreational Drugs. Retrieved July20, 2011, from University College London:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Cannabis does not open the mind. Rather, itharms it. Many researchers have concluded thatcannabis impairs short-term memory, cognitionand motivation. It has also proven to be highlyaddictive for some users and has damagedpeople's mental capabilities and abilities tofunction in society1. 2 Mabry, C. D. (2001,October). Physicians and the war on drugs: thecase against legalization. Retrieved July 20,2011, from Qualified Surgeons:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "If cannabis was legalized, it could beregulated Many of the problems associated withcannabis use arise from the fact that it is illegal.Cannabis is the world’s most widely used illegaldrug – 23% of Canadians admit to havingsmoked it and up to 7 million people in the UKare estimated to do so. In 2009, the UNestimated that the market for illegal drugs wasworth $320 billion. This market is run bycriminals and is often blighted by violence. It hascost thousands of innocent lives, particularly insupplier countries such as Mexico andAfghanistan 1. In the US, Milton Friedmanestimated that 10,000 people die every year as aresult of drug dealers fighting over territory 2.Many of the victims are innocent people, caughtin crossfire. By legalizing cannabis, the size ofthis market for illegal drugs would besignificantly reduced and so, effectively, wouldthe number of crimes and unnecessary deathsthat come with it. Another way of seeing theproblems of prohibition is to look at the failed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Cannabis opens the mind in a positive andbeneficial manner Cannabis use can alter one'sperception of reality or consciousness. Thealteration need not be thought of as spiritual orreligious to be respected for what it is; a freshlook on a reality that we are programmed ashumans to perceive only in a particular manner.Cannabis can help humans perceive thatcomplex reality from simply a differentperspective, which can benefit our appreciationfor that reality and our unique and limitedperceptions of it. With this more intelligentapproach to cannabis consumption, it is easy toargue that mental, perceptual, and societalbenefits exist1. 1 Harris, S. (2011, July 6). Drugsand the Meaning of Life. Retrieved July 20, 2011,from Huffington Post:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con03b", "title": "", "text": "First, it is not necessarily a bad thing forcannabis use to increase. Countries with thehighest usage rates include some of the mostprosperous in the world – Canada, Australia andNew Zealand for example. Secondly, even ifincreased cannabis use is a bad thing, there islittle evidence to prove usage would necessarilygo up if cannabis were legalized. Usage mayhave risen slightly in the Netherlands butcannabis was depenalized in 1976 and usagerates remain lower than in the US today.Moreover, there are other reasons why usagerose. According to Dirk Korf of the Institute ofCriminology at the University of Amsterdam,\"There is no appreciable causal connectionbetween the Dutch decriminalization of cannabisand the rate at which cannabis use has evolved\"1.Portugal decriminalized drug use in 2001 and,a decade later, drug usage and drug relatedcrime rates have fallen and cannabis use remainsbelow the European average2 . 1. Griffin,2011, 2. Hari, 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is little evidence of cannabis being agateway drug. In fact, there is a highercorrelation between cigarette smoking and harddrugs. If anything, the only way in whichcannabis could be said to be a gateway drug isthat it is illegal and people may be inclined tobuy other illegal drugs after they have boughtcannabis, particularly as some dealers will sellother drugs. This problem, however, would beimmediately eradicated if cannabis werelegalized. Furthermore, the people who refercannabis as a \"gateway drug\" don't take intoconsideration the prerequisites and situationspeople are in prior to ones marijuana use. Thepeople who use it as an additive to relaxationoccasionally and are in a relaxed environment,maybe with a few friends over to hang out aren’tusing it as an escape from reality but at anadditive to their relaxation and fun. Whencannabis is referred to as a “gateway drug”people are generally and unknowingly referringto the people who use marijuana as an escape", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Uncertainty over the effects of cannabis means itis best to be prudent The debate over theeffects of cannabis is based largely uponconflicting evidence. For example, some argue itcan cause psychosis while others argue it onlyhas positive effects on the mind. The effect ofany illegal drug is a very difficult area to study 1.Most drug users use more than one drug andresearchers are often limited to studying thosewho admit themselves into clinics with a crisis –something of a skewed sample. Given thatGovernments cannot accurately predict what theeffects of legalizing cannabis would be, it isprudent to maintain illegality. What if, forexample, a state decided to legalize cannabis, toonly discover five years later that it has adramatically more negative impact on humancognition than previously thought, or that itsubstantially increased the risks ofpsychosis? 1.Wolff, 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Cannabis is harmful Studies have shown thatcannabis may cause a number of physical andmental problems. It can cause respiratoryproblems, increase one's heart rate and lowerone's sperm count. Cannabis use is alsoassociated with causing or worsening someforms of psychosis. It has also been found toincrease tiredness, depression and paranoia,impair short-term memory and hormoneproduction and cause general cognitive decline1.As for cannabis' medicinal qualities, safer, moreeffective drugs are available. They include asynthetic version of THC, cannabis' primaryactive ingredient, which is marketed in theUnited States under the name Marinol. 1 Frank.(n.d.). Cannabis. Retrieved July 20, 2011, fromTalk to Frank:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con03a", "title": "", "text": "More people will use cannabis if legalized Ifcannabis is legalized, it will become sociallyacceptable and more people will smoke it. It willalso become more readily available. In theNetherlands, cannabis usage went up after it waslegalized1. With more people smoking, morepeople will experience the adverse physical andmental health effects - more people will beharmed. Furthermore, as Dr. David Murray hasnoted, 'marijuana use is the leading cause oftreatment need for those abusing or dependenton illegal drugs'2; therefore not only will morepeople use cannabis, more of them will beaddicted. 1 Mackenzie, D. (1998, February 21).New Scientists Marijuana Special Report.Retrieved July 20, 2011, from UKCIA: 2 Dubner,Stephen J., 'On the Legalization - or not - ofMarijuana', Freakonomics, 30 October 2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Cannabis is a gateway drug People who usecannabis will be more likely to move on to harderdrugs. While the bad effects of cannabis may bedisputed, the harmful effects of hard drugscannot – they seriously damage people’s health.A major study in 2011 found that ‘smokingcannabis daily sets users up for a lifetime ofmultiple drug use’ 1. Heavy users are more likelyto resort to crime to fund their addiction. Theirhabit often harms their relationships with friends,colleagues and family. State money then has tobe spent on benefits, on policing, and onrehabilitation programs. 1. Griffin, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con04b", "title": "", "text": "While there are studies that argue that cannabisis harmful, there is no substantial proof of manyof the harmful effects it is accused of having.Indeed, there are many studies that claim it doesnot have these harmful effects. For example, a15-year John Hopkins University study publishedin May 1999 found \"no significant differences incognitive decline between heavy users, lightusers, and non-users of cannabis.\"1 It is alsoclaimed by many researchers that while cannabishas some potentially harmful effects, it is far lessharmful then tobacco and alcohol2. Cannabis isalso known to have medicinal qualities, such asin relieving pain for MS sufferers. In California,for example, it is possible to obtain a \"medicalmarijuana\" card. 1 2 The Economist. (2010,November 2). Scoring Drugs. Retrieved July 20,2011, from The Economist:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahgshbcsbl-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Legalization of cannabis would make it easier forscientific studies to take place, thereby providinga more accurate picture of the physical,psychological, spiritual and sociological effects ofthe drug. Just as the lift of the taboo ondiscussions of a sexual nature in schools aroundthe world has resulted in people being moreinformed as to the dangers of unprotected sex,so would the increased availability and accuracyof scientific data on cannabis serve to reduce theratio of abuse to responsible use.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mthwhwbpd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Surely the fact that what is healthy is alsoconsidered sexy should be embraced. Anymotivation to lose a few pounds in a countrywhere more than a quarter of people are obese[1] is surely a good thing for public health. Propbemoans that diet advertising is targeted at theyoung and yet this is the group that policymakers routinely target with legislation toencourage healthy living and an early acceptanceof the need for good health. [1] JeremyLaurance, ‘Britain is the fattest nation in Europe’,The Independent, 17 November 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mthwhwbpd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Selling to the vulnerable Diets arepredominantly targeted at those who feeldesperate. It has nothing to do with medicalneed, a constant round of being told that there isonly one way to look attractive inevitablyencourages people to adopt a mindset that 'thin'equals 'attractive'. This has nothing to do with amedical need nor do diets represent a medicalsolution; at least not in the meaning of 'diet' atthe focus of this debate. The pressure onpeople, especially young people, to conform to acertain stereotype of physical perfection isastonishing and comes from many sources –music, magazines and the celebrity cultureendemic in the media. It is notable that there isa well studied correlation between mass mediaconsumption and eating disorders and fears ofpoor body image. [1] Diet programmes sell thedream that as long as you look like a given idealyou will come to be like them. This is nearlyalways untrue. [2] However, it is particularlyattractive to those who are most susceptible to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mthwhwbpd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There is no doubt that weight is not purely amedical issue but that a positive appearancehelps self-confidence and opens lifestyleopportunities. Different people approach losing afew pounds in different ways, some have thetime for the meticulous dietary exercise andtraining regime Prop is suggesting but mostdon't. Promotion of other option is simplymeeting that need.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mthwhwbpd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Medical concerns Dieting is a medical choice andshould be treated as such; advertising theavailable options rather than discussing this witha doctor means that people do not have all of theavailable information and cannot make theirdecision in a safe environment. In comparableareas such as giving up smoking, controllingdrinking, making decisions about exercise,knowledge about inoculations before travel andso forth, we prize medical expertise. The dietindustry in the UK is worth £2bn [1] (it's $61bnin the US) and is marked out by allowing thesame people to tell us that we are sick in the firstplace and then tell us the cure and then do it allagain when the solution didn't work. Generallyaccepted medical opinion is that this is a slowprocess with miracle cures both unlikely to workin the first place and, where they do, moreunlikely to last. In some cases the dieting mayeven threaten health. For example Frenchdoctors have criticised the Dukan diet, Dr BorisHansel for example says \"There are real risks …", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mthwhwbpd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "People often wish to change their appearance forcosmetic rather than medical reasons. As withother cosmetic changes, from a new wardrobe tosurgery, this can be expensive, and may evenhave some risks, but it is accepted because weknow that it makes people feel better. It's alifestyle choice and is no more the business ofgovernment than choosing a new jacket ordeciding to get an earring.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mthwhwbpd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Inventing the idea of fat There's a lot to be saidfor eating well and being generally healthy. It'snot just a matter of weight but the effect thatbad nutrition has in contributing to heartconditions, blood pressure, energy levels andother health indicators. [1] None of these thingsare helped by trying to drop three stone in acouple of months by filling your body with onething regardless of what it needs at the time asmany of these diets do Our physical appearanceshould be an indicator of our lifestyle not anaccessory to it. The diet industry has pouredconsiderable time and effort, with help fromHolywood and the publishing industry, in topromoting the idea that thin and emaciated arethe same thing. Fad diets are, for many, lesshealthy than being a little overweight. [1] BMJ,‘Obesity – how to lose weight’, 31 October 2012,p.3,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mthwhwbpd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is an enormous difference here. Even fastfood chains themselves accept that their productshould not be eaten all day everyday.Supermarkets have taken on board healthymessages about people's five a day or low fatbrands. They've built these messages into theirwider marketing strategy. Diet ads, by contrast,do claim to be a panacea that will instantly makeyou sexy, healthy, popular and, apparentlysuccessful. They are 21st century snake oilmerchants and should simply be run out of town.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mthwhwbpd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It's simply not true to say that peopleautomatically take their adverts with a pinch ofsalt. Research in the US suggests that 1 in fiveyoung adults trust advertising to always tell thetruth and a clear majority think it does “most ofthe time” [1] , as this is exactly the group that isprimarily of concern it can't be taken for grantedthat they will use caution or undertake furtherresearch. [1] Harris poll. Young adults moretrusting of advertising. 5 November 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mthwhwbpd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Banning advertising won't work How exactly is aban on promoting diets supposed to work?Proposition isn't talking about tacklingadvertising online, presumably because it'sdifficult to do, nor is prop tackling the issue ofbooks promoting certain techniques. So this banwould have failed to catch the largest craze ofrecent years, the Atkins diet. Equally diets are amainstay of teen and women's magazines and afairly central pillar of lifestyle sections ofnewspapers. Even so called 'quality' papersendlessly talk about lifestyles issues such as howthey don't work and everyone would be better offretiring to a country manor in Shropshire forSwedish massage and a diet of organicbarley. Unless prop is talking about starting toban books or shut down entire sections (andprofitable sections at that) of publishingcompanies then it is difficult to see how thismeasure will have any real affect.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mthwhwbpd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Countercase; Tackling food advertising If theProposition is so keen to tackle obesity thenregulating then it should tackle food advertisingrather than the advertising of diets. [1] Banningthe promotion of dieting ads while people aresitting in front of the TV munching on the takeaway food or complaining that the remote is 'allthe way' on the other side of the room, smacksof shutting the stable door after the horse hasbolted. Diets are a response, one of many asProp is keen to point out, to a serious problemthat only government can begin toaddress. From before we are old enough to walkmost people in the developed world are hookedon a fat-, sugar- and salt-rich diet. [2] Goingafter dieting ads is simply an effort bygovernments to be seen as doing something in away that has little electoral impact. People willstill use diets because of the gaps, such as theweb, already mentioned however it doesn'trequire government to say anything as risky as“You're fat because you eat rubbish and don't", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mthwhwbpd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It's my body and I'll starve if I want to The mainproblem facing Prop's entire case is that this issimply none of the government's business. Whatpeople eat or don't eat is a private matter andthe intervention of the nanny state would haveus all on a diet of compulsory cabbage and nutroast. People can be grown up about this, andwhere they're children, their parents can begrown up about this. The entire health andeducation system already exists to tell us to eatour greens and cycle to work; for those peoplewho chose not to do so, they have a range ofdiet option and advertising tell them what thoseoptions are. The government regularly runshealthy eating advertising campaigns, and theyoften focus on obesity such as the Change4Lifecampaign, so there is plenty of opportunity toget the other side across. [1] It's free speech,it's a free choice for the consumer, it's called themarket. Prop seems to think that consumers areidiots, nobody believes that a diet for a couple ofweeks will make them look like a super model", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-mthwhwbpd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that it is difficult to do everything is noreason not to do something. At the very leastarticles and books have to go through aneditorial process and are open to challenge byother articles and books. That's not true forbought space. In the same way that we regulatethe claims that can be made about cars,gambling websites and dating agencies toprotect consumers without banning discussion oftransport, money or love, advertising andjournalism are treated differently.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Human beings are naturally inclined towardsviolence and conflict. Sex and violence are primalparts of our genetic make-up and we do not needalcohol to bring them to the surface. A studyconducted by the University of Osnabrück(Germany) explains that individuals who are thecause of domestic violence usually have verylittle or no capacity for empathy from the earlystages of their development. It states, that thedomestic violence is deeply rooted in theirpsychology. Thus, nothing to do with alcohol asthe cause of third party harm. [1] Alcohol, atworst, may slightly exaggerate these tendencies- but that makes it the occasion not theunderlying cause of violent crimes. Theunderlying causes are biological and social andabuse would happen anyway, even withoutalcohol. [2] Making rape and murder illegal doesnot eradicate rape and murder, so it is unlikelythat making drinking alcohol illegal will do soeither. [1] European Council of Europen -Human Rights, Explaining the inclination to use", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Banning alcohol protects third parties (familymembers) from harm. Alcohol is a contributoryfactor to a huge proportion of disputes anddistress in society. It also contributes to thepsychological problems of the alcohol consumerchildren. While the problem might not beconnected to one individual in society, it isimportant that laws protect those, who mightabuse their rights and with this hurtothers. Currently in the US alone, there is anestimated 6.6 million children under 18, whichlive in households with at least one alcoholicparent. [1] It was never the fault of thesechildren that others started to drink and harmthem. According to psychological studies many ofthe children coming from alcohol abuse familieshave problems such as low self-esteem,loneliness, guilt, feelings of helplessness, fears ofabandonment, and chronic depression. Childrenof alcoholics in some cases even feel responsiblefor the problems of the alcoholic and may thinkthey created the problem. [2] Alcohol is also a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "First of all alcohol abuse (excessive amounts ofalcohol) contribute only to a small percentage ofall alcohol use in society. Even in Germany,where prices of beer are very low in comparisonto other beverages, the data shows, that only1.7 million (in a country of more than 80 million)use alcohol in a harmful way. [1] So why forcepeople to give up something, just because aminority is not sure how to use it. Further on,even if it was a concerning amount of peoplewhose health is impacted by alcohol abuse,campaigns and information have very effectivelyreduced the death rate for cirrhosis. During a22-year period, death from cirrhosis: dropped29.8% among black men, 15.3% among whitemen, 47.9% among black women and 33.3%among white women [2] [1] Ryan R., The Highsand Lows of Germany's Drinking Culture,published 11/18/2006, , accessed08/18/2011 [2] Hanson D., Alcohol – Problemsand Solutions, State University of New York, ,accessed 08/18/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Governments have the obligation to protectcitizens from harmful substances Alcohol is amind altering drug, which can cause individualsto take actions they would have not doneotherwise. This does not refer to loosenedinhibitions, but also extends to harmful actsagainst themselves and others. Democracy isbased on the principle that the majority of peopleare to elect leaders and trust them with a term,where their duty is solely to look after thewellbeing of the country and its citizens. Thepoliticians, having the resources and time whichthey have to use, to get well equipped to makemore informed decision on activities dangerousto the individual, others and the society. One ofthe principles in society therefore is that electedrepresentatives have to make sure their citizensget the best possible protection in society. Evenif this infringes on some of their rights. Alcoholfor a long time has been kept because thegovernment trusted the people; they wouldmake responsible decisions regarding alcohol.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Individuals are sovereign over their own bodies,and should be free to make choices which affectthem and no other individual. Since the pleasuregained from alcohol and the extent to which thisweighs against potential risks is fundamentallysubjective, it is not up to the state to legislate inthis area. Rather than pouring wasted resourcesinto attempting to suppress alcohol use, thestate would be better off running informationcampaigns to educate people about the risks andconsequences of alcohol abuse.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Banning alcohol would lead to healthierindividuals. A ban of alcohol would have a greatimpact on the health of every individual. Alcoholand especially alcohol abuse are very commonproblems in today’s society. Long lasting abuseof substances leads to many chronic diseasessuch as liver cirrhosis (damage to liver cells);pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas);various cancers, including liver, mouth, throat,larynx (the voice box), and esophagus; highblood pressure; and psychological disorders.[1] With a ban of alcohol we would very muchlower the rates of consumption, as alreadycurrent drug laws show. Even though drugs havea similar effect as alcohol, because of the risk ofconsequences when using thosesubstances. Therefore in general the number ofalcohol addiction would sink and cause also lessof a financial health burden. According to the USalone, the economic cost of alcohol abuse in1998 was 184.6 billion dollars. [2] This is aburden which many state budgets have to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Laws change attitudes. Many times laws are thefirst step towards more approval of a certain newsocietal value and even lead the step to a quickermentality change. This was seen with thelegalizing of gay marriages in many countries,among them also in some states in the US. In2010 the approval among US citizens reachedmore than half of the population, which is adrastic improve from the past. [1] In thebeginning there was very little approval of thepolicy and same-sex marriages in general, anopen discussion about the law, the first actualpractical implications of the law andconsequences have over time gained moreacceptances in most Western countries towardsgay marriage. The same principle will apply toan alcohol ban. While in the beginning there willprobably be a lot of protest, there will probablyalso be a change of mentality later on. [1]Gallup, Americans acceptance of gay relationscrosses 50 % , accessed 08/13/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The state is obligated, when the health ofcitizens is on the line, to pass laws andregulations that protect them. The precedent hasalready been established in most countries withmost forms of drugs. Citizens’ rights in this caseare not a right to have drugs, but a right to beprotected from the harmful effects of thesubstances, not merely on their own bodies butsociety as a whole. Governments would bederelict in their duty if they did not act to removesuch harmful substances from society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Prohibition would be impractical and serve onlyto create an enormous black market Incomparison to any other drug, alcohol is veryeasy to produce (hence the great amount ofvineyards) and very much engraved in theculture of especially Europeancountries. Therefore a ban would be veryineffective, as the people would do it due to theease of producing alcohol and the culturalacceptance. A ban would bring just morederegulation and loss of taxes through the blackmarket. We might acknowledge that the legalimplications will scare away some people fromdrinking alcohol, but the main part of populationwill want more. Because there is a stronginelastic demand and the illegal supply willflourish. This can be seen already with both andillegal drugs. It is also the lesson of Prohibition inthe USA in the 1920s. Smuggled alcohol broughtin from much cheaper continental countries willundercut both pubs and law-abiding retailers,and will circumvent the normal regulations which", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Banning alcohol harms the economy. Not onlywould banning alcohol infringe people’s civilliberties to an unacceptable degree, it would alsoput thousands of people out of work. The drinksindustry is an enormous global industry. In2007, it was a $970 billion global market foralcoholic beverages, experiencing a period ofunprecedented change. While about 60 percentof the market was still in the hands of small,local enterprises, truly global players are steadilyemerging and creating an even greater market.There are not good enough reasons for wreakingthis havoc on the world economy. [1] A pointfurther on is that currently governments raiselarge amounts of revenue from taxes and dutiespayable on alcoholic drinks. To ban alcohol wouldtake away a major source of funding for publicservices. In addition, the effect of banningalcohol would call for additional policing on ahuge scale, if the prohibition were to be enforcedeffectively. If would create a new class of illegaldrug-users, traffickers, and dealers on an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Banning alcohol is a quick fix to a wider societalproblem. By banning alcohol the government issearching for a quick way out of the problem ofpeople excessively drinking, making baddecisions when under the influence ofalcohol. Alcoholism and also drunk driving is aproblem in many countries over the world. It hastaken governments for over 30 years to decreasethe number of drunk driver accidents, todecrease the number of drinkers in certainregions. This is a hard campaign battle, thegovernment has to battle. According to a recentstudy, by the American Journal of PreventiveMedicine, campaigns contribute to approximately13 % of decrease in drinking through time. Thisis a number with which many governments arenot satisfied as they are pouring a lot of moneyin the campaigns. [1] In Scotland alone, theannual expenditure for the “drink drivingcampaign was £141000. [2] Because of quitehigh expenditure on campaigns, countries maysee a ban as an easy way out of these", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The state should keep alcohol legal in order tomaximize citizens’ rights. Governments are notthere to be the mothers of citizens, but shouldallow people to freely live their lives as long asthey do not hurt others. A government mighthave the wish to build a society that is obedient,productive and without flaws. This may alsomean a society without alcohol, cigarettes, drugsor any other addictive substances. Such a societymight have its benefits in a short term, but seenlong term it has more unsatisfiedindividuals. With drinking alcohol responsibly noone is getting harmed; in many cases not eventhe individual, as it is actually beneficial for thehealth. A glass of wine per day is good fordecreasing the risk of cancer and heart disease,scientists say. [1] So if someone in society hasdecided that it is good for them for whateverreason possible to use a substance that impactsonly them, the state should not prevent themfrom doing so. This is because the society hasbeen made from the different individuals, which", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is true that currently thousands of people areemployed by the alcoholic drinks industry.However the fact that an immoral industryemploys a lot of people is never a goodargument to keep that immoral industry going(similar arguments apply to the cases ofprostitution, arms dealing, fox hunting, batteryfarming, etc.) Instead, a gradual process wouldhave to be implemented, which would includegovernments providing funding for training foralternative careers. Also it is true that taxrevenues would be lost if alcohol were banned.However, again, this is not a principled reason toreject the proposition, simply a practicalproblem. It should be pointed out thatgovernments would save a huge amount ofmoney on police and health spending (throughthe reduction in crime and alcohol-relatedillness) which would go at least some of the wayto offsetting the decreased tax revenues.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahwba-con02b", "title": "", "text": "In any single law, that prohibits substances thereis going to be the danger of a black market. InCanada, a black market for alcohol developeddespite the legal status of alcohol (it was due tohigh taxation). The Association of CanadianDistillers actually estimated that 25 % of allspirits in Ontario are consumed illegally (withoutpaying taxes). [1] The problem therefore is notgoing to lay in the ban itself, but in theenforcement of legislation and thorough controlof the markets. [1] Mackenzie Institute,Prohibition’s Hangover – Ontario’s Black Marketand Alcohol, , accessed 08/17/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Many ads don't include enough information onhow well drugs work. For example, Lunesta isadvertised by a moth floating through a bedroomwindow, above a peacefully sleeping person.Actually, Lunesta helps patients sleep 15 minutesfaster after six months of treatment and gives 37minutes more sleep per night. The Majority ofads are based on emotional appeals, but fewinclude causes of the condition, risk factors, orimportant lifestyle changes. In a study of 38pharmaceutical advertisements researchersfound that 82 percent made a factual claim and86 percent made rational arguments for productuse. Only 26 percent described condition causes,risk factors, or prevalence. [1] Thus not givingthe patients balanced information that wouldmake them aware, that taking one of the pills isnot a magic solution to their problem. Actually,according to a study conducted in the US andNew Zealand, patients requested prescriptions in12% of surveyed visits. Of these requests, 42%were for products advertised to consumers and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Patients will be better informed than under thestatus quo Advertising prescription drugsenables patients to learn, and to requestinnovation faster in order to benefit from thenew drugs that health personnel still have notgotten used to. Advertising increases consumerawareness of drugs, which makes consumersmore likely to take appropriate medication. Thedrugs market is complex and so advertising canhelp explain the differences between treatments,for example between contraceptive pills intendedto reduce period pain, period flow and thosesimply to prevent pregnancy. Advertising undercurrent rules is used to inform patients of newdrugs which may be appropriate for conditionswhich they suffer from (such as recent asthmadrugs which reduce the frequency of attacks),but which their doctor might overlook or nothave the time to crosscheck against her list ofpatients. [1] 56% of AMA general practitionersbelieved that direct-to-consumer advertising hadprompted some of their patients to seek", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This leads to patients requesting drugs they donot need and in many cases are even harmful tothem. The prescription drugs are very differentfrom freely available drugs. They often treatserious diseases, and so advertising those shouldtarget mainly people that are very ill andespecially vulnerable. On the other hand, withdirect-to-consumer advertising, many peoplewho do not have a serious disease becomeconvinced that they need the prescription drug,because the advertisements scarethem. Because of such advertisement, in theU.S. there was a rapid widespread exposure todangerous drugs before risks were fullyrecognized, as with troglitazone (Rezulin) fordiabetes and cisapride (Propulsid) for nighttimeheartburn. Causing people to become more illinstead of healthier, because this leads to ahigher “self-diagnosing”. [1] [1] HealthInformation Action, Direct-to-ConsumerPrescription Drug Advertising The EuropeanCommission’s Proposals for Legislative Change,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Advertisements for prescription drugs are notsignificantly different from any otheradvertisement Advertising serves an importantpurpose by informing the public about a specificproduct. It is also regulated from manipulation,and therefore deserves no special restrictions;these same restrictions and watchdogs would bein place if advertising of drugs were allowed tomake sure that no drug is misrepresented. Wetrust consumers to view adverts with a level ofskepticism and we know that they form only onepart of the research that goes into, say, buying acar. Drug companies have become more open inrecent years. For instance, GSK now publishesthe results of all their drug trials (including theones that fail) online and there are plenty ofother sources of information on drugs available.A drug that remains unused is a drug that ishelping nobody; adverts are simply a reasonableway for drug companies to help consumers findout about their products within a safe and highlyregulated environment [1] . When the first", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Advertising does not attempt to tell the truth,but to give a biased view of a product.Companies spend millions of dollars a year onadvertising, and would not do so if there were noreturn on this investment. While purchasing aparticular brand of cola on the basis of an advertmight not be disastrous for the consumer, usingan inappropriate drug could be. Drugscompanies have also shown their willingness toabuse their advertising rights. For instance theFDA has recently had to insist that the possibleside effects of drugs must be listed as an integralpart of TV advertisements, becauseadvertisements were being produced in whichthe list of side effects was read at too fast a paceto be understood. It is thus understandable thatin a survey soon after the 1997 regulations ondirect to consumer advertising, 80% of AmericanMedical Association (AMA) General Practitioners(GPs) thought it was not a good idea andundermined their role. [1] [1] FDA:Direct-to-Consumer Advertising of Prescription", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Actually prescription drugs are generally soldexpensively worldwide, especially in NorthAmerica and receive enormous profits,regardless of the advertising. Companies actuallyhave enormous budgets dedicated to advertising,in countries where it is legal. They are requiredto spend this money because they have tocompete with other companies that areadvertising their products, but if there were noadvertising, they could spend the money onmore research. The pharmaceutical industry hasbeen the most profitable industry in America foreach of the past 10 years and, in 2001, was afive-and-one-half time more profitable than theaverage for Fortune 500 companies [1] .Moreover, in Canada, the sale of a typicalpatented branded drug would bring about aprofit margin of almost 70% [2] . “U.S.Pharmaceutical Launches: Marketing Spend andStructure\" reveals that the average blockbusterbrand in the United States allots 49% of itsbudget to fulfill advertising needs. This hefty", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Advertising will enable patients to get bettertreatment earlier in theirillnesses Advertisements—especially those thatidentify symptoms—can lead to a healthiercitizenry, as consumers become aware of theirdiseases earlier, and can thus find the drug thattargets their problem at an earlier stage. Manydrugs can prevent or reduce the likelihood of apatient requiring surgery (for instanceanti-cholesterol drugs can reduce the buildup ofatheroma in blood vessels, which causecardiovascular heart disease and strokes, thusreducing the likelihood of a heart bypass beingrequired and improving any post-strokerehabilitation). This not only saves money but isalso better for patients. Surgery involves the riskof complications as well as taking time bothdirectly and in post-operationrehabilitation. Also many degenerativeconditions can be best treated by earlyintervention; if patients are aware of the drugsthat are available at an early stage they are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Adverts generate profit. Profit funds researchinto improved drugs We should not attack drugscompanies for making profits from theirproducts, nor for encouraging patients to usethem. Each new drug costs an average of $500mto produce and very small percentage of thedrugs that are researched ever make it to themarket. [1] The more profitable the industry, themore new drugs it can afford to research anddevelop and thus the more patients who canreceive appropriate treatment. Many of thecomplex cures being developed for diseases likecancer, HIV/AIDs, SARS and Avian Flu will takedecades to research. In the meantime, drugcompanies require funding streams from otherdrugs to continue research. Drugs have becomeincreasingly expensive and advertisement helpsto cover those costs. From 1980 and 2004, fromabout $6 billion (in 2005 dollars) to $39 billion.There has been a real growth rate of about 8percent a year, on average. By comparison,drug firms’ gross margins—sales revenue minus", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "According to a financial study conducted by theVillanova School of Business explained that thereis no significant burden to the health care systemdue to direct-to-consumer advertising. Thestudy, conducted in the years 2001 – 2005 in theUnited States, shows that there is no significantrelationship between advertising and pricesensitivity. The comparison with other countriesshows, the prices of pharmaceuticals and theprice for health care (for drugs) have not risen inthe United States. Through advertising, after theintroductory phase of a drug, the health systemis not burdened more. Simply put people are justable to choose between drugs, in a comparableprice range easier and therefore do not costadditional money to the state. [1] So a greaterfinancial burden is no excuse from prohibitingcompanies to advertise products. [1] VillanovaUniversity, DOES DTC ADVERTISING RAISEPRICE? THE IMPACT OF PHARMACEUTICALADVERTISING ON CONSUMERS’ PRICESENSITIVITY, published 2005 , accessed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Advertising puts pressure on doctors to prescribeinappropriate drugs to their patients If a patientsees a drug that is inappropriate for him, andasks their doctor for it, if his doctor does notprescribe it, then he may ignore his doctor andseek a second or third opinion. In private healthcare systems it is likely that economic pressurewill result in a doctor eventually agreeing to thepatient’s demand. In nationalized healthservices ‘pester power’ has resulted in doctorsgiving in to patients in the past rather thanarguing with them (seen, for example, in themassive over-prescribing of antibiotics by Britishgeneral practitioners for viral infections againstwhich they are ineffective). If the doctorprescribes another drug (perhaps a cheapergeneric version), even if it is chemically identicalto the branded and advertised drug, thereverse-placebo effect may result in the drugbeing less effective than it should be, becausethe patient believes it is a weaker treatment. Thepatient may also be less willing to complete the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The costs and effects of advertising will place anadditional burden on the healthcaresystem Allowing advertising places an additionalburden on the health care system. As a result ofadvertising, if it were allowed, many patientswould request the more expensive brand drugsand so place an additional burden on the publichealth care system. The offered generic drugshave the same effect; they are simply cheaperbecause they do not spend several millions onadvertising. Drug costs are increasing at a fasterrate in the United States than anywhere else inthe world (roughly by 25% year on year sincethe mid-1990s). This growth has been mainlydriven by patients demanding advertised drugs(they accounted for half the 2002-2003 increase,for instance). Advertised drugs are always moreexpensive than generic rivals because of thebranding and advertising costs, as well as theincreased price that manufacturers can demandfor a snappily named product. In private healthcare systems, this drives up insurance", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Creating a mentality of illness Advertising topatients promotes a ‘pill for every ill’ mentalityas the drug industry seeks to ‘create’ newmarkets for its drugs by convincing patients thata pill can solve their problems. This leads bothto greater hypochondria and to self-diagnosis ofnormal conditions as medical ones. For instancein October 2001, GSK ran advertisements forPaxil in the New York Times, claiming the drugwould solve chronic anxiety. Theseadvertisements came at a time when the eventsof 9/11—rather than a medical condition—wereprobably to blame for New Yorkers’ stress. TheFDA declared in a 1999 study that fewer thanone in four new drugs has any therapeutic valueand the medical community now accepts thatprevention through lifestyle choices is often thebest way to tackle disease (for instance, ratherthan seeking a weight-loss or diabeteswonder-pill, childhood obesity should be tackledthrough exercise and healthyeating). Pill-popping seems easier and so is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-bhhghwapc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The majority of products that are advertisedtreat currently under-treated conditions. Drugsdealing with diseases such as depression,diabetes, and high cholesterol are some of themost frequently advertised. Theseadvertisements can help inform viewers abouttheir conditions, and prompt visits to physicians,who can help treat the problem earlyon. Additionally, informed citizens are good forsociety, as physicians do not always recommendnecessary or helpful drugs. In the status quo,patients do not visit their doctors often enoughto be diagnosed. Only approximately half thepatients in America get beta blockers after aheart attack. Clearly, an advertisement for betablockers would be informational, rather thanharmful.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Legalising sex work means legalising the tradingof bodies as a commodity. The practice isdisempowering and undermining human rights,not vice-versa. It remains immoral that the stateshould grant such transactions and introduceprostitution as a career path. By legalising sexwork to control HIV, the state becomes an activeagent in illegitimate practices. Further, the statemakes money while no gains are made forworkers. Who really benefits from legalisation?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Sex work is legitimate work. Sex work isemployment, and therefore requires legalprotection. It remains the governmentresponsibility to provide security for theirproductive workforce and enable them toorganise, and unionise. Sex work empowerswomen and men by providing a means ofincome, independence and control over sexualpractices, and flexible employment. A legalframework will enable sex workers to be able tounionise. Unions remain a source of power inpolitics. Recognising sex work as legitimatework enables positive intervention. Firstly, taxescan be collected by the state; and social securityschemes established. Pensions can be set up anda safety-net for if workers become ill and orinfected provided. Sex workers will be recognisedas citizens, contributing to national wealth.Secondly, labour laws - such as minimal wages,hours, and safety, can be implemented. Labourlaws are a means of regulating conditions ofemployment and workplaces preventing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Introducing new ‘good’ laws can drive sex workactivities underground, and contradictorilyreduce access to necessary health care services.Legislation does not ensure universal access:legalising sex work does not stop unequalpolitics. First, the provision of HIV/AIDStreatment and care is dependent on theglobal-economy and influenced by investorfaiths, ethics, and motives [1] . Therefore accessto ART (Antiretroviral treatment) among sexworkers is controlled by who is providing aid anddistributing resources. Second, the mosteffective prevention strategy is believed to beABC (Abstinence, Be faithful, and use aCondom). Such mottos exclude sex workers, anddirectly place the burden of HIV/AIDS to theindividual. Such mottos are founded on strongChristian beliefs - legalising sex work cannoteasily change traditional structures. [1] Adecline in global AID funding has been notedwith the global economic downturn (World Bank,2011). Further, the impact of faith-based", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Gender equality. Engaging in sex work is achoice; a reflection of individual agency, wherebycontrol is granted over their own body. One hasthe right to choose how they use their body;therefore legalising sex work legitimising awoman’s, or man’s, right over their body andsexuality.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Decriminalising increses sex workers’ rights. Sexworkers remain stigmatised across Africa.Legalising sex work enables the practice to bedecriminalised, and rights provided. Being a sexworker where it is illegal creates additional risksand vulnerabilities. Reports from South Africashow that criminalizing sex workers makes themmore likely to be victims of inhuman policeaction [1] . Sex workers are raped, abused, andharassed. The risk of unsafe sex is thereforepracticed outside of their occupation as no legalrights are provided. Legalising, and subsequentlydecriminalising, sex work will first, tackle corruptpolice soliciting sex. Secondly, a new rightsframework is provided. Sex workers are able tofight exploitation and claim rights for protectionby prosecuting perpetrators if raped orabused. Sex work will continue either way - butlegalising it means legal safety, protection, andnegotiation, is provided. [1] The legalisation ofsex work has been introduced by the ANCWomen's League (ANCWL) in South Africa. See", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The reality of a causal relation between legalisingsex work and decriminalisation remainsquestionable. Accepting sex work within the legalframework does not ensure the practice isde-stigmatised or becomes regulated. Suchcontradictions indicate the depth of socialstigmatisation towards sex work. Taking thecase of Senegal, where prostitution has beenlegalised, police abuse continues and sexworkers actively choose to work in unregulatedenvironments. In Senegal’s booming sex tradeindustry, prostitutes are required to register withthe police and granted a identity card confirminghealth requirements have been met. However,their identification places sex workers open todiscrimination by the police and social stigma [1]. Further, the legalisation of the industry inSenegal has attracted immigrants and refugeesto work within the industry. They lack citizenshiprights; therefore legal protection is limited andabused. Clandestine sex work remains prevalent.Sex workers represent around 18% of HIV", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Gender inequality, hierarchies and violence, willbecome legalised [1] . Across Africa, womenaccount for a higher proportion of the populationliving with HIV - gender inequalities are a keydriver of the epidemic. For example, patriarchalstructures encourage polygamy in marriage; andwomen’s roles in the reproductive sphere forcesthem into the caregiver role when someone inthe household gets HIV/AIDS. The legalisationof sex work will ensure the epidemic continues to‘feminise’. Women will become commodified,meeting male demands and desires, within aunequal gender society. [1] Further readings onthe debate of gender and sex work see: Richter,2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The inclusion of youths and children misses out acrucial component - poverty. Busza (2006)identifies three forms of ‘sexual exchange’: sexwork, transactional sex, and survival sex.Children are often recruited into the sex trade asa result of poverty, desires for consumption, anda lack of social support. The ”sugar daddy”phenomenon across Africa is a case in point.Older men are able to entice young women, andchildren, through false promises and materialproducts [1] . Without providing key necessities,and alternatives to meet needs, practices will bedriven further underground and youngstersplaced at greater risk. [1] For examples see:IRIN, 2013a; 2013b.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Legalising ensures health care and safesex. Legalising sex work will enable regulation.Responsive laws can promote safe sex practicesand enable access to health services [1]. Firstly, sex workers fear asking for healthassistance, and treatment in public services, dueto the illegal and criminalised nature of sex work.WHO (2011) predicted 1 in 3 sex workersreceived adequate HIV prevention; and less areable to access additional health services. Accessis limited due to the criminalised status, but alsocost of treatment and transport, inconvenientopening hours, and humiliation [2] . Secondly,the illegal nature of sex work has been attachedto safe-practice tools. In Namibia, whereprostitution remains commonly practiced butillegal, the criminalisation of accessing condomsenhances vulnerabilities. Following stop andsearches by the police 50% of sex workersreported their condoms were destroyed (OSF,2012). Within the 50%, 75% subsequently hadunprotected sex. Being defined as illegal puts", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Monitoring who enters the sex trade. Byincluding sex workers under a legal frameworkregulatory rules can be imposed on who entersthe profession, such as is found in Senegal. Theintroduction of Senegal’s Identity Card meansfrequent health checks are required uponregistration to be a prostitute. Additionally, theuse of children and youths within the sexindustry can be controlled. Global estimations ofHIV/AIDS show young people are at highest risk.The UNDP (2013) called for a legal frameworkable to ensure the protection of children andyouths. Regulation and monitoring is the onlyway to do so.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-con03b", "title": "", "text": "By legalising sex work the duty, and ethics, ofcare are granted to national bodies. The state isable to intervene and act when the rights of sexworkers are identified as being breached. Theindividual self becomes empowered, andintegrated into, a legal framework.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Legalising sex work means control and regulationcan be imposed on all aspects of the industry.Legalization ensures the sex workers arerecognised as citizens, and workers, with rights.It does not preclude similar action relating to thedemand aspect.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The causality is wrong. Legalisation doesn’tprevent HIV/AIDS transmission, safe sex, oreffective regulation. Workers need to be taughtabout safe sex; safe sex needs to be legalised;and HIV transmission criminalised. Nationalgovernments need to concentrate on providingaccess to prevention tools - such ascondoms. Legalisation should not suddenly beannounced by government but only done if it iswhat sex workers want and is the best option forthem, this can be done through consolations withgroups such as the Global Network of SexWorkers Projects(see NSWP, 2013), to helpformulate policy that will work for everyone", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Legalization leaves ‘risk’ in the hands of theworker. Legalising sex as work, puts the burdenof risk to the sex workers themselves; andhaving its basis from European law models raisesquestions over applicability across Africa.Although, in theory, a legal framework willenhance a duty of rights and a voice for workers,it also becomes the individual who need to beaware of rights, safe practices, and securityrisks. Legalisation means individuals becomeresponsible. However, when considering howyouths are lured into cities, and workers enterthe profession following promised opportunities,is that ‘just’? Before legalising the professionindividuals need to be granted choices to notengage in such practices. The family relationsforcing migration and prostitution needevaluation. How much power can nationallegislation have when traditional, local, andfamily power relations limit choices to enter sexwork? Will state actors follow laws when sexwork remains culturally unacceptable? Further,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The market framework: sex work is anindustry. Sex work needs to be understood as amarket-based industry. Sex workers areinfluenced by supply and demand [1] . It needsto be questioned both who, what, and why sexworkers are forced into sexual exchanges andalternatively, why demand is found. Thelegalisation of sex work focuses on thesupply-side - potentially ensuring safer, and just,practices for sex workers. However, demand isnot resolved. First, legalization does not ensurecustomers are tested for HIV/AIDS and takeprecautions. Legalisation may not changebehaviour or attitudes. Second, legalization mayincrease demand through sex tourism,commercial trafficking or exploitation. Whatdrives the sex industry? Legalisation will result inexpanding the sex industry, as seen in the 25%increase in the Netherlands following legalisation(Daley, 2001). In Uganda, condom use declineswith more regular customers (Morris et al,2009). We need to ask what should be included", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-dssiahwlswo-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Criminalising HIV transmission puts humanrights in greater jeopardy. The stigmatisation ofHIV/AIDS will remain prominent. Theacceptance, and inclusion, of sex workers willbecome further marginalised as they becomesymbols of risk, disease, and transmission. Thisis something no sex worker would want.Countless articles from Ghana, Zimbabwe, andSouth Africa suggest public support legalisingsex work (i.e. see Ghana Web, 2013).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This argument assumes that we know God’sintentions. Evidently, there is no biblicalstatement on the ethics of human cloning. Whois to say that it is not God’s will that we cloneourselves? Hindu thought potentially embracesIVF and other assisted reproduction technology(ART). [1] Moreover, every time that a doctorperforms life-saving surgery or administersdrugs he is changing the destiny of the patientand could be thus seen as usurping the role ofGod. Furthermore, we should be very wary ofbanning something without being able to saywhy it is wrong. That way lie all sorts irrationalsuperstition, repression, fundamentalism andextremism. [1] Tierney, John, ‘Are ScientistsPlaying God? It Depends on Your Religion’, TheNew York Times, 20 November 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Playing God Cloning is playing God. It is notmerely intervention in the body’s naturalprocesses, but the creation of a new and whollyunnatural process of asexual reproduction.Clerics within the Catholic, Muslim and Jewishfaiths have all expressed their opposition tohuman cloning. However, this objection tocloning is not specifically theological. DavidHume, the eighteenth-century Scottish moralphilosopher, warned us to heed our feelings asmuch as our logical reasoning. Leon R. Kass ofthe University of Chicago has stated in relation tohuman cloning, that mere failure to producescientific reasons against the technology doesnot mean we should deny our strong andinstinctive reactions to it. As he states, there is a\"wisdom in repugnance\". [1] [1] Kass, Leon R.,‘The Wisdom of Repugnance’, New Republic, Vol.216, Issue 22, 2 June 1997,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This argument is wholly unsuited to the modernage. Society freely allows single people toreproduce sexually, whether by accident ordesign. Existing lawful practices such as spermdonation allow deliberate procreation withoutknowledge of the identity of the father. Surely itis preferable for a mother to know the geneticheritage of her offspring, rather than acceptsperm from an unknown and random donor?Moreover, reproductive cloning will allow lesbiancouples to have children genetically related tothem both. It might be better for the welfare ofthe child for it to be born into a happyrelationship, but the high rates of singleparenthood and divorce suggest that this is notalways possible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Cloning treats children as objects Cloning treatschildren as objects. Children will bemanufactured by an expensive technologicalprocess that is subject to quality control. The gulfbetween an artisan and an artefact is immense.Individuals will be able to have a child for thesake of having children, or as a symbol of status,rather than because they desire to conceive, loveand raise another human being. Cloning will notonly allow, but actually encourage, thecommodification of people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Cloning is unsafe The technology is unsafe. Thenuclear transfer technique that produced Dollyrequired 277 embryos, from which only onehealthy and viable sheep was produced. [1] Theother foetuses were hideously deformed andeither died or were aborted. Even today, cloninganimals through somatic cell nuclear transfer issimply inefficient. The success rate ranges from0.1 percent to 3 percent, which means that forevery 1000 tries, only one to 30 clones aremade. Or you can look at it as 970 to 999failures in 1000 tries. [2] Moreover, Ian Wilmutand other commentators have noted that wecannot know whether clones will suffer frompremature ageing as a result of their elderlygenes. Dolly the sheep herself suffered frompremature arthritis. [3] There are also fears thatthe reprogramming of the nucleus of a somaticcell in order to trigger the cell division that leadsto the cloning of an individual may result in asignificantly increased risk of cancer. [1]Barnes, Deborah, ‘Research in the News:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Cloning is in this respect no different from anyother new medical technology. Research isrequired on embryos in order to quantify andreduce the risk of the procedures. Embryoresearch is permitted in Britain until thefourteenth day of embryo development. Manyother Western countries are also activelyengaged in embryo research. The thousands of‘spare’ embryos generated each year by IVFprocedures and destroyed could be used to thegood purpose of human cloning research. Itshould be noted that cloning has come a longway since dolly in 1997. In 2008 Japanesescientists managed to create clones from thebodies of mice which had been frozen for 16years. [1] [1] BBC News, Scientists clone fromfrozen mice, , accessed 08/20/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The decision making and the effort that will berequired to clone a human suggests that thechild will be highly valued by its parent orparents. Furthermore, we should not pretendthat every child conceived by sexual procreationis born to wholly well-intentioned parents. Thedesire to have ‘a son and heir’ is common aroundthe world but does not concern the welfare of thefuture child. Similarly, children are oftenconceived out of marital custom, in order toconsolidate a relationship, or even in order togain free accommodation from local housingauthorities. Finally, many children are notintended at all, but are born as a result ofunplanned pregnancies. There would be no fearof ‘accidental cloning’ that could bring a child toa parent who was unprepared, or unwilling, tolove it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "When people resort to talking in wholly emptyabstract terms about ‘human dignity’ you can besure that they have no evidence or arguments toback up their position. It is difficult to understandwhy the act of sexual intercourse that leads tosexual procreation is any more ‘dignified’ orrespectable than a reasoned decision by an adultto have a child, that is assisted by modernscience. The thousands of children given lifethrough IVF therapy do not suffer a lack ofdignity as a consequence of their method ofprocreation. The Catholic church regards everyembryo from the moment of existence as a livingperson. This position is not shared by mostWestern governments, and it would deny notonly cloning, but IVF and all the medicalknowledge and benefits that have accrued fromembryo research.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Cloning harms families Reproductive cloningharms the integrity of the family. Single peoplewill be able to produce offspring without even thephysical presence of a partner. Once born, thechild will be denied the love of one parent, mostprobably the father. Several theologians haverecognised that a child is a symbolic expressionof the mutual love of its parents, and their hopefor the future. This sign of love is lost when achild’s life begins in a laboratory.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Cloning violates human dignity Reproductivecloning is contrary to human dignity. ‘DonumVitae’, the declaration of the Catholic church inrelation to the new reproductive technologies,holds that procreation outside the conjugal unionis morally wrong. [1] Many secular organisations,such as the WHO [2] and UNESCO [3] haveissued statements that similarly find cloningviolates human dignity. Assisted reproductivetechnologies might all be seen as challenges tohuman dignity, including IVF and spermdonation. However, human cloning is acompletely artificial form of reproduction, whichleaves no trace of the dignity of humanprocreation. [1] Cardinal Ratzinger, Joseph,‘Instruction on Respect for Human Life in itsOrigin and on the Dignity of Procreation Repliesto Certain Questions of the Day’, Congregationfor the Doctrine of the Faith, [2] Brock, Dan W.,‘Cloning Human Beings’, e-3, [3] The UniversalDeclaration on the Human Genome and HumanRights’, UNESCO 29th General Conference, 11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Human reproductive cloning is unnecessary. Thedevelopment of in vitro fertilisation and thepractice of sperm donation allows heterosexualcouples to reproduce where one partner issterile. Moreover, merely 300 babies are adoptedeach year in the United Kingdom. [1] It might bebetter for potential parents to give their love toexisting babies rather than attempt to bring theirown offspring into an already crowdedworld. [1] Thompson, Joanna, ‘Is Adoption ABetter Way’, CARE Centres Network,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Cloning will lead to a lack of diversity amongstthe human population as it is creating geneticcopies rather than increasing diversity by mixinggenes. [1] The natural process of evolution willbe halted, and as such humankind will be denieddevelopment, and may be rendered moresusceptible to disease. [1] ThinkQuest,Disadvantages of human cloning, , accessed08/20/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Clones will still be individuals There is muchmore danger of eugenics associated withdevelopments in gene therapy and genetictesting and screening, rather than humancloning. The notion of clones of Hitler is franklypreposterous. Psychologists have shown thatnurture is at least as important as genes indetermining personality. It would be impossibleto produce another Hitler, or Elvis, or whomever,by cloning or any other ART. Clones (people withidentical genes) would by no means be identicalin every respect. You only need to look atidentical twins (who are genetic clones of eachother) to see how wrong that assumption is, andhow different the personalities, preferences, andskills of people with identical genes can be. [1]The idea of breeding huge fighting forces is alsoconfined to the realm of science fiction. Thenecessity of thousands of willing mothers, thenine month gestation process, and the manyyears rearing this child towards adulthood,means that cloning would hardly be an efficient", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Cloning should be allowed for those who can’totherwise have a child The desire to have one’sown child and to nurture it is wholly natural. Thelonging for a child genetically related to oneselfexisted long before biotechnology, but it is onlyrecently that medicine has been able to satisfy it.In vitro fertilisation remains an imperfecttechnology. Couples typically submit to fourcycles of costly treatment before producing achild as the chances of having a child can be aslow as 10%. [1] Evidently, the technique doesnot assist homosexual couples, couples whereboth partners lack gametes, or where the femalepartner suffers from a mitochondrial disease.Cloning would allow a child to be born to allthese couples. [1] Wildsen S., Human Cloning –role of the scientist, West Virginia University, ,accessed 08/20/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Will allow the elimination of diseases Cloning isunlikely to be widespread so any dangers fromany reduction in the diversity of the human genepool will be so limited as to be virtuallynon-existent. The expense and time necessaryfor successful human cloning should mean that itwill only be used to the benefit of the smallminority of people who require the technology.The pleasure of procreation through sexualintercourse does not suggest that wholepopulations will prefer to reproduce asexuallythrough cloning. The only significant lack ofdiversity which can be expected will be in womenwho suffer from a severe mitochondrial disease.They will be able to use cloning by nucleartransfer in order to avoid passing on the diseasewhich is carried in their egg cells to anyoffspring. This elimination of harmful genetictraits from the gene pool is no different from theeradication of infectious disease, such as smallpox, and should be welcomed. So against thesevery marginal worries there is potentially great", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hgfhwbhc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Cloning will lead to eugenics, or the artificialmanipulation and control of the characteristics ofpeople. An American geneticist, Dr. Dan Brock,has already identified a trend towards ‘new andbenign eugenics’ that is perpetrated bydevelopments in biotechnology. This canparticularly be seen on a small scale with‘designer babies’. [1] When people are able toclone themselves they will be able to choosewhich type of person shall be born. This seemsuncomfortably close to the Nazi concept ofbreeding a race of Aryan superhumans, whilsteliminating those individuals whosecharacteristics they considered unhealthy. The‘Boys from Brazil’ scenario of clones of Hitler, thebaby farms of ‘Brave New World’, or even thecloning or armies of identical and disposablesoldiers, might soon be a very real prospect. [1]BBC News, Designer baby row over US clinic,published 03/02/2009, , accessed 08/22/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghtrpcas-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Of course all drugs can be abused butintroducing one into the system full in theknowledge that it will be abused is an entirelydifferent matter. On the basis of the balance ofprobabilities, the moment any government saysthat cannabis is safe to use and, more than that,beneficial to health then every pothead in thatjurisdiction has an excuse. The only way theWar on Drugs can work is if prohibition is applieduniversally. We expect doctors to work within thelaw and the government, along with medicalgoverning bodies, has a role in determining whatit is appropriate to prescribe and what is not [i]. There are no situations where society simplystands back and leaves it to individual cliniciansto act without guidance. They act within aframework that gives primacy to clinical need butdoes not ignore the wider social implications.Society regulates when a doctor can rules thatsomeone is incapable of work or needs surgeryat the expense of the state. In this particularregard, governments feel that society is best", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghtrpcas-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "All drugs can be used for a variety of purposessome appropriate some inappropriate that’s amatter of choice, treatment should be based onmedical reality Any drug, legal or illegal, can beused sensibly or it can be abused. If societybases its decisions on the medical provision ofdrugs on the presumption of abuse the shelvesof most drugstores would be empty. The ideathat the burden of proof should be set atdemonstrating that nothing else can achieve thesame results is absurd – let’s ban Codeinebecause Aspirin works just fine. Drugs that havesimilar effects are distinguished according to thespeed, duration and efficacy of those effects, inaddition to the drug’s side-effects. Differentindividuals experience the pain-relieving effectsof aspirin in different ways. A wider range ofindividuals may experience a longer lastingreduction in pain if taking codeine. Similarly, aneven larger number of individuals respondpositively to cannabis. The reality is that wetrust doctors to make judgments on what is a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghtrpcas-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Ultimately, in most countries where this is evenunder discussion, politicians run away from thisissue because there are no votes in it. Thepeople don’t want it and that view must berespected. Drugs policy is, ultimately driven bya standard of what the people in a democraticnation consider appropriate; a couple of drinksafter work on a Friday is okay, getting stoned ona regular basis isn’t. Governments have aresponsibility to set out a moral code that isacceptable to the broadest possible spectrum ofthe society they represent. If they accept thatcannabis can be used to alleviate suffering inpatients then why not accept that it is okay todrink at work. Both substances have a similarpain relieving effect, both have similar negativeeffects. It is easy to envisage, on the basis of theproposition side argument given above, that anindividual may claim that alcohol does more toaddress his various aches and pains than aspirinor codeine. Society works because there arelimits.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghtrpcas-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Cannabis has many medical properties, notablythe alleviation of suffering in chronic diseases. Itshould therefore be freely available Cannabishas been used for medicinal purposes for at least5,000 years most frequently as an analgesic,that is to say it reduces pain. It also stimulateshunger and can be used as an anti-emetic tocontrol nausea and vomiting. As the DEAAdministrative Law Judge Francis L. Young notedin a 1988 ruling [i] , there is no evidence of afatality resulting from the misuse of cannabis.Indeed the Dutch government currently permitsdoctors regulated by its Ministry of Health andWelfare to prescribe cannabis to their patients.Further, the Dutch state has licensed apharmaceutical firm to provide cannabis of aguaranteed level of purity to pharmacies andmedical professionals. [ii] There are accountsand studies of its successful application to treatthe effects of chemotherapy as well as itspalliative [iii] use in MS and AIDS [iv] . Forgovernments to turn their backs on a perfectly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghtrpcas-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Government has a role in establishing what is anacceptable level of behaviour within society. Fullin the knowledge that some people will use anysubstance responsibly and others less so,governments make decisions to protect theircitizens and to show a lead. It is the settled willof most people in most countries that cannabis isnot a drug they consider acceptable for use in amodern society. Furthermore, there are plenty ofother drugs that can be used for all of the usesProposition has identified. Legalizing cannabis formedical use would send out the message that itis safe to use when all practical evidencesuggests that the social, if not the medical,ramifications are anything but safe. Propositionneed to demonstrate a medical use for cannabisthat cannot be met by existing pharmaceuticals.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghtrpcas-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "For governments to refuse treatment on thebasis of an unreasonable assertion is cruel andblindly ideological The current legislation ondrug use in most countries was delivered withoutcanvassing medical opinion and under theinfluence of public hysteria and moral panic.Seemingly logical but flawed theories linking theuse of “soft” drugs to later use of “harder”varieties (cocain, amphetamins) have often beenused both to justify and to promote drugslegislation. The apparent sense of thesearguments belies the fact that they have beenrepeatedly disproven [i] . Lurid, prurientportrayals of the catastrophic consequences ofnarcotics use in the mass media are frequentlyused to back up arguments that drugs- evencannabis- are so dangerous that even carefullycontrolled medical applications are unacceptablyrisky. It is clearly the case that when anysubstance has a proven medical benefit it shouldbe available for prescription. Legislation alreadyexists in most countries to contain the possibility", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghtrpcas-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Government policy on this issue has long beenconfused. When it is perfectly acceptable forpoliticians, celebrities and other public figures toadmit that they have broken the law and face nosanction, it is time for the law to change.Virtually all of the societal problems caused by itsusage are directly as a result of its illegality.None of those problems speak to its role in amedical setting. When not under the threat oftabloid headlines, opinion leaders from acrossthe political spectrum accept that this makessense [i] . The difficulty is that policy makersonly accept the fact after they’re in office, notwhile they’re facing election. The use of the word‘Former’ in pronouncements on this subject isnoticeable [i] Lyn Nofziger, former PressSecretary to Ronald Reagan, wrote the followingin the foreword to the 1999 book Marijuana RX:The Patients' Fight for Medicinal Pot, by RobertC. Randall and Alice M. O'Leary", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghtrpcas-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is compelling evidence that people aremore than capable of making the distinctionbetween the use of a drug for recreational andmedical use [i] . The long term effects of usingalcohol or nicotine recreationally have beendemonstrated to be fatal; the same cannot besaid for cannabis. Further this is about using thedrug in a medical setting under the supervisionof medical professionals. As Opposition hasconceded, this is something that alreadyhappens. As societies, we condone the use of farmore powerful drugs on a daily basis. This is aclear example of a situation where politics isignoring reality out of expediency. This is not aproposal for vending machines to sell crack butfor the medicinal use of a drug with a proventrack record. [i] Gary Langer. “High Support forMedical Marijuana”. ABC News. 18 January 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghtrpcas-con02a", "title": "", "text": "By expanding the legal use of the drug, it simplymakes the illegal, recreational use easier asthere’s a greater supply If the drug were madeavailable, it would need to be grown somewhere,stored somewhere and sold somewhere.Increased supervision of pharmacies and userswould be required, in order to guard against thepossibility that medical cannabis might be soldon for recreational purposes. Although otherpharmaceuticals have narcotics effects, none hasthe marketability, or market share of cannabis.Many legal types of pharmaceuticals alreadyform the basis of criminal empires and this movewould exacerbate that. Moreover, the increasedvisibility and mobility of cannabis within theeconomy will make it easier for determinedcriminals to hide or obscure the origins ofcannabis produced illegally. Individual citizenswill be less likely to consider cannabis use thatthey are victim to as being illegal. It will becomeharder and more expensive for the police toenforce restrictions on the use and production of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghtrpcas-con03a", "title": "", "text": "By promoting the use of soft drugs in anycontext, encourages young people down aslippery slope toward harder drugs Part of theattraction of cannabis, especially among youngerusers is its appeal as a ‘forbidden fruit’.Removing that would mean that other, harderdrugs would be sought out to fulfill the sameneed to rebel. A government sanction on a drugwith a proven tendency to effect memory andother neurological functions would still hold openthe door to other, more dangerous, drugs as aform of rebellion. In this regard the continuedban on cannabis – and the relative tolerance ofthe breach of that ban – sends out a clearmessage of ‘this far and no further’. Any signalthat this narcotic is acceptable simply increasesthe stakes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghtrpcas-con01a", "title": "", "text": "In most countries where there is an acceptanceof the medical value of cannabis it is fairly easilyavailable, this would simply condone itsrecreational use At a time when governments,along with health professionals, are trying torestrict the use of legal drugs such as alcohol andnicotine, giving the use of cannabis the sanctionof government approval would take health policyin a direction that most people do not wish tocontemplate. Effectively, such a change in policywould announce, ‘We’d rather you didn’t drink orsmoke but it’s okay to get high’. In most nationswhere this discussion is even happening thepersonal use of mild narcotics is ignored by lawenforcement. However, legalizing the use ofdrugs in any way says to the world at large, ‘thisisn’t a problem, do what you like’. Theproduction of drugs ruins lives and communities.Any attempt to fully legalise marijuana formedical use would only be effective in westernliberal democracies. There is a high probabilitythat it would incentivise increased production of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-ahghtrpcas-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Ultimately there is a clear difference between themedical use of a drug, the banning of which isboth harming patients and is against the wishesof many societies and allowing a free-for-all. As asociety we regulate the use of other products toensure that they are not available to minors oropen to abuse. Clearly there would need to beregulations and, equally clearly, sometime thoseregulations would fail. However, that is true of allregulated product and the blanket ban isn’tproducing terribly impressive results at themoment. There is compelling evidence of thepalliative effects of cannabis as well as popularsupport for its medicinal use; good policy shouldnot be bound by a reactionary response to thesimple mention of the word. There areside-effects to the use of almost any drug butthey are relatively benign in this instancecompared to many alternatives.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hghpghbus-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A refusal to purchase healthcare insurance canhave an effect on interstate commerce, becausein shrinking the risk pool of insured thepremiums would incrementally rise. In 2007,healthcare expenditures amounted to $2.2trillion, or $7,421 a person, and accounted for16.2% of the gross domestic product. Thesestatistics leave no doubt that regulating healthinsurance is synonymous with regulatinginterstate commerce.(10) Not engaging ineconomic transactions is a form of commercialbehaviour that Congress can regulate. TheSupreme Court held that Congress could requirethat hotels and restaurants provide services toAfrican-Americans. Their refusal to engage incommerce still was deemed to be within thescope of Congress's commerce clausepower.(10) The likelihood is that everyone willrequire medical care at some point. An uninsuredperson in a car accident will be taken to theemergency room for treatment. An uninsuredperson with a communicable disease will be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hghpghbus-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The mandate is not constitutional under thecommerce clause Many attorneys general havefought constitutionality of mandates. Since thepassage of the legislation in March of 2010,many state governments, governors, andattorney generals have pressed forward withlawsuits centred on the idea that the individualmandate in the legislation is unconstitutional.(7)Underlying these legal challenges is a debateabout the basis of the national Congress’slawmaking powers. In order for laws passed byCongress to be considered legitimate andenforceable, those laws must be based on apower conferred on congress by the Constitution.On those areas of law and public life where theConstitution is silent, legislative power rests notin the hands of Congress, but rather is “reservedto the States respectively, or to thepeople.”(9) It has been argued that theindividual healthcare mandate is authorised bythe Constitution's empowerment of Congress to“regulate interstate commerce” (known as the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hghpghbus-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The healthcare insurance can be unprecedentedbut still be constitutional as Erwin Chemerinskyargues: “Anything that has never been donebefore is literally unprecedented, which means itlacks any precedent. So the question is, will theSupreme Court want to authorize this newextension of congressional power in light of thefact that it violates the first principles it affirmedin Lopez and Morrison? Or, to the contrary, will itwant to take the opportunity reaffirm that theseprinciples still apply, notwithstanding Raich, in acase with no further implications beyond thestatute in question?”(10) Regarding theargument that the healthcare mandate will allowCongress to regulate everything and everyone,such hyperbole and apocalyptic predictions arefamiliar in this area. In 1918, in Hammer v.Dagenhart, the Supreme Court declaredunconstitutional a federal law that prohibited theshipment in interstate commerce of goods madeby child labour. The Court concluded its opinionby declaring: \"[I]f Congress can thus regulate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hghpghbus-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Penalizing a non-act is unconstitutional It isunconstitutional to require individuals to buyprivate insurance, and penalize them for notdoing so (that is, penalizing their non-act, theiromission to purchase insurance). As David B.Rivkin Jr. and Lee A. Casey argue: “… CanCongress require every American to buy healthinsurance? In short, no. The Constitution assignsonly limited, enumerated powers to Congressand none, including the power to regulateinterstate commerce or to impose taxes, wouldsupport a federal mandate requiring anyone whois otherwise without health insurance to buyit.”(1) The Congressional Budget Office believes“a mandate requiring all individuals to purchasehealth insurance would be an unprecedentedform of federal action. The government hasnever required people to buy any good or serviceas a condition of lawful residence in the UnitedStates.”(2) An individual mandate would havetwo features that, in combination, would make itunique. First, it imposes a duty on individuals", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hghpghbus-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The federal government mandates positiveactivities all the time, and this is why severalcourts have also upheld the constitutionality ofthe individual mandate.(7) Regarding thecharge that the individual mandate penalizes a'non-action', Stephanie Cutter, an adviser toPresident Barack Obama, has argued:\"Individuals who choose to go without healthinsurance are making an economic decision thataffects all of us—when people without insuranceobtain health care they cannot pay for, thosewith insurance and taxpayers are often left topick up the tab.\"(7) Thus these people are notengaging in a 'non-action' but rather in aneconomic choice which has negative implicationsfor other Americans, something Congress hasthe constitutional power to regulate under thecommerce clause and the constitution's provisionthat Congress should promote the generalwelfare.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hghpghbus-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The individual mandate gives too much power tothe Federal Government The vertical separationof powers, under which the federal governmentpossesses limited and enumerated powers, whilethe States wield general powers (including theright to operate their own police forces), is a keypart of America's constitutional architecture. Farfrom being an 18th century affectation, thesestructural limitations on government powerswere designed to protect individual liberty. In theFramers' view, limiting the ability of the federalgovernment to exercise authority was core toensuring that no single government entity wouldgrow too powerful. This is because, under theSupremacy Clause, any constitutionallycompliant federal legislation trumps exercises ofindividual state’s powers. Therefore, an infinitelycapacious Commerce Clause (which would beproduced if the mandating of healthcare were tobe allowed) would rob States of any remainingauthority.(8) When any choice or non-actionwhich has economic impacts becomes termed as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hghpghbus-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory health insurance is not analogous tocar insurance. Car insurance requirementsimpose a condition on the voluntary activity ofdriving; a health insurance mandate imposes acondition on life itself. States do not requirenon-drivers, including passengers in cars withpotentially bad drivers, to buy auto insuranceliability policies -- even though such arequirement undoubtedly would lower the autoinsurance premiums for those who do drive. Theauto insurance requirement is linked to drivingand to the possibility that bad driving may causeinjuries to others, including passengers in thedriver's car, not to those who benefit from roadsgenerally.(2) The primary purpose of the autoinsurance mandate was to provide financialprotection for people that a driver may harm,and not necessarily for the driver himself. Andthe auto insurance mandate is a quid pro quo forhaving the state issuing a privilege: in this case adriver’s license.(6) Regarding the claim thatMedicare tax provides a justifying precedent for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hghpghbus-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Insurance mandates are not a tax and thereforeare outside of constitutional powers. RandyBarnett, a Georgetown University law professor,claims that health insurance mandates are not atax, and therefore falls outside congressionalpower. “You're fining people for failing to enter aprivate insurance contract.”(3) Moreover, asPeter Urbanowicz and Dennis G. Smith argue:“the question of whether the compelled purchaseof health insurance constitutes the 'taking' ofprivate property under the Fifth Amendment.Given the novel nature of the individual healthinsurance mandate, a Fifth Amendmentchallenge can be expected. Requiring a citizen todevote a per-cent of his or her income for apurpose for which he or she otherwise might notchoose based on individual circumstances couldbe considered an arbitrary and capricious“taking” no matter how many hardshipexemptions the federal government mightdispense.”(6) Regarding the “general welfare”arguments adduced by side opposition: The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hghpghbus-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The mandate is constitutional under thecommerce clause Congress has ample powerand precedent through the Constitution’s“Commerce Clause” to regulate just about anyaspect of the national economy. Healthinsurance is quintessentially an economic good.The only possible objection is that mandating itspurchase is not the same as “regulating” itspurchase, but a mandate is just a stronger formof regulation. Where a Congressional powerexists, nothing in law says that ”strong” andpotentially more intrusive forms of action areless supported than weaker ones.(11) Critics ofan individual mandate cite recent Supreme Courtcases in which the Court has limited thecommerce clause’s power. However, those cases(Lopez and Morrison) involved regulation ofnon-economic activity. The individual mandateregulates the relationship between sellers andbuyers of health care insurance. Moreover, theCourt was concerned in Lopez and Morrison withefforts by Congress to intrude into areas that are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hghpghbus-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory health insurance is analogous toconstitutional mandates Federal mandates are acornerstone of the American legal system andthe everyday life of every American. As OhioAttorney General Richard Cordray and Iowa'sattorney general Tom Miller, argued in 2010:\"We live under mandates every day. Withoutthem, society as we know it would disintegrate.Every criminal law tells us what we cannot do.And sometimes the law tells us what we mustdo. Congress can require young Americans toregister for the draft to serve in the military, forexample, or can require us all to pay taxes forprograms like Social Security and Medicare. Wecan- and do- argue about what shape these lawsshould take, without claiming that our leadersare constitutionally barred from dealing with ourmost pressing problems.\"(16) Car insurance ismandatory, so why not health insurance too? Ifthe government requires that individuals buy carinsurance, why should it not also be allowed torequire that individuals buy health insurance?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hghpghbus-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The mandate falls under taxation and generalwelfare powers An insurance mandate would beenforced through income tax laws, so even if asimple mandate were not a valid 'regulation,' itstill could fall easily within Congress’s plenarypower to tax income. For instance, anyonepurchasing insurance could be given an incometax credit, and those not purchasing could beassessed an income tax penalty. The onlypossible constitutional restriction is an archaicprovision saying that if Congress imposesanything that amounts to a 'head tax' or 'poll tax'(that is, taxing people simply as people ratherthan taxing their income), then it must do souniformly (that is, the same amount per person).This technical restriction is easily avoided byusing income tax laws. Purists complain thattaxes should be proportional to actual incomeand should not be used mainly to regulateeconomic behaviour, but our tax code, for betteror worse, is riddled with such regulatoryprovisions and so they are clearly constitutional.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-health-hghpghbus-con02b", "title": "", "text": "These arguments overlook the existence of twomajor cases – United States v. Lopez and UnitedStates v. Morrison – in which the Supreme Courthas specifically rejected the notion that Congresscan regulate non-commercial behaviour merelybecause, arguably, such behaviour can have animpact on Commerce. The Court's overarchingreason for doing so was its compellinglyarticulated belief that the Commerce Clause is alimited grant of power and one that cannot beinfinitely capacious. This reasoning isunassailable, and demonstrated that theindividual mandate is not a reasonableapplication of the commerce clause.(8) Rather,this interpretation of the commerce clause couldpotentially America's constitutional structure.Every single decision made by individualAmericans, be it buying health insurance, a car,health club memberships or any other good orservice, has some impact on the economy. Suchdecisions could therefore be subject to regulationby Congress. Indeed, Congress would be able to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is true that it is difficult to decide where todraw the line between legitimate and illegitimateperformance enhancement. However we shouldcontinue to draw a line nonetheless. This lineshould be drawn at protecting athletes fromharmful drugs and preserving the spirit of fairplay and unaided competition between humanbeings in their peak of natural fitness. Thespecial diet and sport training equipment, whichmay seem very hard and exeptional, have beendesigned based on serious scientific researchproved and tested to fit with long-term trainingof athletes. Hard practice to achieve the bestperformance with help of these professionalmethods is completely a different from takingsteroids and growth hormones for immediateresult.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "There is no distinction between \"natural\" andsynthetic methods of performanceenhancement The natural/unnatural distinctionis untenable. Already athletes use all sorts ofdietary supplements, exercises, equipment,clothing, training regimes, medical treatments,etc. to enhance their performance. There isnothing ‘natural’ about taking vitamin pills,wearing whole-body Lycra suits, having surgeryon ligaments, spending every day in a gympumping weights or running in shoes with spikeson the bottom. Diet, medicine, technology, andeven just coaching already give an artificialadvantage to those athletes who can afford thebest of all these aids. Since there is no clear wayto distinguish from legitimate and illegitimateartificial aids to performance, they should all beallowed. So taking these drugs is no moreunnatural than what happens today. A practicalexample of an unnatural aid is the Speedo wornin 2008 at the Beijing Olympics. FINA, the worldgoverning body of swimming was concerned", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Rich athletes from wealthier countries will alwayshave access to the latest, highest qualityperformance enhancers. On the other side,athletes from poorer countries which do not havethe same medical and scientific advances will notbe able to keep up. They will always be at adisadvantage regardless of whether performanceenhancing drugs are legal or not.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Athletes should be free to take risks whentraining and competing Freedom of choice: Ifathletes wish to take drugs in search of improvedperformances, let them do so. They harmnobody but themselves and should be treated asadults, capable of making rational decisions uponthe basis of widely-available information. Even ifthere are adverse health effects in thelong-term, this is also true of tobacco, alcoholand boxing, which remain legal. We allow worldclass athletes to train for 23 hours a week (onaverage), adjust their diets and endangerthemselves by pushing the boundaries of theirbody. We let them do it, because it is what theychose which is best for them. According to theNFL Player Association the average lifeexpectancy of an NFL player is 58 years of age(1). Thus already we allow athletes to endangertheir lives, give them the choice of a lifestyle.Why not also extend this moral precedent todrugs? Judd Bissiotto, 15 Surprising facts aboutworld athletes, , accessed 05/18/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Simple analogy: If a person were to kill himselffor the sake of entertaining the crowd, this actwould still be considered illegal by thegovernment and efforts to hinder and discourageit would be created. An appropriate example isthe one of dangers of alcohol and tobacco, whichwere not known until after they had becomenormalized in society. Once the dangers wereknown, the public were so used to it, that theywouldn’t condone a ban by the State. If alcoholwere introduced tomorrow it would be banned,as shown by the attitude towards narcotics andsteroid use has shown. Governments have triedto reduce sales by having high levels of tax ontobacco and alcohol anyway. Moreover manystates are restricting choice in tobacco andalcohol by introducing limited bans, such as onsmoking in public places. The proposition cannotuse the fact that tobacco and alcohol are legal asa defense of the use of drugs. This should beseen as an equally detrimental act and thusillegal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There will always be a black market for cheaperor for new untested drugs that will give anathlete an edge before others have a chance totry it. Legalization is therefore unlikely to resultin large health benefits as the competitiveness ofsport will always result in athletes being willingto take a risk.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Controlling, rather than ignoring, performanceenhancing substances will improve competitivestandards in sport The use of performanceenhancing drugs is based on advances inscience. When new drugs and therapies arefound, athletes turn to them and as a result aremuch of the time ahead of the anti-dopingorganizations, which need to develop methods ofathlete testing whenever a new drug that ismeant to be untraceable is created. In 2008 itwas a big shock when Riccardo Ricco (a cyclist)was caught using the performance-enhancingdrug Mircera, which had been consideredundetectable for a number of years. The fact isthat a ban of performance enhancing drugsenables mainly athletes from wealthy countriesand teams that can afford the newest technologyto go undetected, whilst others aredisadvantaged (1). So because it gives an unfairadvantage to the wealthy one who can pay forthe undetectable drugs, we should legalizeit. Millard Baker, Riccardo Ricco Tests", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Improving safety standards in sport It does nottake a lot for chemists to produce performanceenhancing drugs, the Scientific Americanreports: “Rogue scientists start with testosteroneor its commercially available analogues and thenmake minor structural modifications to yieldsimilarly active derivatives.” The undergroundchemists make no effort to test their creationsfor effectiveness or safety, of course. Productionof a simple new steroid compound would require\"lab equipment costing maybe $50,000 to$100,000,\". Depending on the number ofchemical reactions needed for synthesis, \"someof them could be made in a week or two. Othersmight take six months to a year.\"(1) As a resultof legalizing performance-enhancing drugs abackstreet industry can become regulated as aresult there will be much more control andtesting to ensure the health and safety of theathletes who take the drugs. Steven Ashley,Doping by Design, Scientific American01/12/2004, , accessed 05/19/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Sport is dangerous. Today’s athletes decide toendanger their lives by participating in sports allthe time. They decide to participate in sportswith the informed decision that they might gethurt as it is part of the sport. Performanceenhancing drugs are no different. In the USAevery year there are nearly 300,000sports-related traumatic brain injuries (TBIs).Athletes involved in sports such as football,hockey and boxing are at significant risk of TBIdue to the high level of contact inherent in thesesports. Head injuries are also extremely commonin sports such as cycling, baseball, basketballand skateboarding. Many head injuries acquired,playing these sports, lead to permanent braindamage or worse. Yet we do not impose a law toban athletes from participating in those sports.We trust their assessment of risk (1). All aboutTraumatic Brain Injuries: , accessed 05/15/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Sport is also about the spectacle forspectators. Sport has become a branch of theentertainment business and the public demands“higher, faster, stronger” from athletes. Ifdrug-use allows world records to be continuallybroken, and makes American Football playersbigger and more exciting to watch, why deny thepublic what they want, especially if the athleteswant to give it to them? The criterion thatathletes should only be applying their ‘naturalabilities’ runs into trouble. The highly advancedtraining technologies, health programs, sportsdrinks, use of such things as caffeine pills, andother energy boosters seem to defeat the notionthat athletes are currently applying only their'natural abilities'. Performance enhancing drugswould not go too far beyond the currentcircumstances for athletes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Permitting the use of performace enhancerswould have a coercive effect on athletes whowould otherwise avoid drug use Once somepeople choose to use drugs to enhance theirperformance, other athletes have their freedomof choice infringed upon: if they want to succeedthey have to take drugs too. Athletes are verydriven individuals, who would go to great lengthsto achieve their goals. The chance of a goldmedal in two years’ time may out-weigh the risksof serious health problems for the rest of theirlife. We should protect athletes from themselvesand not allow anyone to takeperformance-enhancing drugs. An example ofthe pressure is cycling. The American Scientificmagazine explains: “Game theory highlights whyit is rational for professional cyclists to dope: thedrugs are extremely effective as well as difficultor impossible to detect; the payoffs for successare high; and as more riders use them, a “clean”rider may become so noncompetitive that he orshe risks being cut from the team.” (1) Michael", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Protecting young and vulnerable athletes Even ifperformance-enhancing drugs were onlylegalized for adults, the definition of this variesfrom country to country, something which wouldbe problematic for sports that are global.Teenage athletes train alongside adult ones andshare the same coaches, so many wouldsuccumb to the temptation and pressures to usedrugs, if these were widely available andeffectively endorsed by legalization. Not only aresuch young athletes unable to make a fullyrational, informed choice about drug-taking, thehealth impacts upon growing bodies would beeven worse than for adult users. It would alsosend a positive message about drug culture ingeneral, making the use of “recreational drugs”with all their accompanying evils morewidespread.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Protecting the health of athletes Laws should ingeneral protect people from making uninformeddecisions. Due to the potential severeconsequences the ban has to be upheld. Ananalogy with the seatbelt can be used: thegovernment forces people to use them, becauseof the possibility of severe injury in case we donot use it. The use of performance-enhancingdrugs is the opposite – use can lead to severehealth problems. Thus, if all people are treatedas equals under law, then the law should equallyprotect athletes as the law does other would- bedrug users. Equality before law also meansathletes can��t be exempt from the moralstandards we have for others. Firstly due tovalue of life and secondly because many timesathletes themselves are not aware of the severeconsequences of performance enhancingdrugs. BBC Drugs and Sports (GCSE Bitesize): ,accessed 05/15/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Drugs will undermine the central philosophy ofsport The show and the celebration of humanphysical achievement is what makes sportenjoyable to the public. The reason people enjoysport is because it is a demonstration of whatother fellow human beings can achieve and whathumans can achieve collectively, as a species. Aspectacle is designed to amaze. It doesn’t needto be human achievement to be amazing (no onewould call monster truck driving a sport). So,when humans start taking drugs to improveperformance, it is no longer a sport, it is aspectacle, because there is no human physicalachievement, but instead a chemicalachievement. It also becomes a celebration notof human physical achievement, but of humanintellectual achievement, of who can design thebest drugs. Even with fancy running shoes, weare still celebrating human achievement, whichwill not happen once you take it to the extremeof allowing drug use. This doesn’t benefitathletes in the long run. Athletes won’t be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The temptation of youth to try illegal substancesis not just a problem in sports. In allenvironments you will have age restrictions. Tosay that we should uphold the ban for the sakeof children is as if we would advocate a ban ofalcohol for everyone, because some teenagerslike to socialize with adults who are legally ableto drink alcohol. There is always going to be anage restriction and it is the duty of institutions,trainers and athletes to uphold it, so that later inlife as adults, athletes can make an informeddecision.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ehcpssohwpup-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is no such thing as a forced decision.Everyone has complete control over their ownbody and their own decisions. Everyone has anabsolute right to possession of one’s own body.If you own your body then you can choose whatto do with it, and any exchange, such as moneyto an employer in exchange for use of your body(labour) is justified, because it was a voluntaryexchange and you still possess yourself. If youchoose to take drugs, you have not been forcedinto it no matter the peer pressure you may beunder or that other having taken the drugs maymake you uncompetitive.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The proposition is wrong in assuming thatincreased media coverage will have the drasticeffects it claims on changing public perceptionstowards women’s sport. The problem with lack ofinterest in women’s sport is not caused by a lackof media coverage. It is because of deep-rootedsocial conceptions of gender roles and sport (asthe prop have acknowledged). Sports likefigure-skating and gymnastics have traditionallybeen viewed as female-appropriate whereashigh-contact sports like football, rugby, Americanfootball or basketball are generally seen asmale-appropriate. [1] Crucially, the propositionare wrong in claiming that such socialperceptions are easily changed. Simply providingmore media coverage will not have theproposition’s desired effects. In the United Statesincreased participation by women in sport hasnot lead to changes in perceptions so it seemsunlikely media coverage will.[2] This is what wasobserved when the newly formed Women’sSoccer Association (WSA) in the United States", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Increased media coverage changes publicperceptions towards gender roles and women’ssport. The male world-view which dominatessports media and conveys to the public thatwomen’s sport are inferior to men’s reinforcetraditional gender stereotypes and deter younggirls from becoming active in sport. Genderperceptions have obviously come a long way inthe last 100 years, but the media classification ofwomen’s sport as inferior to men’s is severelyslowing this progress in the field ofsport. Humans are social beings with esteemneeds, and as social beings we like to be viewedin a positive light by our peers. This is bestachieved on a general level by conforming tosocial expectations and norm. This also appliesfor societal conceptions of gender. The fact thatthe media deems women’s sport to be of lesserimportance which (as we have seen) conveys tothe public this message, reinforces the notionthat sport is not a worthwhile activity for womenand girls. Instead, it is an activity more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The proposition themselves have mentionedthree examples of female athletes that areexcellent role models for young girls. The hugepublicity received by female athletes at theOlympic Games alone, but also at Tennis GrandSlams indicates that there are already sufficientsporting role models for girls to admire. Ofcourse more would be better but this should notcome about through mandatory extracoverage. If the proposition’s concern lies in thelack of female role models in traditionallymasculine sports like football, then theproposition are still going about this the wrongway. You cannot simply artificially create rolemodels. Sporting heroes may be glorified by themedia, but they are not made by them. For asporting hero to be glorified, the athlete needs toprove himself or herself as exceptional in his orher field and distinguish him or herself. Whenrelatively unknown athletes and sports teams dodistinguish themselves, they receive due creditand glorification in the media. Examples include", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The sports world is unfairly dominated by amale-orientated world-view. Sport is dominatedby a male-orientated world view. This is the casein two respects: In terms of the way sportsmedia is run. Sports media are almost entirelyrun by men, who somewhat inevitably are moreinterested in men’s sport.[1] In the news mediafor example only 27% of top management jobswere held by women.[2] In addition, women whoenter the world of sports media are subjected tothose male-orientated perceptions. For them tosucceed as journalists they feel a need to covermen’s sport. [3] These two factors explain whythe gap between media coverage of men’s andwomen’s sport is not closing despite the increasein participation and interest in women’ssport. The media dictates what is “newsworthy”.Public opinion is hugely influenced by the media.Stories, events or sports that receive a largeamount of coverage give the impression to thepublic that they are important issues that areworthy of being reported on. Similarly, sports", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The skew in media coverage is not down topersonal preferences of sports journalists. Ifjournalists simply reported on what interestedthem, media companies would not be verysuccessful. Instead, they focus on reporting onsporting events that are more popular and arelikely to attract more public attention. The largeamount of media coverage of women’s sport inthe Olympic Games and Tennis Grand Slams istestimony to this point. It shows that sportsjournalists are not all subconsciously sexist asthe proposition might suggest, they simply coverwhat they deem to be appropriate and of interestto the public. The Olympics and Wimbledon aresufficiently high-profile to warrant high coverageof the women’s events. The national women’sfootball league in the UK, however, doesnot. Moreover, media coverage is not a matterof fairness as the proposition suggest. It is to dowith popularity. If fairness was the main priority,then media would have to cover all storiesno-matter what their significance to the general", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The unpopularity of the events sports mediawould be forced to cover would mean lessmoney, not more money going into sports. Thisis because incentives for lucrative TV rightsdeals, sponsorships and advertising only existwhere there is a high expectation of positivereturns for the advertisers and media companies.For example, if Sky Sports feel there is not muchscope in broadcasting every single women’sfootball league match in the UK, it is unlikely tomake a particularly lucrative offer. If anything itwill detract from valuable air-time that could beused to show other more popular events that areseen as more profitable. Moreover, it is not truethat media coverage is necessary to incitegovernment funding. For example, the BritishGovernment offered for the huge amount offunding for relatively unknown sports for theBeijing and London Olympics, not because theyare popular [1], but because the governmentindependently believed it was a worthwhileinvestment. The fact that such government", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Increased media coverage creates more rolemodels for young girls to engage in sport. Amore obvious problem with the limited coverageof women’s sport is the distinct lack of sportsrole models available as sources of inspiration forgirls. Having sports role models is crucial forchildren to attain the desire and motivation topartake in sport. Boys often want to be likeLionel Messi in football, or Lebron James inbasketball. Boys can access such figureheadsbecause they are world famous. Their sportingachievements and prowess are glorified in allforms of media and people can very easily watchthem play their sport live on TV. The same doesnot exist for girls because female athletesreceive nowhere near as much media attentionas their male counterparts. Girls often can’t evenname any female sports stars so lack role modelsin sport.[1] Although it is true that children canhave role models of either sex, the divide in thesports world between men’s and women’s sportsmeans girls cannot aspire to compete alongside", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Increased media coverage will lead to increasedfunding towards women’s sport Increased mediacoverage will lead to more money going intowomen’s sport. This will happen for severalreasons. In the short-term, increased mediacoverage means more money from advertisingand sponsorship, both through the media anddirectly sponsoring sporting events, clubs andathletes. Increased media involvement alsogenerates revenue for sports in the form of TVand radio licenses (i.e. broadcasting rights).Importantly, as women’s sport increases inpopularity, so will the competitiveness to securesponsorship deals and TV rights in those sports.[2] This will further push up the amount offunding going into women’s sport. TheGovernment invests in social projects it deems tobe worthwhile. As we have seen, the media has ahuge influence in forming public opinion as towhat constitutes a worthwhile activity. Thus,increased media coverage will create moredemand for increased government funding in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The government can to a degree cover for anypotential drop in funding from private sectorsources. Focus can remain on developinggrass-roots and sports at schools in order toincentivise new generations of athletes, so theharms mentioned by the opposition will by andlarge not occur. In time, popularity of women’ssport will increase such that it will once againattract large lucrative TV rights deals and largeinvestments from sponsors. It must also bementioned that the opposition to an extentpresent a false dichotomy with their argument.Increased coverage of women’s sport need nottake valuable air time away from more popularmen’s sport in the way the opposition claims.Matches can be scheduled so that they do notclash with each other, and more TV channels canbe created (such as the BBC’s red buttonservice). Additionally, air-time is often packedtrivial stories and programs other than popularmen’s sporting events. Examples from AmericanTV include reports ‘on supremely unhealthy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The media can and often is used as a tool forpublic policy. Examples of this include thebroadcasting of public information campaignsagainst drink-driving or smoking or else bans oncertain advertising such as smokingadvertisements or sponsorship appearing onTV.[1] What’s more the government has a hugeinfluence in what it deems to be worthwhile newsor television programs and documentaries. Thisis because of the existence of state controlledmedia organisations, like the BBC, and on amore subtle level, with the imposition onrestrictions as to what can and cannot bepublished or broadcast. The media coverageinequality between women and men’s sport is adifferent issue to that made out by theopposition. Floods in Queensland Australia aremore relevant to Australians than Europeansbecause they are more likely to have beenaffected by them. Women’s sports, however, arepotentially as relevant to people’s lives as men’ssports. The increased participation in women’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Women’s sports do not provide the sameeconomic incentives for media coverage asmen’s. Media coverage is dependent on onecrucial factor: financial incentive. The journalismindustry is hugely competitive and mediacompanies constantly have to compete withrivals for viewers and numbers of papers andmagazines sold, often just in order to survive.[1] This is important for two reasons. Firstlybecause more sales obviously means morerevenue, and secondly because the volume ofsales or viewers attracts more money fromadvertisers and sponsors who want to maximisethe exposure of their adverts to the generalpublic. Therefore, for media companies toprosper, they must cover subjects that are mostpopular and likely to receive most attention bythe public. Given the difference in popularitybetween women and men’s sport, mediacompanies have to focus on men’s sportingevents as that will largely enable them tocompete with rivals and secure greater", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Equalising media coverage will cause a drop infunding for sport in general The propositionhave acknowledged that media coverage is acrucial source of revenue for sport in the form ofsponsorship deals and TV rights. However,forcing media companies to provide equalcoverage of men’s and women’s sport, inevitablyleads to a thoroughly imperfect and inefficientmarket within the sports media industry.Sponsors and advertisers would not be asinclined to spend money on media coveragesince they would deem that their advertisingwould reach fewer people and so have less of animpact. Moreover, sports newspapers andmagazines are likely to suffer since the vastmajority of readers are men interested in men’ssports. The consequences of an impaired sportsmedia industry would have negative effects onboth women’s and men’s sport because they willreceive less funding. Let us examine how theEngland and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) isfunded, as a case study. The overwhelming", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Men’s sports are more popular than women’s andso should receive more media coverage. Therole of the media is not to be a tool for theimplementation of social policy. It is instead toinform the public and provide entertainment.However, it would be naïve and short-sighted tobelieve that the media should report and covereverything equally so as to perfectly inform thepublic. The nature of media coverage is such thatthere is a limited amount each media companycan cover. There is a limit on air-time availableto radio and TV stations and there is a limit tothe number of pages newspapers can print.Media companies thus have to make a choiceregarding what to report and to what extent. Itmakes sense for more coverage to be offered forstories and events that are deemed to be ofgreater importance by the general public(irrespective of its objective value). For example,news about local flooding in QueenslandAustralia may be hugely important forAustralians, but considerably less so for people in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-emgssghwfmdpa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The lack of financial incentive to provide mediacoverage of women’s sporting event is not areason to not go ahead with this motion. There isoften no financial incentive to provide basicwelfare needs or provide funding for thedevelopment of pharmaceuticals, but thegovernment still pursues such endeavours. Insuch cases, extra financial incentives can beprovided to private companies from the part ofthe government, or the government itself maybe in charge of the scheme. In the case of sportsmedia, state run media do not require a financialincentive to provide equal coverage, whileprivate media companies could either beprovided with benefits for covering women’ssport and/or disincentivised from not providingequal coverage by having sufficiently heavy finesin place.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-lsgtshwrps-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The sole thing that one must remember whenjudging this problem is that individuals differfrom one another. Even in the world of sports,although most of the athletes are hard-working,determined and ambitious people, they havedifferent opinions, different personalities anddifferent views over what success means. This isexactly why we cannot generalize the recipe foran ideal life. There is no “one size fits all”. Forsome players, it’s all about the competition, thatthrill and excitement that you feel when playinga match, while for others the whole sportingenvironment is just a way of providing for theirfamilies, them not enjoying the sport per se, butrather the benefits is brings. As a result, it is ofcrucial importance to let people decide by theirown if they want to participate in internationalcompetition. The majority will want to representtheir countries, but some don’t. What should beprioritized in this instance is the happiness of theindividual, and as they know best in what makesthem happy, we must let the athletes chose if", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-lsgtshwrps-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Beneficial for the player Undoubtedly, one of themost important things for a professionalsportsperson is to have a long, healthy andfulfilling career. No matter what a sportspersonsmotivation is, whether it is the pleasure fromwinning or the money a player always needs tobe in top form. Playing on the international levelhelps athletes improve themselves. First of all,no matter of sport, the level of the sport is muchmore intense when it is international, asobviously, the best players are taking part in it.Santos vs Boca Juniors have always been verythrilling football matches, but none of themcompare with the matches between Brazil andArgentina. If you, as an athlete, are forced toplay in a much more competitive environment,then you have to bring your A-game to the pitchon every single occasion as the stakes are highevery single time. In time, this improves skillsand develops capabilities, as you are challengedon regular basis. Second of all, when it comes toteam sports a lot of scouts are watching", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-lsgtshwrps-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It should not be dependent on one man or onewoman to carry the weight of the nation upontheir shoulders. Winning the world cup shouldnot be about just whether an individual plays ornot but about the team. Even in the Olympicsone individual’s performance makes littledifference in most cases to the whole of theteam. Good results may lift a nation but it iswrong to suggest that this should mean thateveryone who is called on to represent theirnation should have to answer that call. It is up tothe coaches and managers to make the best useof the men and women they do have. Moreoverif a country is relying on one individual then theyare almost certainly putting too much pressureon them. Instead the country needs to focus onbroadening the base of the team by finding moretalent so that no one individual is irreplaceable.It should be remembered that individuals are farmore often unable to take part in internationalcompetition as a result of injury or other reasonsrather than a refusal to represent their country.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-lsgtshwrps-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A moral duty to play for your country It is clearthat any individual, no matter his chosen area ofexpertise needs the appropriate environment toachieve his maximum potential. The peopleinvolved in professional sports are no exception.They need coaches to guide them, stadiums inwhich to practice, sponsorship and funding toallow participation at some competitions. Anyperson who succeeded in making a career insports partly owes it to the society he grew up inthat provided these facilities and opportunities.Let us not forget that especially in poor areas,most of the sports trainings are done “pro bono”by good Samaritans who want to lend ahand. Therefore, as other people invested intheir development, every sportsman has themoral duty to pass on that help, and also lend ahelping hand towards those who weren’t asprivileged. Representing the nation is a part ofthis moral duty to repay that which the countryhas given. This improves the image of thatcountry and allows it to get the recognition in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-lsgtshwrps-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There are no grounds on which to claim thatthese athletes have any sort of moral dutytowards the society which raised him, as thesociety itself benefited from its investment and amoral duty should not arise from the accident ofbeing born into a particular country. The moralobligation, if it ever existed, is to the club and isfully fulfilled whether they stay at the club theywere raised by or if they leave. If they stay, theywill help the club win matches, championshipsand therefore money, which could in turn beused for the development for other young,talented players. If they leave, the club willreceive a significant fee for the transfer, moneywhich could again be used for the samepurposes. Either way, they will bring significantadvantages to the society that raised them,without having to play for the national team.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-lsgtshwrps-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Benefits to the nation It is not just the player orathlete who benefits from taking part ininternational competitions but the nation as well.Every nation wants to do well in internationalsporting completions and every national wantstheir nation to do well internationally. Everycountry wants all of their best sportspeople totake part so that they have as much success aspossible. This is partially about prestige; Jamaicais perhaps best known worldwide at the momentas a result of the fame of Usain Bolt and othersuccessful sprinters, if it was not known for thisit might instead be known for its gang wars andmurder which is not what a country wants peopleto think of when their country is mentioned.(1) But it is also about the economy. Countriesthat do well in international competitions mayget an economic boost as a result. Economistssuggested that winning the World Cup couldhave a positive impact of between 0.25 and0.5%, which if it is in the context of near zerogrowth can be a big impact. This is a result of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-lsgtshwrps-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The claim according to which players wouldwillingly play badly in order to get thrown outfrom the team is not only false, but completelyoutrageous. There are several points whichindicate this. These are extremely popular andimportant competitions. In order to get tointernational level you need to have a verystrong character, to value your team mates andcherish the fans. No such player would be willingto throw a match by playing badly. Doing sowould hurt the team, fans and nation, and bringwidespread criticism. Throwing a game is alsonoticeable if there is a significant differencebetween domestic and international form. Beingselected shows good form making it difficult toclaim another reason for poor results. Moreover,if they are found out, they have a lot to lose, astheir reputation would be destroyed. ThePakistani cricket team scandal involvingcorruption and match-fixing proves the risksplayers face when trying to get involved inbackstage games and alter the result through", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-lsgtshwrps-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It is true that freedom is one of the coreprinciples of society, but it is neither an absolutevalue, nor one which isn’t legitimate to confine atsome moments. This coercive measure isn’t verytime or energy intensive. In general,international competitions are pretty scarce,once every two or four years, and they last onlyfor a couple of weeks. Therefore, the athleteshave total freedom over their career, as comingto a championship once in a while won’t affectit. In addition, the sportsmen shouldn’t belooking at this decision judging solely by theirinterests. The decision-making process shouldtake more factors into consideration. In asignificant number of cases, there is reason tobelieve that the players think only aboutthemselves and don’t think about the help theycould give to their team and therefore to thenation. For example, the Cameroonianfootballers refused to appear in a friendly againstAlgeria just because the Federation didn't paythe corresponding bonuses and appearance fees", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-lsgtshwrps-con02a", "title": "", "text": "There is no need for compulsion There is an oldsaying ‘if it ain’t broke don’t fix it’. In order forthis proposal to be taken into consideration, aproblem regarding the world of sports must beidentified. Fortunately for sports, it works like acharm. In a great many sports revenues aregoing up, television rights are being sold forhigher prices than ever before and more andmore children are enrolling in sporting activities.Despite the global economic slowdown, sportsrevenues worldwide should grow by about 3.7percent to $145.3 billion by 2015, according to aresearch report.(1) The current system worksand there is no need to change it. Moreover, ifwe were to introduce this coercive measure,there would be numerous disadvantages withoutsignificant benefits. It would make no sense tocreate purposeless tensions between individualsand sporting federations. It is even more absurdconsidering that competitions and sportingevents wouldn't benefit at all. This is becausealmost all top sportspeople accept the request to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-lsgtshwrps-con03a", "title": "", "text": "No guarantee of success A man who performs acertain task out voluntarily is guaranteed tosolve it better, faster and more efficiently thansomeone who is forced to do it against his will.Even if these players would come and participatein the training and matches, there is noguarantee that they will give 100%. Anysportsperson who did not want to appear at thecompetition is not going to be motivated nomatter what it was that meant they did not wantto attend. This will be even more the case if thereason was one of fitness, tiredness orform. The second reason which will add to thelack of dedication from these players is thefrustration that they are forced to play againsttheir will. If they cannot change the system, orappeal, then it can only lead to more irritationand indignation. Not a good frame of mind for aninternational competition. Discord in a team canonly lead to failure, as shown by France’shumiliating drop out of the 2010 world cuphaving not won a game despite having big", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-lsgtshwrps-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Liberty Liberty is the foundation stone ofsociety. Every individual must be free to do asthey choose and one part of freedom is thefreedom to walk away from work when you areasked. Forcing sportspeople to represent theirnation in international competition is would be akind of unfree labour very similar to involuntaryservitude, or to take a more recent exampleconscription. They would be forced to workwithout their consent and for a considerably lessgood reason than defence of the nation. Byrequiring sportspeople to represent their nationswe are forcing individuals to take part in actions,which, in their view, don't bring them anybenefit. This is clearly the case as they rejectedparticipating in them in the first place. We arealso ignoring that those who do not wish to takepart may have legitimate reasons for rejecting acall up. This may be a fear of industry orprotesting against the policies of their sport’sgoverning body. For example, Hilditch is one ofthree senior national team players who refused", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-lsgtshwrps-con02b", "title": "", "text": "How well the finances of sports are doing haslittle relevance to the international game. Indeedit creates the potential problem that as club, ordomestic level competition grows more lucrativeso sportspeople may feel that they have lessneed of taking part internationally. Even if thereare currently few who reject a call up this issomething that will vary from nation to nation,sport to sport, and time to time. Any nationalsporting association that faces a crisis thatthreatens to disrupt their capability of meetinginternational competition should have the abilityto make it compulsory for their best players torepresent their country. Thus when Cameroon’splayers engaged in strike action it was not justone player which the team could do without butthe whole team who did so.(1) Moreover, even iflower quality players can be substitutes thechange would still influence the overall face ofthe competition and the team’s chances. Havingthe best possible players, even if some are thereby compulsion increases competition to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The top sides field many overseas playersbecause they think they are better than mosthome-grown ones. The fact that the Englandfootball team has done badly has much more todo with poor management and coaching than thelarge number of foreigners in the PremierLeague. It also is an indictment on the schoolprograms in place and youth football as a whole.It has little to do with a lack of opportunity atclub-level, for clubs will always look locally forcheap, ready-made talent. They are forced tolook overseas because foreign-born players areproving to be better bets. Furthermore, theseforeigners thereafter assist the few local-bornplayers who have made the grade. Therefore, ifyou removed some of the best foreigners andreplaced them with less good local players, it willactually weaken both club football and thenational team.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "It will improve the quality of the nationalteam Reducing the number of foreign playerswould be good for the national team. Currentrules mean that only a few domestic players geta chance to compete at the highest level, and thenational side suffers as a result. So while, forexample, English clubs with the ability and cloutto sign foreign players have done very well in theChampions League recently, the English nationalteam has performed badly. English youth areconsistently overlooked for places in the bestsides in favour of more talented, moreexperienced foreigners who offer short-termsuccess. Limiting the number of foreigners wouldforce clubs to give more local players a chance todevelop, and subsequently improve the quality ofthe national side.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Local loyalties went out of the game years ago –it isn’t just overseas players who change clubsoften in search of higher wages. Everyone agreesthat when teams were only full of local boys thestandard of play was worse. And strong localloyalties aren’t always good – they used to spillover into hooliganism as the fans from rival clubsfought. More overseas players in football, manywith different colour skins, have helped reducenationalism and racism in society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The sport’s governing body, FIFA, wishes toimplement a ‘six plus five’ that would beenforced by each member association Thesix-plus-five rule, first tabled by FIFA in 2008,would require all side to have six home-grownplayers in all starting elevens. As the sport’sgoverning body, if the proposal was voted in bymember states all state football associationswould be forced to hand out penalties, whetherfinancial or points, to teams that did not meetthe criteria of the new rule. The rule purports toincrease both the protection and development oflocal players in local environments, whilst alsopermitting the transfers of high-profile foreignersthat have been attributed with the rise inprestige and profile of many of the Europeanleagues and clubs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "It is good for the development of home-grownplayers and therefore, the quality of domesticleagues Limiting the number of overseas playerswill be good for home-grown sportsmen. Atpresent only a tiny handful of the best nativeplayers will get a chance to play for top clubs dueto their profit and success motives. This meansthat talented young players see no reason towork hard and develop their game, because it isso unlikely they will get a chance to play at thetop level. And clubs don’t have a reason to seekout local youngsters and train them, as it iseasier to buy a fully trained player from abroad.Limiting the number of foreign players wouldcreate incentives for both players and clubs tomake the most of their talents. As a result,domestic crowds would rise as quality wouldimprove proportionally with the development oflocal talent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Limiting the number of foreign players willweaken the quality of domestic football. Seeingmany of the best footballers from around theworld competing against each other every weekraises the standard of the whole game. Fanswant to see their team playing exciting footballand winning games – they don’t care whetherthe players are local boys or not. Youngsters areinspired by foreign heroes and work hard inorder to follow in their footsteps, no matterwhere they were born.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Sporting organizations, of which FIFA is merely amore powerful example, cannot and will not bepermitted to introduce a rule that deniesotherwise-qualified persons from maximizingtheir income by moving overseas. Furthermore,and regarding the six-plus-five criteriaspecifically, the five foreigner-limit applies onlyto those which are not home-grown, encouragingthe bigger clubs to look abroad for youngertalent to bring into their academies. Once in theacademy, they will gain home-grown status andtherefore not count as one of the five foreigners.Therefore, FIFA’s proposal does not fix theproblem but exacerbate the fears of exploitation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The youngsters from poor nations who excel inEurope do so because of their move, notirrespective of it. It is a fallacy to suggest that allplayers develop in a vacuum, that their ability isirrespective of their development opportunities.For the best youngers in poor andunder-developed nations, being poached by therich European clubs is a way out, a means torealising their obvious talent. Taking away thatsource risks wasting not only a precocious youngtalent but also denying him the opportunity toescape the cycle of poverty. Furthermore, it canbe expected that the poached youngsters willgive back to their host countries, in the form ofnational team appearances and domestic leagueendorsements, later in their careers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "It will encourage fans to support their localclubs A focus on domestic football and domesticfootballers would encourage the public to getaround their local sides. Therefore, this planwould be fruitful for club football and itsrelationship with the local community. Once thelocal team was a real source of local identity,with many home-grown players proud to wearthe shirt of the club they grew up with. Nowplayers have no local feeling and move often insearch of higher wages or European experience.Loyalty is an undervalued trait in modernfootball. How can fans identify with a club full ofoverseas players who will be gone in a season ortwo, and who otherwise neglect to support localyouth talent?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Restrictions would prevent the poaching of thebest youngsters from poor nations This planwould be good for world football. At presentpoorer nations (e.g. in Africa or South America),or those where football isn’t as well developed(e.g. Australia, the USA), lose all their bestplayers at an early age to the rich Europeanleagues. This weakens their own leagues and canlead to the public losing interest in football. Poorquality games and loss of public support fordomestic clubs also means little money comesinto the game from ticket sales, television orsponsorship, so nothing goes into grounds,training or youth systems. It is also hard to put agood national side together when the bestplayers hardly ever spend any time in their owncountry.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is already a problem with talentedteenagers from Africa and other poorer countriesbeing recruited by rich European clubs to train attheir academies. This takes them far away fromfamily and friends and ties them into longcontracts they don’t understand – some havecalled it a form of slavery. And if they get injuredor turn out to be not quite good enough, thenthey can be thrown out without proper support.At the same time, poorer footballing countriesare deprived of many of their most promisingplayers, without even getting the transfer moneypaid when adult players move to a new cluboverseas. The FIFA plan is a step towardspreventing such exploitation, the fact it doesn’tsolve the problem completely does not prevent itfrom being a good first step.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The six-plus-five plan is not banned under EUlaw. Although it would be illegal to stop clubs inEurope from employing as many overseasplayers as they wish, this is not what the planproposes. It simply puts a limit of five on howmany foreign players can start a game – so clubscan employ as many foreigners as they want,they just can’t play more than five of them at thesame time. Given the tactical use of reserves andthe squad rotation common in modern football,clubs are likely to keep signing overseas players.But under FIFA’s plan domestic players will stillbe given more of a chance than they are now. Asthe head of the Institute of European Affairsstates: \"The key aim of the six-plus-five rule inthe view of the experts is the creation andassurance of sporting competition. Thesix-plus-five rule does not impinge on the corearea of the right to freedom of movement. Therule is merely a rule of the game declared in thegeneral interest of sport in order to improve thesporting balance between clubs and associations\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Restrictions are unnecessary This plan isunnecessary – Manchester United is one of themost successful club sides and often fields morelocally-born players than its rivals. Most big clubsare working hard to build strong footballacademies to bring talented youngsters through.The logic is simple, home-grown youngsters canbe developed much more cheaply and easily thanforeigners. In any case, money will still remainvital to success – this plan would mean that therichest clubs will simply pay silly sums of moneyto buy up all the best local players. Therefore,competition within domestic leagues would noteven up, it would simply lead to a re-shuffling ofthe best home-grown talent. Really the FIFAproposal is just an attack on English footballclubs as they have been so successful recently.The issue wasn’t raised previously when Italianand Spanish club sides dominated Europeancompetitions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "It doesn’t solve the problem of protectingcountries outside of Europe from losingplayers In practice this plan will do nothing forfootball in countries outside Europe. Alreadymany overseas players have dual nationality(which is especially easy to obtain for SouthAmerican players wanting to play in Spain orPortugal). Other players are from countries (e.g.South Africa, Caribbean states) with labouragreements with the EU and can work freely inEuropean countries. Both groups would be ableto claim that they didn’t count as overseasplayers under the FIFA plan, so little wouldchange. One danger is that many good playerswill completely switch nationality in order to playoverseas, and so not be qualified for theiroriginal country at all in future. And what FIFAplans to do about the many Scottish, Welsh andNorthern Irish footballers playing for Englishteams is very unclear. Would they be bannedfrom playing in their own country?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It is illegal under European Union law. FIFA’splan is illegal under European Union rules: ‘Theimplementation by FIFA of this proposal in theEuropean Union would violate EU law. TheCommission is not considering any change toallow FIFA to push forward this idea. FIFA isaware of this fact.’ [1] . The rules say that youcan’t discriminate against people from other EUcountries on the grounds of their nationality -exactly what the six-plus-five plan would do. Andthe EU has agreements in place allowing peoplefrom non-EU European countries like Switzerlandand Norway to work freely in EU states, plus a lotof countries in Africa and the Caribbean as well.This means most of the overseas playerscurrently with European clubs would be able totake FIFA to court if it tried to put its plan intopractice. And if six-plus-five won’t work inEurope, there is no point applying itelsewhere. [1] BBC Sport. (2008, May 30). FIFAbacks Blatter on quota plan. Retrieved May 10,2011, from BBC Sport:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwiropf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Competition would actually improve if foreignplayers were less common. At the moment therichest clubs can buy up all the best globalplayers and so dominate domestic competitions –often no more than two or three teams have areal chance of winning the big European leagues.This makes tournaments predictable and boring,while clubs become the playthings of billionaireowners. Even international club competitions likethe European Champions League are nowdominated by just a few teams – in 2008 threeof the four semi-finalists and both finalists wereEnglish. Forcing clubs to develop home-growntalent would level the playing field, make moneyless vital, and give more teams a chance tocompete for top honours. This wouldinadvertently drive players to get better, becausethere would be fewer short-term fixes availableto a team’s poor form.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "On this level, we have two situations. On onehand, there are a lot of sports where women andmen receive equal media coverage and monetaryrewards starting from athletics, where at theworld championships the gold medal winner isrewarded the same, no matter of sex(1) andending with tennis, where for example at the USOpen, one of the 4 biggest tennis tournaments ofthe year, both the male and female winnersreceive the same amount of money. On thislevel, we see that there is absolutely nodiscrimination whatsoever. (2)The fact thatwomen play fewer sets is by no means a form ofdiscrimination as we can see that, at the end ofthe day, they get the same amount of moneyand equal, if not more, publicity than the maletennis players. On the other hand, there aresports, like soccer, basketball or cycling wherewomen simply don’t have the necessary physicalrequirements for example to shoot a goal from40m away, thus making a female soccer matchless thrilling than one played by males. Women", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Preventing discrimination in sport Assuming wewould have two equally muscular and equallyfast male and female athletes, the currentsystem clearly discriminates the female athleteby not allowing her to compete in the maleleague. It is against the very nature of sports totreat differently two athletes who have the samestrength, speed, agility, dexterity, mental focus,determination, ambition based purely on theirtype of chromosomes. This is extremelyimportant as most of the time the women’scompetition gets less attention from the publicand sponsors, as seen in the cases of Women’sNational Basketball Association and NationalWomen’s Football Association. So, by forcingthem to stay in those leagues, you are denyingpotentially successful athletes fame, pride andmoney. The Giro Rosa, one of the biggest womencycling competition, offers a prize money of 460Euros, which is a mere thousandth of the Tour deFrance's 450,000 Euro top prize.(1) (1) BarthSarah “Why can’t we have a women’s Tour de", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "First of all, sports are one of the most popularand promoted activities for young girls aroundthe world, they receive advice to practice sportsfrom a wide variety of sources: parents, friends,school teachers, etc. There isn’t a lack ofmotivation on their part on this level, especiallyas there are a lot of female sporting competitionsthat get a lot of media coverage: volleyball,handball, swimming, ice skating, etc. Thismeasure will actually discourage teenage girlsfrom practicing sports on a professional level.Due to the huge gap in physical strength most ofthe female athletes will only get defeated inthese competitions with men. Seeing these socalled “role models” getting beaten at, forexample, every single soccer match reduces thechances of girls wanting to enrol in this type ofactivity as they will see the competition being toopowerful, diminishing the possibilities of everwinning a competition. You need to show themthat it is possible for them to win, and that’s whyyou need Serena Williams to win so many Grand", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Athletes should decide for themselves. In sportsit is crucial that the best person wins no matterof his or her sex. We should let the womendecide if they are prepared enough to participatein men’s events, and not take that decision forthem by forcing them into set leagues. Americanskier Lindsey Vonn has won the women's WorldCup four times. In November 2012, she asked tobe allowed to compete in the men's event. Therequest was denied(1). If a female athlete canperform better than a male athlete in a certaindiscipline, she should be allowed to competewith, and beat, the male athlete. The examplesof Danica Patrick, a “NASCAR driver who won the2008 Indy Japan 300 and finished 3rd in the2009 Indy 500” and Seena Hogan who holdsmultiple records in ultra cycling, which haven’tbeen beaten by any man or women to thisday(2), show us how women can improve acompetition in a significant way. At the end ofthe day, it doesn’t matter who wins, the verypurpose of sports forces us to let them take the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "First and foremost, it is very important to realizethat the desire to take part in men’s sportingcompetitions must be backed up by physicalcapabilities of women to be able to win againstmen. Unfortunately, if we look at statistics werealize how big the gap between the two sexesis: “Michael Phelps is a full 26 seconds ahead ofthe women's world record holder in a 400mmedley, the best female is more than 10%behind the best male - 12 minutes in a marathon(and 20 for most of the top women at themoment), more than 1 second in a 100m race,more than 1 meter in the long jump.” (1) Thus,the states purpose of sports, that of “let the bestperson win” is already being achieved, as, sadly,in a wide majority of cases men, due to theirphysical attributes, do performbetter. Promoting performance is not the onlypurpose of sports; another should be promotinggender equality. This measure, due to the widephysical gap between the two sexes, wouldsimply perpetuate ideas that women are not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Encouraging future female athletes One of thebest ways to have a healthy life, avoid obesityand learn crucial values like respect, teamworkand fair play is by practicing a sport. In order toincentivize women from around the world to getinvolved you need to give them role models;women who receive a lot of media coverage towhom they can look up to. Unfortunately,women’s sports don’t receive as much mediacoverage as men’s sports because they areconsidered to be less spectacular and thrilling.By allowing certain women, who have thenecessary skills to compete against men to getthis coverage you will give young girls thenecessary motivation to start practicing sports,thus bringing a massive social benefit to thesociety. This happens already to successfulwomen who are lucky enough to compete withmen, as shown by Danica Patrick, so why shouldwe stop here?(1) (1) White Rea, “Patrickinspiration to young females” MSN Sports,February 23, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, passionate viewers of these violent sportsare not watching them only for seeing blood andbroken noses, but for the technical abilities andthe strategic tactics in these sports. As a result,they tend to focus more on the speed andprecision of one’s uppercut than rather on theeffects it has on the opponent’s body, thus theywill be able to ignore the violence towardswomen, as they currently do towardsmen. Secondly, if indeed there is a part of thepopulation who watches violent sports but isaverse to watching if there is violence involvingwomen, then they should feel nothing butexcitement when a woman will win a boxingmatch for example against a man, overcomingthis irrational stereotype. This is because a lot ofthis hatred against violence against women evenin a competitive situation is based on the ideathat the woman is both powerless in front of theman and not willing to fight him; essentially aview that women should be subservient.Obviously, neither of these points stands when", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "If we were to look at the two possible outcomeswe would see that allowing both males andfemales to compete against each other wouldactively decrease discrimination. This happensas, in this situation, we perceive the two sexesas being equal, able to compete against eachother, both beginning the race from the samestarting line, whereas the alternative would be todraw an imaginary barrier between the twosexes claiming that they are so far apart thatcompetition between them would be futile. Thosewomen who come on top on several occasions,such as Danica Patrick who has won NASCARcompetitions (1) will show that all thosestereotypes are wrong and that they should havebeen long forgotten. Of course there will be a lotof women who won’t be able to win anything, butthe entire spotlight and all the media coveragewill be on the ones who will, so they’ll be gettingthe lion’s share of media attention. As a result,successful stories of women defeating men intheir leagues will come as a megaphone for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "There will be a negative effect on women’sleagues Unfortunately, in the Status Quo thereare a lot of women sporting leagues which arecompletely overshadowed by men’s, such ascycling, basketball or soccer. What is needed inorder for them to grow is a lot of talented, giftedwomen athletes which will create the “thrill”needed to attract media coverage, which in turnattract sponsors. In time, as more and moreyoung female athletes are drawn into thesesports, slowly but surely they will grow andnarrow the financial and coverage gap betweenthem and men’s leagues. But if women areallowed to compete in men’s leagues the verybest females in that sport, who are the bedrockfor future development, will likely quit thewomen’s leagues for the men’s. Women alreadyseem inclined to do this, American skier LindseyVonn has won the women's World Cup four timesasked to be allowed to compete in the men'sevent.(1) As a result, the women’s leagues willbe stripped of their best competitors. Left on its", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "This could simply swap inequalitiesaround Despite the fact that gender equality insports often comes as an argument for applyingthis motion, it is rather the other way round. Ifindeed it is so important to let women competein men’s leagues, on what ground do we banmen from competing in women’s leagues? If welook at it from the point of equality, it would beonly normal that if women are equal to men,men are equal to women, and if females canmove from one league to another, so shouldmales. Either option we choose, there arenegative consequences that follow. On onehand, if men are not allowed to migrate from oneleague to another, this whole plan will have aboomerang effect as it won’t resolve genderdiscrimination, it will only switch thediscriminated gender. There is no basis on whichmales should be denied this advantage. On theother hand, if we do allow them to compete inwomen’s leagues, there won’t be male andfemale leagues, there will be two male leagues,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Destroying the pleasure of watching certainsports In today’s society, we have reached apoint where a significant majority of thepopulation is extremely sensitive towardsdomestic violence of any form, but particularlycoming from a man directed towards a woman.Unfortunately, a wide variety of extremelypopular sports are to a certain degree veryviolent such as: boxing, kickboxing, rugby, MMAor American football. Certain matches between amale and a female, no matter the winner will,cause a huge amount of visual discontent amongviewers as no one wants to see a man knockingunconscious a woman with an uppercut. Thiswould send a terrible message about violenceagainst women and would be extremelyunpopular and subject to large numbers ofcomplaints. Subjecting women to such violencein these sports, even if the women in questionputs up a good fight, will as a result of thesensitivity of many towards this kind of violencedecrease the popularity and thrill of these", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Crimination would increase From the verybeginning, it is important to understand thatmany sports are based on the physical attributesof the individuals. Whoever has the biggestmuscles, whoever is fastest, whoever lifts abigger weight, he is the one who will be declaredchampion. When we look at the statistics, theyreveal the massive gap between the athleticcapacities of the two sexes for example “Thewomen's speed world records are all about 90percent of the men's speed world records, inboth short, middle and long distances.”(1). Thisonly means, that although some women will winsome sporting events, the vast majority ofcompetition will still be won by men. As a result,more than ever, a message of female inferioritywill be transmitted because in a directcompetition between the sexes males willconstantly win an element which was lacking inthe past. This is defining sport in men’s termsnot women’s. It says sports are men’s sports andrelegates women’s to a secondary status at the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "On this level, it is obvious that letting mencompete in women’s leagues is a dreadful thingto do. On the other hand, there is absolutely nodiscrimination towards men on this level so thereis no reason to open up women’s leagues tomen. The levels on which women arediscriminated are the money they receive andthe air time they get. Allowing them to migratefrom one league to another is by no means anadvantage in itself, but rather the meansthrough which they can receive as many benefitsas men do. Men already get those advantages soboth sexes are treated equally on the point whichis the root of discrimination. There should stillbe this differentiation, as indeed a competitionbetween men and women can be very biased in alot of cases, but what is important is to let thosewomen who can face men head-to-head to so.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-mosgtshwawcs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "On this point, it is relevant which of the twoplans gives more incentive to young girls toenroll into sports thusly creating a wider pool oftalent, which is necessary for women sport togrow. Firstly, as men’s leagues are moretelevised, women who compete in those will getmore fame and attention so inspire girls from allaround the world compared to playing into anignored, untelevised, ill-funded league.Secondly, as there will be female winners even inthe male leagues, this will act as a furtherincentive for teenage girls to start practicingsports as there would be much more mediaattention for Serena Williams for example if shewon the men’s US Open than for winning thewomen’s tournament. Moreover, by havingtalented women competing in competitions whichget a lot of media attention you would actuallyincentivize people to start watching women’sleagues as well, as that is where those verytalented female athletes came from. They will actas proof to the fact that women’s leagues can be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Everybody knows umpires make mistakes; ithappens often enough that fans and players allrecognize it is part of the game. Nobody expectsumpires to be perfect, but everyone wantsumpires to strive for perfection. It’s just like withplayers: everybody wants their favourite playersto strive to play perfectly, but nobody actuallyexpects them to be perfect. Thus, we can’tsacrifice other elements of the game (discussedelsewhere in this debate) on the altar ofperfection. It is disingenuous to liken instantreplay to eyeglasses or to mere tools to“supplement” umpires’ skill. Instant replaybecomes a substitute for—not a supplementto—umpires’ skill. There is no skill involved inwatching a slow-motion replay and determiningwhether a player was tagged; millions of fans dothat each night from the comfort of their livingrooms. We do not want the fundamentalcharacter of baseball to be changed by removingumpires from the equation, which is whathappens every time instant replay is used.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "It’s not possible to get every call right, so instantreplay is a necessary supplement to umpires’skill Umpires must make split-secondjudgments, often from bad angles and with manyelements to watch simultaneously. Mistakes willhappen. Even the official rules acknowledge thiswhen it tells umpires, “You no doubt are going tomake mistakes” (Official Baseball Rules, Rule9.05). [1] Some calls will have to be made froma significant distance away from where theumpire is located—a commonly cited justificationof MLB’s adoption of instant replay on boundarycalls. [2] Fans hold umpires to an exceptionallyhigh standard; as former umpire Nestor Chylakput it, “They expect an umpire to be perfect onOpening Day and to improve as the season goeson.” [3] But it is impossible for a human to attainperfection on his own, so we should provide himwith the tools that will enable him to meet theexacting standards set out for him. It is folly towithhold technology that is already available.Even MLB Commissioner Bud Selig, generally an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Both the arguments provided by the propositionare faulty. First, the vast majority of umpires’calls might be correct, but that’s because thevast majority of calls are completelyuncontroversial. The question is what percentageof difficult calls do umpires get right. And itwould appear that umpires do not stack up well.An ESPN study of close calls found that umpiresget over 20 percent of them wrong. [1] Morefrequent use of instant replays might correctsome of these calls, but it would do so at theexpense of severely damaging umpires’credibility, which would impair their ability to doall the other important aspects of theirjob. Second, in crucial moments, it’s imperativefor umpires to be especially attentive, and forthem to make conclusive decisions. If umpiresknow that they don’t have to get the call rightbecause the cameras can save them, thenthey’re more likely to get it wrong. And ifumpires’ decisions are not final, then whatshould be the most exciting moments in baseball", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "With more accurate calls come more legitimateoutcomes to games There are times whenumpires make incorrect calls that determine theoutcomes of games or, worse, World Serieschampionships (e.g., Don Denkinger and the1985 World Series, mentioned above). Theseerroneous decisions lead to the team thatdeserved to win actually losing, and vice versa.In short, the results of the games areillegitimate. This is especially unfortunate whenfans invest hours to watch a game (or hundredsof hours watching an entire season), only to seethe wrong outcome—which could have beenentirely avoidable if umpires were allowed toreview their decision.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Accurate calls should be the top priority, andinstant replay helps provide them The main goalof an umpire is to make accurate calls. Umpiresare meant to ensure that a player who is out iscalled out, for example, and that a foul ball isruled a foul ball. When an umpire makes anincorrect call, he is falling short of fulfilling hisprimary responsibility. As the official rules ofMajor League Baseball instruct umpires, “Thefirst requisite is to get decisions correctly....Umpire dignity is important but never asimportant as ‘being right’” (Official BaseballRules, Rule 9.05). [1] Without a doubt, instantreplay helps to improve the accuracy of calls.When a play can be reviewed after the fact, inslow-motion, from multiple angles, it’s almostinevitable that the result will be a more accuratejudgment. Instant replay serves as an additionaltool for umpires, allowing closer examination ofevents. By providing umpires with an extra set ofeyes, video cameras will better enable umps tofulfil their purpose. [1] Major League Baseball,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Umpires have to balance several importantconsiderations: ensuring impartiality (and theappearance of impartiality as well); avoidingunnecessary delays in the game; ensuring thatall rules are followed; and to behave in a mannerthat compels respect from all parties. To arguethat the umpire’s job comes down to accuratecalls is to oversimplify a very complicated role.As the official rules of Major League Baseballinstruct umpires: “When you enter a ball parkyour sole duty is to umpire a ball game as therepresentative of baseball.... Keep the gamemoving. A ball game is often helped by energeticand earnest work of the umpires” (OfficialBaseball Rules, Rule 9.05). [1] [1] Ibid .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "This debate is clearly highlighting a difference inphilosophy about the role of the umpire.Proposition first says that umpires should not bea central part of the game (see Argument Four).Now Proposition says that a game’s outcome isillegitimate if it was decided by a poor call by anumpire. This is the wrong way of looking at it. Aslong as the umpire tried his best to make anaccurate judgment, then his call is “legitimate,”as is anything that flows from it. “Legitimacy” isnot the same as “accuracy.” Indeed, theumpire’s call might be the sole source oflegitimacy. Proposition previously quotedlegendary umpire Bill Klem, but remember two ofKlem’s other statements: “Gentlemen, he wasout because I said he was out,” and “It ain’tnothin’ till I call it.” [1] There is no such thing asa “legitimate” outcome divorced from the contextof an umpire’s call. [1] “Bill Klem,”Baseball-Reference.com, .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Baseball is not just about the players. It’s aboutmanagers, coaches, fans, and umpires too. It isa rather narrow view to argue that baseballumpires should remain invisible. Umpires play acentral role in every game. They make signalsthat are meant to attract attention. When acrucial play occurs in the bottom of the ninthinning, all eyes are on the umpire to see whatthe outcome will be. Bruce Froemming, whobroke Klem’s record for most MLB gamesumpired, had this rejoinder to Klem: “One of thereally wrong theories about officiating is that agood official is one you never notice. The umpirewho made that statement was probably a realpoor official who tried to get his paycheck andhide behind his partners and stay out of troubleall his life. Control of the ballgame is thedifference between umpires that show up for theplayers and the managers.” [1] Rather thandenying umpires’ central role, we shouldacknowledge it. Joyce’s blown call—and thesorrow he felt afterward—are as memorable, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Instant replay will actually enhance umpires’stature Instant replay will lead fans, managers,and players to hold umpires in higher regard.This will occur in two ways. First, the vastmajority of umpires’ calls are accurate.Statistical analyses have shown that well over 99percent of calls are accurate, [1] but this is notalways appreciated by spectators. Instant replaywill often confirm umpires’ calls, which will call tothe public’s attention just how often umpires getit right. Second, in cases where umpires’incorrect judgments could have very badconsequences—for example, in the case ofArmando Galarraga’s ruined perfect game, or indeciding the outcome of a crucial game—instantreplay will allow a reversal. This will spare theumpire much guilt and shame. Umpire TimMcClelland, who was involved in questionablecalls during the 2009 playoffs, said as muchabout his experience and those of Jim Joyce, theumpire who blew Galarraga’s perfect game:“After watching what I went through in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Instant replay will place the focus of the gamewhere it belongs—on the players, not theumpires Umpires are supposed to facilitate asmooth game. When they are the center ofattention, it is usually because something hasgone wrong. Legendary Hall of Fame umpire BillKlem accurately stated, “The best umpired gameis the game in which the fans cannot recall theumpires who worked it.” [1] The game issupposed to be decided by the feats of theplayers on the field, not the fallibility of the menin blue. Instant replay will help make thishappen. With instant replay, we would not havehad Jim Joyce, the umpire who blew Galarraga’sperfect game, holding a tearful press conferenceapologizing for his missed call. Instead, we wouldhave had images of Galarraga celebrating hishistorical achievement with his teammates. Thelatter, not the former, is what baseball issupposed to be about, and what fans want tosee. Instant replay will ensure that baseballrevolves around the players, rather than the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Baseball looks a lot like the game played 100years ago. But it also looks very different inmany crucial ways. Minorities can now play. Theheight of the mound has been changed. Nightgames are now played, with the help of lights.Technology—from the material of bats to theshape of gloves to the design of cleats—hasevolved. Even the composition of baseballs isdifferent. If all these things can change withouteliciting much objection, then why would instantreplay violate a tradition? And even if it did, it’snot clear that that tradition is a valuable one (asopposed to a neutral one or even a downrightundesirable one). [1] [1] ZombieMonta, “Whybaseball purists are dead wrong about instantreplay,” Inhistoric, Sept. 5, 2011, .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Baseball is indeed a slow sport, but instantreplay will simply replace—rather than addto—other aspects that contribute to its snail-likepace. First, every time there is a controversialplay where the umpire might have made a badcall, a player or the manager will come out andargue with the umpire. This arguing takes upabout as much time as a video review would. Butwith a video review, there would be no arguing;everyone would know the umpires got itright. Second, when an umpire is not certainabout his call, he often will confer with the otherumpires in a collective attempt for them to arriveat the correct decision. This, too, takes time, andthis, too, can be replaced with instant replay,which has the added virtue of being moreaccurate. Third, not very many plays will requireinstant replay, so even if there is a dilatoryeffect, it will be relatively small. Finally, ifbaseball’s pace is such a concern, then MLBshould first pursue a host of other steps to speedthe game—time limits for pitchers, batters,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Instant replay will take the human element outof baseball Baseball, like all sports, “is thepursuit of transcending imperfection.” [1] It isnot supposed to be executed with roboticperfection; it is supposed to involve humanbeings all trying their best to do the best theycan. Fallible umpire calls are part of the dramaof baseball. Many people enjoy the excitementthat comes with the fallibility of umpire's calls.This sub-plot in baseball in unique and should bepreserved. Indeed, fooling the ump is atime-honored part of the game. [2] It is notcheating; no rule is broken when one pretends tohave been hit by a pitch to try to dupe theumpire. It is a colourful, even skilful way to workwithin the imperfect, very human parametersthat the sport. [1] Mark Coatney, “TheGreatness and Perfection of Missing the Call,”Daily Beast, June 2, 2010, . [2] Tom Krasovic,“Dusty Baker Defends Umpires Amid Calls forExpanded Instant Replay,” AOL News, Oct. 9,2010, .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Instant replay might be deceptive orinconclusive Not all video reviews will lead to anaccurate ruling. Sometimes, camera angles couldgive a tricky, incorrect impression. Or they couldshed little light on what actually happened. Inthese cases, instant replay will afford theappearance of certainty when the reality is muchmore complicated. In addition, all of the harmsof inaccurate calls that Proposition is trying tosolve will continue to exist.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Many plays don’t lend themselves to videoreview There are two types of plays that defyinstant replay. The first is one that would belongto a longer sequence of events, called“continuation plays.” Often, when an umpiremakes a call, the ball is still in play, and moreplays might follow. A commentator offers thisscenario: “For example, if the umpire calls a ballfoul and replay shows it was fair and the decisionis overturned by replay, how do you handle thebase runners?” [1] There’s just no easy way forvideo replay to be used in continuationplays. [1] Don Hunsberger, “Let’s bringmeaningful instant replay to baseball,” DailyCommercial, June 6, 2010, .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Tradition demands that this instant replay not beused One of the beautiful aspects of baseball ishow little it has changed over the years. Just asit was a century ago, you have nine players onthe field, batters swinging wooden bats, andumpires dressed in dark colors rendering thedecisions. Maintaining tradition honors baseball’slong history. It also helps to promotecomparability over time; the feats of today canbe held side-by-side with those of 80 years ago.Moreover, it protects baseball against fads andother calls for change that might be popular at aparticular moment, but could prove to bedisastrous if implemented.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con05b", "title": "", "text": "Even if instant replay will not result in 100%accuracy, it will improve the chance that anyindividual reviewed call will be made correctly. Inthe status quo, umpires make their calls as ifthey’re certain, so projecting false certaintyreally should not be a major concern for theOpposition. What video review will do is ensurethat the umpire can be at least as confidentabout his call as the managers, coaches, andmillions of viewers watching at home", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Instant replay will take too long We already seeit with boundary calls: The umpires need to go tothe review station, then they need to watch thefootage of the play several times, then they needto weigh whether the footage is convincingenough to meet the requisite burden of proof,and then they need to return to the field andsignal their decision. In the meantime, tens ofthousands of fans are sitting in the standswaiting, millions of people are watching at home,the pitcher is becoming less limber, and anymomentum to the game is completely lost. It’soften noted that baseball is a slow sport.“Baseball has no clock,” the saying goes. [1]Instant replay will slow down an already-slowgame. [1] William Deresiewicz, “Metaphors WePlay By,” American Scholar, June 6, 2011, .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con04b", "title": "", "text": "If a play is part of a longer sequence of events,then don’t use video review for that play. Onlypermit it for when the ball is dead or play stopsimmediately upon the conclusion of the play.Continuation plays can easily be placed outsidethe scope of instant replay. Also, there’s no suchthing as “normative” calls on a play. If an umpiredeems a “phantom tag” sufficient for an out, heis making an incorrect call. The rules do notallow for phantom tags. If instant replay puts anend to this practice, so much the better.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshbirsbumlb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Proposition is not arguing for all calls to be madevia instant replay. Balls and strikes, for example,are best left to umpires because they areregarded as more subjective, and because thereis no video equipment that consistently rendersresults that are widely viewed asaccurate. Besides, the human element thatreally matters is that of the players. Theumpires’ human element might be substitutedfor making sure that the players’ human elementis what decides the game. The point of thebaseball game is for players to win or lose thegame, not for umpires to win or lose the game. Abaseball game played by robots but umpired bypeople would have lost its “human element,” butthe same certainly would not be said about abaseball game played by humans and officiatedby robots (or even just human beings whooccasionally consult video footage and interpretit in their human minds).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It would still require a large initial outlay of cashin order to equip all stadiums with thetechnology and train officials in using it. Also, thetechnology would need to be constantlyre-designed and re-developed so that it couldkeep up with technological advances; this wouldbe extremely expensive and endless, butnecessary to keep technology up-to-date,relevant and fit for purpose. Some peoplesuggest that the money would be better spentimproving existing official options, such asimproving refereeing academies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Technology is available GLT technology isreadily available and could be quicklyimplemented. Hawkeye, used in tennis andcricket, would serve the GLT purpose very well.Though eventually dismissed, it was suggestedthat GPS technology could measure whetherplayers are offside or not. Cameras are alreadyset up for television with enough angles to makedecisions; it would be simple to set up monitorspitch-side so that officials could watch replayedfootage. Currently, viewers watching at homeare able to make much more informed decisionsthan match officials.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Challenges in tennis and cricket are limited tothree per side – here the number of challengesare potentially unlimited and GLT could beinvoked whenever a team senses the possibilityof gaining an advantage. Without limitations, thegame could be endlessly stopped while officialsturn to technology to confirm theirdecisions. Football is a continuous game, with anatural ebb and flow, which the interruptionscaused by GLT would disrupt.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The introduction of technology isinevitable Football is moving into thetwenty-first century, yet the refusal to embraceGLT is completely out-dated. Nowhere in FIFApolicy does it state that referees cannot use theinfluence of technology. In FIFAs disciplinarycode (2009), Article 72 states that: 1) \"Duringmatches, disciplinary decisions are taken by thereferee\", and 2) \"These decisions are final\"1. Thereferee already \"acts on the advice of theassistant referees regarding incidents that he hasnot seen\" and can change decisions based onadvice2. All referees also have an earpiece(introduced in 2006) linking the two assistantrefs and the fourth official, which alreadydemonstrates technology's successful impact infootball. GLT is simply the next step. 1 FIFADisciplinary Code 2009 edition, FIFA, December2008, p.41, (accessed 24/05/11) 2 Laws of theGame 2010/11, FIFA, p.22, (accessed 24/05/11)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Football has operated successfully for over 100years without GLT. Two assistant referees wereintroduced in 1891, 28 years after the rules ofassociation football were coined; a fourth officialwas introduced in 1991; and FIFA recentlyintroduced two additional assistant referees inEuropa League games. Football hasdemonstrated that it is willing and capable toadjust to the demands of wider exposure withouthaving to resort to GLT.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Take, for example, Sunderland’s freak victory atLiverpool in October 2009, the so called‘Beachball incident’ where a winning goal wasdeflected off a large red beach ball, it may wellhave gone in anyway but it undoubtedlydistracted the keeper.1 GLT and instant replayswould not have resolved the controversy, as theambiguity was legal; the law did not have a clearposition on the incident. GLT would have beenuseless here; it is only as useful as the laws andhumans behind it. In March 2010 FIFA presidentSepp Blatter argued added: \"No matter whichtechnology is applied, at the end of the day adecision will have to be taken by a human being.This being the case, why remove theresponsibility from the referee to give it tosomeone else?”2 Decisions would still be at thediscretion of the person watching the video (asecond referee, of sorts), who must interpretwhat he or she sees in a limited space of time. 1‘Freak goal was wrongly allowed’, BBC Sport,18th October 2009, accessed 25/05/11 2", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "GLT is used across a range of othersports Technology has been proven to workacross a wide range of sports from tennis, cricketand rugby. A survey of its implementation in the2011 Australian Open demonstrates the impactthat guaranteeing correct decisions had onseveral games.1 It has become a natural aid tosport. GLT would only be used on a goaldecision, much like tennis uses challenges onlyonce a rally has stopped. Football is no morefluid a sport than any of the others. If adebatable goal were scored, play would stopanyway while one team celebrates and the otherprotests to the officials. 1 Kelvin Goodchild,Hawk-eye: Big Impact at Crucial Moments,TennisLife Magazine, 29th January 2011,(accessed 25/05/11)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Technology is more reliable than humanjudgement Goals are the ultimate measure ofsuccess in football; technology would reduce therisk of teams losing matches unfairly due tocontroversial decisions (see FIFA World CupQuarter Final 2010 England v Germany). There isno reason to expose referees to criticism, threatsand derision when we have the means to helpthem. GLT is a tool meant to assist referees intheir decisions, not undermine them. HowardWebb has added his voice to the pro-technologydebate: \"anything that makes my job easier,that makes me more credible, I've an open mindto. We are still using human opinion in thosedecisions and maybe on a matter of fact like thegoal-line some technology might be the wayforward. I personally prefer it when there is nodebate about the referees. It's a difficultposition, [to judge over the line]. It's at speed,and it ain't easy. Sometimes I feel in a less thanprivileged position by not having the opportunity[to use technology] but that's where we are. It's", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Supporters love the game, not the soap opera.As Howard Webb articulated, \"Controversy is notthe reason why I watch football but we need tobe careful not to change what draws millions tofootball. I still keep an open mind of the future.It's a tricky thing to do.\"1We must progress onterms of reason, not tradition. 1 Ian Ladyman,Howard Webb calls for goalline technology asWorld Cup final referee returns to BarclaysPremier League duty, MailOnline, 10thSeptember 2010, (accessed 24/05/11)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "GLT would not be used to assess any and everyincident in a match; it would only be invoked tosupport a referee when a goal-line decision wasparticularly difficult to judge from a distance. Thereferees would exercise due diligence in referringto it, and it is likely that many games would passwithout it being necessary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The cost would not match FIFA's aim of openingfootball to the world Only professional clubs andnational federations have the resources to installthe technology in stadiums. This would furtherincrease the gap that is emerging between localclubs and high-revenue leagues such as thePremier League, La Liga, the Bundesliga andSerie A. Further, currently amateur teamsplaying on Sundays play the same game, withthe same rules and ethos, as the professionals.With GLT, many argue that this would no longerbe the case. In a press conference in March2010, FIFA president Sepp Blatter wrote: \"One ofthe main objectives of FIFA is to protect theuniversality of the game of association football...If you are coaching a group of teenagers in anysmall town around the world, they will be playingwith the same rules as the professional playersthey see on TV.\"1 For example, the FA Cup has4 or 5 qualifying rounds consisting of amateurand semi-professional knock-out phases becausethe Premier League teams with GLT capability", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The cost of GLT is unjustified for a relatively rarescenario In order for a goal to stand, the ballmust completely cross the line; to have asituation where this is in doubt is very rare.Introducing GLT would be to completely changethe nature of football for the least significantoccurrence. These incidents tend to balance outover the season. Teams do not win leagues orare not relegated because of one isolatedincident in one game; they win because of skill,strength and tactics, over the course of 90minutes for a game, and a whole season for aleague.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Controversy and debate are a part of thegame Controversy will always be a part of thegame; because laws must be interpreted by anindividual, fouls will always be called on the basisof opinion, even if that is someone re-watchingthe incident on a monitor. If fans acceptedmistakes as exactly that, they would cease tomatter; the authority of the referee would beabsolute and the game would move on withoutundue mention. GLT is unnecessary. SeppBlatter famously argued that \"Fans love todebate any given incident in a game. It is part ofthe human nature of our sport\"1. Supporterslove to hate the referee; it provides them with ascapegoat for defeat. With GLT, the authority ofreferees would be irrevocably diminished. Theywould become merely cogs in a mechanicprocess of decision making. If we come to relyon cameras to govern the game, the passion isdrained from it. 1 Ian Ladyman, Howard Webbcalls for goalline technology as World Cup finalreferee returns to Barclays Premier League duty,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The dynamics of football as a game are verydifferent from other sports which currently usetechnology In other sports there is just onequestion: was the ball in or out? Was the playersafe or out? In football, the issue would not bethat simple. Not only would the GLT-operativehave to consider whether the ball was whollyover the line or not, but they would also have tolook at the build up to ensure that the goal waslegitimate. Was there a foul? An offside? As inthe notorious case of the 2010 World CupQualifier Play-off France v Ireland, was there ahandball? This would not only be extremelytime-consuming and thus detract from thespectacle of the game, but could also bepotentially endless. In cricket or tennis this delayis more natural as matches are expected to takeseveral hours; one of the hallmarks of football isit’s frenetic pace. Challenges could not be limitedin an attempt to prevent this, because if a teamwere to run out and a blatant wrong decisionwere noticed they would be in the same position", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The frequency of use is not the point of GLT. It isa back-up system, a support infrastructure,whose purpose is to help minimiseinconsistencies and serve justice when calledupon. The cost is a small price to pay for thetransformative effect it could have upon the onegame where it matters. Early in the 2009/10season Crystal Palace had a goal ruled outagainst Bristol City after it had actually gone inthe net and bounced out.1 They lost two pointsbecause neither the referee nor the assistantreferee saw the ball go in the net, and if Palacehad not beaten Sheffield Wednesday on the finalday of the season, they would have beenrelegated because of it. Given Palaces' direfinancial situation, this would almost certainlyhave resulted in the club being liquidated. Justbecause it is rare, that does not mean it is notvaluable. 1 Palace denied replay over ‘goal’, BBCSport, 27th August 2009, accessed 25/05/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwigltf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "it is a fallacy to say that if GLT cannot be appliedto all levels of football it should not be applied atall. Nobody is suggesting that GLT be set up forall games down to grassroots level. Compromiseis necessary in order to encourage reform withinin a game whose stance on technology isanachronistic. Also, other sports have onlyimplemented technology in the professionalsphere. They recognise that there is a massiveamount of money and emotion invested in theprofessional game, and fairness is deserved as areward. If both teams know the rules, they canboth play the game according to the samestandard; GLT would not make teams play withdifferent rules, it would just mean that somegames are better equipped.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwipclaf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Under the BCS, every single game is importantas losing the BCS is often catastrophic when itcomes to qualification for any of the subsequentBowls. As such, the playoffs mean that regularseason games become less relevant as winningand losing only has an effect on seed andqualification becomes a lot easier. Further, BCSbuilds up the need for an undefeated season forcertain teams to be able to qualify. As suchteams are more likely to give everything to everysingle match during the regular season underBCS, unlike in some leagues where a clearwinner will emerge very early on and not have toplay nearly at 100% capacity in order to win theconference overall. [1] [1] Klosterman, Chuck.“No college football playoff, please.” ESPN.01/02/2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwipclaf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Playoffs Offer More Suspense Within the playoffsystem every game during the playoffs is aknockout. As such, every single game in theplayoffs carries the potential risk of excluding thelosing team from the remainder of that season’sgames. This works incredibly well to build uptension, because favourites have lost to teamsthat were believed to be a lot worse. With historysupporting this idea all players and fans arelikely to feel tension during the playoff gameswhich directly contributes to the enjoyment of agame. Further, given the prevalence of lategame comebacks in American football, due theever present threat of an interception, it meansthat fans are still likely to enjoy games evenwhen their team is likely to lose going into thelater quarters. Further, the playoff system stillsignificantly incentivises good work during theregular season. The top ranked team would facethe lowest ranked team in the first round andgain home field advantage for being the higherseed. It is beneficial for both sides because", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwipclaf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The Bowl system results in a few incrediblyimportant matches for players. As such,offensive coordinators for teams bring out everysingle trick that they have in the book to winthem. Every player involved in the Bowl systemgoes all out to win these events because they arethe only televised matches that most players willever see. Given that that is true, Bowls have areputation for being some of the most excitingand spectacular matches of the year. Theviewing audience for Bowls is disproportionatelyhigh because of this. As such, the exposure forteams participating in Bowls is significantlyhigher and would be lowered if the resolutionwere to pass, the inevitable result of lowerviewing figures for the individual matchups.[1] [1] Klosterman, Chuck. “No college footballplayoff, please.” ESPN. 01/02/2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwipclaf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Banning Playoffs Offer Greater Fairness The BCSsystem unfairly discriminates against 45 of the120 teams that participate in college football.Given that some of these teams participate innon-BCS leagues they can perform incrediblywell and still not get into the BCS. Further, theBCS system is flawed beyond this given that bothBoise State and Utah were deemed unsuitablefor the competition despite the fact that theywent undefeated in the seasons before theirrejection. The winner of the BCS is meant to bethe best collegiate football team in the country.However, if undefeated teams are unable tocompete it makes the system incredibly unfair,and reduces the legitimacy of the BCS title itself,undermining the value of the competitionoverall. Finally, as noted football analyst MichaelShull notes, due to flaws in the computeralgorithms used to allocated BCS places, someteams that do well for a single season as anoutlier or due to a positive change for the teamdo not get into the cup. This potentially means", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwipclaf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The practice of having multiple “Bowls” creates asystem where more teams “Win” at the end ofthe season. Whilst college football is serious, it isunderstood that college teams’ playersparticipate in collegiate events in order to gainthe skills and experience that will enable them tojoin NFL teams. As such, the participation oftalented youngsters in college football isdependent on collegiate tournaments being seenas fair, impartial and meritocratic tests ofplayers’ and teams’ skill. Confidence in themeritocratic nature of the system is not enoughto guarantee the interest of the best players,however. Returns on the investment of time andeffort and opportunity that players engage inmust be high. The odds of gaining recognition asa good player within the collegiate system mustoutweigh the risk of losing out on the chance toparticipate in high profile games. In a situationwhere playoffs are introduced, only one teamstands victorious at the end, the others lose andare inevitably forgotten about. This is incredibly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwipclaf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Playoffs Lead To More Exposure The issue withthe BCS system, as mentioned above, is thatteams selected by an often broken and biasedBCS mechanism receive more money andexposure than more talented, harder workinginstitutions, making them more likely to beselected by the same mechanism in the future.Standout teams that only perform that well for aseason are able to get significantly moreexposure under the proposition model. Due tothe very high profile nature of playoff games- aswell as the fact that there would simply be moreplayoff games with palpably fair and meritocraticoutcomes later in the playoffs- more people willwatch college football. Specifically, includingmore teams in a playoff based competition willmean that more fans get their favourites in tothe playoffs and as such more people watch.Secondly, the increased number of matches’means that it is more likely that fans will be ableto catch another match if they cannot watch one.Finally, should an upset happen, the amount of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwipclaf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is an impetus for playoffs among fans,with 63% saying that playoffs similar to thoseused in college basketball should beimplemented. Further, given that the gameswould have implications for the nationalchampionships they would not suffer a loss inattendance given that right now the “Bowl”games are viewed by most fans as beingmeaningless exercises. Given that most viewthese games as meaningless and simply go forthe camaraderie and the pageantry they feel, itseems logical that in playoff games that haveramifications for a legitimate championship theyare more likely to go. Fans already do this forcollege basketball which has sixty extra gamesand doesn’t even happen during a time whenpeople are off from work for the Christmas andNew Year break. [1] [1] Starin, Harvey. “Thereis nothing wrong with college football playoffs.”Sun Sentinel. 01/07/2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwipclaf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The existence of the Bowls is simply a way forthe BCS businessmen to earn large amounts ofmoney. Under the status quo, the BCSbusinessmen get a share of all revenuesgenerated from each Bowl. Further, the money isalso then divided further, with the televisionnetwork that covers the game taking some of therevenue. Further, given the games aren’t playedon home turf, instead on a stadium that is hiredfor that day’s play, money is lost on travel. Bycomparison, under the proposition, if highseeded teams win consistently, they would playat home, not lose money to the BCS officials andthus gain significantly extra levels of revenuejust by running business in-house. [1] [1]“Wetzel’s playoff plan.” Yahoo Sports. 7/12/2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwipclaf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Playoffs Result in More Injuries and HurtAcademics The toll on the bodies of players inAmerican football is much greater than that ofother sports, primarily due to the high frequencyof physical impacts in the sport. To be able to getthrough a season, players often need to playthrough more minor injuries and thus need fairlylong rest periods between games. However,playoffs would all be run within a small windowof time, meaning the accumulation of injurieswould be greater and thus players would bemore likely to risk much more serious injuriesjust to be in the championship game. Thequality of the championship game would suffersignificantly because of this, but also playersmight riddle themselves with long term injuriesthat they could come to forget in thefuture. Alternatively, players with an interest intheir long-term careers would be likely to pull outof the bowl system altogether. Further, footballplayers often have to take a lot of time awayfrom classes in order to play football games", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwipclaf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Playoffs Would Not Benefit Fans College footballfans tend to have lower budgets than those ofNFL fans. Specifically because there are manymore colleges and owing to the lower number offans per game, there usually aren’t deals ontravel. As such travel between grounds isexpensive. Given that playoffs result in moregames being played it is apparent thatsupporters of the various teams will incur morecost. Further, if their team loses where theymight have instead won a lesser competition, thesupporters will likely be less happy than they arenow. As well as this, when a team does win inthe playoffs, the people watching that team facea very high burst of costs should they want tocontinue to support that team. Further, if thefans do have to stay at home they will as a resultbe subjected to watching a game with a halffilled stadium with no real atmosphere. [1] [1]Purdy Mark. “College football playoff soundsgreat but is a bad idea.” Mercury news.8/01/2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwipclaf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Playoffs Would Earn Less money BCS makesconsistent money for the Universities andcolleges that partake in the system. The issue isthat, should a playoff system be implemented, itis likely that these institutions would seek toundermine it in order to simply revert back tothe old system. Should they withdraw theirteams, the overall skill ceiling of college footballwould lower significantly. The fact that playoffswould occur during the Christmas period alsomeans that owing to the cold weather at thetime, the number of fans that would be drawn tothe stadiums to pay money would be significantlylower than in regular season. The “Bowls”system makes sense because the only one nearthe Christmas period is the nationalchampionship which is considered high profileenough to draw a crowd. [1] [1] Purdy Mark.“College football playoff sounds great but is abad idea.” Mercury news. 8/01/2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwipclaf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "As at least 18 year olds, college football playersknow the risks of injury that college footballmight entail and should they choose to continueplaying it is their right to do so. If they getinjured they have consented and are notharming anyone else. Further, the teams thatget through the playoffs are most likely to be theteams that have won the most games. Generallyin football, the teams that do win the mostgames have suffered the fewest injuries on thedint of them being very strong at protecting theirrunning backs and quarterbacks. Academically,football players are mandated to attend aminimum number of classes and often are betterat attending classes than many other students.As such, playoffs would be fine, especiallyconsidering they come during the holiday periodwhere often students are home with theirfamilies and not working anyway. [1] [1] Schad,Joe. “Auburn coach Tuberville calls for playoffsystem.” ESPN 05/10/2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is not a good in itself to make modernOlympics resemble the ancient events as muchas possible. Ancient Games, for instance, onlyallowed men to compete, and many of the sportsinvolved today did not exist then. Progress isgenerally considered a good thing, and thepurpose and meaning of the Olympics hasprogressed since then. This does not mean thatart and culture have no place, and indeed thereare cultural festivities surrounding every Olympicevent. But modern Olympics have an identity oftheir own, and the question of whether chessbelongs to it is a different one.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Introducing chess would preserve the spirit ofthe ancient Olympic Games When the IOCspokeswoman Emmanuelle Moreau stated that“mind sports, by their nature, cannot be part ofthe program”6, she contradicted Olympic history.The Ancient Greek Panhellenic Games(forerunners of the modern Olympic Games)indeed emphasised musical, theatrical andpainting competitions.7 Even the modernOlympic Games had non-physical competitionssuch as painting, design and poetry between1912 and 1952.8 Through chess, the cultural andmental aspect now lost in the Olympic Games isprotected. The limits of human capability can beinvestigated from a new, intellectual, angle. Thiswould allow the Games to celebrate, as intended,human potential in its entirety. [6] Haire,Meaghan. “Should Chess Be an Olympic Sport?”TIME, 5 August 2008. [7] \"Pythian Games.\"Encyclopædia Britannica. EncyclopædiaBritannica Online Academic Edition.Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. [8]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The benefits of chess should be promoted in theirright context: a competition exclusively aboutchess can emphasise these aspects. TheOlympics’ motto, on the other hand, is “Faster,higher, stronger”11: chess is very much in theperiphery of its message. Such an event isincapable of emphasising all of chess’ meritswithout a serious and controversialtransformation. It is even unlikely to gathermore viewers for chess when it competes withother sports, closer to the Olympics’purpose. [11] “Opening Ceremony”,International Olympics Committee, 2002.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Chess ought to qualify as an Olympicsport Chess is not a predominantly physicalsport, yet neither are shooting and curling(which, in fact, has been nicknamed “chess onice”5). The opposition may respond that thedetermining factor in these is still physical, suchas speed and precision. However, chess toorequires precise calculation in short periods oftime. There is no relevant distinction to be drawnbetween the human brain and other organs: bothcan be trained and strained, and doing so shouldbe equally rewarded. More importantly,taekwondo is a further example of what may becalled a mind sport. As in chess, bothparticipants have the same set of moves whichcan be combined in a near infinite number ofways: it thus becomes a battle of intellect andstrategy rather than strength. The body merelybecomes the vessel through which to compete,precisely as a chess board. Although the vesselsare different, the fundamental activity is thesame, and thus if taekwondo is valid as an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that the body is the vessel in shooting,curling and taekwondo is more relevant than thisargument suggests. It means that the finaldetermining factors are physical ones, such asspeed, control, and precision. In chess, althoughstamina is involved, it could never be sufficientto win a game. The determining factors areintellectual, such as the mind’s precision incalculating many moves into the future. Thebrain is an organ: but we do not call anythingthat tires our brain a sport.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Chess is not as appealing to an ignorant observeras other sports, by virtue of not being physical.Most people can relate to the impressive natureof Olympic gymnastics or a goal-scoringback-flip, even without knowing the rules or thecomplex strategies involved. This is not the casefor chess: it requires a more patient andinformed audience. Even if it is viewer friendlyfor its strong fan base, it is unlikely to gathermore support in the Olympics, where many othermore established sports are also at their mostavailable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Chess is proven to have great cognitive benefits:increasing its support is objectively good Thesports in the Olympics promote good values:they display attributes and disciplines that wewant to encourage in society and children inparticular. Chess is no different from this.Numerous studies have shown that chess haslarge cognitive benefits, strengthening a widerange of skills: problem-solving,decision-making, memory, mathematics, logic,and creative thinking.9, 10 These are skills wewant to actively promote, and thus if includingchess in the Olympics would increase its support,we should do so. Making chess an Olympic sportwould make it more accessible to people whowould otherwise not watch it. It would alsoincentivise young enthusiasts to become moreinvolved in the hope of participating in such arecognised competition. Bringing chess to ahighly recognised event would doubtless increasesupport, and thus have an objectively positiveimpact on society. [9] Dr Dauvergne, Peter.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Chess is highly popular and should berepresented Chess is among the sports with thegreatest number of federations and of activeparticipants worldwide.12 Its large fan base,however, is completely unrepresented in theworld’s largest sports competition. Chess,furthermore, is highly viewer friendly, so itspopularity would only flourish from itsrepresentation. It is possible to broadcast anygame online, for all to watch at home. Gamesalso often feature high commentary actionexplaining and analysing the players’ strategies,to make them approachable and exciting to thepublic. Furthermore, it could take the shape of ateam sport in the Olympics, leaving greaterspace for tactics and discouraging draws, onceagain making it more appealing for a broadaudience. [12] “FIDE – World ChessFederation”, FIDE, 8 April 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The Olympic does not hold precedence as ajustification for including a given sport. They donot have fixed guidelines, and they includesports on a case by case basis. Therefore, itseems unlikely that this would force the IOC toaccept other mind games. Bridge and poker, forinstance, rely on an element of chance, whichchess does not. This is a criterion that impactstheir appropriateness for assessing humanpotential, and a ground on which other mindsports ought not to be included. Furthermore, itmay well be true that the Olympics cannotcontinue expanding due to lack of space, and theinability of most countries to host such largeevents. However, chess is one of the exampleswhere the least space and infrastructure isrequired. This is an argument for not havinginfinite sports, but it provides no reason toexclude chess from a finite selection.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Attempts to separate chess from other sportsmerely misunderstand the discipline. There ismuch more than this to chess: it requiresprecision, speed, stamina, and commitment.Unlike many other games the element of chancedoes not exist. Furthermore, chess has aninfinite number of variations, so it provides atimeless platform on which to measure humanability. It would cohere perfectly with Olympicgoals and values.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Chess cannot ensure fair play Even if we were toaccept all other reasons for including chess in theOlympic Games, it is actually not implementable.The Olympics have strict regulations against anyform of cheating in their sports14, and have thusrequired chess competitions to be subject todrug tests before they can be considered.However, cheating in chess goes far beyonddoping. There have been abundant chessscandals where players used computerprogrammes to aid them throughout the game.As technology develops, it is likely that these willbecome even harder to detect. Furthermore,another form of cheating that is impossible toprevent is collusion. Players can meetbeforehand and agree to draw games for theirmutual advantage15. Both of these kinds ofcheating are impossible to regulate, and thuschess cannot compatible with the Olympics’zero-tolerance regulations. [14] “Factsheet: Thefight against doping and promotion of athletes’health”, International Olympic Committee.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Chess-specific competitions create a better eventfor chess players than the Olympics It would notbenefit chess to become a part of the Olympics.In the status quo, the World Chess Federationorganises a Chess Olympiad every second year,clashing with the Olympic Games. If the motionpassed, the Chess Olympiad and many otherchess competitions would, if not disappear, atleast lose much of their prestige andpopularity. This is harmful for the chesscommunity. Although chess-specific tournamentsare less renown internationally than theOlympics, they have a high status within its fanbase. In the Olympics, chess would becomemeshed with other sports with which it sharesnothing. Having to compete for viewers withother sports’ Olympic tradition, it would beunlikely to amass great support. Thus, chesswould risk both losing its own successfulcompetitive events, and failing to obtain anequally high status in the Olympics.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Opening up the Olympics for borderline sports isbad in itself Opening up the Olympics for chessleads to a dangerous slippery slope. After thisconcession it becomes extremely difficult to drawthe line for bridge, poker, or even videogames.This is problematic, because in the status quothere are many sports that are universallyrecognised as such (unlike those mentionedabove), and yet have to be excluded from theOlympics due to lack of space. These includebandy, baseball, bowling, cricket, netball, rugby,softball and rugby. All of these already havemassive support internationally and form acoherent category. As a result of this lack ofspace some sports are sometimes replaced, forexample at the moment wrestling is not certainto take place at the 2020 Olympics with baseballand squash vying to take its place.16 Chess,bridge, and similar games, on the other hand,have a very different nature. It makes moresense for the future of both categories to draw adistinction between conventional sports on one", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Chess lacks the necessary physicalactivity Sports are about the perfection of ourbodies, and therefore the competitive aspect ofsport should relate directly to that perfection. Inthe Fundamental Principles of Olympism in theOlympic Charter the first is “combining in abalanced whole the qualities of body, will andmind”.13 Although we value the mental battlebetween athletes, we find that kind of exertionsecondary, and not the core of sport which is thephysical aspect. Chess consists only of the mindand to a lesser extent the will. It does not matterhow well you can move the pieces from onesquare to the other. Therefore, chess celebratesa different aspect of the human condition thanthe Olympics and sports as a whole do: it cannotbe an Olympic sport. [13] “FundamentalPrinciples of Olympism”, Olympic Charter, 8 July2011, p.10", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-con04b", "title": "", "text": "All other Olympic sports have their owncompetitions. Even if the Olympiad was to fadeout due to clashes, other prestigiouscompetitions will doubtless remain as in anyother sport. Being recognised as an Olympicsport would be a great gain for the chesscommunity. Exposure creates attention andsupport: for example, chess had its first boom inNorway after Magnus Carlsen becameinternationally recognised18. Being part of theOlympics will show people the benefits of chessand provide a higher platform towards whichamateurs can strive. [18] “Norway makes itsinternational chess move”, News & Events,Norway: The Official Site in the UK, 3 September2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-ohwico-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It has consistently proven impossible to preventdoping in any Olympic sport. Despite manyscandals we still have cycling, for example, in theOlympics. It will too get harder to prevent this,as drugs develop at a similar rate to technologyto be more easily concealed. This is therefore noreason to exclude chess: we should merely takesteps towards stricter controls and sanctions inthe discipline.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "In its bid for hosting the World Cup, the Qatarchairman Sheikh Mohammed bin Hamad binKhalifa Al-Thani Al-Thani said the stadiumswould have \"zero carbon cooling equipmentutilising solar technology to ensure thetemperature is no higher than 27 degreesCelsius, ensuring optimum playing conditionsand a comfortable environment for fans. Thissame environmentally friendly, carbon-neutraltechnology will ensure training sites, fan fest andfan zones are also cool andcomfortable.\"(1) This type of technology willensure that the fans are protected from theintense summer heat at all times. It is true thatthey won’t spend most of the time in stadiums,but where they will spend most of the time arefan zones. In those areas bars, restaurants andshops will be installed, thus creating anenvironment where fans will be encouraged tospend large quantities of time. It would be onlyreasonable to assume that in that $200 billionthat Qatar will invest a significant part of it will", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A sporting event in the heat of a desert summerwill not be a pleasant experience for thefans One of the most important parts of thegame is the fans. They are the ones who watchthe sport, they are the ones to which footballowes its popularity. Not only are they the oneswho pay for the sport they are also a vital part ofany competition. Without the choreographiesmade by the supporters and the impressivecheering, football becomes nothing more than asilent, mediocre sport. As a result, we must takeinto consideration how well these hundreds ofthousands of supporters from all over the worldwho will come to Qatar feel during the WorldCup. Let us not forget, that they will spend mostof the time outside the stadia; on the streets, inthe gruelling heat, or they will be forced indoors.Unfortunately, for many of them this experiencewill be overshadowed by the constantheat-caused discomfort when engaging in thekind of socialising and watching matches atoutdoor screens that usually creates the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is clear that Qatar will get more recognition,fame and respect from the internationalcommunity if it proves itself able to solve a rangeof problems which were considered to be toodifficult for anyone to handle. In the past, all theother countries that hosted the World Cup wereengaged in all sorts of social campaigns designedto solve multiple problems, and the Qataris willbe no exception. But if they want to setthemselves apart from the others they mustprove they are able to solve even more difficultproblems, such as their ferocious heat. Oncethey manage to solve this by introducingstate-of-the-yard technologies, they willdifferentiate themselves from previous hosts andreceive more respect. Another reason whyQataris will receive more respect is because theywill open the road for organizing sporting eventsin places which were previously considered to beineligible. They will be the ones who will spur thedevelopment of the technology necessary toensure the optimal temperature for this event, a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Heat will damage player's health In order tofully understand the implications of this motion,one must see what participating in the FIFAWorld Cup means to a football player. First ofall, it means an intense and sustained physicaleffort for a significant amount of time. Do notforget that the Cup itself lasts for a couple ofweeks, and there are plenty of weeks of trainingbefore it in order to get the players in the bestshape possible. This means they are exposed toa lot of physical stress and have to play or trainno matter of the weather conditions ortemperature. Secondly, with temperaturesranging from 35C to 40C during the summer itwould be torture to force the players to train andplay in those conditions. Former France, Fulham,Manchester United and Everton striker LouisSaha told BBC Sport he thought it wasimpossible for players to handle the MiddleEastern country's extremely high summertemperatures. (1) \"I was in Qatar recently and itwas 48C,\" he said. \"Believe me, it is impossible", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Qatar’s successful bid to host the World Cupmarked a historic moment for the country andbrought huge responsibilities to the organizingcommittee. Qatar will be the first Arab nation tohost this event, this meaning that they are undera lot of pressure to prove to the world that theyhave the necessary skills and capabilities to dothis job. Therefore, it is reasonable to assumethat they will not let anything derail this event,let alone something as easily to control astemperature. It promised revolutionaryair-cooling technology to counter the summerheat in its bid; this has been reiterated in astatement that they are prepared to host thetournament at anytime.(1) Moreover, the smallcountry’s officials guaranteed that the system,which will harness the power of the sun's rays toprovide a cool environment for players and fansby converting solar energy into electricity, will beable to reduce temperatures from 45 to 25degrees Celsius. As a result, there should be noworries regarding this aspect, as the Qataris", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Moving to the winter would benefit Qatar Therea lot of advantages for you as a country if youare selected to organize a World Cup, aEuropean Cup or any kind of major sport event.They range from fame and internationalrecognition to money and influence in theadministrative bodies. Therefore, it is in Qatar’sinterest that this event goes as smoothly aspossible in order to prove its organizingcapabilities and thus allowing them to increaseits chance for hosting any kind of future sportingevent. By hosting the event in summer, Qatar isexposing itself a lot of unnecessary risk – andprobable bad publicity. The most obvious issomeone getting injured or even worse, dyingduring the World Cup. This would be extremelyproblematic especially if we are talking about afootball player participating in the event. Itwould not only stain Qatar’s image because ithappened during the World Cup organized there,but it would also destroy any credibility that ithas as an organiser of events after so many", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The November and December 2022 slot favouredby Blatter and his secretary general, JérômeValcke, remains “the most likely option becauseit avoids a clash with the Winter Olympics andtakes in two international breaks so would causemarginally less disruption.”(1) That time-frameis the most likely to be chosen as the alternatedate for the World Cup, so there would be noclash with the Winter Olympics and the ICC. Asfar as the national championships are concerned,there should be no worries there. If indeed theWorld Cup is played in November-December,then the national federations would just have toenter the winter break a bit earlier than it wasscheduled. This would of course mean that thechampionships would last a bit longer insummer, but this shouldn’t be considered aproblem. The summers in most of the countriesaround the globe are less harsh than Qatar’s, sothe players wouldn’t have any problems withthis. If we were to talk about countries from theMiddle East and regions alike, they could play", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It is sad that all these bidders invested millionsof dollars from taxpayer’s money in trying tocreate the most appealing bid for hosting theWorld Cup and they weren’t selected, but thatconstituted no reason to make unjustifieddemands. In was clear from the very beginningthat the date of the event wasn’t pinned downand there existed a possibility of changing it. AFIFA spokeswoman said \"As part of the biddingdocuments all bidders, including the FA Australia,accepted that the format and dates of thestaging of the FIFA World Cup and FIFAConfederations Cup, though initially expected tobe in June/July, remains subject to the finaldecision of the FIFA Organising Committee.\"(1)Because every single one of the biddingcountries knew about this possibility, they wereall exposed to the same risks and thus they wereall subjected to the same criteria. As a result, thebidding race was an equal and fair competitionwhich the Qataris rightfully won. (1) OwenGibson “ FIFA tells Australia to forget about", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "A winter cup would harm media revenue At thebeginning of each year, every media company,especially the big ones, try and make a plan tosee which of the sporting events, they shouldcover in order to maximize their ratings. As thebroadcasting rights of these types of events costhundreds of millions of dollars, this is a verysensitive issue. One of the most importantfactors when deciding which events to and not tobroadcast is the date in which it takes place.Every media company wants to create a systemin which it has continuity of sporting events intheir grid, by televising competitions throughoutthe year, and not just in some periods. By doingthis, the channel becomes known for its sportscoverage resulting in increased ratings. Thisproposal of changing the World Cup date is atleast problematic, as the televising-rights havealready been sold. American TV network Fox,which paid £265m for rights to 2018 and2022(2) World Cup for North America, “isunderstood to be concerned over the commercial", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "It would Interfere with other competitions Oneof the biggest downsides that this shift of dateswould have is the creation of a clash if schedulesall around the sports world, fuelling tensions andcontroversies. No matter in which month the Cupwould be played, purposeless conflicts wouldemerge from this. Among other potentialconflicts if the organizers decide to move it inwinter, this being the most endorsed proposal,then there could be a conflict with the WinterOlympics. The International Olympic Committeehas warned FIFA against creating a clash withthat year's Olympic Winter Games.(1) It wouldbe only in FIFA’s advantage to maintain an openand respectful relation with the IOC. Such amove would create some tensions which could bedetrimental for the world of sports. If, however,the officials decide to move it in anytime duringthe year, this would create conflicts with thenational championships. This could have atremendous impact upon them, as the World Cupis a long competition. If you add the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Moving now would be unfair to the otherbidders Qatar beat bids from Australia, SouthKorea, the U.S. and Japan to win the right tostage the 2022 World Cup. Moving it to anotherdate other than the one they all had to include intheir bidding offers would be unfair towards thelosers of that bidding process. When submittingtheir bids to FIFA for hosting the World Cup,every nation has to consider a lot of factors inorder to decide the budget, the venues, etc. Oneof the biggest and most important factors is ofcourse the date of the World Cup. Each countryhad to take into consideration the events thathappened in that respective time frame in theirarea, how long it would take to build thefacilities, the organizing staff’s availability andmany other factors. As a result others biddingoffers would have been different if the eventwere to take place in winter, instead of summer.The FFA chairman, Frank Lowy broke cover tocall on the world game's ruling body to promisethat \"just and fair compensation should be paid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-sport-tshwm2fwcw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is true that the change of dates mightconstitute a problem for media companies, butthere are a few points due to which this changewouldn’t be unfair towards them. First of all, itwas clear from the beginning that the datescould change and that the final decision belongedto the FIFA Organising Committee. As a result,this risk should’ve been taken into considerationwhen deciding the offer. Secondly, ratings areratings. Media companies’ main concern isattracting more and more people to watch theirprogram so that they can ask for higher pricesfor companies who want to advertise on theirchannel. As a result, it doesn’t matter that theWorld Cup takes place in winter or summer, asthe broadcasters that are showing the world cupwill have the same increase in ratings. They willstill be drawing viewers from other channels soas far as they are concerned, the effects shouldbe similar. Finally, even if these highly unlikelyharmful effects do exist, the normal responsewould be to renegotiate the broadcasting-rights", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Teaching just evolution does not prevent teacherencouraging students to analyse how wellevolution fits with the facts the students havelearned. Similarly there can still be criticaldiscourse in the classroom; analysing a fossil todecide what kind of animal it was and what itsvarious parts of its anatomy were for would bejust as rewarding for students. Moreoveranalysing on a smaller scale would mean havingall the available evidence whereas students couldnever be expected to study all the evidence oncreationism and evolution.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Teaching creationism as well as evolution givesstudents freedom to choose This bill that opensthe door to creationism is really about changingthe way that teaching is done to make it morecritical and analytical. This is an improvement inscientific education as it will help ensure thatscience is about critical, constructive discourserather than just imbibing ‘facts’. [1] This billaims to “inform students about scientificevidence and to help students develop criticalthinking skills necessary to becoming intelligent,productive, and scientifically informed citizens”.[2] How can students be critical and learn toanalyse if there is only one theory available tothem through which to look at and analyse thosefacts? That would not be education, it would beindoctrination. [3] [1] Zimmer, Robin, ‘CriticalThinking, Analysis Foster Good Science’, TheTennessean, 11 March 2011, [2] Dunn, ‘HouseBill 368 An Act to amend Tennessee CodeAnnotated, Title 49, Chapter 6, Part 10, relativeto teaching scientific subjects in elementary", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "In practice allowing room for other theories is a“permission slip for teachers to bringcreationism, climate-change denial and othernon-science into science classrooms”. Thesingling out of these subjects in the bill showsthat it is not about impartiality and objectivity inscience. [1] Instead it is promoting a kind ofscience denial allowing anyone with some quacktheory to demand to be allowed to teach itregardless of the evidence. [1] Thompson,Helen, ‘Tennessee ‘monkey bill’ becomes law’,nature, 11 April 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of speech should apply to teachers asmuch as anyone else Freedom of speech andexpression are protected by the first amendmentto the US constitution [1] and teachers areentitled to freedom of speech and their academicfreedom as much as anyone else. If a scienceteacher does not believe that the evidencesupports evolution then why should s/he have toteach evolution as fact rather than just as one ofseveral competing theories? The Tennessee billprotects freedom of expression by freeingteachers to include whatever other angles oncontroversies such as evolution or climatechange as they wish. [1] Legal InformationInstitute, ‘First Amendment: An overview’,Cornell University Law School, 19 August 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This is not a freedom of speech issue. Teachersare already free to express their own viewsduring their own free time. When teaching in aschool however they are limited by the demandsof what is necessary to teach their pupils.Freedom of speech does not give teachersqualified in one subject the wherewithal to teachtheir class a different subject which is effectivelywhat teaching creationism means. Creationismshould remain in religion classes and evolutionshould remain in science classes. Teachers areemployed by the state in order to teach childrenfacts, not spread personal ideology. It istherefore best to seperate facts and ideas intoseperate subjects.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The bill does not exclude evolution just allowsroom for other theories What this bill allows isfor the facts to be taught and then seen throughthe lens of various theories. The bill requires thatthe schools within the state remain within thestate science curriculum. It “protects theteaching of scientific information, and shall notbe construed to promote any religious ornon-religious doctrine”. [1] Evolution willtherefore still have to be taught and won’t bereplaced wholesale by any other theory. Theresult therefore is that this Tennessee law opensup academic enquiry and science rather thanshutting it down as opponents claim. [1] Dunn,‘House Bill 368 An Act to amend Tennessee CodeAnnotated, Title 49, Chapter 6, Part 10, relativeto teaching scientific subjects in elementaryschools’’, State of Tennessee,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con03b", "title": "", "text": "First the ‘don’t say gay’ bill has not been passedas it was dropped by its republican sponsor JoeyHensley. [1] That this bill is directed at only afew subjects does not mean that it is not aboutacademic freedom and freedom of speech. Thebill is simply targeting and highlighting areaswhere the assembly believes free speech islacking and alternative views need to bepresented. [1] ‘Tennessee ‘Don’t Say Gay’ BillTo Get Axed’, Huffington Post, 1 May 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It is never too early to teach students toquestion ideas and theories no matter how wellgrounded they may claim to be. Students arecapable of realiseing that there is a differencebetween the theories that interpret the facts andthe facts themselves so educating in the factswill not be more difficult. The result will beclasses that are much more engaged in thesubject because they have more input in theteaching, this can only be good for scienceeducation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Children should have the freedom not to bemisled Part of freedom of speech is the freedomto get accurate information. The students inschool have this right not to be misled by theirteachers [1] so teachers should have toconcentrate on providing facts and evidence andwhat has been scientifically proven. Eugenie C.Scott of the National Center for ScienceEducation argues “Telling students that evolutionand climate change are scientificallycontroversial is miseducating them” becausethere is no controversy among scientists. [2] Thelaw as it stands may attempt to sound balancedbut preventing “discrimination for or againstreligion or non-religion” [3] opens the door toany theory seeking to explain the evidence nomatter how flawed. This would be directlycounter to the objective teaching the bill claimsto promote. If there is to be objectivity schoolsmust stick to the evidence and what it shows;evolution. The teachers may of course encouragethe students to come up with their own", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con04a", "title": "", "text": "As it is not science creationism should not evenbe covered by the Tennessee law As creationismdoes not fit the definition of \"science\", it is noteven addressed by the law cited in theintroduction to this discussion. The actspecifically allows to discuss \"scientific strengthsand scientific weaknesses of existing scientifictheories\". It is a very false conclusion thatbecause evolution is both scientific and ahypothesis, any other hypothesis must bescientific as well. Creationism is lacking the keypoint of anything that could even remotely becalled science, namely testability andfalsifiability. Evolution posesses this property:There may one day be actual evidence that thetheory is incorrect, such as a modern humanfossil being found in a layer of soil that datesback aeons. Given enough such incidents, onecould reasonably claim that evolution has beendisproved and that there must be a better modelto approximate reality. This is what commonlyhappens in the world of science. As a prominent", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Tennessee is not seeking to protect freedom ofspeech While supporters of this bill justify itbased upon ‘academic freedom’ this is clearly nota motivating factor for the Tennessee legislature.At almost the same time a bill that preventsteachers discussing homosexuality was passedthrough the state’s education committee, iffreedom of speech has been a concern this wouldnever have even been brought up. [1] Moreoverif the bill was about freedom of speech therewould be no need to highlight particularcontroversies or particularly pick out science asan area requiring more discussion and dissent.Students could learn much more aboutcompeting interpretations of historical events,competing ideas in geography such asalternative theories about how oil is created, [2]even the English language is not totally settledas new meanings are created and new wordsadded. [1] Selwyn, Casey, ‘Teachingcreationism in US schools’, Free Speech Debate,2 May 2012, [2] Glasby, Geoffrey P., ‘Abiogenic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Teachers should not have freedom to teachwhatever they wish as fact There is a differencebetween a demand for freedom to teach whatyou like and freedom of speech. Freedom ofspeech does not apply in the classroom; studentsare not allowed to stand up and discuss whateverissues they want and neither should the teacher.Both have to stick to a syllabus that ensures thatthe children are taught the basics of each subjectso that the student can move on to moreadvanced instruction. Ultimately for students tobe able to exercise their right to freedom ofspeech they need to have a well-roundededucation that provides a grounding ofknowledge and how to analyse that knowledge.The student is then perfectly free to challengethis teaching and exercise their freedom ofexpression and explore many more ideas anddismiss evolution if they wish. Essentially thisbill is encouraging criticism of science at tooearly a stage, in elementary or even secondaryschool teachers are still teaching what science is,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con04b", "title": "", "text": "We cannot yet fully test evolution either; wecan't recreate evolution in the lab. Creationismprovides a valid critique and so should be taughtalongside.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhbtcptww-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is unquestioningly taking the ‘consensus’ viewon issues like evolution and climate change thatis misleading children. Teaching only the oneviewpoint misleads children into thinking that theissue is fact and settled so denying the ongoingcontroversies in each of these areas. [1] [1]Zabarenko, Deborah, ‘Tennessee teacher lawcould boost creationism, climate denial’, Reuters,13 April 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It’s fairly predictable that in a country such asPakistan where the overwhelming majority comefrom one religious tradition that there will be ahigher percentage of those people to be offendedand, conversely, that a majority of suspects arelikely to come from other groups.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Inevitably protects entrenched interest groups(Church in Crucible, Muslims in Pakistan) In theevent of two different perceptions of whatconstitutes harm, there is a tendency for that ofthe larger group to be seen as normative and,therefore, correct. This is shown to be the casein the example given here but also in otherinstances from the Salem witch trials to thefatwa on Salman Rushdie [i] ; the fact that therewas an authorising body – in the shape of anorthodox religious body – the allegation itselfacquires the force of that orthodoxy. It is rarefor minority beliefs to have much success andalmost unknown for secularists to do so. Severalcases in North America brought in an effort toprotect the religious rights of Wiccans, forexample, yielded little as they lacked the force ofreligious orthodoxy [ii] . In states where there iseither great homogeneity of belief or there is atheological element in the courts or politicalsystem, this has tended to be even more thecase. This is particularly true of states that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The right to free speech is not a license toexpress any opinion regardless of the context.It’s equivalent of standing in a Museum andshouting, “Fire”. It is in these environments thatcaution is required. Allowing free speech is onething, allowing speech likely to cause harm isanother is quite a different. There is a crucialdifference between public and private space.Where offensive remarks are made in the publicspace then the blasphemer has knowingly putthemselves and others in danger and - citingsuch principals as civic responsibility and thesocial contract, governments would have both aresponsibility and a duty to use their legalpowers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Based on allegation rather than proof (cf.Sorcery, witchcraft, etc.) Blasphemy, by itsnature, is ‘all in the eye of the beholder’. It isimpossible, in most cases, to determine whetherthere was intent on the part of the accused andas a result it is difficult to codify in legislation.Equally, unless the law takes a particulartheological position, one person’s blasphemousslur is another’s sacred profession. It relies onthe predicate that the person alleging blasphemywas offended or felt their faith was underattack. Of course these offences are very realand may at times be possible to codify but theycannot be applied universally because theperceptions they necessitate are notuniversal. As a result, as in the case givenabove, allegation and proof must be deemed tobe the same thing - to be accused is to be foundguilty [i] . Acts of blasphemy cannot rest onintuited human norms – I do not wish to beharmed in this way therefore you do not wish iteither – because those involved have a different", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is perfectly possible in many circumstances todemonstrate intent before a blasphemouscomment is made. Waving a banner makingderogatory remarks about the founder of areligion or burning an emblem of the faithoutside a place of worship could easily be said todemonstrate an intent to harm. Moreover manycases come down to one person’s word againstanother’s.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "People have a right to blaspheme In the lawsthat come the closest in framework to blasphemy– libel, slander defamation and a range ofincitement laws – there is a requirement to proveharm. This level of proof is not set at the level ofbeing offended or believing that a problem mayensue, and certainly not at the level of justdisagreeing with a statement. If there is no proofof harm then the principle of free speech stands,usually termed as a ‘justifiable comment’ indefamation defences. It is entirely possible torespect the rights of others to hold an opinionand, as in this case, disagree with that opinion[i] . For anything other than that as the onlylogical basis for discussing blasphemy, it wouldbe necessary to demonstrate a causal link toactual or probable harm – usually this proofrequires either financial or physical harm to beinvolved [ii] . In the case of blasphemy, suchharm cannot be demonstrated. There is also aninteresting point of whether God can be said tohave been harmed and whether it is possible for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This is the truly the argument of rogues. Where amob seeks to gather to deliver their own brandof very immediate justice would be against thelaw and should be dealt with as such. Forgovernments to argue such an approach is acomplete abdication of responsibility. It is alsoincredibly naïve to suppose that the niceties oftreaties would be observed in the Pashtun Valleyor the Gaza strip.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "If any state were to try and protect their citizensagainst all offence, it would have to baneverything. It is difficult to see how such aprocess could work – one that would allow Saudimen to be offended by the sight of a womandriver and, at the same time, those of a moreliberal nature to be offended by them not driving.A test of legislation should be whether it can beuniversalised, where offence can be taken inboth directions that is not, and cannot, be thecase. As a result it is clear that legislation is aninappropriate tool to use in regards toblasphemy. The issue is not disagreeing with theparticular piece of legislation but with the ideathat legislation in this area should be introducedat all. Moreover the examples of limitations onthe media used are not good parallel’s toblasphemy as blasphemy may be eitherunintentional or else be on the spur of themoment which is not the case with the media.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Blasphemy is comparable to legislation banninghate speech Not only can remarks or images belabelled as inappropriate but, in extreme casesgovernments ban organisations, meeting anddemonstrations. Where speech is deemed to beprejudiced or inflammatory the state intervenesto prevent either offence or possible violence. Inall of the situations covered by blasphemy laws,the first of those would apply and, as has beenseen on so many occasions, the latter is notuncommon. The experience of the “Anti-Islamvideo” prompted civil unrest around the world [i]costing nations money in terms of lost work andincreased police time. Both governments andindividuals have the right to be protected againstsuch outpourings of outrage. It seems onlysensible for governments to prevent suchdifficulties where they can. In this light alegislative code that bans blasphemy is useful inthe maintenance of social order and cohesion inmany countries. It is a given in most countriesthat the government has a duty to protect", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "If the courts did not handle these issues, themob likely would. Where a grave offence iscaused to many people and the state proves tobe impotent in addressing it, it is not uncommonfor vigilantes to take matters into their ownhands. Surely it is preferable to have suchsituations handled by the courts and under therule of law. Proposition gave the example of theSalman Rushdie affair, where Ayatollah Khomeniissued a global fatwah on the author followingthe publication of the Satanic Verses. How muchmore preferable would it have been for thatprocess to have been handled by means ofdiplomacy [i] , extradition and trial than adecade’s worth of civil and internationaldiscourse. The Arab league and others havecalled for an international treaty to this effect, asthe issue of blasphemy committed in one nationcausing offence in another comes increasingly tothe fore in an internet age, it seems an effectiveapproach. In an increasingly Global world withthe possibility for inflammatory remarks to travel", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Blasphemy causes offence to groups andindividuals Not agreeing with a law does notprovide carte blanche to ignore it. The reality isthat large numbers of people in many countriesand religious traditions find blasphemy offensiveand upsetting. If, as prop argues this crimecauses no harm, then they presumably acceptthat it can have no physical benefit to theblasphemer. So why do it? We place limitationson violence, sex and expletives in movies, on TVsand in publications, not because they cause aprovable harm but because some find themoffensive [i] . These actions, along withblasphemy, are collectively classed as criminallibels as they require the state to act rather thanan injured party. We further create public orderoffences in relation to racial abuse, which, likeblasphemy, may not be premeditated [ii] . Thosein breach of such limits face a punishment. If weare happy to impose widely held norms ofbehaviour in public fora such as entertainment –or in regard to public behaviour - then why not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbbhnpsb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There are clear differences between racist, sexistor homophobic language and blasphemy. Hatespeech legislation exists to protect minoritiesagainst being abused. A blasphemy ban, bycontrast, simply perpetuates the influence ofalready powerful interest groups. Equally, todevelop ops theory of sudden vigilante groupsspringing up to seek out the blasphemer – hatespeech legislation seeks to protect the likelyvictim of a violent crime, according toOpposition, blasphemy legislation would seek tosupport the perpetrators.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Corporations represent the collective labour,goals, capital and ideas of a vast number ofpeople. Far from representing a “person” who isaccorded undue influence and significance bypoliticians, corporations are crucial in allowingmajor contributors to national economies to havea say in the affairs of the states that govern theiractivities. It has already been established thatcorporations- even profit-led corporations- arecapable of operating under complex regimes ofobjectives and goals. Not all corporations bow tothe profit motive solely and exclusively.Suppose- following the Bradly Smith articlequoted above- that a corporation faced theprospect of downsizing unless it could access alucrative government subsidy. Loss of jobs wouldanger the company’s workers union. Thecorporation would have every incentive to use itsinfluence to affect the decisions of the politiciansresponsible for distributing the subsidy.Moreover, in expressing an opinion on thematter, the corporation would be reflecting the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Corporate influence distracts politicians from theneeds of their constituents. The content ofpublic speech is informed as much by the ideasand convictions of individuals engaged in freeexpression as it is by the concurrent acts ofexpression engaged in by other individuals. Freespeech is a product of society and the processesdriving the development and growth ofsociety. The environment in which free speech iscurrently exercised is characterised by pervasiveacts of expression – television commercials,billboards, spam email and advertisements onsocial media sites. Each of these forms of mediais aimed at influencing opinions and behaviours.Active engagement with a book or a movie isoften a prerequisite if an individual is to beinfluenced by its content.. The audience for thecontent contained in an advert does notnecessarily choose to engage with itsmessage. As a result of this, adverts areuniquely placed to bring issues and perspectivesto the attention of individuals who might", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Corporates that attempt to address social issuesdamage political discourse. Corporatepersonhood is a challenging concept for liberaldemocracies. On the one hand, the legal fictionthat underlies personhood enables groups ofcitizens to quickly and efficiently join forces tomake collective grievances heard and to useweight of numbers to match the influence ofwealthier individuals. However, corporations,particularly in the business context, can also belarge and unaccountable organisations. Thisproposition must address two issues. First,whether acts of free expression engaged in bycorporations generally should benefit from thesame protection as acts of expression engaged inby individuals. Second, whether there should bemore scrutiny of the membership and objectivesof corporations – or whether corporations shouldreceive rights conditional on their activities. Ifwe follow the reasoning in the Citizens Unitedcase, which radically changed the interpretationof corporate speech rights in American law, it is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The proposition side have resurrected an oldlegal mechanism that was of limited use in orderto defend an inaccurate and polarisinginterpretation of corporate rights. Theproposition argues that the actions andbehaviour of profit making business corporationswill always be guided by the profit motive andthat, for this reason, corporations will never beable to contribute to the accommodations andcompromises that free speech is used to foster.In plainer terms, side proposition seecorporations as being inherently deceptive anduntrustworthy. The proposition side have failedto consider that it is possible for corporations tofunction within free markets, and to participatefully in capitalist democracies, without beingbound to a single minded pursuit ofprofit. Corporations have now recognised thatthe growth and maintenance of profits in thelong term can often best be served byunder-emphasising profit in the short term.Corporations have become increasingly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The value placed upon the right to freeexpression reflects its ability to enable thearticulation of new, compelling and beneficialideas, alongside damaging forms of speech. Inliberal democratic societies, the potentialinherent in free speech has always preserved itagainst limitation by legislation and- to a greatextent- by social norms. A natural (as opposedto legal) person who makes statements that areopenly offensive, or are inaccurate or misleadingmay also be able to articulate profound anduseful ideas and observations. This is also truefor certain groups formed by association – suchas political parties. However, corporations asthey are popularly understood- as businessentities- are constrained by law only to act in acertain way. In the United States, the individualsresponsible for deciding on the actions of acorporation do so on the explicit understandingthat they owe a particular duty to the individualswho make up that corporation. This legal dutytakes the form of an obligation to run the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Limiting the rights of corporate persons wouldharm a wide range of organisations and limit thefreedom of natural persons. Public speech andexchanges of ideas lie at the root of political andsocial decision making in liberal democracies.Without a guarantee that expression will remainfree and protected from governmentinterference, the other rights discussed in thefirst amendment to the United Statesconstitution would become impossible toexercise. The discussion and pursuit of religiousideas would be obstructed. The ability tochallenge the actions and decisions of anincumbent government would be put at risk too[1] . Even the reporting of verifiably trueinformation about the affairs of the state and itscitizens- freedom of the press- would becomehazardous without the toleration for inaccuraciesand the concept of public interest that principledfreedom of speech gives rise to. In order for aright to be meaningful, however, it must bepossible to exercise that right effectively. A right", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Uses of free speech motivated by personal gainshould still be protected. The primary objectionof the supporters of the Bipartisan CampaignReform Act to the decision taken in the CitizensUnited case seems to be that the objective ofsome corporations is usually the maximisation ofthe profits that their shareholders’ or ownersreceive [1] . Other considerations, we are told,take second place in the hierarchy of needs thatcorporations create for themselves [2] .Opponents of the Act and critics of the supremecourt decision on Citizens United have attempt toclaim that, because corporations’ behaviour isprofit-led, corporate entities will use anunrestricted right to free speech to lie, cheat andmanipulate the public [3] with the intention ofboosting their returns. In other words,corporations will not use a right to free speechwith the responsible aim of advocating for socialchange, but to enhance their own position asbusinesses or membership organisations. In thesections of the amendments to the United States", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-esdbphwlfsr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The People’s Rights Amendment is a proposedamendment to the United States constitutionthat attempts to address corporations’ increasedfreedom to engage in political campaigning.Referring to the First Amendment, section 2 ofthe PRA states “The word people, person orcitizen as used in this constitution do not includecorporations, limited liability companies or othercorporate entities established by the laws of anyState the United States or any foreign state.”[1] The US Supreme Court justified strikingdown the BCRA by stating that “if the firstamendment has any force, it prohibits congressfrom fining or jailing citizens, or associations ofcitizens, for simply engaging in political speech.”[2] However, the BCRA was never intended tolimit US citizens' right to engage in effective andpublic political speech. The First Amendment tothe constitution was not overridden by the BCRA.Newspapers remain effectively exempt from thepowers granted to the FEC by the BCRA for thisvery reason, and, paraphrasing Justice Stevens’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Mehanna clearly expressed sympathy withenemies of the US. His actions since his returnfrom Yemen put the lie to the idea that hewished to pursue legal training and suggest arather more explicitly jihadi purpose. He haspublished documentation that explicitlyencourages Jihad in Afghanistan, Pakistan andYemen where, as he knew, the US and hertroops would be the target of that holy war. Asproposition has pointed out, we live in an agewhere the musings of an individual can bebroadcast a great deal further than aneighteenth century pamphlet. His publicationsgave not only practical suggestions for theparticipation of others but also a moraljustification and all from inside ‘the Great Satan’– the actions of fifth columnists and traitorsthrough the ages.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Innocent until proven Muslim Judging people bytheir actions rather than what they may or maynot have been thinking is a fairly fundamentaltenet of liberty and seems to have been thrownaside with casual disregard in this case [i] .There needs to have been a goal in place for thisto meaningfully be described as a conspiracy,there was not; and demonstrably not a goal ofmurdering Americans overseas, which he didn’teven mention. Instead the court has conflatedexpressing an opinion about national policy – anentirely legitimate activity according to both thefirst amendment (“Congress shall make no lawrespecting an establishment of religion, orprohibiting the free exercise thereof; orabridging the freedom of speech, or of the press;or the right of the people peaceably to assemble,and to petition the Government for a redress ofgrievances.”) [ii] and both statute and case law.As Carol Rose, executive director of the AmericanCivil Liberties Union of Massachusetts, declared:“It’s official. There is a Muslim exception to the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "None of those mentioned have travelled toYemen in pursuit of training, presumably to befollowed by participation in, the Jihad. They havenot posted online 37 ways to be involved in one.They haven’t identified themselves as beingmore supportive of Muslims, regardless of theirnationality, than of their fellow countrymen ingeneral, and those in uniform in particular. Thecases are quite different.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "One man’s freedom fighter is another’sterrorist. Nobody is suggesting that Mehannaplanted a bomb – or even attempted to. Hiscrime, if it deserves such a word is to hold anopinion and to have expressed it. That opinionwas that current American military policy in theMuslim world is wrong and to suggest that thoseliving there should be opposition to the majorpowers of the age attempting to impose theirwill, through force of arms, on a people in adifferent country. Such an opinion is not onlyshared by many – if not a majority – ofcommentators in the West but could easily havebeen voiced by Washington, Jefferson or Adams[i] . There are two fundamental differencesbetween Mehanna and the Founding Fathers:firstly they went further and called for violentopposition, secondly they were wealthy andwhite. It may be tempting to argue, “But wait,they were also Americans” – no they weren’tthey were subjects of the British Crown. Onemight be tempted to argue that they were born", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Prop’s argument is an intellectual sleight of hand.Ignoring the fact that the Founding Fathers andIslamic extremists are fighting for diametricallyopposed goals (a reactionary theocracy versus arevolutionary democracy) they are doing so in adifferent world. A world where information andperception are tools of war and where thestructure of the nation-state has changed sodramatically that the expectations of citizens of aparticular nation are wholly different from thoseof the late seventeen-hundreds [i] . The simplereality is that Mehanna sided with people whowould, quite happily, murder his neighbors –regardless of their views on US foreignpolicy. [i] Fox News Website. Mark Dubowitz.The Real Terror War is on the Internet. 16 March2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "This is no different than political comment,etc. Scholars, commentators and satirists [i]have pointed out the hypocrisy of current USstrategy in the Islamic world. They have alsopointed out that the only rational response tooverwhelming American military superiority interms of hardware is the kind of warfare beingundertaken by insurgents from Bagdad to Kabul.None of them are in prison. Mainstreampoliticians have called for an immediatewithdrawal of American troops and the claimsemanating from the right of the Republican Partythat doing so ‘gives succour to America’senemies’ now sounds as shrill as they do bizarre.Yet none of them are in prison. Ministers of God,political activists and intellectuals have raised theissue of the loss of life among civilians in theMuslim world and the questionable justificationof those losses on the grounds of nationalsecurity. And yet they remain atliberty. America’s allies around the world havequestioned the continued presence of US troops", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is an interesting argument to suggest that thesuppression of Mehanna’s rights is okay becauseit has not been as sweeping as the generalisedinternment of Japanese Americans or theinsanity of the McCarthy trials. Op is basicallyarguing, “Look, it could have been far morebrutal, so count yourselves lucky.” One cannothelp but suspect that comes as very smallconsolation to Mehanna in his prison cell. Weshould remember that the United States is not atwar as was the case in World War II, congresshas not declared war since 1945, nor even is theUnited States in a struggle with a peercompetitor as during World War II rather it is atmost fighting a disparate band of terrorists,hardly a thread that justifies such largeviolations of rights. [i] [i] Bailey, Ronald, ‘HowScared of Terrorism Should You Be?’,reason.com, 6 September 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Warfare hasn’t changed because it is now abattle between creeds – that has often been thecase in the past. The asymmetric warfare towhich op refers is a direct result of the militaryhegemony of the US. To confuse criticism oftaking a military approach – that bombs are notthe answer in a battle of ideas – with materialsupport for the other side hands them a victory.It’s worth remembering that the US won thebattle of ideas with the Soviet Union bydemonstrating its virtues, as the body countincreases in the foray with Islam, attitudes arehardening on both sides as we see the worst ofboth. To take the one example given by Op, 39ways to participate in Jihad – and this was at theheart of the prosecution. Google the term andyou’ll come up with 590,000 returns, includingfull English translations and comment fromrespected scholars and journalists [i] . It isimpossible to protect the principles of liberty anddemocracy by locking people up for expressingtheir opinions. As the UK’s former Lord Chief", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-con02a", "title": "", "text": "‘Providing support’ must be considered to relateto implied moral support and justification Thereis far more to aiding an enemy of the state thansupplying them with armaments or funding.Propagandists and other saboteurs of the mind[i] have always been seen as a very real threatto national security, especially in times of war.To present the actions of Tarek Mehanna asanything other than endorsing and givingencouragement to those seeking to harm USpersonnel overseas takes an unusuallydetermined form of niaivity. He may havestopped short of posting instructions for bombmaking online but he expressly stated thatMuslims should resist the invasion of their landsby non-Muslim invaders. Proposition has beenstrangely silent on how, exactly, that could bedone without the use of an AK47 or anIED. Mehanna’s remarks are clearly a call totake up arms against US troops, presumably withthe intention of killing them. That is, bydefinition, to be part of a conspiracy, along with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Views of free speech in time of war (Japaneseinternment, American Communist party,etc.) Nations act to defend themselves in timesof war. Frequently those actions do not representthe highest ideals against which that nation maywish to be judged but they are an unpleasantreality of survival. It is demonstrably true thatthere have been Jihadi cells in western nationsand that Western troops are at risk from theirallies and enemies in Afghanistan and elsewhere.Stopping them before they act seems vastlypreferable to the deaths of dozens or hundredsof civilians and military personnel. America’sactions against Japanese civilians in WWII orCommunist sympathizers during the Cold Warmay fall short of the ideals one might hope forbut they ensured the survival of those idealsagainst the threats posed firstly by Nazism andthen by Communism. In the face ofIslamofascism, the response of governments inthe West has been comparatively restrainedwhen set alongside those earlier", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Differing nature of war (not essays against kingor country but about creeds) In an unusualshow of unity, most analysts are agreed that thewars of the 21st century will be markedlydifferent from those that went before [i] .Clashes will be between civilisations and globalperspectives fought with comparatively scantregard to national boundaries. Within thisframework, the groups identified, broadly, as‘Islam’ and ‘the West’ [ii] seem to be lining up asthe two main players – although this seems to beby default in the case of the West. In this regard,at least, Bush jr. was absolutely spot on with his‘with us or against us’ assessment of the natureof modern conflict. Tarek Mehanna’spublications aren’t idle musings on politicalphilosophy, they are practical suggestions abouthow his readers can involve themselves in a waragainst the US and its allies – advice given in histranslation of 39 Ways to Participate in Jihad - awar between a sexist, reactionary, mediaevaltheocratic mindset and those peoples who seek", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbdeonl-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Tarek Mehanna was engaged in promoting apolitical viewpoint that may not be shared bymany but is certainly shared by some. Amongthem other American citizens [i] . When didpromoting a viewpoint in the land of free speechbecome a crime? While we may not like that aU.S. citizen sympathises with the objective ofremoving US soldiers from Afghanistan andbelieves this enough that he considers thatmilitary resistance may be necessary to get theAmericans out it is not the case that this moralsupport provides physical support for suchattacks, and it is unlikely that he would evenhave provided inspiration. Mehanna was lynched,he was a scapegoat created out of the paranoiacreated partly by events and partly by theactions of a US administration with a point toprove. [i] Guardian. Ibid.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Quite different claims are made about the originof the authority of the other thinkers propmentions. Their authority derives from thecontents of their works whereas that of theprophets derives from a supreme being. Toquestion their words is, therefore, to questionthe power and judgement of the supreme beingto establish that authority in the first place. As aresult, it is not ‘special pleading’ but an entirelydifferent premise underpinning the ideas that arebeing profaned. Any attack on that authoritystarts to undermine the whole religion and itsbeliefs which is different from secular authorswhere their works are simply the starting pointof a discourse. It should also not surprise usthat politicians act when a religious group isattacked but not as a result misrepresentation ofscientific data; religions are large interest groupswho may effect a future election. It is thepolitician’s job to decide whether he needs totake action to placate that group.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Special pleading Why are religious creeds givenspecial license to block others freedom ofexpression? We live in a world of laws, supportedby evidence on the basis of what can beperceived in the world around us. This applies inthe fields of politics, law, science and others.Only when it comes to religion (and, possiblynational identity) do we tolerate argumentsmade on the basis of unproven belief. There is ofcourse a role for fantasy in life but protests as aresult of people pointing out that it is fantasyseems to be taking things a little far. Nobodyappears to be suggesting that the film Innocenceof Muslims was anything more than a badlymade, ill-conceived, puerile bit of adolescentvitriol. By any reasonable scale it pales intoinsignificance compared with, for example,blowing up embassies or issuing death threatsagainst foreign nationals [i] . Were politicians totake action to urge the blocking of free speechon the rather more significant reasons foroffence of misrepresentation of scientific data,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that religious thought tends to besubverted to defend the status quo is hardly acompelling argument as the same can be said foralmost all forms of thought. There is a naturalbacklash from vested interests against anyinnovation and religion should not be blamed forhaving this same tendency. We should howevernot rule out the need to take a moral approachto some things for example; using stem cellsmight have huge medical benefits but it stillneeds to be considered whether it is morallyright.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A one way street Religion is at the heart ofpeople’s identities and is based upon beliefrather than reason so it is not surprising thatreligious groups sometimes take offence bothquickly and easily. While political ideologies, or incertain scientific theories, may be believed asfeverently religion by some with these beliefscome an acceptance that there are contraryopinions and a need to reason to persuade. Thisleaves open the possibility that they can bepersuaded through reason that they are wrong.The stakes involved are very different, aneternity in Hell versus losing the next election. Apolitical believer can afford to be malleable in away a religious believer cant. Increasinglyreligious groups offense seems to lead to threatsof, or actual, violence [i] , the concertedapologies of elected representatives around theworld and a total loss of any sense of proportion.If something is offensive to Christians or Muslimsthen, apparently, other considerations have totake a back seat. Whether it’s Christian", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is a massive over-generalisation to suggest alink between those who take offence fromblasphemous or sacrilegious statements andviolence [i] . Furthermore within the predicatesof religious thought an offence against god hasto be of a magnitude different from one against atemporal power – to question that basic fact is toquestion religions being religious; it’snonsensical. Most religions claim a total, butself-supporting, basis for their concept of truth.It is all true or none of it is; it’s nonsensical tobelieve in an omniscient being who is only oneview among many. However, contrasting thosetraditions with the European Enlightenmenttradition – and, apparently, criticising them fornot sharing its values is not only contrary buthypocritical – the basis of the offence is theconflict between the two traditions. [i]Greenboro News and Record. Anti-abortionviolence negate pro-life goals. 11 October 1998.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Stifling progress and the right of others Theparticular subjects areas often chosen by theiststo find offensive make for an interestinglist; Freedom of expression, The rule oflaw, Scientific progress, Medicalprogress, Artistic expression To name but afew. There are remarkably few areas of humanprogress and development – intellectual orsocietal – that have not caused ‘offence’ in somereligious community somewhere. The bestknown is of course the Catholic Church’s forcingGalileo to recant his research in the 17thcentury. There is no need to seek out obscurefanatics for this purpose, mainstream religiousfigures seem to genuinely believe that theequality of women is still a difficult issue. To takejust one example, in 2012 the supposedlymoderate and progressive Anglican Communionis still unsure as to whether the ability to be asenior manager should be determined on thebasis of somebody’s gender [i] . With theexception of a handful that are in thrall to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It certainly doesn’t prove the point, it doeshowever highlight one. As a result of religiousteaching the majority of people have, at differentpoints in history, been certain that; The Earthwas flat, The Earth, or even a particular point onthe earth, was the centre of the universe, TheEarth is less than six thousand yearsold, Certain races were not human [i] Womenwere created inferior to men If ever evidencewere needed that the majority are frequentlyand alarmingly wrong, then religion provides it inabundance. [i] For example the Christianconcept of Polygenism – the notion that thewhite races were descended from Adam andothers not – has had several outings duringhistory. Among other things it has been used tojustify slavery, apartheid and imperialism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Who is to judge when an expression has a‘point’? In the cases cited by Opposition, the‘point’, however inexpertly made, seems to havebeen to demonstrate the many flaws andcontradictions within the Koran. To suggest thatdemonstrating that one of the world’s majorreligions – with one and a half billion followersand several states framing their legal system onthe basis of its dictates – is riddled withcontradictions and that its modern manifestationbears little resemblance to the originalprotestations of the prophet hardly seemspointless. Indeed much of the offence that wastaken seems to have been caused by the veryfact that the film did have a point.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Realpolitik Freedom of expression should beexercised with care. Everyone who exercises thisright has to remember that there areconsequences of their actions. The Innocence ofMuslims is a good example of this. Droppingexplosive comments or artworks into situations[i] that are already fraught with historical tension– sectarian divisions in Europe, religious tensionsin the Middle East, the interwovenpolitico-religious stresses of the United States –should not be done without very good cause.Those who chose to exercise their freedom ofexpression in this case are at least partiallyresponsible for the protests, and any injuries,that resulted. It should be recognised that thereneed to be curbs on the offensive use of freedomof expression in order to prevent theconsequences that may result from suchexpression. National interests dictate that statesshould take into account religious sensitivities inorder to avoid unnecessary conflict. [i] TheGuardian Film Blog. Peter Bradshaw. Innocence", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The interests of the majority Although it maynot prove the issue, it is certainly worth beingaware of the fact that when referring to “theists”,proposition is talking about the overwhelmingmajority of the world’s population and thenattempting to portray a small, fundamentalistminority as typical. Even talking mostly secularChina into account – where determining religiousaffiliation is fantastically complicated – fewerthan one seventh of the population of the planetprofess no religious faith. A probable, althoughunproven, majority take their religion for grantedbut see it as no obstacle to free speech. There isno need to indulge in majoritarian assumptionsto accept the basic principal that the opinions ofthe overwhelming majority are at least worthtreating with some respect. After all, with odds of7:1 against, even the most hardened,fire-breathing of secularists would have toconcede that they might have a point. For therest of humanity, simple experience suggeststhat avoiding religious groups offending each", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Why cause offence to no purpose? Theimportant issue here is the outcome. In mostimaginable instances the person or groupcausing the offence has nothing to gain. Ifpeople of faith find things offensive in a way thata comparable devotee of Marx or Adam Smithdoes not, why cause that offence? We don’twander around pointing out that people are uglyor fat – not because it isn’t true but becausethere is no reason to cause offence except inextreme circumstances [i] . The Innocence ofMuslims film is a perfect example; what was itspoint? As a conversion tool it seems utterlyuseless. It is hardly setting out detailedtheological arguments, it doesn’t seem to betrying to make a point. It’s only apparentfunction seems to be to cause hurt and offence[ii] . The idea that causing offence to somepurpose may be an unavoidable bi-product of lifewould be one thing but in many cases thereappears to be an intention to offend and if this isthe case then it should be stopped. Even where", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhbfemir-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Realpolitik is not a reason to compromise ourideals. Comments and artworks about “explosivesituations” are a fundamental part of freeexpression. Opposition seems to be labouringunder the misapprehension that free-expressionis okay, so long as nobody minds. If nobodyobjects to it, there’s no need to have a right todo it. In short we wither accept freedom ofexpression or not; if there is freedom ofexpression then we must be consistent anddefend the freedom for everyone.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The Opposition is perfectly happy to be attackedfor making life easier for people with disabilitiesby taking down barriers that separate them fromthe wider population. There a parts of anycommunity that prefer to do things in a certainway, however governments rarely commit toguaranteeing all preferences, instead theyguarantee a basic level of service provision andthen offer choice where possible and affordable.This is true in education and welfare rightthrough to national defense – militaries, exceptthe US, tend to specialise and rely on allies forother operations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Braille should be offered the same protection asminority languages. The issue of the protectionof minority languages is a difficult one for mostgovernments as it is usually argued that mostspeakers of such languages also make use of thedominant language and, where they don’t, theyshould learn for their own good. For exampleFrench speakers in Canada must also learnEnglish. [i] However, there are senses andexperiences that are uniquely held within acommunity and expressed within thoselanguages. In many ways Braille functions insimilar ways, a shared experience between thosewho read it, a bond between users and, for themost part, denied to outsiders. By its nature, it istactile and speaks in a way that is not true ofaudiobooks prepared for a wider market. Inpurely practical terms there is relatively littledifference between reading speeds in Braille andlistening to audiobooks (about 130 against 150wpm). [ii] Learning Braille also has immensepractical benefits, not least of which is being", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is not a case of insisting that there are other orbetter options; there are other or better options.Equally, there is no need to ‘predict’ the death ofthe physical book; it is dying. Increasinglyspecialist publishers, such as DorchesterPublishing which focuses on paperbacks, [i] willonly produce e-books as it cuts out the actualcost of printing and, therefore, the opportunitycost of remaindered copies. [i] Trachtenberg,Jeffrey A., Mass Paperback Publisher Goes AllDigital’, The Wall Street Journal, 6 August 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Free speech is as much about being able toreceive the ideas of others as it is aboutexpressing one’s own. We know from the workof educational psychologists that different peopleacquire knowledge in different ways. Forexample, some sighted language learners learnmore effectively visually, other aurally. Theevidence mentioned in the introduction suggeststhat this is no less true for blind students withthose without access to Braille scoring less wellin exams than those with it. This becomes anissue of free speech when by compelling peopleto acquire information in a certain way meansthat they either have less access to thatinformation or less chance of effectively digestingit. For those for whom are proficient Braille istheir preferred medium, [i] despite there beingalternatives for communication [ii] , it is theironly medium for text, and is useful for usingcomputers which may use a braille display.[iii] However, even if this were just a matter ofpreference, it would be odd not to treat this as a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Free speech may well be about the ability toreceive ideas as well as express them but inneither case is it about how those ideas areexpressed or received. To suggest that a statethat refuses to provide a movie studio to any ofits citizens who requests one is somehowsuppressing their right of free expression wouldclearly be ridiculous. The state has a duty toguarantee the right, not the methodology.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The attacks on Braille are part of a wider moveagainst the physical book. The death of the bookhas been predicted with virtually everytechnological innovation and yet, it remains oneof the most widespread and recognised means ofcommunication in the world, with physical booksales representing about 80% of total book sales[i] . There are many reasons for this, itscommunicability, its physicality, it history andassociations. Whatever the reasons for itsenduring success, it remains one of the greatdesign achievements of humanity as a species,comfortably alongside the wheel, the screw andcash. Whatever the reason for this enduringsuccess, it has it and the latest set ofdoomsayers may well go the way of the rest.Perhaps the greatest reason for its enduringsuccess is that the book is silent. The readergives voice to characters and charts their ownway through fiction or selects their own phrasesfor emphasis in non-fiction. There is nobody –actor or director – between the reader and the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "All of that may well be true, however it does notmake the two approaches mutually exclusive.Demonstrating that digital is good does not makeanalogue bad. Attacks on libraries have beendriven more by austerity cuts, that are forcing20% of the staff at Library and Archives Canadato go, [i] and the situation is similar in othercountries such as the UK, [ii] than by thediminishing popularity of the book in particular orlibraries in general. Indeed, the book has neverbeen more popular as the ranks of those who likedigital formats have been swelled by the digitalnatives of the Internet age. [i] CBC News,‘Federal libraries, archives shutting down’, CBC,2 May 2012, [ii] Hall, James, ‘Scale of librarycut-backs revealed’, The Telegraph, 16 March2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The suggestion that seven million dollars is anexcessive expenditure on a resource for 836,000is extortionate is simply nonsense. That’s a littleover eight dollars a head, hardly likely to breakthe bank. To say that a government is notdiscouraging the use of something by making itharder to access is simply untrue. Of course if aresource is harder or more expensive to access,people will be discouraged from using it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "If the information is accessible in another format,it is wrong to claim that this is an issue of freespeech. To argue that this is a matter of theinfringement of the right to free speech is notonly wrong but offensive to those who have hadthat right genuinely curtailed. A stifling of freespeech is about cutting off people’s access toideas, denying them the right to take those ideasand present them to others. The slow, naturaldeath of Braille does not do that. Fewer than onein ten blind children now learn Braille [i] . Thosewho wish to continue to use Braille can do so justas those who prefer to write a letter rather thansend an email can do so. Both groups however,accept that it is likely to become more expensiveand exclude them from the rest of society asothers adapt and new technologies become thenorm. The information and ideas are there, theyare available in a format that is available, even ifit is not the format of absolute preference. Thetechnology is available, many prefer it, thosewho don’t are free not to use it. [i] “The Death", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Readers of all kinds are adapting to books beingproduced in new formats, publishers need torespond to this decline. The current shift inpublishing is unlike any other that has gonebefore, e-books are not like the TV, the Recordplayer or the radio as all of these could onlyreproduce books in heavily edited form. Thechange is shown by ebook sales havingoutperformed printed book sales on amazon inthe UK for the first time. [i] Against braille it isaudio formats that are the biggest threat, thetape machine, the Walkman, the CD, Mp3, Mp4and so on. All of these can reproduce books,unedited, in a format that allows the listener toproceed at their own pace, jump back andforwards and so on – just as a bookdoes. Earlier technologies had problems withquality, and each in turn was initially expensive.As they became more commonplace, qualityimproved and the price fell. Both of these havenow coincided to create technologies that allowthe listener the ultimate convenience. Returning", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It is not a case of insisting that there are other orbetter options; there are other or better options.Equally, there is no need to ‘predict’ the death ofthe physical book; it is dying. Increasinglyspecialist publishers, such as DorchesterPublishing The introduction makes reference tothe seventy-two volume ‘pocket’ dictionary. It’san excellent example. [i] With printed text, manypreviously cumbersome physical books – theComplete OED, the Encyclopaedia Britannica andothers – are now only available in digital format.[ii] Nobody is suggesting banning Braille or evendiscouraging it, simply following the possibilitiesoffered by technology for easier, cheaper andmore portable formats. [iii] If there were a hugemarket for Braille it would survive but clearlyenough people are happy with other formats forit to require subsidy and support. This means,inevitably, that the taxpayer will end up footingthe bill despite there being cheaper alternativesthat are increasingly popular. As with anytechnological change – or any major societal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphwpborfs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This is a little reminiscent of Anatole France’scomment that “The law, in its majestic equality,forbids rich and poor alike to sleep underbridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal theirbread.” [i] Those who feel uncomfortable with amethod of delivery are less likely to use it andare therefore excluded, in part at least, frominformation delivered in that format. To furtherexclude a group who are already denied somegraphical representations of information anotherform of delivery does exclude them and limittheir ability to speak freely as they are deniedthe information that is its root. Additionally,oppositions argument only works were there isreal action to take up new technologies ratherthan letting Braille die off without investing inreplacement technologies, which has been seenin several jurisdictions including India [ii] . [i]McBride, Nicholas J., ‘The Importance of Law’, inLetters to a Law Student, 2010, [ii]Government turns blind eye to Braille Press.Rohit, P.S. The Times of India. 4 May 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It all boils down to personal action. People whoact embarrassingly in parties should not besurprised that they can be filmed. Likewise, the‘Star Wars kid’ left the copy of a video in his highschool’s film studio where it was found by otherteenagers. Even people who become victims ofrevenge porn at the very beginning were notacting according with good judgement becausethey themselves organised sexual acts to befilmed or photographed and then given to otherpeople, whom they could have not even knownwell. Expressing bad judgement does not incurresponsibilities on other people and companies toprovide you with rights, when other people aredoing nothing illegal by re-posting your publicmaterial or your public actions. Moreover, incases of potential violation of laws, legislationcan still be enacted without any kind of Right tobe forgotten - California has passed a lawcombatting revenge porn [9]. It might not beperfect but that is because the issue is prettynovel and in time we’ll learn to deal with it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "People need protection against harmfulinformation posted by others People cannotcontrol information that others post about them,for instance embarrassing photos from parties.Even if the original source came from peoplethemselves, they cannot delete this informationif it has been shared by other people on theirsocial media channels. For example, GhyslainRaza’s video of himself goofing around with agolf stick pretending to be in Star Wars, wasuploaded by his classmates without his consent[6]. While the video went viral without Ghyslainbeing able to delete all of its appearances atdifferent sites, he himself suffered mercilessbullying online and in real life [7]. There evenare people who exploit people’s inability to deleteembarrassing content relating to them online.‘Revenge porn’, which is uploading privatematerial of sexual nature of ex-partners online inan effort to humiliate them, is especially hard todelete and prosecute [8]. Since embarrassinginformation can end up online without a person’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is not true that people cannot manageconsequences from their action online. It mightonly seem so but that is because the issuesaround personal data have emerged relativelyrecently, so we are still learning to deal withthem. Individuals are learning how to managetheir personal data online responsibly to makesure such humiliating situations do not occur.There are resources and programmes on how totalk to children about using the internet andother digital devices, including sexting,responsibly [11]. The same way, there are andshould be calls for the society to be consideratetowards victims of personal data abuse and beless abusive online.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "It is unfair for people to suffer for silly pastmistakes People make silly mistakes, especiallywhen they are young. The age from which youcan join Facebook is 13 and pretty much anyonecan post videos to Youtube, run a blog or postcomments. It is then no surprise that people canleave unflattering information about themselvesthat at that moment they considered to be worthposting. However, this is just a one-sidedrepresentation of a person, because many goodthings cannot be well represented online, e.g.nobody posts a video of oneself workinghard. Nevertheless, this one-sidedrepresentation can have very damagingconsequences to a person. For instance, awell-known case is of Stacy Snyder who wasrefused a teaching certificate by her universitybecause of a picture of her as a drunken pirateon myspace.com, and not because she was a badstudent [4]. More importantly, current measuresto delete information might not be enough, asdigital information stays in internet archives,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "People put up all those unflattering things aboutthemselves online without being forced to. Thoseare true, even if not full, representations ofthem. But that one-sided representation isexactly how the person wanted to be seen. Theyalways have an option of showcasing a betterimage of themselves (through photos, videos,blogs, etc.) online, but nobody owes them theright to undo something they themselves freelyshared. It might be a mistake they realise lateron, but mistakes do not create a right to eraseeverything about that mistake. Nothing in realworlds works like that – you might have made amistake by getting to drunk at a companyChristmas party, but you can't insist onco-workers pretending that never happened andnot telling anyone. Moreover, there is plenty ofinformation about how to act on the internet [5].So we should not grant such a right to someonewho did not learn how to act on the internet -they'll have to learn the hard way.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "People suffer disproportional consequences onthe internet The internet magnifies the problemof embarrassing personal data and makes it veryhard for people to manage the consequences. Inreal life, though we suffer consequences for ourembarrassing behaviour (or behaviour othersthink is embarrassing), we can manage it easier,e.g. by talking to the people involved or as afinal resort moving. The internet means thehumiliating material is rapidly exposed tomillions of people around the world, meaningthat people can face humiliation anywherewithout an ability to manage it. There are evencases of young people taking their lives afterbullying and cyber-bullying that followedinformation about them being posted online. Themost famous case is that of teenager AmandaTodd, who committed suicide after half-nudephotos were posted online – she could notescape ridicule even after she moved schools,because photos remained online [10]. Becausereal life actions are not enough to manage", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "People’s digital footprint, though it might beindicative of who a person is, is not a perfectrepresentation of them or of their entirecharacter. People act differently on the internetbehind a screen, and sometimes someanonymity, than in real life because they feelfree of social norms. But in real life social normsexist and people adhere to them, meaning thattheir internet activity cannot be directly linked totheir real life actions. Finally, we cannot expectpeople to constantly leave personal data on theinternet, which means we cannot get aconsistent view of a person’s character or theirpersonal development. E.g. someone’s leaving aracist comment 10 years ago does not meanthey are still racist now. All this is not justuseless for the judicial process; it can actuallyharm justice by giving false representations ofpeople, which will lead to unfair convictions (orunfair acquittals). For instance, the defence inthe famous Trayvon Martin case used digitalphotos of Trayvon smoking weed or posing as a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The internet is different from reality since themagnitude of consequences you might suffer ismuch greater. While there might be a schoollaughing at you over something in real life, onthe internet it might be the whole world. Weaccept ridicule and embarrassment in real lifenot just because it happens, but also becausethe effect is not so overwhelming in the majorityof cases. People get bored of the news and stoptalking, while in the digital era new people canalways find you and laugh at you – memoriesfade, photos and videos online do not. Sointernet is different from the real life andrequires new rules. Moreover, the right to beforgotten is not applicable to the real life notbecause of a principle, but because we cannotenforce it. We can’t delete people’s memories.But we can delete information online.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "This right relieves people of the need to actresponsibility online Having a right to beforgotten means that people can be lessresponsible about what they share and how theyact on the internet. Knowing that they canalways remove all trace of what they did relievespeople of the necessity to consider theconsequences of what they are doing online. Thisis especially true for young adults: they oftenpost unflattering information, such as pictures ofthem drunk or half-nude, or write offensivecomments for the pay-out of immediatepopularity in their peer group. However, whatalso prevents them from doing this is thinkingabout how that might affect them in the future.When they know that after some time they candelete their digital trace completely there isnothing preventing them from actingirresponsibly in hope of popularity. Suchirresponsible behaviour then puts a burden onthe state to fix the mess by applying andoverseeing the right to be forgotten.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "What seems like irrelevant information nowmight serve justice in the future People’s digitalfootprint, though of no public interest at themoment, might be useful in the future. It is acommon practice in courts to investigate aperson’s character or motives to check for theirprobability of committing a crime. Photos,videos, comments and blogs can shed light onthese issues should the person be investigatedunder law. For instance, racist or sexist youtubecomments might be of use in a trial where adefendant denies his/her actions were a result ofracial or gender hatred; blogs, photos and videosa person posts and shares, and their internetsearches can serve to assess what the person islike. Digital footprints can be used not only tosentence people, but also to prove theirinnocence. Given that discerning people’smotives and a character is a vital part of thelegal process that is also very elusive, havingaccess to their online behaviour is very useful.Digital information thus can be a useful tool to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The internet does not need additional rights tothose in the real world The right to be forgottenis premised on the idea that internet requiresadditional rights beyond those in the real world.Offline there is no right to demand that peopledo not to talk about or show photos of yourembarrassing moments. Provided that there isno privacy breach, once something is out inpublic, you cannot take it back. There is no ruleenabling you to be forgotten in real life, even ifthings you have done harm you. Why then dorules have to be different for the internet? In21st century the internet has become an integralpart of our lives and of human communicationthat it is in fact just another reality for us. We dothe same things there as we do in real life –socialise, engage in our hobbies etc. The onlydifference is that the internet provides us withgreater opportunities, such as reaching morepeople, but that does not change the principlethat human interaction online is pretty much thesame as offline. If there is no right to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-gfsdifscp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "We expect people to want to use the right to beforgotten mostly when the information on theweb is actually hurting them. That means that, inthe most common scenario, people would facenegative consequences before they can use theright, otherwise why bother one-self withengaging the legal system? However a lack ofresponsibility is not a charge that can be leviedat everyone, often they just could not foreseethe consequences. Being responsible is premisedon the idea that you know the results of youractions. When you do not and cannot know them– because maybe that photo will be a problem in10 years – no amount of thinking about an issueis going to make it better.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "What exactly is the public interest? It is difficultto define in law as Britain is finding in its enquiryinto phone hacking, [1] and individuals disagree.[2] Journalists in particular are likely to be muchhappier about the idea than the rest of the publicbecause it defends their interest to have a broadinterpretation. It should not have been up toeither Kamm or Haaretz to define what the publicinterest is. There are some things that have tobe left to the state. [1] Sabbagh, Dan,‘Clarification of the ‘public interest’ defence isbadly needed’, guardian.co.uk, 8 April 2012. [2]Elliott, Chris, ‘What do you think ‘public interest’means?’, guardian.co.uk, 15 May 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The public have a right to know what iscommitted in their name “There were aspects ofIDF operations which I thought should bebrought to the attention of the public.” [1]Kamm is correct; in any state, but especially in ademocracy like Israel, the military is there toprotect the state and its people. It is paid for bythe people through their taxes. The military iscomposed of the people through conscription.And as a result what it does is in the name of thepeople. The accountability of the instruments ofthe state, including the military, is at the core ofwhat it means to be a democracy. It is thereforeessential that the people know what it is doing intheir name. Many democracies have laws givinga “right to know” for example the United State’sFreedom of Information Act and FirstAmendment right of access. [2] It is therefore inthe public interest to expose activities that maybe detrimental to the state. In this case themilitary was exposed doing something it hasbeen specifically ordered not to do by the courts", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Yes the military has to be accountable but thisdoes not mean that it is directly accountable tothe people. Instead the military is accountable tothe civilian leadership of the country who is thenin turn accountable to the people. The peopledesignate their politicians; their head of stateand government as well as minister of defence tocontrol the most senior members of the military.[1] This means that while the military must betransparent it is only necessary for it to betransparent to the civilian government which isat the top of the chain of command not to thepeople as a whole. [1] Feaver, Peter D., ArmedServants Agency, Oversight, and Civil-MilitaryRelations, Harvard University Press, 2005, p.5.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "It is right that illegal acts by the state beexposed Anat Kamm was correct when she said“I kept thinking that history tends to forgivepeople who expose war crimes.” [1] Maj.-Gen.Yair Naveh was documented as saying “This is anarrest operation… But in case [the soldiers]identify one of the senior leaders of the IslamicJihad, Walid Obeid, Ziad Malaisha, Adham Yunis,they have permission to open fire in accordancewith their appraisal of the situation during theoperation.” [2] As attorney Michael Sfard states\"In other words, the use of words referring toarrest when in fact there is no real intention ofcarrying out an arrest, but the reference is toassassination.\" [3] This was despite a supremecourt ruling in 2006 that militants must bedetained. [4] Kamm may be incorrect whenconsidering this action a war crime as Israel wasnot at war at the time however assassination isclearly illegal under international law. [5] Thepress has four roles in a democracy; holdingpower to account, highlighting issues that need", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While it may be a journalist’s job and duty to callthe government to account this is not the duty ofa soldier who is supposed to be following orders.The soldier’s duty in such a situation would havebeen to report up the chain of command. As theJudge in the case concluded: \"There is no needto steal thousands of classified documents inorder to bring 'aspects of IDF operations to thepublic's attention,' or investigate 'war crimes.'Any independent body given those documents,even by someone like the defendant, has no(security) clearance to afford it the review ofsuch military secrets… There was also no need togive a reporter thousands of sensitive documentswithout discretion.\" [1] [1] Lutvitch, Vered,‘Kam: History forgives those who expose warcrimes’, Ynet News.com, 12 April 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The military can only be held to account if thereis transparency States have militaries to protectthemselves creating a paradox that “The veryinstitution created to protect the polity is givensufficient power to become a threat to thepolity.” [1] The Military is a powerful institutioneven in a stable democracy like Israel, it needsto be held to account because it is the institutionwithin a state that has most capability to useforce if it wishes. An unaccountable military is amilitary that is much more likely to engage incoups and other anti-democratic actions. Israel isan unusual case in the west in that it has allowedthe boundaries separating government, militaryand society to become blurred leading to worriesof military influence on policy. [2] None the lessmost of the time we can trust the government tohold the military to account however the onlysure guarantee is for everyone to have access toall information that have a very low risk ofresulting in lives lost; designs of weaponsystems, current deployments or planning for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "If individuals are never allowed to take actionthemselves then we are leaving everything up tothe state and the military; two institutions that incases like this have every reason to attempt tosuppress the truth. When the state will not takeresponsibility for its actions then it is right thatothers should force it to account for its actionsand the only way this can be done is throughrevealing the wrongs the state has done.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This might be a valid argument if the leakedmilitary secrets really were putting lives indanger, but this is not the case in this particularinstance. In Israel there is a military censorwhich newspapers submit articles that mightaffect national security to and that censor takesout anything it believes to be harmful to statesecurity. [1] All the materials that werepublished by Haaretz went first throughHaaretz’s editors and then this military censor[2] so if there really were any military secretspublished that could have put lives in danger thecensors were negligent in their job. [1]Sobelman, Batsheva, ‘Q&A Censorship inIsrael: ‘A unique model’’, Los Angeles Times, 3May 2010. [2] Reider, Dimi, ‘In Israel, PressFreedom is under attack’, The New York Times,31 October 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "National security should come before freedom ofinformation The Security of the Nation comesbefore other considerations such as the freedomof information. This is especially true in a nationsuch as Israel which is surrounded by enemieswho will take advantage of any information thatthey can use to damage Israel. Israel’s securitysituation is aptly described by Yitzhak Rabin asone of “dormant war” that every few yearsbecomes an active conflict. [1] When the state’ssurvival is potentially at stake as is the case inIsrael then individual rights such as freedom ofexpression and freedom of information have tobe subordinated to the greater collective rights ofthe nation. [1] Dahan, Michael, ‘NationalSecurity and Democracy on the Internet inIsrael’, C. Ess and F. Sudweeks (eds).Proceedings Cultural Attitudes TowardsCommunication and Technology ’98. Universityof Sydney Australia, 189-192.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Individuals do not have the right to decide whatinformation should be publicly available. Noindividual is empowered to decide for themselveswhat information should be publicly available andcertainly not a 23 year old student. A conscriptlike Kamm will have little idea of the context,whether operations have taken place, or evenoften what the information they are leakingmeans. Without all the facts of each case theyare in no position to judge if a particulardocument is in the public interest. They thereforewon’t know the consequences of the informationthey are leaking which in a military situationcould mean lives being lost. This is why militarieshave systems for declassifying information; sothat when it is done it does not cause anyharm. As Sarah Honig writing in the JerusalemPost argues “We could kiss our entire nationaldefense good-bye if each and every soldierwould do likewise with no guideline but his/herown youthful hubris.” [1] [1] Honig, Sarah,‘Another Tack: Loose lips sink ships’, JPost.com,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Leaking military secrets puts lives in danger Theright to life is the most fundamental right of all.No one should have the right to leak informationthat might result in someone losing their life. Asthe documents that Kamm collected includeddetails of IDF deployments and plans for militaryoperations [1] the leaking of this informationcould clearly have provided terrorists such asHezbollah or Hamas the opportunity to kill Israelisoldiers. Moreover while the information shegave to Haaretz reporter Uri Blau may not haveall been published Kamm herself admitted thatshe had lost one of the CD’s she copied. [2] [1]Edelman, Ofra, ‘Tel Aviv court accepts pleabargain in Anat Kamm espionage case’, Haaretz,6 February 2011. [2] Lutvitch, Vered, ‘Kam:History forgives those who expose war crimes’,Ynet News.com, 12 April 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchblmdakw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Anat Kamm did not leak information that couldever result in the destruction of the Israeli state.Her lawyer argued \"It was never her intention toharm the security of the state” and this wasaccepted by the Israeli state as shown by theplea bargain in which it dropped the chargehaving the intention to harm the security of thestate. [1] If the state’s survival was not at stakethen the right to freedom of information clearlyapplies. [1] Edelman, Ofra, ‘Tel Aviv courtaccepts plea bargain in Anat Kamm espionagecase’, Haaretz, 6 February 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is difficult to see how discourse and freeinquiry are a basic right when it comes tohistory. This is not an area which is going toaffect people’s lives and liberty if they cannotread about every possible opinion on the subjectexactly because what is in the past is in the pastand does not impact on people’s day to day lives.Very few people are interested in speaking outagainst their own history that they grew uplearning even if it does not tell the whole truth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Prohibition of a subject damages discourse andfree enquiry History is not something that it isworth sacrificing freedom of speech andexpression for. Every individual should be free tovoice their own views and this includes on areasthat are important to the state such as itsformation and national heros. In these areasthere can be no compelling reason for keepingsecrets or discouraging open inquiry andscholarship, there are no national securityinterests at stake, for most countries theindividuals involved are dead. Therefore the onlything being affected are individuals posthumousreputations and the state should not beprotecting individuals reputations. Someone’sreputation should stand on all of their deeds andacts based upon fact not just a cherry picked andidealised image set forth by the state. Thefoundation of Islam is potentially an example ofthis. Some scholars such as Tom Holland haveattempted to show that the Arab Empire gavebirth to Islam rather than the other way around", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This is equally an argument for treating nationalheroes and history with the respect it deserves.Attacking these ideas is attacking the veryfoundation of the nation state. Of course thenational identity is not going to disappear fromundermining Atatürk as the national communityis built on more than just Atatürk but each attackhelps undermine the whole structure and musttherefore be stopped.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Countries must be willing to accept the darkersides to their past No country is whiter thanwhite, and often the creation of a country is abloody event that involves mistakes, tragedy’sand outright massacres. While it is wrong tocover up and not apologise when mistakes aremade or horrifying acts are committed theresults of this action are likely to haveconsequences. These events may well be a sourpoint with neighbouring countries or even justthose who feel that the country is not beinghonest about its past. Turkey is an excellentexample of this. Almost everyone would agreethat Atatürk was a great leader and most wouldnot consider that his habits make any differenceto this. Nor are they likely to judge Turkey on thebasis of the foibles of a long dead leader.However during the period just before Atatürkbecame president the Armenian Genocideoccurred (1915-23) which stains Turkey’s foreignrelations to this day, France has supported a lawcriminalising its denial, [1] the US congress has", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "A great many states see no need to particularlyacknowledge the darker side of their past andfounding; the United States still lionises themanifest destiny and the conquest of the westdespite the genocide of the Native Americanswho still live there. And there is no reason whythey should. Some other nations may disagreewith the past portrayed by that state and theycan present their own competing version if theywish.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The purpose of history as a subject in Schoolsand in Universities is very different. The role ofhistory in School is simply to teach about wherewe come from, to learn about the origins of thenation and why it is organised the way it isorganised. History needs to be taught as it bindsthe nation together by creating a shared sense ofidentity. [1] [1] Dilek, Dursun, ‘History in theTurkish elementary school: perceptions andpedagogy’, University of Warwick, January 1999,p.79,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "History shapes attitudes History is importantbecause of the way it shapes attitudes andidentities. Nationalism scholar Benedict Andersonhas dubbed nations ‘imagined communities’because “members of even the smallest nationwill never know most of their fellow members,meet them, or even hear of them, yet in theminds of each lives the image of theircommunion.” This is the case with all large scalecommunities. “the nation is always conceived asa deep, horizontal comradeship” a fraternity forwhich members are willing to kill and die. [1]This very willingness makes nationalismpotentially dangerous and so it is much better totake a much more measured approach seeingthe bad as well as the good. Yet because thenation is an imagined community so it is possiblefor that imagining to be altered as is needed.Turkey will not cease being the Turkish nationsimply because views of Atatürk change as aresult of some believing him to be a ‘drunkendebaucher’. Other countries have come to accept", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Makes history more useful, more human, andmore interesting While the state may like towhitewash history to produce its own ‘nationalhistory’ that sticks to one grand narrative that isabout the state this is not history as it really is.While a national history full of patriotism may begood for instilling a love of the nation it is notmuch use at teaching anything else. In particularit is damaging to any attempt to teach analysisand the use of sources through history. History isfor the most part not useful in and of itself, [1]there are for example very few jobs directlyworking with history. Rather teaching of historyemphasises ‘transferrable skills’ such as CriticalAnalysis, Reasoning and Argument [2] all ofwhich are suppressed if focused on one officiallyapproved narrative. Moreover having the darkerside of a nation’s past both makes history moreinteresting and more believable and so making itmore likely that those being taught it will relateto it. Making the past look whiter than whitesimply makes it seem out of touch with reality. It", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While a country is entitled to promote its ownnational story, its own interpretation of eventsand create its own national heroes however it isnot entitled to suppress historical events and soblot things out of history by preventing anycompeting ideas about that history. Most peoplelearn their history through the state educationsystem rather than through scholar’s historybooks so having competing narratives is not athreat to the state’s interpretation. Role modelsare not undermined by having some minorfaults.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Simple ‘disrespect’ is not sufficient reason tolimit freedom of speech and freedom of academicenquiry. Those who find it disrespectful need notwatch or read that which is written that they finddisrespectful but more importantly they shouldbe open minded enough to be able to reconsidertheir previous views. No matter the subject if ithas strongly held views about it then holding upa different prism to that subject is going to beconsidered disrespectful as it is challenging thosedeeply held beliefs. Yet if we can’t challenge andtest those beliefs then there is no opportunity forchange and progress. Ultimately then preventinginquiry due to ‘disrespect’ holds back societiesdevelopment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Damages the country’s reputation Rightly orwrongly countries are judged in part based uponthe past; In Europe Germany is regularly judgedon the basis of the Nazi’s [1] and in Asia Japanon the basis of its atrocities in World War II. [2]Any nation would be sensible to want to avoidsuch vilification on the basis of actions taken byone’s ancestors and the further back the lesssense such vilification makes sense. Digging uppast wrongs for the sake of digging is wrongsimply because of the souring effect it can haveon the present. If there are dark areas of thepast that have been forgotten then it is best toleave them forgotten than rather than riskcreating new enmities between nations. Althoughnot an exact parallel rather similar would be thecreation of the Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda. TheBelgian colonial powers divided the populationinto several distinct groups where no divide hadpreviously existed. The population was thendivided through a census and identity cardsystem introduced in 1933-4 which set", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Countries are entitled to make what they will oftheir past. Past leaders are dead and if theyhave become heroes it has already beenaccepted that accounts of that figure may not beentirely accurate as with any myths and legends– and indeed many country’s heroes are mythssuch as King Arthur. Where they are not as inthe case of Atatürk the man is mythologised inorder to help show the unity of the nation andprovide an example, an ideal if you will, for thosewho follow. Insulting this hero by deliberatelypublicising their dark side is therefore damagingnot just for the state but for those who believe inthe in the role model that the hero provides. In acountry like Turkey where the focus of historyteaching is on political citizenship educationbased upon national history everyone in Turkeylearns about Atatürk. The aim is to educatepupils “As future citizens who respect theprinciples and reforms of Atatürk anddemocracy; who care for their families, countryand the nation; who are aware of their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Disrespectful Few nations go so far as to deifytheir national heroes or the formation of thestate but none the less it is disrespectful toattack these ideas and many people are likely tobe offended. This is indeed the case with the filmMustafa about Atatürk one doctor referring to theposter advertising the film asks \"Why is heshown like that, in front of a steppe? His head isdown as if he is apologizing for something... Ifind it disrespectful\". Professors Orhan Kural andAhmet Ercan argue “The content of the film andits interpretation of its topics damage therepublic and Atatürk. Damaging such values canlead to the breakup of Turkey and to the loss ofnational pride.” [1] This is because any attack onAtatürk is equally an attack on the values of therepublic he created, some of which such assecularism are already under attack. It is bothwrong to offend so many people and unwise, asis the case with the attack on Atatürk, to attackthe foundations of the ideology that helps toprevent intolerance. [2] [1] Doğan, Yonca", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-efsdfkhwsds-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This gives all the more reason to actpre-emptively by allowing free and openscholarship and critical analysis of the past. If anation will not take a long hard look at its ownpast eventually someone else will and they arejust as likely to uncover any skeletons in thecloset as a national historian is. If however thegovernment is open to new ideas then they canquickly say sorry, possibly pay some form ofreparation and prevent any creation of enmitythat will occur through denials. Japan is anexcellent example of this; China and Korea arestill calling for the Japanese emperor to apologisefor atrocities during imperialism. [1] [1] Kyodo,‘Japanese Emperor must apologize for colonialrule: S. Korean president’, The Japan Times, 15August 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It seems unlikely that there would be a rush tooffer corrections where it was to the advantageof an individual or organisation, so let us notpretend this is the noble pursuit of truth at anycost. Where a major mistake is made by a newsoutlet, its competitors are usually only too happyto point the fact out, vastly magnifying theredress compared to the original mistake, asshown by the example cited by the propositionwith the BBC attacking inaccuracies in a DailyTelegraph article [i] . Where it is a minor error,it’s questionable as to whether a right to replyactually helps or simply fuels speculation on thebasis that the aggrieved party seems to besquabbling over the details. Alternatively, wherea mistake is genuinely defamatory then it is acriminal matter and should be settled in thecourts rather than in a grubby fix-up betweenthe parties. [i] The examiner.com. Ryan Witt.Fox News makes three large factual, graphicalerrors over the last week (Video). 15 December2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "There is a sense of natural justice thatcorrections should come in this form rather thana tiny note. In many countries corrections orclarifications in newspapers are buried away inthe depths of the middle pages and are unlikelyto be spotted by anyone other than the mostardent reader. Not only does this defy naturaljustice but having the correction prominent hits anewspaper for making mistakes as it loses spacefor a story that would attract both readers andadvertisers. It’s not unreasonable to expectjournalists to get the information right first time– that is, after all, their job. Building an entirecase on the basis of a misunderstanding, as theDaily Telegraph did recently on the basis ofmisinterpreting data for fish stocks, [i] can beincredibly misleading and when the correction toit is impossible to find, that misunderstandingremains in the mind of the readers. Once that ismultiplied by blog entries comments to othersand so on, the retraction would need to be asizable news story in its own right to correct the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The issue of credibility is an important one. If astory that was broadly true can be picked todeath by the PR and Legal departments ofcompanies, then it places a real burden on thefuture of investigative and campaigningjournalism. One minor mistake, plastered acrossthe front page, will inevitably encourage readersto question the story more generally as itappears to suggest that both points of view haveequal merit. A broadly true story of an industrialgiant polluting the environment or a bankindulging in corruption is not negated by gettinga single fact wrong. The company, of course, willuse any detail to challenge the whole story,risking the reputation of the publication in theprocess. This may ultimately mean thatjournalists are simply much more cautious andso will not publish any stories that will likelybring about a response in the form of a replyfrom the target of the article.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "It is only fair where something inaccurate hasbeen said to allow for a correction. [i] The rightof reply goes a long way in balancing the playingfield – especially for private citizens who may notbe able to afford recourse to the law. It is alsosimpler and quicker than protracted argumentsin court. Finally it respects the readership as agroup accepting that they are capable of makinga decision over whose version of events is morelikely to be accurate – the journalist or therespondent. It’s a grownup approach topublishing, it acknowledges that newspapersdon’t get everything right and embraces the ideathat the goal is to convey accurate information –admittedly belatedly. It’s inevitable thatmistakes will be made in a world wherenewspapers are endlessly running up againstdeadlines and it is only possible to check somuch as a result. Instead of entering intoprotracted disputes or ignoring the rights of theinjured party this allows for the readership tomake the final decision [ii] . This can be true of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Prop correctly identifies conveying information asa key role of the media – there are others;informed and impartial comment and, critically, arelevant news agenda. It is hard to see howchasing a story off the front page to make roomfor the right of reply fulfills these otherrequirements. Equally, where there is dispute,surely the courts are best placed to resolve it –driving the middle path between two inaccuraciesis a pretty poor route to truth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "In an age of declining journalistic standards,forcing editors to get their facts right is a goodstart. In response to an ever faster newsagenda, produced by ever more pressuredjournalists, sloppiness may be seen as inevitable[i] . As a result, anything that is unlikely to resultin legal action may be given a bye. In mostsituations, that sets the bar way too high. Themere mention of a private citizen in a negativelight in a local paper may not be the stuff ofnational press attention and is unlikely to get farin the courts but can affect that persons standingin their community and with their neighbours in aprofound way. Anything that pushes reportersand editors to go that extra step to check theirfacts before they go to print seems like asensible preventative measure [ii] . This couldhelp prevent newspapers citing ‘experts’ who arenot actually expert, a Forbes columnist foundthat he could portray himself as expert on allsorts of things and get his comments in articlesfor even very reputable media organisations such", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The notion that the print media has lost its powersince the emergence of the Internet is simplyuntrue. Not only are they still a major source ofnews for many – they are particularly a source ofnews for other news-makers. Blogs and otherexclusively online sites rarely ‘break’ stories –with the exception of those that act in the sameway as regular print editions such as theHuffington Post. Identifying those news outletsthat are large enough to be registered companiesis really not beyond the wit on humankindequally, imposing the regulations on thosealready covered by libel legislation would seemfairly obvious.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The on-going agglomeration of news and opinionis a wider and deeper issue than tackling factualinaccuracies and one that needs to be resolved inother ways. Frequently, that’s the very point tobe addressed by the courts – whether astatement is legitimate comment or is beingmasqueraded as fact [i] . The right of reply is notpresented as a cure all for the media as a wholebut it is a useful way of getting the basics rightbefore addressing the higher-level concerns thatoften stem from these fundamental errors. [i]The ‘fact or opinion’ distinction is crucial to casesof defamation it basics are set out here .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "This undermines actual parity by creating a falsesense of the right to reply. A right to reply wouldbe no more of a fig leaf than voluntaryself-regulation that has so bedevilled the mediain so many countries. Responsible journalists andpublications are already involved in the processwhere it is useful and others would use it as anexcuse to avoid real regulation. It iscomparatively rare for the damage to be done atthe level of factual data but signing up to makingthose corrections (indeed the requirement togive equal parity would allow papers to make agreat song and dance about the fact) wouldmask the real story that opinions and commentare what really trash reputations – along withthe half-facts and insinuations mentioned in theprevious argument. Different countries tacklepress regulation in different ways. In some thethreat to freedom of speech comes fromover-regulation, in others from an over-mightypress drowning out dissent. The right of replyseems to answer neither concern – the paper will", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "This solution – if it is one - is now out ofdate. We are happy to concede that in theglacial world of academic journals, the right ofreply mostly works. Two experts clarifyingexactly what was said by whom and beingappraised by an equally expert readership canmake sense of this process through article,response, and counter response. That’s why italready happens. In the world of political,economic and scientific monthlies and weeklies,the idea would make sense some of the time.This is why it already happens some of thetime. In the cut and thrust of daily newspaperswith rolling news on their websites andnewsblogs from most of their contributors andjournalists it ceases to make any sensewhatsoever. So it is not surprising they don’t doit. In the developed world, the days of peoplereading the same paper in the same way everyday are mostly gone [i] , news comes from avariety of stories with readers often followingone story through different outlets rather than", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "What is a fact – there are few circumstanceswhere this would be of significance. The linebetween factual inaccuracy and opinion is prettyslim. What about “Far right politician” statementor comment? The difficulty is that mostpublications work on the basis that there is anarrative that is already understood in order tofunction. It’s simply impossible to give the fullbackstory to everything that goes into print [i]. The only way to avoid newspapers beingconstantly full of replies to irrelevant data wouldbe to give a far broader right of reply to theopinions presented or the conclusions draw – theactions where journalism really has its power.Many newspapers already do this out ofprofessional courteousy and respect for thetruth, for example the guardian has a ‘Response’column in its Comment is free section. [ii] Thescandal sheets which offer no such facility seemto have only the most tangential reliance onevidence at the best of times so it is unclear howsuch a law would affect them as they would be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-radhbrr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Opposition seem to be arguing, ‘This is difficult,let’s do nothing’ – the rallying call of apathydown the ages. There may well be grounds for awider right of reply – indeed as most newsoutlets increasingly favour their online presencemany of their practical arguments of the past fallaway. The disadvantage of regulation is that itempowers government in relation to the press,litigation favours the wealthy. A right of replyfavours the readers as the final arbiter.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The head of no large corporation has completecontrol of their operations. The head of the BBCalmost certainly does not know all the policiesand everything that is happening in the BBC’sPersian language division. While the head of thecompany is ultimately responsible it is unrealisticto believe that they will have such day to daycontrol as everyone seems to believe Murdochhad. Murdoch himself explains “the News ofthe World is less than 1% of our company. Iemploy 53,000 people around the world” andpoints out that in such a big organisation he hasto rely on senior managers. [1] This very lack ofcontrol is itself a good thing; it ensures thatthere is decentralisation with most control at thelocal level with the individual editors ofnewspapers and programmes. [1] Culture,Media and Sport Committee, ‘News Internationaland Phone-hacking’, House of Commons,Eleventh Report of the Session 2010-12, Vol.1, 1May 2012, p.64", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Lack of control Rupert Murdoch has an immenseempire and if we believe his testimony obviouslydid not have as much control over hispublications, or take as much responsibility forthem, as he should have done. Murdoch himselfhas claimed “someone took charge of a cover-upwe were victim to and I regret that.\" This was acover up within the News of the World and NewsInternational that kept Murdoch out of the loopand misinformed on phone hacking, showing thathe was unable to keep control over hisbusinesses when he was the one with ultimateresponsibility for the actions of that company.[1] The commons culture committee concludedthat Murdoch was essentially negligent \"at allrelevant times Rupert Murdoch did not take stepsto become fully informed about phone-hacking,he turned a blind eye and exhibited wilfulblindness to what was going on in his companiesand publications.\" [2] [1] BBC News, ‘LevesonInquiry: Murdoch admits missing hacking‘cover-up’, 26 April 2012. [2] Culture, Media and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "News organisations cannot be completelytransparent if they are to do their job properlyand News International is no exception. Suchorganisations cannot for example reveal theirsources as this may sometimes put their sourcesat risk and would mean that others would notcome forward. As part of this news companiesneed to keep secret how they obtainedinformation. While an attempt by a newspaper tocover up crimes is regrettable this onenewspapers actions should not tar the wholecompany and its other papers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Murdoch is morally unfit to run a powerful mediacompany. Those running media corporationsshould be morally upright people who controltheir media companies in the public interest asthese are organisations that potentially have alot of influence through their control ofinformation. This is however not at all howRupert Murdoch ran News Corp or hisnewspapers. Murdoch has been running hisempire in pursuit of power and to advance aright wing agenda. [1] His influence was suchthat even naturally left wing parties such as NewLabour under Tony Blair stuck to right wing orwing orthodoxies in order to keep the support ofthe Murdoch press. [2] Murdoch was thereforepushing narrow interests rather than the publicinterest. Murdoch’s News Corporation has showntheir lack of moral scruples not just by engagingin industrial scale hacking but also by itsdetermination to use its contacts to close downinvestigations by parliament or the police as wellas being willing to destroy evidence and lie when", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is unfair to blame the culture in a newspaper,only one among many in Murdoch’s empire, onRupert Murdoch. With hundreds of publicationsto control Murdoch would never be able to setcorporate culture for every paper. Nor is itcorrect to accuse Murdoch of running his papersin pursuit of power rather than profit; Murdochhas been unusual in succeeding in recent yearsin still making profits from selling news. Murdochis clearly willing to sometimes make losses, as atthe Times which loses £42million a year, but thisis not because it maximises his power butbecause it has international prestige as tabloidsdon’t. [1] [1] Northedge, Richard, ‘Will Murdochquit Britain?’ Prospect, 20 July 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "There was a lack of transparency in NewsCorp The Media’s role is to increasetransparency and bring others to account.Murdoch himself in his testimony to Leveson said\"If we're a transparent society, a transparentdemocracy, let's have it out there\" yet he hasbeen exactly the opposite in terms ofaccountability and transparency. [1] The Houseof Commons Select Committee on Culture, Mediaand Sport has published a report in which itconcludes that the culture of the publication,News of the World, was “throughout, until it wastoo late, was to cover up rather than seek outwrongdoing and discipline the perpetrators, asthey also professed they would do after thecriminal convictions.” [2] The strategy was toblame individuals and when such a containmentstrategy failed to shut down the News of theWorld so as to protect top bosses. [3] NewsInternational was clearly not living up to highstandards of transparency. [1] Porter, Henry,‘We are rid of Murdoch and that is worth", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-con03b", "title": "", "text": "We should not take Rupert Murdoch’s word for itthat he does not seek to influence politicians anddoes not influence the editorial line of hisnewspapers. Andrew Neil, a former editor of theSunday times argues Murdoch \"had a quiet,remorseless, sometimes threatening way oflaying down the parameters within which youwere expected to operate ... stray too far toooften from his general outlook and you will belooking for a new job.\" [1] This may not becomplete control of the editorial line but it iscertainly influencing it. [1] B arr, Robert,‘Praise, scepticism for Murdoch in UKnewspapers’, Associated Press, 26 April 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The Sun and the News of the World soldnewspapers through sensationalism and sex, notcontent that was in the public interest. As suchMurdoch’s success at selling newspapers shouldnot have any bearing on whether he is a fitperson to be in charge of a media corporation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Having powerful media companies shields themfrom interference by governments. Anindependent media is vital for democracy as it isa necessary check on over powerful politiciansand government. The ‘fourth estate’ has a vitaloversight function over government ensuringthat elected representatives uphold their oath ofoffice and really represent those who electedthem. [1] In order for the press to be able toremain independent and able to carry out thisfunction it needs to have powerful backers itself.Murdoch is one such backer. Multinationalcompanies with large holdings spread acrossnumerous countries can much easier resistgovernment pressure than national or localnewspapers without such backing as they cancontinue attacking a government regardless ofthe pressure an individual government puts uponit as the owners. Murdoch by making politiciansdance to his tune was doing exactly what thepress is supposed to do; preventinggovernments from being too powerful by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Murdoch does not seek to influence politics. It isa myth that Rupert Murdoch influences politics orseeks to get his way with powerful politicians. AsMurdoch himself said in the Leverson Inquiry\"I've never asked a prime minister for anything.”Instead it is politicians who go out of their way toimpress people in the press. Even when it comesto the editorial lines of his newspapers Murdochdid not always influence them, he controlled theSun but not the stance of the Times. [1] [1]Holton, Kate and Prodhan, Georgina, ‘Murdochdenies playing puppet master to British elite’,Reuters, 25 April 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Murdoch is effective at selling news The firstcriteria for fitness to control a media companyshould be the ability to bring people the kind ofcontent that they want to consume at a pricethey are willing to pay. Murdoch is undoubtedlygood at this. When he took over the Sun in 1969the sun was selling just over a million copies aday but by 1976 circulation was up to 3.7million. [1] Murdoch has been very successful atselling newspapers, a declining industry, and hasbeen supportive of both down market tabloidsand quality broadsheets. That the News of theWorld up to its closure and The Sun haveremained Britain’s most popular newspapersshows Murdoch is an effective media proprietorand fit to bring news to the people. If he was notcustomers would vote with their money. [1]‘The newspaper industry’, Monopolies andMergers Commission, 1985, p.5", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-sdmagghbrm-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Just as with any method of control there need tobe checks and balances on the media itself inorder to ensure that the media remains honest.As Lord Justice Leveson put it in his openingremarks “The press provides an essential checkon all aspects of public life. That is why anyfailure within the media affects all of us. At theheart of this Inquiry, therefore, may be onesimple question: who guards the guardians?” [1]Murdoch has presided over a media companyand newspapers that have not remained honestand have been too close to the politicians theyare meant to be holding in check. [1]‘Background’, The Leveson Inquiry.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is certainly true that restrictions on religiousfreedoms create internal conflict. It is howevermuch more tenuous to argue this translates ontothe international stage in such a way thatcountries need to tailor their foreign policy torespond to it. If we go through the list ofcountries mentioned as states of concern in 1999how many of their conflicts are the result ofreligious intolerance? Disagreements with Chinaare over trade and general human rights and thesame with Burma. With North Korea the conflictis a civil war that is a remnant of the cold warnot a religious divide within Korea. The US didnot invade Iraq because the Shiite or Christianswere being persecuted but because of WMDofficially or other reasons such as oil anddemocracy. In Iran similarly nuclear weapons areat the heat of the conflict and religiousintolerance only enters into worries that theseweapons may be used to destroy Israel. InSudan the state was as brutal to Muslims inDarfur [1] as the Christians in the South and it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Restrictions on religious freedom createsconflict While there are often worries aboutallowing too much religious freedom in pluralisticcountries and concern about the extremistagitation this sometimes allows in practicerestricting religious freedoms leads to muchmore conflict than openness and tolerance. BrianJ. Grimm and Roger Finke show that from 2000to 2007 of 143 countries with populations over 2million 123 countries (86%) have documentedcases of people being physically abused ordisplaced because of religious persecution. Withmore than 10,000 affected in 25 countries. [1]This is because countries with higher levels ofgovernment favouritism of religion have a muchhigher level of social hostilities. [2] It is notablethat the propensity for civil war is very highwhere there is very little religious freedom, forexample Afghanistan or Mali, and similarlyterrorist groups predominantly come from thesame countries. [3] While conflict in othercountries may not be considered a problem for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Religious pluralism is part of more generalpluralism and tolerance. Where one occurs so itis likely that other forms of tolerance will alsooccur with the most religiously tolerant statesbeing pluralistic democracies. The reasondemocratic peace has gained in popularity is thedifficulty of finding conflicts where twodemocracies have fought each other. This is lessdifficult when considering two religiously tolerantsocieties. One difficulty would be working outwhen a society is tolerant when the UK andArgentina fought over the Falklands Argentinawas certainly not a democracy but was itparticularly intolerant? [1] It is notable thatEurope’s most tolerant period of history prior tothe second half of the 20th century was the late18th century when the enlightenment spreadreligious tolerance as far as Russia [2] but theFrench Revolution’s declaration “No one shouldbe disturbed for his opinions, even in religion,provided that their manifestation does nottrouble public order as established by law”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "It is religiously intolerant states that pose mostthreat There is a strong correlation betweenstates that are religiously intolerant and thosethat are a threat to other states and theinternational order. In 1999 Burma, China, Iran,Iraq, and Sudan were designated as countries ofparticular concern with regards to religiousfreedom. Also the Taliban and Serbia were alsoincluded and Saudi Arabia and North Korea werecountries where “religious freedoms may besuppressed”. [1] All of these are countries arecountries which over the next decade were toone way or another become major securityconcerns and several of them involved inconflicts with the United States and othercountries. As William Inboden notes “Thoseactors with the most egregious religious-freedomviolations are remarkably consonant with thosethat pose a potential threat to the United Statesand its interests... Stated simply: There is not asingle nation in the world that both respectsreligious freedom and poses a security threat to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "These countries are not specifically religiouslyintolerant they are simply intolerant full stop.Usually it is not religion that is particularlysingled out for intolerance but all possible formsof organised opposition. This is the case inBurma where monks lead marches against theJunta but the political opposition was treated inthe same way with beatings and arrests, it wasthe act of opposition the regime was opposed tonot its religious affiliation. In China today it is theorganisation that matters – the state isconcerned with large organisations like theCatholic Church or Fulan Gong but is happy forits citizens to be Christian, atheist, or Confucianso long as they are not part of a largeorganisation. [1] With dictatorial regimes theprimary concern is the survival of the regime,organised religion is a threat to this, so religion issuppressed and instead a personality cultmanufactured. This is only not the case when theexisting dominant religion can be coopted tobuttress the state which often leads to repression", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Religious pluralism creates a more tolerant andpeaceful society Democratic peace theory is theproposition that democratic states do not fightinterstate wars against each other. And so farthe empirical evidence is strong. [1] It has beensuggested that ‘democratic peace’ is really liberalpeace that relies less on simply havingdemocracy (although that is likely to be a part)but upon liberal values such as rule of law,human rights, and free markets. [2] Inbodenargues that this should include religious freedomcreating a ‘religious-freedom peace’. [3]Essentially states that share these liberal valueswill be unwilling to go to war with each otherprecisely because they are tolerant of difference;if they are tolerant of difference internally thenexternal tolerance with other countries that aretolerant even if they as a majority are a totallydifferent religion. Tolerance means that religioncan no longer be a point of anything moreserious than diplomatic conflict. [1] Ray, JamesLee, ‘Does Democracy Cause Peace?’, Annu. Rev.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is not about the worth of promoting one thingrather than another. Resources are finite and nocountry can promote all its values, everywhere,and all the time. Choices need to be made andpriorities in foreign policy set. That focus shouldbe on promoting religious freedom. Promotingpolitical rights has often resulted in regimesbecoming less cooperative even when the policyis a success. For example the transition in Egypthas changed the country from being a key ally ofthe United States to a nation that is increasinglyIslamist and potentially a threat to another keyally, Israel. Now 77% of Egyptians say \"Thepeace treaty with Israel is no longer useful andshould be dissolved.\" [1] [1] Rogin, Josh, ‘NewPoll: Egyptians turning toward Iran, want nuclearweapons’, The Cable Foreign Policy, 19 October2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "That other nations foreign policies are notmotivated either by religion or freedom ofreligion does not mean that ours should not be.Moreover our policy does not need to bemotivated by religious freedom for us torecognise it as a worthwhile objective. Themotivation for reaching the objective would benational security as is the case elsewhere. Itwould simply be based on the recognition thatour security is best secured by having othercountries that are equally tolerant towards allfaiths with the attendant peaceful relations andcooperation this brings in their internationalrelations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Promoting religious freedom exacerbatesconflict Once a pluralistic religiously free societyis created there may be less conflict, but how dowe get to that stage? Promoting religiousfreedom itself creates diplomatic conflictbetween states because domestic religion isconsidered to be an area where states aresovereign so dislike interference. [1] Promotingreligious tolerance is not as well received by thepeople as the promotion of political rights. This isbecause often the dominant religion is favouredwhile minorities are those who are not tolerated.Countries trying to promote religious freedomare therefore not likely to find as much supportfrom civil society as would be the case whenadvocating that citizens be allowed to vote infree and fair elections. The country promotingthis freedom is pushing an agenda that is oftencontrary to centuries of ingrained habits andprejudices. It should not be surprising that evenas the Arab spring was occurring there wereattacks on Coptic churches, [2] while the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Concentrating on religious freedom is toonarrow, instead human rights in general shouldbe considered Of course religious freedom mustbe respected and democratic nations must try toencourage it but this is simply a part of muchmore general promotion of human rights ratherthan a priority in and of itself. It would behypocritical to be highlighting the plight of theCopts in Egypt while ignoring gender equality inSaudi Arabia or the lack of political freedoms inBelarus. [1] All of these things are a part of thesame agenda of encouraging humanrights. Moreover why should promoting religiousfreedom in Saudi Arabia be placed abovepromoting gender rights or political rights? Arethe Shiites of the country somehow more worthythan the women? Currently the promotion ofreligious freedom is within human rights, so forexample The Office of International ReligiousFreedom in the State Department is a part of theBureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor.[2] Having religious freedom within promotion of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Religion does not motivate foreignpolicy Religion is very rarely a motivation inforeign policy, it is unusual for it even to be asupporting factor and this is true even ofcountries that are domestically very religious.Instead foreign policy is primarily motivated byrealist concerns about what is best for thecountry’s security (so preventing conflict, tryingto make sure you have allies abroad etc), and itspower in the form of a healthyeconomy. Nations do promote their own valuesin areas such as human rights but this is becausethey believe the end point of these values isbeneficial – democracies believe that if otherstates become democracies not only will they notfight but there will be more trade and it will beeconomically good all round. It is notable thatwhen these kind of issues conflict with securityand issues of power then human rights don’taffect policy. This has been particularly notablerecently in conflicts in Libya and Syria, there isjust as much humanitarian cause for intervention", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ldigrrg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "An objective being difficult does not mean it isnot worthwhile pursuing it. In the case of Egyptit may now be a democracy but it is certainly nota tolerant society – it would therefore be wrongfor supporters to say job done and stopsupporting change. Yes there will be times whena dominant group objects to having to presenttheir religious case in a free market place ofideas and so resort to violence but without suchtolerance the country in question will never be atruly stable country that works for the benefit ofall its citizens and plays a constructive role inglobal politics.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhsibsv-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The problem with this approach is twofold; firstlyit means that because of an implicit threat offorce the majority have had their rightssubordinated to the preferences of a minority.Regardless of the context of how this happens,this kind of precedent is always the first step onthe road to tyranny. Secondly it is a recipe forsocial stagnation; if the state acts to preventanyone from encountering views that theydisagree with or might find disturbing then theirview will never change and the state will finditself forever trapped in a paradigm of conflictand stagnation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhsibsv-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "India has a specific need to main socialcohesion India’s post-independence history isone of partition along religious grounds withPakistan and then open warfare with that stateover territory. There is still a large Muslimminority in India and there are deep underlyingsocial tensions within the country on this basis,along with frosty relations with a nuclear-capablePakistan. In this context, India’s leaders have aspecial reason to pay attention to the sensibilitiesof their minority populations. If allowing thepublication of The Satanic Verses would result insocial unrest then on the balance of harms it is arational choice to make a limited restriction onfreedom of speech rather than see potentialmillions having their property and livesthreatened.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhsibsv-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "People have a right to choose their culturalvalues Society has a right to choose andstructure its values as it sees fit and there is noreason why the Western construction of values isright or should take priority over any other. InMuslim countries faith may be a more importantaspect of life that it might be in Westerncountries and it is entirely legitimate that thosesocieties might choose to value protecting thedignity of their faith over absolute freedom ofspeech.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhsibsv-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "‘Freedom of speech’ is not so much a ‘culturalvalue’ so much as it is a vehicle forcommunicating and exploring different culturalvalues.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhsibsv-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of Speech is but one right amongstmany, including freedom of religion, and they arenot intrinsically ranked against each other. Theright of people to have and hold religious viewswithout having those views demonised orinsulted is a right that might easily be consideredjust as important. Moreover the West is oftenhypocritical with how it defines the right to freespeech – Western countries often restrictincitement to violence or speech which isinsulting to individuals, or even just when thatspeech is against the national interest (such aswith official secrets). If it is legitimate to usestate institutions such as the courts to protectindividuals from insults, why is it illegitimate touse state institutions to protect religions frominsults?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nvhsibsv-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of Speech is a Universal Right Freedomof speech and expression exists in any modernlist of human rights. It is a fundamental rightthat is necessary for any society to functionproperly and for individuals to achieve happinessand fulfilment in their lives. ‘Hurt and outrage’are false harms – nobody suffers any damagefrom being exposed to an opposing view otherthan what they choose to suffer based on howclose-minded they are. On the contrary,everybody has a chance to benefit when they areexposed to a foreign view or opinion, whether itbe by changing their own view or being able tore-affirm their existing view in a new way.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Punishing the users of these extremist websiteswill not force these extremists to confront theirviews either. Punishing them is likely to create avictim mentality, a belief that the state is out toget them because of their beliefs not because ofany particular act they may have committed.This is similarly likely to confirm them in theirresentments and cause more radicalisation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The internet is an echo chamber that will confirmextremists in their views if not stopped Theinternet may be a free for all where all ideas andviewpoints can be found but that does not meanthat all users view all these views. Instead theinternet acts as an echo chamber thatencourages people to believe their own views arecorrect and so get more extreme rather thanchallenging them. Eli Pariser author of a bookcalled The Filter Bubble argues that the internetforces us to consume a very narrow range ofviews as search engines have been personalisedwith the intention of letting users find what theylike so two people searching for the same thingon google can get very different results, forexample when googling ‘BP’ during the oil spillone person might be directed to informationabout the spill and its environmentalconsequences while another might get justinvestment information. [1] When this kind offiltering is added to people constantly interactingwith extremists and on websites praise and incite", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The proposition is assuming that we know whateffect visiting extremist websites will have, wedon’t. For some regularly visiting websites thatpromote violence may end up sickening themand encouraging them to re-evaluate their viewsrather than further radicalising them. The bestway to prevent heinous terrorist acts is not tolock people up on minor offenses but to amassevidence of the much larger offences they areplanning and convict them for those offensesrather than a law that will catch many innocentsas well as the guilty.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "There needs to be a deterrent against thosethinking of visiting extremist websites Nationalsecurity concerns around terrorism mean that itis necessary to have a deterrent that will helpprevent the recruitment of terrorists. Terrorismis one of the biggest threats to western countriestoday and this is potentially an effective way ofdealing with it. Traditional military responses toterrorism do not work due to terrorists’underground nature and decentralised cellstructure that operates throughout the world. Itis even questionable whether ‘al Qaeda’ as agroup exists at all except as an identity for thosewanting to attack the west to operate under.Efforts against terrorism therefore need to beaimed at preventing radicalisation and stoppingindividuals rather than attempting to destroy thewhole group known as al Qaeda. This law notonly deters people from becoming extremiststhrough making them think twice about visitingextremist websites but it also helps to deterpromoters of extremism through denying them", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is no evidence that a deterrent like thisworks, we will never know who might have beenradicalised but was not because they weredeterred from visiting extremist websites.However if those visiting these websites reallyare terrorists then a spell in prison is not going todeter them. Moreover this is not a good way ofpreventing radicalisation as it does not get to thekey issues. Instead of prosecuting those whovisit extremist websites they must be shown howthose views are wrong, something that can onlybe done through debate and discussion, [1]locking them up will not do this. [1] Rothschild,Nathalie, ‘How can debate challengeextremism?’, guardian.co.uk.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Link between visiting extremist websites andbeing radicalised Regardless of whether asSarkozy claims Mohammed Merah would himselfhave been stopped earlier had this law been inplace at the time this law will catch someterrorists in the future and stop them before theycan do large amounts of harm. Punishing usersof extremist websites will mean that thegovernment can stop those who are on a path toradicalisation through their access to the internetand as a result this will help neutralise a key toolused by extremists to radicalise others. Therehave already been examples of people beinginspired to carry out violent jihad throughmaterial online such as Roshonara Choudhry whoafter watching some of Anwar Al Awlaki’ssermons online attempted to murder Labour MPStephen Timms. [1] This kind of legislationwould mean that he could be punished for thelesser crime thereby preventing him from beingable to engage in much more damaging criminalactivities. Simply put if extremists are behind", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Many of the worries raised about who might becharged under such laws are irrelevant, judgesand juries will be able to tell when someone is ajournalist or intelligence official who does nothave any criminal intent. Others who are visitingthese extremist sites based upon ideology andyet are never going to engage in terrorist attacksthemselves may well still provide financial orother support to those who do commit moreviolent acts. [1] A primary aim of the law is “toforbid and prevent conduct that unjustifiably andinexcusably inflicts or threatens substantial harmto individual or public interests” [2] somethingthat this does by through preventing more majorcrimes by prosecuting for a minor crime. Weshould also remember that the punishment neednot be disproportionate as it could simply meanrestricting the guilty party’s internet accessrather than prison. [1] Kroenig, Matthew andPavel, Barry, ‘How to Deter Terrorism’, TheWashington Quarterly, Vol.35, No.2, Spring2012, pp.21-36, p.24. [2] Duff, Antony,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Criminalisation will prevent radicalisation bystopping users accessing the most extremecontent. Sites such as YouTube and Facebookalready police themselves and are unlikely toallow extremist materials to remain online forextended periods in the face of public pressure.[1] It is for extremist websites where publicpressure can have no effect that needs the law tostep in by punishing those who are regularlyvisiting those sites and being radicalised bythem. [1] Google, ‘Our approach to freeexpression and controversial content’,googleblog, 9 March 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Criminalisation creates more problems than itsolves A law that punishes users of extremistwebsites would create a whole host of practicalproblems. Most obviously how are the authoritiesto monitor who are visiting extremist websiteswithout a large expansion of a surveillancesociety that already exists? [1] There would needto be large scale monitoring of what websiteseveryone visits or at least the ability forgovernments to get records from internet serviceproviders, potentially a grave breach ofindividual’s right to privacy. Laws are onlyeffective if those who are subject to the law havesome idea of what that law means and what theyshould not be doing. [2] A good law shoulddefine what exactly the criminality is and this lawwould almost certainly have many problems withdefinitions. What makes someone a regular orhabitual visitor? A few visits too many sites,hundreds of visits, regular visits once a week?There will also be challenges working out whichwebsites should be considered extremist and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of expression is a fundamental humanright. Freedom of expression is a fundamentalhuman right that is recognised universally as isshown by its inclusion in the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights. [1] This howevershould not just be taken as the freedom to havean opinion but also as the freedom to “seek andreceive… information and ideas through anymedia”, being cut off from information that aperson is seeking is as much an infringement ofhuman rights as preventing them from voicingtheir opinion. [2] People are denied their voice asmuch by not having access to information as bynot being allowed to speak because access toinformation is fundamental in the process ofbeing able to form those opinions. Learning andopinion forming cannot exist within a vacuumaccess to information that enables this. Thisfreedom includes the freedom to accessextremist websites as often as you wish withoutbeing punished for this action, we cannotprejudge what opinion will be formed from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There is a lack of proportionality in punishingusers of extremist websites It is a basic principleof fairness that punishment should fit the crime.[1] In this case the crime is visiting a website,something that in itself may cause no harm at allso why should there be punishment? At bestsuch a law would be punishing on the basis offuture harm the accused would otherwise causeif not punished while at worst it would be anarbitrary punishment for people who would neverhave committed any harm at all. Not everyonewho visits extremist websites is themselves anextremist or is going to be radicalised even afterregular visits. Moreover not every person withextremist views is either themselves violent orintending to promote violence. Finally there are alarge number of people who regularly visitextremist websites with the purpose ofmonitoring them; these may be members of thepolice, the intelligence services, those simplywanting to understand the other and journalistsattempting to keep up with extremist trends.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Criminalisation will not stop radicalisation Howwill criminalising visiting extremist websitesprevent radicalisation? Those who know aboutthe law will simply look for the same materialthat they used to find on extremist websiteselsewhere on the internet either through socialnetworks such as Facebook and twitter, wherefor example Muhammad al-Arefe a Saudi clericwho has issued a fatwa endorsing violenceagainst non-Muslims has over a million followers,[1] or other immense sites such as youtube.Radicalisation over the internet will therefore notbe stopped by punishing users of certainwebsites. Indeed such punishment of users ofextremist websites may well end up creatingmore radical extremists than it prevents. Merahhimself when talking to police negotiators beforehis death told them that it was being sent toprison for 18 months for driving without a licencethat provoked his outrage against France andpath to murder. This law would be putting moreyoung men in prison and therefore potentially", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of expression carries with it duties andresponsibilities which mean that this freedommay be subject to restrictions or penalties as theEuropean Convention on Human Rightsrecognises. [1] In this case there is a nationalsecurity interest and potentially a public safetyinterest to punish those who are accessingdamaging information. Freedom of expressiondoes not therefore apply to extremist websitesthat are inciting people to engage in acts ofterrorism. [1] Council of Europe, ‘Article 10’,Convention for the Protection of Human Rightsand Fundamental Freedoms.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifdffehw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This ‘climate of fear’ would only apply to thosewho know that what they are looking for iswrong. For these people if it does create aclimate of fear then this is beneficial as it helpsto create deterrence. Government would only bemonitoring those it already suspects ofextremism so ordinarily law abiding citizens neednot be worried about surveillance as it will notaffect them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Money cannot be considered a form of symbolicexpression the same way burning a flag is.Money only magnifies a certain idea, by giving ita greater platform. It is not a constitutive part ofspeech, or speech in itself. If someone burns aflag in political protest the point she’s makingdoes not become more powerful or popular byburning additional flags, nor does her influencebecome directly proportional to the amount offlags she burns. The symbolic gesture of adonation and the endorsement that comes with itdoes not also require the right to spend unlimitedsums of money to express one’s support.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Money as “symbolic expression”. Not only ismoney instrumental to effective politicalcommunication, the expenditure of money insupport of a campaign or cause is also, in itself,a form of political expression. The gesture ofdonating money expresses one’s allegiance toand endorsement of a candidate’s ororganization’s stance on the issues that form thepolitical discourse of the society we live in. It is abasic way of political engagement. It is also onewhich is most readily available to any citizen.Therefore, donating money is a speech act whichneeds to be protected, in the same way burninga flag is considered to be a gesture of “symbolicexpression” which is protected by the FirstAmendment [1] . [1] Eugene Voloch, “FlagBuring and Free Speech”, Wall Street Journal2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Money gives a megaphone to one point of view.That view then gains more notoriety by spendingmore money to advance and promote it, by usingmass media to bring it to the attention of abroader group of people, by hiring advocates topersuade a broader audience, by creating hypearound an issue or candidate, with financialresources. Figuring out what came first, themoney or the popularity these candidatesgained; is a chicken or egg dilemma. Money andpopularity are part of a self-reinforcing cycle", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Money is intrinsic to political speech. In Buckley,the Justices declared: “virtually every means ofcommunicating ideas in today's mass societyrequires the expenditure of money. Thedistribution of the humblest handbill or leafletentails printing, paper, and circulation costs.Speeches and rallies generally necessitate hiringa hall and publicizing the event. The electorate'sincreasing dependence on television, radio, andother mass media for news and information hasmade these expensive modes of communicationindispensable instruments of effective politicalspeech.” [1] In the 2008 election, presidentialcandidates spent 1.7 billion dollars on theircampaigns [2] . This helps to show thatnowadays, the effective communication ofpolitical ideas cannot be achieved without theexpenditure of money. Therefore, one cannotprotect political speech and at the same timeplace restrictions on the main resource whichmakes it possible, there is little point in freedomto elucidate ideas without the ability to spread", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Something can be an appendage to a right. But itdoes not mean the government has an obligationto afford it the same protections as the rightitself. Effective communication of political idealsalso requires access to airways, printing presses,campaign staff, etc. But the government has noobligation to treat access to these as aConstitutional, inviolable right, on par with one’sfreedom to say what she pleases. An expressionof an opinion is protected strictly by the letter ofthe law. However, the Citizen's United decisioneffectively expands this protection to two newentities: 1) non-person and 2) act of spending.Rather than reinterpreting current legislationthat protects free speech, new laws ought to becreated seeking to protect these two entitiesfrom committing to political expressions. And,this has to be exercised through the legislativebranch rather than judicial. With the Citizen'sUnited decision, the judicial branch is effectivelywriting new legislation that is 1) recognizingcorporate entities to have same political", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Money as a metric of support for politicalideas. Money is actually a very effective way ofgauging the success of the ideas presented tothe electorate, it shows the best political ideasand personalities in the through the market. It isoften argued that politicians who spend a lot ofmoney win elections. However, when thishypothesis was scientifically tested, it turned outthat in fact successful and popular candidatesmerely attracted more money, the same waythey attract more volunteers, more endorsers,and more votes [1] . Therefore, money, like anendorsement, is just a demonstrative way ofthrowing one’s weight behind a candidate oneagrees with. Viewed in this context, money is notsome sinister device for unpopular ideas to riseto the top against the will of the majority, but,like an endorsement, a form of speechsupporting those ideas which are already popularenough to attract it. [1] Steven D. Levitt “UsingRepeat Challengers to Estimate the effect ofCampaign Spending on Election Outcomes to the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This point of view assumes an inherent virtue ofmiddle of the road, status quo ideas, and pickswinners and losers before the debate even gets achance to occur. It presupposes that certainideas automatically deserve less ‘airtime’ thanothers because at the moment they happen to beunpopular. Every great idea which moved thedebate forward and modernized the world, fromthe abolition of slavery to universal suffrage,started as a fringe, unpopular idea at one time.Unpopular ideas, whether they turn out to begood or bad, might need a financial boost to jointhe debate that may establish their value. Theycannot simply be pre-emptively deemedunworthy before even being scrutinized in themarketplace of ideas.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Money is a fungible resource and can fulfildifferent roles depending on the context in whichit is used. It can be exchanged for almostanything and should be treated differentlyaccording to the circumstances in which it isused. It can be exchanged food, housing,weapons, medicine, services, hired hands. Moreconventional examples of property, such as realestate, or a car, have no equally fungiblecharacteristic. When it is used to advancepolitical debate, money becomes inherent topolitical speech. Therefore, in the context ofcampaign contributions and expenditures moneydeserves the protections of the FirstAmendment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Unlimited political contributions undermine fairdemocratic representation. Allowing forunlimited political contributions under theprotection of the First Amendment distorts one ofthe most fundamental democratic tenets, theprinciple of fair representation – “one person,one vote.” [1] The Supreme Court has in thepast also recognized this principle to mean morethan the right to cast one vote which is countedequally. In Reynolds v Sims the Court held that“full and effective participation by all citizens instate government requires… that each citizen hasan equally effective voice in the election ofmembers of the state legislature”. [2] Such an“equally effective voice” is undermined by oneindividual or organization being able to influencethe votes of thousands or hundreds of thousandsthrough the deployment of financial resourceswhich the average voter does not possess. Thisundermines the fair scheme of representationthat is fundamental to a veritabledemocracy. [1] John Rawls, Political Liberalism,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Money stifles, it does not advance debate. Weprotect speech under almost all circumstancesand cherish its freedom as a tenet of democracybecause it enhances debate and betterdecision-making. We believe that in the freemarketplace of ideas, where everyone is givenan equal opportunity to advance competingpoints of view, based on ever more completeinformation, voters will be better informed tomake the right choice for themselves in thevoting booth. But money, unlike speech, doesnot have the intrinsic property of enhancing adebate. At best, it can be a facilitator for thedebate, without having communicative value ofits own. But at worst, instead of enhancing thedemocratic debate, it distorts it, by giving certainideas disproportionate influence, based not onthe value and strength of their arguments, buton the spending power of their supporters. Aclear example is the U.S. Tea Party movement,which has not enriched the debate in Americanpolitics. It has made it acrimonious, divisive, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Money is property. In his concurring opinion inNixon v Shrink Missouri Government Pack,Justice John Paul Stevens said: “Money isproperty; it is not speech. Speech has the powerto inspire volunteers to perform a multitude oftasks on a campaign trail, on a battleground, oreven on a football field. Money, meanwhile, hasthe power to pay hired labourers to perform thesame tasks. It does not follow, however, that theFirst Amendment provides the same measure ofprotection to the use of money to accomplishsuch goals as it provides to the use of ideas toachieve the same results.” [1] In other words,simply because money and speech can be meansto the same end, it does not automatically meanthey deserve the same level of protection. Thefreedom to use one’s property as she sees fit isdifferent from allowing someone to say what shepleases. [1] Nixon v. Shrink MissouriGovernment PAC, U.S. Supreme Court 2000", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-bphbemsbp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Taken to its logical conclusion, such an argumentcan have anti-democratic implications. Perhapsthe government should also cap the amount oftime someone can volunteer to a politicalcampaign or in support of a political cause. Othermembers of the electorate might have greatertime or financial constraints which may notpermit them to dedicate equal amounts of timeinfluencing the votes of their fellow citizens. Andif one advocate is superior in eloquence,persuasion, or charisma to others, should shenot be permitted to use her talents in support ofher cause or candidate, because her voice isessentially “more effective”, to paraphrase theCourt? Such an outcome-focused approach tothe definition of fair representation ends upinfringing on citizens’ fundamental right topursue the advancement of their interests withinthe democratic debate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There are already laws in place to respond to thefabrication of evidence in support of a newsreport. Libel laws already prevent newspapersfrom making attacks based on untruths or evenones that are true but are not in the publicinterest. There is no doubt that times are toughfor the British Press – as they are for newspapersaround the world – but the overwhelmingmajority of journalists and publications haveresponded to that by diversifying the platformsthey use for delivering the news. In addition towhich they have embraced a 24-hour approachto delivering the news and, for many, the printplatform is now seen as a ‘legacy project’. Toconstrain and obstruct the hard work and harderprinciples of the overwhelming majority ofjournalists because of the actions of a desperatefew would really throw the baby out with thebath water.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The British tabloid press isn’t so much free as infreefall. Tabloid journalism in the UK has alwaysbeen reckless and arrogant in pursuit of thetrivial, but as advertising revenue dwindles thattrend looks set to get worse The mediaincreasingly resembles one of the drug addicts itis usually so keen to condemn. As competitionover dwindling advertising revenue becomesincreasingly bitter, papers become ever moredesperate for the next hit story –normallyrepresented by celebrity gossip or a minorscandal. Such content has nothing to do withbold investigative journalism and everything todo with muck-racking for salacious stories and-when that doesn’t work- simply fabricatingthem. Creating the impression that Millie Dowlerwas still alive was simply the most grotesque ofa series of activities that put sales way ahead oftruth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "t is entirely fair to say that the way we approachand share information has changed beyondrecognition in the last thirty years. There havebeen innumerable efforts made to controlhigh-speed information networks and all havefailed. To hobble journalists with constrainingregulation is as impractical as it is reckless at atime when they are no longer competing with ahandful of their peers, but also a wider networkof information exchange betweensemi-professional bloggers and capricious groupssuch as Anonymous and 4chan/b, who spreadlies and discord disguised as “entertainment”. Itis surely better that stories should be puttogether by trained and acreddited journalistsand published through businesses that are boundby libel and other laws than to have them dripout through social media, as was seen with theRyan Giggs affair over super-injunctions.Introducing regulation would be self-defeatingsimply because of this fact [i] . [i] LucyBuckland. “'It went from thrilling to seedy... I", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The British tabloid press has proved singularlyincapable of regulating – or for that matterrestraining – itself. The phone hacking scandalis simply a new low in the recent, tawdry life ofthe tabloid press. As the Leveson Inquiry isdiscovering, the use of private detectives, bribingpolice officers, and trailing the children ofcelebrities all seem to be common tricks not justfor the News of the World but for tabloidjournalism as an industry. Indeed, the journalistwho broke the story for the Guardian admitted tothe Levenson inquiry that he had hacked a phoneon one occasion. Despite the protestation of theGuardian’s editors [i] that “99 percent” ofjournalists wouldn’t know how to hack a phone,such practices and a culture that invades privacyseems commonplace. [i] Statement by AlanRusbridger to the Leveson Inquiry.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is part of the nature of journalism that it tendsto say and reveal things that many people wouldrather remained unsaid and concealed. On thesubject of working with police officers, papershave held the feet of police officers to the fireover many investigations including the StephenLawrence murder. It is further worth bearing inmind that the collusion of senior members of theMetropolitan police with tabloid journalists wasrevealed not by a police investigation but by aninvestigative reporter. Police and politicians maylike their incompetence or corruption to takeplace behind closed doors, but that is the veryreason for fostering and protecting a vigorousand interventionist press that is willing to bendthe rules to find the truth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "There have to be limits to the permissible levelsof intrusion into people’s lives, in an increasinglyconnected world people- celebrities or not- havenever been more conscious of this simplefact. In an age when any fool with a cell phoneand a twitter account can snap a topless pop staron the beach, tabloid hacks are under greaterpressure than ever to go the extra mile. There islittle reason to doubt that they will. Privacy isalready one of the dominant legal issues of ourage that looks likely to become ever more thecase. Against that background, when a flat outlie can be broadcast around the world inseconds, clearly a different legal and regulatoryframework is needed from the old days of printwhere an apology was actually relevant –however begrudgingly given.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The idea that stopping journalists rummagingthrough the bins of private citizens in pursuit ofcredit card statements on the off-chance theymight have done something unusual is hardlylikely to bring down the entire edifice of freedomand democracy. Indeed, there is a cleardemocratic mandate for the robust protection ofprivacy- informed by the basic equality thatunderlies rule-of-law- derived from the revulsionthat most people feel at the actions of certainparts of the press. As in any profession-including law, medicine and politics- practitionersare allowed discretion on the understanding thatthey won’t abuse it. In this instance, thediscretion leant to the political class has beenroutinely and systematically abused over aperiod of decades, to little benefit. All of theexamples that Opposition has been able to citehave been the result of old-fashioned, doggedinvestigation and courageous writing andeditorship. If regulation gets journalists awayfrom the addiction to celebrity, away from the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "We should remember that the original defence ofthe NoW was that phone hacking had beencarried out by just ‘one rogue reporter’ [i] andthat defence has crumbled at every stage. Itquickly became clear that others at the paperwere involved, then that others in the group andnow, apparently, that the practice was fairlycommonplace at other papers. Had this beenjust one bad apple then the idea that no newregulation was really needed for the otherwisegood and noble folk of medialand might stand.As evidence- and a string of arrests among theNews of the World’s senior staff- hasdemonstrated, flaunting of the law, of basicethical standards and of simple honesty was rifeat the news of the world, and is likely to havebeen used frequently in the newsrooms of theNoW’s rivals. [i] Huffington Post. “Julian Pike,News Of The World Solicitor, Says He Knew ThatPhone Hacking Was Widespread In 2009”. 11January 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Who does the regulating? All of the obviousbodies – police, parliament and so on – haven’texactly shown themselves to be whiter thanwhite in the last year or so. Newspapers are atleast accountable to their readers and it is worthnoting that exactly the kinds of stories nowunder the spotlight are the ones that prove themost popular. Further they already work within alegal framework and are accountable to thecourts when they break laws governing libel,privacy or theft of information. When we look atthe possible candidates for overseeing themedia, the line-up is fairly unimpressive and allhave an obvious self-interest: MP’s expensesscandal was revealed by journalists, corruptionand incompetence (as well as racism previously)at the Metropolitan Police was uncovered byjournalists. That would only leave themaccountable to the courts, which they alreadyare, or a regulatory body comprising otherpapers and the public, which they already are.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "All of those involved in the phone hacking casesbroke laws. Existing laws. They can beprosecuted under existing frameworks and casesare already being pursued. There is no need foranother set of controls We should be verycautious when giving politicians- in particular-the power to control what is said about them.Whatever Lord Leveson suggests, chances arethose decisions will need to go beforeparliament. The actions of the British media mayfrequently be distasteful and those who read theso-called ‘quality’ press may find the obsessionof the tabloid press with matters that mostlyseem trivial and tawdry offensive. However, theliberty that- almost incidentally- allows tabloidnewspapers to produce populist pablum, enablesbroadsheets to maintain an excoriating andforensic oversight of the political class as awhole. The recent Parliamentary expensesscandal would be unthinkable in many countries:analysis undertaken by the press as a wholedemonstrating a culture of corruption across the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The overwhelming majority of journalists wouldnot know – and wouldn’t want to know – how tohack a phone and it is unfair to restrict thembecause a few do Introducing regulation on thebasis that a handful of journalists have brokenlaws that already exist – and were caught doingso by other journalists – seems odd, to say theleast. There is little doubt that there wassomething extremely murky going on at theNews of the World but it is worth rememberingthat the paper has since been shut down. Toany observer this looks an awful lot likepoliticians using the excuse of one newspaper’spoor conduct- which, it is worth repeating, hasbeen shuttered- to attempt to regulate the rest.One of the popular suggestions at the moment isthat no journalist should be able to print a storyabout a politician without getting theirpermission first. Such a rule would strike at thevery heart of a free press.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-dmagghwrp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is, of course, a matter for Lord Leveson andhis inquiry to make recommendations on whatthe final regulatory framework should be.However the idea that newspapers are alreadyaccountable in an appropriate manner simplydoesn’t stand up to scrutiny. There is, if nothingelse, compelling popular support [i] on such ascale that, apparently the readers of thenewspapers in question are uncertain as towhether they are up to the jobthemselves. There has also been anundercurrent in the press which amounts to “wellpeople bought it so it’s their fault really”, whichalso doesn’t stand up to analysis. Readers ofnewspapers should surely be allowed to assumethat the journalists who gather their news- andstyle themselves as professionals- act bothlegally and ethically. It is not the job of readersto double check the facts and activities behind astory. [i] BBC Website. “Poll suggests publicwant much tighter press controls”. 14 December2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It seems unlikely that it will become any lessiconic after publication. Indeed the very fact thatit has been published is likely to be hailed as agreat victory. Neo-Nazis in Germany andelsewhere will not present this as the result ofthe elapse of copyright and a measured responseby the state. As in any comparable situation, itwill be presented as a victory. To take oneexample, when fascist leaders are interviewed ontelevision or invited to speak in universitydebates, those actions are presented to theirfollowers as proof of how seriously they are nowbeing taken by the mainstream. None of thosefollowers will be aware that their leader wasroundly thrashed, because they didn’t watch theinterview and didn’t attend the debate. Similarlythe book will be waved, unopened at rallies todemonstrate to the faithful that progress is beingmade.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Banning the book would have simply increasedits role as an iconic symbol. Extreme partiesfrequently thrive when they are able to presentthemselves as being suppressed by a supposedelite. Their ability to portray themselves as beingunfairly silenced by a capricious elite has longbeen used to attract support by parties on thefar-right in Europe and elsewhere. For examplethe far right National Democratic Party went tocourt to get its newsletter delivered by the postalservice. [i] Indeed, given the weakness of manyof the arguments they make, silencing them hasfrequently been far more self-defeating thanopening up their beliefs to scrutiny [ii] . As longas Mein Kampf remained unavailable it acquiredthe inevitable allure of the unattainable. Thebook could be presented as having a status farbeyond what it is – the ill thought-out andself-indulgent ramblings of a bad writer. At themoment the book is not, per se, banned, it’s justthat the owners of the copyright haven’t allowedpublication until now. As a result, come 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Presenting Mein Kampf as a text for criticaldiscussion gives the impression, at least, thatthose who supported its arguments and thosewho decried them were somehow on an equalfooting. Having the massed ranks of Germanacademia comment on it is likely to add to itscredibility rather than detracting from it as it willsuggest that the ideas are worthy of analysis.Treating the text in such a way would be akin toteaching theories of a flat earth in Geography.No child is likely to get through their schoolcareer without some discussion of WWII,proposition has failed to demonstrate what,exactly, this would add to that situation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "It was not the powerful arguments that are madein Mein Kampf that led to the atrocities of NaziGermany, mostly because there are none. Thecontent of the book is not grounds for supressingits publication or use and so, all other thingsbeing equal, there should be a presumption infavour of publication. There is an entirelyunderstandable interest in the publication of thebook in a country where it is so notorious. It’simportant to bear in mind that this is not a bombmaking manual and most experts feel that thearguments are weak to the point of absurdity [i]– and the commentary will serve to enforce thatpoint. The content of the book, in and of itself,were not therefore grounds for continuedsuppression of the text. Generally speaking, itseems a relatively sensible rule of thumb that ifthere is no direct harm that can be shown as aresult of publication and there is sufficientinterest to merit doing so then it would normallybe published [ii] . By doing so ahead of the endof the copyright, the state will prevent", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is no such thing as a ‘presumption infavour of publication’. Publishers don’t publishbooks all the time – and absolutely nobody criesfree speech. Proposition have said it themselves,the arguments aren’t persuasive. However,having it published at all would have given thework a degree of credibility it doesn’t deserve,having it published with the authority of the statewill redouble that. Many of the neo-Nazis whosee it as iconic would, in all probability, neverhave got as far as actually reading the book – letalone any commentary – but they will see a bookwritten by Hitler from the print of the state ofBavaria.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The ban achieved no practical impact in theInternet age as it was not global. If there werenot already easy access to the book through theInternet [i] , then it might be possible to arguethat there was some practical purpose to beserved by continuing its suppression. However,when any disaffected teenager can gain easyaccess to the text while sitting alone in theirbedroom, it seems foolish that it cannot also beexamined in the cooler light of their historyclass. The issue is not access to the text; it’s noteven really about ownership of the book – bothof which are already possible – but rather abouthow the book is treated. Not publishing or usingthe book up until now has simply maintained asituation that was put in place after WWII, whichin some ways served a purpose, of saying therewas no particular reason for a change at anyparticular time during that process. However, asthe seventieth anniversary of the end of the warcomes into view, it seems reasonable that thebook should be treated as exactly what it is; an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-con03b", "title": "", "text": "All of which goes to show how ridiculous bans arein practice as a political tool. When neo-Nazisarrive at rallies with an assortment of blackgeometric shapes on a white backgroundsurrounded by red, nobody stands around tryingto figure out what the reference might be. In thesame way banning publication of the bookdoesn’t expunge it from history, everyone stillknows it was written, who write it, and broadlywhat it’s about. It is the symbolism behind theicon, rather than the artifact itself, that cariesthe significance. As a result banning the artifactachieves little.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-con01b", "title": "", "text": "If the publication of other versions is ‘inevitable’then it makes sense for those versions to beframed within the narrative set by a versiongrounded in scholarship and critical discourse.Indeed the very process of allowing people tounderstand that different versions of the sametext can fulfill radically different roles is welcomedevelopment in its own right. It is also likely thatby the time copyright runs out, people’s curiositywill have been largely sated by the officialversion.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Money for blood. If Mein Kampf were presentedby a contemporary writer to a contemporarypublisher, nobody would go near it; simplybecause nobody would buy it. There is virtuallyno market for books of its kind, of which it is apoor example, and even those who might beinterested in what it has to say tend not to beknown for their book buying enthusiasm. Theoverwhelming reason why this would be boughtis either out of morbid curiosity or the desire, onthe part of neo-Nazis to own an icon. Even one ofthe editors of the version to be published, EdithRaim, has said \"Our book won't find any buyersin the Neo-Nazi scene. It's going to be a solidscientific work\". [i] No doubt both will happen.Selling the book will result in profits from bothgroups – particularly the latter for whompossession of the physical thing itself is likely tobe more important. Those sales will result inprofits and it seems distasteful that any profitshould be made – either by the state of Bavariaor subsequent publishers of other versions. This", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Publication is inconsistent with otherlegislation. Publication of the book providesanother symbol for European neo-Nazis whopresent a very real threat. The Swastika andNazi salute remain banned in Germany and otherjurisdictions; this should be added to that list.[i] If Mein Kampf were one of a kind, theremight be an argument in favour of treating it inthe manner suggested by Proposition. However,the reality is that it isn’t. All sorts of Naziimagery remain banned and not just in Germanyand not just because others find them offensive.They are banned because they serve as rallyingpoints for some of the most dangerous elementsin society who, in turn, pose a very real andimmediate threat to the physical well-being ofgroups ranging from immigrant to Jews tohomosexuals. The real issue of consistency, ifthe Swastika is banned, then why not add MeinKampf to the list? At the time of the prohibitionof these other images, there was no need to doso as it was unavailable as a result of copyright.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Without appropriate legislation, neo-Nazi groupswill publish their own version as a propagandatool. One of the principle reasons for theproduction of this text was that “Once anyone isfree to publish Hitler’s work, now-Nazis willinevitably churn out editions favourable to theNazi leader.” [i] This decision to publish doesabsolutely nothing to change that “inevitable”fact. The state of Bavaria has done nothing torestrict other publications but have simplyproduced an ‘authorized version’ which doesnothing more but give credibility to others. Thiswill still leave the possibility of “charlatans andneo-Nazis appropriating this infamous book forthemselves”. [ii] It will allow a narrative toemerge on which is the better publication –should it be interpreted as we see it today orshould it be understood within the setting ofHitler’s own time; is it possible to approach thetext itself without sharing the perspective ofthose original readers in the twenties, and soon. Presumably the Bavarian state has taken", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fkhsdsbpmk-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The point is that it isn’t being presented to acontemporary publisher by a contemporaryauthor. As with all texts, it is of its time andforms its own part of the historical record. It’sentirely likely that if The Canterbury Tales werepresented by a contemporary author, publisherswouldn’t be fighting over it. However, within itscontext it is one of the founding documents ofworld literature. Moreover as Stephan Kramer,the General Secretary of Germany's CentralCouncil of Jews points out publishing \"Ahistorically critical edition… prevent[s] neo-Nazisprofiting from it.\" [i] [i] Paterson, Tony,‘German Jews want ‘Mein Kampf’ reprinted’, TheIndependent, 10 August 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A democracy, like any state, owes its first duty toits citizens, and its national interest is thereforein selling this equipment to help business athome. While it is convenient, perhaps evenmorally right at times, to stand publicly for theuniversality of democratic principles, such standsshould not be taken at the expense of nationalsecurity or influence. It should certainly not beconsidered an obligation. Sweeping policies likethis will alienate valuable allies and make it moredifficult for democracies to deal with theundemocratic world. With regard to domesticfreedoms, states have long held differentstandards of action when dealing with their owncitizens than those of other states, and that hasnever served to erode domestic freedoms.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Democratic states have an obligation to notbolster repression abroad It is common forWestern democracies to make sweepingstatements about the universality of certainrights, and that their system of government isthe one that should be most sought after in theworld, that democracy is the only legitimate formof government. As when Obama in Cairoproclaimed “These are not just American ideas;they are human rights. And that is why we willsupport them everywhere.” [1] They claim towork in the United Nations and otherorganizations toward the improvement of rightsin other countries and clamour about the needfor building governments accountability aroundthe world, using their liberal-democraticparadigm as the model. Yet at the same timedemocratic governments and companies selltechnologies to non-democratic allies that areused to systematically abuse the rights ofcitizens and to entrench the power of thoseavowedly illegitimate regimes. These hypocrisies", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Corporations are bound to obey the laws of thesocieties in which they are based, but they arenot so constrained in their foreign dealings, inwhich they are bound instead by foreign lawsthat are often much more lax. The nature of theinternational landscape, with its manyincompatible and overlapping forms ofgovernment and regulatory frameworks,demands that corporations be flexible in order tosurvive. The constraints put upon themanufacturers of surveillance equipment putforward by this policy will make them lesscompetitive in the international market, which isoften the primary market for these businesses.Furthermore, if they feel constrained they maypull up stakes and move their operations abroadto a more accommodating jurisdiction. Thiswould serve to harm domestic jobs andundermine the ability of democratic states tomaintain their edge over others in essentialsurveillance technology development.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Advanced surveillance technology preventsdissidents from being able to organize and suefor freedom High-tech surveillance technologyhas given repressive governments and policestates a new lease on life. Now more than everthey can intrude into every aspect of people’slives, ensuring that dissent is cowed for fear ofthe ever present threat of the security services.The vision of Orwell’s 1984 has become a livingnightmare for people all over the world. Theirpower has made it extremely difficult formovements for reform, governmentaccountability, and democracy, which havefoundered when faced with these sophisticatedsecurity apparatuses (Valentino-Devries, 2011).[1] By dominating the flow of information stateshave the power to keep their people in check andprevent them from ever posing a threat to theirrepressive status quo. Thus China blocks accessto the internet and to other forms ofcommunications in Tibet to “ensure the absolutesecurity of Tibet’s ideological and cultural realm”.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Security services have managed to watch overand infiltrate the efforts of dissidents all throughhistory. The visibility and tactics is all that haschanged. The internet was never going to just bean arena that helps dissidents in authoritarianregimes but as with other technologicaladvances, such as the telephone both increasescommunication and provides methods ofmonitoring that communication. Ifnon-democratic states were to lose access toWestern technology, they would either procurecomparable replacements from othernon-democracies, or they would pursue moretraditional forms of surveillance, ones that tendto be more invasive and physically threatening.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Is a minor ban really a good signal? The chancesare the government will ignore it and those whoit is meant to encourage will never hear about it.In the event that the regimes it is aimed at dotake not far from weakening them, this policyserves only to alienate them. The lack of respectthe policy is clearly aimed to show will galvanizethe leaderships in undemocratic regimes to cutoff various ties with democratic states, limitingthe flow of ideas and democratic principles thatnatural adhere to activities like internationaltrade. The result is non-democracies will be lesswilling to talk about reform in the internationalcommunity because they see their very form ofgovernment as under threat by foreign agentsseeking to discredit them. Ultimately, a boost inWestern moral does little to promote democracyand human rights while a negative signal willresult in regimes being more suspicious andobstinate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The right of Western businesses to sell theirservices abroad can be curtailed when theiractions stand counter to the interests of theirhome governments Corporations are privateentities that have the right to sell their servicesand to deal with agents foreign and domestic,including governments. However, this right canbe limited when those actions are oppositional tothe aims of the home state in which they areincorporated. The sale of surveillance technologyto undemocratic regimes stands against theavowed aims of democracies and against theirstrategic interests in bolstering democracyabroad and maintaining a reputation for fairdealing. For this reason it is perfectly legitimatefor governments to ban the corporations withintheir borders from selling dangeroustechnologies to foreign governments. Such isalready the case with many kinds of strategictechnology, especially weapons technology. [1]The EU, for example, bans a range of arms salesto various oppressive states on these grounds,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "This ban would have a powerful signalling effectexpressing disapproval of non-democracies'system of government A ban on the sale ofsurveillance technology to non-democraciesserves ultimately as a statement of disapproval.It shows that the undemocratic regimes cannotbe trusted with the ability to spy on their people.This signal has several effects. An example ofthis international shaming affecting is theinternational bans on the use of landmines.Various states created a framework, the OttawaConvention, [1] in which their condemnationpressured nearly every other state, includingauthoritarian regimes, to follow suit. [2]Domestically it serves to bolster people’s faith inthe system of rights they value highly andenshrine in law. They can point to this ban as anexample of their government’s desire to make abetter world and not to increase repression forthe sake of power or profit. In the undemocraticstates themselves, the regime leaders will befaced with a significant public relations blow as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Banning the sale of surveillance technology doesnot mean democracies are declaring allundemocratic regimes illegitimate. Rather, theyare simply not allowing their technology to aid inthe repression of people, which is the only use towhich that technology is put in practice. Reformsometimes demands a firm hand, and whilesome regimes will be riled by what they perceiveas an insult, the greater chance for dissidents todevelop networks and voices is worth the cost.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Real politick is not the only considerationdemocracies should entertain when they engagein international relations. Indeed, the Westernpowers have sought since World War II todevelop a system of international justice thatrecognizes the primacy of peoples’ rightsirrespective of where they are born. Thisprinciple is constantly compromised asdemocracies jockey for influence withundemocratic regimes, bolstering those regimesand their repressive norms in the process. Inorder to be consistent, and to serve the trueinterests of justice, democracies must not aidundemocratic governments in the repression oftheir people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "It is hypocritical for democratic governments toutilize surveillance technology to watch their ownpeople while denying that technology toothers It is a fatal conceit to considerdemocracies somehow above the influence ofusing their surveillance technology to curtail thefreedoms of their own citizens. The biggestcustomers of Western surveillance technologycompanies are wealthy democracies. The UnitedKingdom, for example, has one of themost-watched populations in the world, with asaturation of CCTV cameras far in excess of anydictatorship. [1] The PATRIOT Act in America,also, has given the federal governmentenormous scope for domestic spying. Thesepowers are no less simply because thegovernment is composed in part of electedofficials. The security establishment is appointed,not elected, and their servicemen are promotedfrom within. It is base hypocrisy to pretend thatthe security systems are inherently more justwhen employed in democratic states than in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The inability to use advanced technologiesmerely forces non-democracies to utilize moreunsavoury methods to achieve their aims If it isthe aim of an undemocratic regime to useadvanced surveillance technology to gatherintelligence on, and ultimately crush, dissent itwill find other means of doing so. Their calculusof survival is not changed, only their availablemethods. Their first port of call will be the moreadvanced non-democracies that might be able tosupply comparable surveillance equipment.China’s military and surveillance technology isfast catching up to that of the West, and makesan appealing alternative source for equipment.[1] The only difference is that the Chinese haveno compunction at all about how the technologyis used, meaning worse outcomes forpro-democracy groups who run afoul of them.When this strategy fails regimes can turn to thetried and tested models of past decades, usingphysical force and other less technological modesof coercion to cow dissent. Again, this form of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "This ban will alienate non-democracies fromdiscourse and stifle reform efforts When a stateis declared illegitimate in the eyes of a large partof the international community, its naturalreaction is one of upset and anger. A ban on thesale of surveillance technology tonon-democracies would be seen as a brutal slapin the face to many regimes that considerthemselves, and are often considered by theirpeople, to be the legitimate government of theircountry. The ban will result in further tensionbetween non-democracies and democracies,breaking down communication channels.Democracies are best able to effect change inregimes when they seek to engage themconstructively, to galvanize them to makegradual connections to the development of civilsociety and to loosen restrictions on freedoms,such as reducing domestic spying. The banmakes it clear that the ultimate aim ofdemocracies is to effectively overthrow theexisting governments of non-democracies in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Presuming democracy is the only legitimate orworthwhile form of government is bothinaccurate and unproductive As much as themore liberal citizenry of many of the world’sdemocracies wish to believe otherwise,democracy as a system of government is not theonly game in town. In fact, the growth of thestrong-state/state-capitalism approach togovernment has gained much traction indeveloping countries that witness the incrediblerise of China, which will before long be theworld’s largest economy, flourish under anundemocratic model. [1] Chinas rulingcommunist party have legitimacy as a result ofits performance and its historical role reunifyingthe country. [2] Democracies pretending theyare the only meaningful or legitimate states onlyserve to antagonize their non-democraticneighbours. Such antagonism is doublydamaging, considering that all states,democracies included, rely on alliances and dealswith other states to guarantee their security and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Oppressive regimes have turned to the use ofadvanced surveillance technology in response toactivists’ learning to evade more conventionalmethods of surveillance, and by moving theirorganizations online. Western surveillancetechnology has filled a niche that was once openfor dissidents. By placing this ban, even if theregimes turn back to old methods, they will stillbe hampered in the crushing of dissent.Furthermore, no regime has the resources orpower to have physical surveillance as pervasiveas the technology denied them would allow.Electronic surveillance therefore can cast a muchbroader net that would allow the government torepress many more people who would not besubject to more labour intensive physicalsurveillance.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-ifcidffe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While Western states are willing to usesurveillance technology to restrict their citizens,they do so always with a democratic mandate.That is the key difference. Democracies usesurveillance technology to provide their peoplewith the safety and security they demand, asecurity over which the people always have theveto of the ballot box. The non-democracy is notchecked by any such power, and thus its use ofsurveillance technology faces no constraint.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It matters if celebrities have double standardswhen they present themselves as being whiterthan white. Equally, as Prop points out, there arealready laws on defamation, libel, slander,defamation, trespass and surveillance. It isdifficult to see what the register would add tothese. One of the points that Leveson hasroutinely ignored is that all of the issues thatprompted the inquiry are already illegal; hencethe arrest of the journalists and executivesinvolved [i] . [i] BBCwebsite. Journalist arrestedin computer hacking probe. 29 August 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Redressing the balance Such a register would,presumably still allow reporting when there wasa genuine public interest – just as is the case forany other member of the public [i] . Presumablyin such a circumstance, judicial approval couldbe sought – a process considerably quicker andeasier than grinding an apology out of amagazine or newspaper; let alone winning a libelcase. Putting the burden on publications todemonstrate that something was news ratherthan gossip would be of huge benefit not only tocelebrities themselves but to those long-sufferingconsumers of British news who, whilst hating it,have had to plough through this dross as itmakes its way from the pages of magazines intothe public consciousness [ii] . So what ifcelebrities have double-standards? So do mostpeople, none of who would appreciate that factbeing pointed out on the front pages of themedia. [i] The Telegraph. Matthew Holehouse.“Leveson Inquiry: Judge suggests a ‘celebrityprivacy registry’”. 18 January 2012. [ii] The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "If this is going to come down to professionaljudgement on what is and isn’t news then editorsof successful magazines and newspapers wouldseem to have rather more relevant experiencethan a High Court judge. One of the ironies ofthe whole process has been that the one groupwho took no responsibility for the various crimesof newspapers are the people who bought them;papers follow the whims of their readers,whether the middle class like it or not.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A right to privacy – even if you are famous Justbecause somebody chooses to be an actor,singer or an entertainer of any kind does notmean that they lose their right to a private life.In the context of the UK (the Scope of theLeveson Enquiry) it’s worth mentioning that thisright is guaranteed under both the Human RightsAct of 1998, which in turn is predicated on theEuropean Convention of Human Rights [i] . Thepeople who are having their private lives splayedover the tabloids and gossip magazines are notpoliticians or judges taking bribes, they are notpolice officers beating up suspects, they are notteachers offering grades in exchange for sexualfavours or any other area of sensible journalisticinvestigation. They are people who happen towork in the entertainment industries and theirlives are being interrupted for the sake ofprurience and curiosity that has nothing to dowith a meaningful news agenda. If, as some ofthose mentioned in the introduction suggest, theworst that happens as a result of such a register", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Article eight only applies to public bodies so, forthe most part, the media are not affected.However, to tackle the more general point –celebrity, by its nature requires some surrenderof privacy; presumably those who would signsuch a register would still want the ‘good’publicity but want approval over the ‘bad’ stuff.Once you start giving anyone copy approval overa supposedly free press, you might as shut itdown. It has simply ceased to be free at thatpoint.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Making editor’s think twice A paparazzo’s shot ofa second or third rate celeb doing somethingstupid, or something perfectly sensible but justnot in makeup – or clothes – makes for an easypage lead. Anything that makes editors pauseand consider whether they have something thatmight actually pass for news might do a greatdeal to pull large chunks of the British media –along with the readers they claim to serve – outof the gutter. In recent decades anything with‘celebrity’ associations has been considered newsas a sought of kneejerk reaction by editors. Evenin the ‘quality’ press there’s still plenty ofcoverage of vacuous, self-absorbed, talentlessindividuals who are famous, mostly, for beingfamous. The defence of many editors is thatthese individuals deliberately court the attentionthey receive, which is, no doubt, true. However,whether it’s a good idea to give it to them issomething that ought to give editors pause forthought given the deforming impact it has onyoung people’s sense of ambition [i] . Anything", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It would seem to be entirely up to the media ifthey chose to seek an interview with a celebrityabout their latest movie – that is, after all, partof most actors’ job descriptions and part of themedia’s duty to inform. That hardly seemsrelevant to whether it’s possible to publish apicture of them shouting at their kids.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The response as simple as the point: Levesonwasn’t asked to create a regulatory frameworkfor the Internet. The web is the papers’ problem,not Leveson’s.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-con02a", "title": "", "text": "It would allow for an entirely false image to becreated If celebrities were, in fact simplyhard-working entertainment professionals whofinished rehearsals and then returned to theirprivate lives then the idea of protecting thatprivacy might make sense. The reality is that itjust isn’t so. It is routine for celebrities to usetheir status to express opinions on political orsocial matters on which they have no expertisewhatsoever – and expect the media to cover it.Whether it’s the modest but routine endorsing ofpolitical parties in the build-up to elections [i] toPaul McCartney on animal rights to Matt Damonon virtually everything – why are we listening totheir opinions rather than, say, a professor ofeconomics or ethics? Equally, they expectcoverage – and to be taken seriously – whenannouncing that the latest movie, or book oralbum is a masterpiece despite the panning it’sreceiving from the critics. It’s also questionableas to whether pop singer or movie star wouldcount as quite the right career choice for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-con04a", "title": "", "text": "It sets a very dangerous precedent forcontrolling the output of the media – who is acelebrity? What and who else should the medianot be allowed to cover. By the same logic asbanning the coverage of the private lives ofthose celebs that make a living out of publicity,why not the financial lives of those bankers whomake their living out of money? There’s no doubtthat it caused embarrassment and inconvenienceto those concerned and the collapse of bankscould have been reported perfectly well withoutmentioning the tens of millions made by theirdirectors and traders. When does someonebecome a celebrity and when do they cease tobe. If a politician appears on “I’m a celebrity…”or “Celebrity Big Brother”, do they cease to be apolitician? Are the Hamiltons public figures orcelebrities? Is Portillo? Is Galloway? NadineDorries is the latest sitting member of Parliamentto take part in a reality TV show; in this case I'ma Celebrity Get Me Out of Here. [i] When actorsbecome members of parliament is their previous", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It simply won’t work in an internetage Whatever one thinks about the morality ofthis idea – and Opposition believes it is an attackon free expression – the simple and compellingfact is that it won’t work. The super-injunctions[i] fiasco demonstrated that keeping informationsilent in an internet age is simply impossiblewhen there is a keen public interest. WhetherProp likes it or not, the public is interested incelebrity news, requiring newspapers to ignorewhat is happening in the blogosphere is askingthem not to do their job. It would mean that theonly people on the planet who couldn’t tweetcelebrity gossip would be those hired to doso. This is important because it’s effectivelyimpossible to sue a blog or a twitter account sothey can publish any old nonsense. The press bycontrast are subject to the law and, as a result,rumours remain the stuff of fantasy until theyappear in the media. Without that arbiterbetween truth and fantasy, a curious publicmight as well believe what some fantasist has", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fsaphwacsl-con04b", "title": "", "text": "There is a clear and demonstrable differencebetween the public right to know that theirsavings have been lost but the person who lostthem walked off with £40m and seeing a picturethat suggests an actress has put on five pounds.The first actually affects the real lives of realpeople, the second really doesn’t. As for blurreddefinitions, the NUJ’s own definition of ajournalist would seem to work – wherever theperson receives the majority of their earnings.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Their song may have gone on to discuss politicalthemes but its basis was an appeal to Mary to ridRussia of Putin. All the rest was trappings afterthat initial statement – a sort of protracted“because”. It is quite routine for prayers to startwith an appeal to diving authority beforeaddressing secular themes just as this did; it wasa mockery of a prayer and, therefore, profane.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The focus of their song was one of politicaldissent rather than religion Pussy Riot’s protestwas politically focussed, the response seemspolitically driven and now they are prisoners. Thename and chorus of the song performed wasVirgin Mary, Chase Putin Out. [i] It is very hardto see what would be a better definition of thephrase ‘political prisoner’. Where anypunishment required for this act – andProposition contends that there was not – then itwas at most a mild public order offence. AmnestyInternational and the overwhelming majority ofthe International media have reached thatconclusion. The very fact that this has become acause celebre shows the extent to which thosewho able to step back from the situationrecognise this for what it is; a clear abuse ofpresidential power given the thinnest sheen ofrespectability by a compliant church. Suchreligious content as was contained in the protestfairly obviously relates to the setting and is notthe main content of the song. It’s a fairly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is not just the hierarchy of the Church thathave objected to the bands actions. There havealso been popular protests from regularchurchgoers who have been offended by PussyRiot’s actions. Strangely this fact rarely getsmore than a line – and often not even that – inthe Western press. [i] This is not therefore acase of the Church ‘propping up’ the state ratherit is speaking out for the outrage that many of itsmembers feel. [i] BBC Website. Pussy Riotmembers jailed for two years for hooliganism. 17August 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The blasphemy charge looks suspiciouslyconvenient for Putin There seems to be littledoubt in any one’s mind that Putin and hisregime were the focus of the protest. It is,equally, no secret that Putin has a fairly brutalattitude towards political dissent; he hasexpelled even allies in parliament for criticism [i], uses force to crush unsanctioned protests, [ii]and locks up potential opponents. [iii] Locking upPussy Riot in order to stop their oppositiontherefore fits in with Putin’s previous actionsagainst his opposition and seems likely to be thedesired result. In the light of that, it seems anextraordinary coincidence that what he wouldhave wanted is exactly what happened. Putinhimself said after they were sentenced \"We havered lines beyond which starts the destruction ofthe moral foundations of our society… If peoplecross this line they should be made responsiblein line with the law.\" [iv] Putin’s record is notone that suggests that he is happy to step backand allow events to take their course in the hope", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "What is extraordinary is that despite the liberaloutrage of much of the Western press, theRussian court system has delivered anappropriate verdict. There can be little doubt thattheir actions showed a fantastic level ofdisrespect for the Church, this is the closestrelevant charge. Rulings may be convenient ornot for leaders of all political persuasions –neither proves bias within the courts.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "History of the Orthodox Church and the Russianstate The Russian Orthodox Church has longbeen happy to prop up whichever strongmanhappens to be running the Kremlin, this wasparticularly the case in the time of the Tsars butwas even the case under the Communists for alltheir supposed Atheism. [i] It certainly would notcome as any surprise to Kremlin-watchers that,as Putin’s government shreds the last vestiges ofdemocratic credibility in favour of the strong-armtactics of earlier Russian leaders – Tsarist andCommunist – that the Church would be only toohappy to help out with such difficulties as this asthe Church and Putin are particularly close. Thefact is that the long arm of the presidential officenow reaches into all parts of Russian public life,including religious life, for example the FSB hasharassed other Christian sects and proselytizinghas been banned. [ii] The intrusion of the statehas been demonstrated far more effectively bythe response to the protest than could ever havebeen achieved through such an event on its own.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It’s a parody of a prayer; nobody has everdenied that. If that’s the form of protest to beused, where better than a church? No propertywas damaged although some feathers may havebeen ruffled – but fair enough. Protesting theincreasingly totalitarian rule of one of the world’smost powerful nations would seem to justify afairly minor disturbance on a Sunday morning.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly protesting in a Church clearly has servedto draw maximum attention to the issue and sothey appear to have been proven right to havedone so. Secondly, it is the severity of thesentence that is the issue here, Tatchell’s actionswere described by the magistrate as “a minorpublic order offence” and he was given a fine ofunder £20.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Intention Perhaps more damning than the factthat the protest did cause offence or the fact thatit was always likely to was the fact that it wasclearly intended to do. At no point can themembers of Pussy Riot been under the illusionthat no offence would be caused; quite thereverse, they were counting on it. Counting notonly on the outcry in the domestic media butalso on the impact that would have on theinternational media in an effort to givethemselves some cover. While the charge of‘hooliganism’ might seem laughable this doesmeet the Russian definition “The flagrantviolation of public order expressed by a cleardisrespect for society.” [i] It is clear they did thisin terms of their intrusion to areas reserved forpriests, by manifestly contradicting commonchurch rules, expressing their disrespect andusing swear words, [ii] it is clear that profanity isa much greater offence within a church thanoutside even if it is a word used in ‘everydayspeech’. [iii] It is important to be clear that this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Why use the form of a prayer and mention theVirgin in a political protest? The members ofPussy Riot themselves seem to admit that theprotest was at least in part religious, Sparrow,one of the members told the Guardian \"It wasjust a prayer. A very special prayer”. [i] Whencombined with the setting in the Cathedral ofChrist the Saviour shows the intent. It would, intheory, be possible to imagine a protest in such asetting that did not cause offence – or at leastsought to minimise it. However, the religiousovertones and references seem designed purelyto inflame it. They served no purpose in makingthe case about Putin’s policies but seemcalculated to offend the congregation and clergyand, given the setting, the Orthodox Church as awhole. However, a quiet and dignified protest,while making the political point more powerfullyand without offence would not have served themain purpose here; publicity through maximizingoffence as a result of deliberate blasphemy. Tointend blasphemy, to commit blasphemy, in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "If it was a purely political statement, then whystage it in a church? There is no shortage ofpossible venues to stage a protest such as thisone. A busy supermarket, a train station, a park,the middle of the street – all of them would havefulfilled the requirement for lots of people withattentions to be attracted. Since it was dubbednot a live concert the location would have beentotally interchangeable. [i] Holding it in a church– in front of the high alter during mass – wascalculated to cause maximum effect, maximumshock and maximum publicity. Causing intendedoffence during a religious ceremony is about asclose to the definition of blasphemy as it wouldbe possible to get. Vladimir Putin has shruggedoff challenges from much more serious criticsthan an attention-seeking group of musicians.This very act was calculated to cause thegreatest possible offence to people of faith. Sucha protest in St Peter’s in the same situationwould have caused great offence even if theprotest had been about Berlusconi. When British", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-nshbimprsb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The protest was certainly intended to be noticed– there’s little point in protesting something if itisn’t. The very fact that they were willing to riskimprisonment suggests that this was somethingmore than a media stunt. It’s also difficult to seehow this is different from earlier generations ofartists who have protested tyranny – the onlysignificant difference seems to be that this tyrantgets on rather better with leaders of the West.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This is an excellent reason why as muchinformation as possible should be publically andinternationally available [i] . China’s entry intothe Korean war was justified on grounds ofnational security at the time and that line hasbeen doggedly followed since. Truman thought itwas “a bald attempt to blackmail the UN” [ii] atthe time and the opinion of many has notchanged since. The US and Korea have had toface some of their demons about the war since;why not China? It is also difficult to see what thishas to do with the foundational myths of theChinese state, which go back thousands of years,or even the Communist party which come fromthe long march and the second world war. And ifindeed it is a ‘myth’ then is there not a duty toshow that this historical record is wrong?National identity should be built on the basis offacts not manufactured mythologies. [i]Eurozine. Danuta Glondys, Arne Ruth. Breakingthe Bonds of National Mythology. 14 March2011. [ii] China intervenes (October –", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Foundational Myths Nations come fromsomewhere, or at least we tend to believe theydo [i] . The fact that these foundational mythsare usually either partially or completely untrueis mostly irrelevant. These myths – be they ofglorious revolutions or long histories reachingback into antiquity are projections of the modernnation. However, they are only the most obviousexample of national mythologies, we project ourcurrent-day identities onto all sorts of morerecent histories as well. To take one fairlyflippant example of this, ask a national of anycountry involved on the victorious side in WWIIand ask them who won the war. States have aninterest in perpetuating these myths, not forparticular or personal motives but because theyadd to a sense of national identity and thehomogeneity of the whole. To that extent theyare, quite literally, a matter of national securitythey confer and justify the notion of the nationas an entity or the concept of the nation state asa possibility. As national historian Spyridon", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "In such instances, clearly nations will pursuetheir national interest but, just to take Prop’sexample, the ICJ [i] spends most of its timedealing with disputes about maritime law, mostlyownership issues. They work on the basis ofinvestigation and fact. Suppressing informationwould clearly only be an attempt to reduce theinformation available so as to prevent anunbiased judgement. To take theSenkaku/Daioyu example yes the China’s mayhave some documents conceding Japanesesovereignty but that does not end the dispute.Nor would losing the case in such a dispute be areal threat to the national security of either side;the territory and resources would be nice to havebut are not vital for either’s economy or security.So Proposition has yet to give an example ofwhere there would be a clear issue of nationalsecurity – or even national interest in hidinghistory. [i] International Criminal Court ofJustice website. Contentious Cases", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Protecting the past There is a simple case ofnatural justice in protecting the decisions andreputations of those who have served the stateand can no longer speak for themselves [i] . Thesame applies to events, for better or worsepolitical or military disputes that were settledfifty or a hundred years ago are best left likethat, settled. All nations have moments in theirhistories that are unlikely to reflect that countryat its best but we judge our own nations andothers on a balance of the broad sweep ofhistory rather than the grubby minutiae ofparticular events. By its nature the historicalrecord will always be incomplete – silent onmotivations of those involved or theparticularities of individual decisions as we cannever know everything and not all decisionmaking processes are recorded. We alreadyknow the overall outcomes of, for example, warsor elections. It would be impossible to changethose results by discovering that they were nothandled as one might have wished. Neither is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is rarely anything to do with protecting thepast in these decisions. It is all to do with thepresent and either manufacturing an image of aprevious decision or covering up corruption orincompetence on the part of the party, faction orindividual that happens to be in charge at thetime. What Proposition so cheerily describes as‘grubby minutiae’ would be more generallyreferred to as ‘facts’, proposition seems to thinkthat history shouldn’t let these ‘grubby minutiae’get in the way of a good story. If proposition iscorrect in its view that “It would be impossible tochange those results” then there is no reasonwhy historians should not be free to investigateand reinterpret the record as to how theseresults were arrived at.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Predicting and protecting the future nation In amuch more practical sense historical data maywell breach national security. They may well beinstances, such as in the case given in theintroduction, where governments may even beunaware that there were issues of nationalsecurity involved until they are brought to light.Data that was not significant fifty years ago maybecome of great significance later on. To take asimple, hypothetical example. Laws relating tothe ownership of the sea are relatively obscureand often based on ancient negotiations ortreaties that are mostly about something else.They frequently involve custom and precedentand, for the most part, nobody really makes afuss about the exact details. Until, of course,someone finds an oil field underneath thatstretch of ocean or the fish supplies of aneighboring area become depleted [i] . At hispoint, the exact details of those negotiations andtreaties become a source of great interest. Thusfor example documents relating the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-con03b", "title": "", "text": "By definition, we don’t know what is suppressedby governments; who knows, maybe there arealiens at Roswell, Presley is alive and well andNixon shot Kennedy. However, unofficial leaks aswell as official reclassifications of secret dataalways excite interest, so it seems reasonable toassume that there is some information thatremains classified with good reason. However oldinformation such as military ciphers, designs forarmaments and discussions that suggests morethan usual levels of incompetence of mendacityamong the political classes, they are likely toremain secret – for the excellent reason thatconfidence in the entire system depends on it.For better or worse, that process tends to becalled national security.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Opposition is living in a fantasy world. Theyforget that people do not always have rationalresponses to history, while the outcome of theevent in question may not be changed revealingawkward truths could have unpleasant results,so for example if the Chinese government wereto suddenly accept responsibility for the killing ofmillions during the great leap forward riots oreven revolution could very well occur.Governments regularly suppress information onthe basis of national security and their citizensaccept that as a reality. Indeed most accept it asa benefit. It seems likely that the only reason DrXu’s case has achieved notoriety is that hestudied in the west (Oxford) for ten years. Thesame is true of Dr. Gao Zhan (Syracuese) andDr. Li Shaomin (Princeton) – the other twohigh-profile academic detainees. It does rathersuggest that the spotlight on their cases has lessto do with a genuine concern with free speechand more to do with having friends in the Westwho don’t think their associates should be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Popular history Who owns a nation’s history?The current government? Those living today?Scholars? There’s not really a satisfying answeras every group is interested in and uses differentparts of history. It doesn’t sit happily into theusual structures, a defeated power may not getto write the history but it certainly has aninterest in it. Within a relatively short period oftime the nation that featured in historical eventshas ceased to exist regardless of what happenswith borders and names. China may be the bestexample of all here; which nation is beingprotected. The China of the revolution? Of theKorean War? Of the Cultural Revolution? Of theEconomic reforms of the seventies or theEconomic super power of today? What about theImperial China? Which dynasty? For any nation,the question can be asked, which class, whichrace, which generation, gender, political creedand so on have a claim to the collective historyof the nation. [i] History must therefore be inthe open so that everyone can investigate it and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-con03a", "title": "", "text": "‘It will come out eventually’ Journalism issometimes called the first draft of history. Thatdoes, of course, raise the issue of who writes thefinal draft. On the basis that historians still argueabout the events of centuries and millennia ago,the notion of a final draft may be absurd;however conclusions will be drawn at somepoint. Politicians trying to hold back historicaljudgement is a little like trying to hold back thetide, even if the facts are not all available thevoid will be filled with speculation to explain thegap. Ultimately information will emerge and willbe assessed. The question seems to be whenthat should take place. Those states that makeuse of a ‘thirty year rule’ or something similar toprotect particular documents such as cabinetminutes do so to allow the free exchange ofideas in the present. [i] Such a length of timeseems sufficient to let politicians and civilservants operate without endlessly focussing ontheir legacies. However, beyond that trying tocontrol the assessment of history seems to be an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Open expression If ever there were a situationwhere free expression should be assumed, this issurely it. Where no harm can come of knowingsomething (Prop appears to accept this by sayingthe outcome can’t be changed) what possiblereason could there be suppressing theinformation? [i] The only possible reason wouldseem to be that it is more convenient for thatsmall group of people, those currently both livingand powerful, that the true details of past eventsnot emerge. If this is the case then the otherarguments for free speech come into play,particularly its role in holding the powerful toaccount. Either way, proposition loses; if it’s justthe minutiae of bygone times, then why notrelease it, if it’s the stuff of modern day politicaldiscourse then the failure to publish it istantamount to tyranny. To take oppositions ownexample will learning that Churchill wantedHitler’s lieutenants executed without trial will thisreally affect people’s opinions of Churchill? Itseems unlikely, many would have similar", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-free-speech-debate-fchbnhampi-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Ownership of the past, for the purposes of thisdebate, would seem all too evident.Governments determine what information islegitimate to publish both domestically andinternationally and do so in the interests of thestate. The recent outcry from Westerngovernments about the Wikileaks publication ofdiplomatic cables dating back to the mid-sixtiessuggests that Western governments take asomewhat different attitude when it is theirhistorical national security being broadcast. Theongoing detention of Bradley Manning in solitaryconfinement further suggests that they take arather more supra-judicial approach than theChinese [i] . [i] One of many sites to notice thisdouble standard between the West commentingon other nations’ dissidents and dealing with itsown is: Lankaweb. Hameed Abdul Karim. IfBradley Manning were Chinese... 16 June 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Raising taxes for individuals with income over$250,000 will have a hugely detrimentaloutcome. This is because a huge number of smallbusinesses are legally taxed as individuals.Raising taxes may be manageable for wealthyindividuals, but small firms will be crushed bysuch huge tax increases proposed by Obama.The effects of this will be hard felt across thecountry, since small firms employ half of allprivate sector employees in the USA. [1] Thesesmall companies will see their investing andspending power vastly reduced and will lead tothousands of redundancies that will ensure theAmerican economy remains stagnant! Low taxesare the key to economic growth, not high taxesand government spending. [1] US SmallBusiness Administration, FAQs, , accessed8/10/2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A progressive tax policy and a cut in militaryspending are what America needs. To pay forhis government programs, Obama supports aprogressive tax system, with higher taxes for therich, and lower taxes for the middle class. Theneed for such a system of taxing the rich to payfor government services has grown since 1980,when income gains between the rich and thepoor began to diverge at a faster pace. [1]Recent data shows this trend continuing: in 2011the wealthiest Americans got richer while medianincome fell by 4%. [2] Despite these trends, thetop marginal tax rate is at nearly an all-time low![3] Increasing tax on individuals who earn morethan $250,000 and even more formulti-millionaires because the marginal utility ofwealth is lower for the super-rich than it is forthe poorer. In other words, a millionaire is notparticularly worse off if he or she is worth $10million instead of $15 million. $5 million whenspent on welfare programs such as pensions,education, healthcare or housing produces vastly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "An active, “big” federal government is best forthe American people President Obama believesin an activist government’s role in improvingsociety. Without public intervention, privatemarkets will not sufficiently address inequality orseveral other public needs, such asenvironmental preservation and publictransportation. Financial returns frominvestments in such areas are often insufficientto incentivise private sector investment.However such schemes generate high levels ofwelfare benefits that are desirable from asocietal perspective. Obama’s economic policydraws on Keynesian economic theory, which isthe belief that a mixed economy of public andprivate enterprise, bolstered by a strong welfarestate, can jumpstart the economy. In order tocreate public enterprise, the government needsto spend, either by building a deficit or from taxrevenue.[1] This is the policy he has pursued inhis first term with a successful stimulus of $787billion.[2] Obama’s tax policy boils down to the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Government spending of the level advocated byObama will only lead to a handicapped economyriddled with inefficiencies. The figures alonesuggest that the Keynesian theory of increasedspending stimulates growth and reducesunemployment is a myth. Despite trillions ofdollars of spending from Obama, the USeconomy is stagnant and unemployment ishigher than it was in 2008. [1] This happens fortwo reasons. First and foremost because highspending levels must be funded by high taxationlevels that stifle individuals’ purchasing powerand the private sector as a whole. Secondly,government spending generally causes higherinflation, meaning that the net effect ofgovernment spending in real terms is negligible,and only makes the system more inefficient![2] [1] Powell, Jim: “Why Government SpendingIs Bad For Our Economy”, Forbes,10/13/2011, [2] ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The private sector has indeed been the source ofmuch innovation that has led to improvements instandards of living. However the problem withrelying solely on the private sector for socialwelfare, is that it can only improve the lives ofthose who can pay for it! It may well be the casethat healthcare is better under the privatesector, but if only the top 60% (say) of thecountry can afford it, there is a big problem!Moreover, as has already been mentioned, thereis often insufficient financial incentive for theprivate sector to invest in certain areas, likepharmaceutical development or green energyresearch. Here, the government must step in andin the interest of public welfare provide theinvestment needed. High level-taxation onwealthy individuals may be hard on them, butultimately is desirable. Ethically speaking, weneed to balance the harm of a millionaire losing asmall portion of his or her wealth, with theenormous social good that can arise if thatwealth was spent on social welfare programs. An", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Tax cuts and spending cuts are necessary forgrowth. With a national unemployment rate of8.1% as of September 2012 [1], the UnitedStates economy has not recovered from theglobal financial crisis of 2008 and the recessionthat followed it. Governor Mitt Romney’s plan tocut taxes would lessen the burden on Americancitizens, and spur businesses and entrepreneursto create more jobs. Governor Romneyadvocates a Reagan-esque devotion tolaissez-faire economics, arguing that withsubstantial tax cuts and limited regulation onprivate businesses, the economy will naturallygrow. Mr Romney states on his website that hewould reduce government spending from itscurrent level, around $33,000 per household, toaround $25,000, while maintaining individual taxrates but decreasing rates for privatecorporations. [2] Regarding governmentprograms, Governor Romney opposes PresidentObama’s spending, vowing to repeal Mr Obama’shealthcare act, saving the country around $95", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "A minimalist state enables a fairer and morecompetitive economy. Romney believes the bestway to improve society is not to spend hugeamounts of taxpayer dollars on inefficientgovernment programs, but rather to tax citizensless and allow free-market innovation to improvethe quality of life in America. Low taxes arenecessary to stimulate innovation and thegrowth of business because people andbusinesses are self-interested; they will onlyinvest when they believe they will get the profitsfrom their investment and lowering taxes meanthat they will get more of the profit from theirinvestment.[1] At the same time government isa poor manager of the economy because smallnumbers of people cannot calculate all theeffects of central planning and the impact it willhave on individuals choices, essentially themarket is simply too complex for the governmentto master so the best option is to reducegovernment interference as much as possible.[2]For this reason, Romney’s policy preference of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tpvovrsugcsc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Deregulating the market is precisely what is notrequired at the moment. The financial crisis of2008 caused by irresponsible banking has shownthat more than ever, regulation is necessary toensure that corporations act responsibly andrecognise the significance of social good, not justfinancial profit. Cutting Medicare will lead tohuge numbers of people no longer having accessto affordable healthcare. Romney talks of thisscenario as if a market without Medicare wouldbe better because people would be able tochoose one of the more competitive, moreefficient private insurance companies for theirhealth care. Once more however, this is onlyapplicable for those who can afford such achoice! Not providing a safety net and preventingmillions of people from attaining treatment forillnesses or chronic conditions is a huge failingfrom the part of the government. Lastly, it is nottrue that cutting spending and taxes reduces thebudget deficit. This was exactly the policy triedby George W. Bush and only led to a widening of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eptppppgh-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There is the world of difference betweenestablishing basic rights and interfering inmatters that are best agreed at a community orstate level. That is the reason why the statescollectively agree to constitutional amendmentsthat can be considered to affect allcitizens. However, different communitiesregulate themselves in different ways dependingon both practical needs and the principles theyconsider to be important. Having the opinions ofcity-dwellers, who have never got closer to rurallife than a nineteenth landscape in a galleryinstruct farming communities that they cannotwork the land to save a rare frog isabsurd. Trying to establish policies such as aminimum wage or the details of environmentalprotection at a federal level simply makes nosense, as the implications of these things varywildly between different areas of thecountry. Equally local attitudes towards issuessuch as religion, marriage, sexuality,pornography and other issues of personal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eptppppgh-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Government was required to drive through majorchanges such as drives for equality withinsociety, universal education, and preservation ofthe environment. Mostly in the teeth of bigbusiness Nobody would deny the role thatremarkable individuals have played in the majorsocial changes of history. They have, however,ultimately required the actions of government.Many of these have been achieved despite,rather than because of, the interests of business.Critically they have tended to be to the benefit ofthe weak, the vulnerable and theneglected. Governments have been responsiblefor social reforms ranging from the abolition ofslavery and child labor to the removal ofconditions in factories and on farms that lead toinjury and death, in addition to minimum wageregulations that meant that families could feedthemselves. By contrast, the market was quitehappy with cheap cotton sown by nimble youngfingers. In turn profit was given preference overany notion of job security or the right to a family", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eptppppgh-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The primary difficulty with governments retainingsurpluses is that the government has noproprietary right to the funds in its coffers. Thetaxpayer effectively subsidizes the government,on the understanding that it will undertakefunctions necessary for the defence, continuedoperation and normative improvement of thestate and society. Clearly defense has to be oneof the core functions of government and thereare a few others, such as maintaining law andorder. For government to say that the only wayof securing its own finances is running a smallsurplus in its current account budget is palpablynot true when there is astonishing waste ingovernment expenditure, which is in turn alreadybloated and intervenes into areas of public lifewhere it simply does not belong. In terms ofusing government expenditure as a tool torespond to recessions, there may well be a rolein terms of how government uses its ownpurchasing power and it makes sense that shouldbe used for domestic purchasing wherever", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eptppppgh-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Ultimately government has a responsible toprovide a level playing field to ensure thateverybody gets a far start in life and can at leastsurvive throughout it Government, especially ina developed nation and even more so in thewealthiest nation in the world, should be able toensure that children are not hungry, the mentallyill are not living on the streets, borders arepoliced, veterans don’t live in squalor, thepopulation can read, crime is controlled, theelderly don’t freeze to death and a million othermarkers of a civilized society. This is particularlytrue of children but most people need a helpinghand at one time or another in life. However, theobscenity of children destined to fail before theirlives have even started- condemned to schoolsthat offer no hope and communities that offer nosafety- would be disturbing anywhere in theworld. In a nation that prides itself as having thehighest standard of living on the planet- and isunquestionably the richest and most powerful-levels of poverty and despair that are seen", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eptppppgh-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "No country can pay its bills or increase theprosperity of its citizens if it is wasting money onunnecessary programmes. The principle problemwith government funding is that it is notaddressing any of the problems that Propositionraises. In many countries, The ideology of stateintervention is has made government everlarger, building ever more excessive and bloatedbureaucratic empires with fiefdoms andsinecures for every busybody and apparatchikmore interested in monitoring change thanmaking it, and more concerned with process thanpeople. It is not uncommon – indeed it is noteven unusual - for private sector organisations toshed ten percent of their workforce when thejudge themselves to have becomeuncompetitive, unprofitable or administrativelyunwieldy. Both the governments of France andCanada have done that in recent years and yetmaintain high standards of government support[i] . For average public sector wages to be outstripping those of the private sector (who", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eptppppgh-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Big government can provide the stimulus theeconomy needs in the bad years as long assurpluses are not squandered during the boomyears Government expenditure is the singlebiggest tool in times of economic difficulty. Thosethat are the quickest to complain about taxationand regulation during the good times are alsothe fastest to rush for a bailout during the leantimes. Likewise, those that call for tax cuts in aboom also tend to be the first to criticize a deficitor public expenditure during a recession. Thereis in all of this one simple economic reality: thegovernment acts as the banker of lastresort. This only works, as Keynes understood,if the government holds on to reserves in thegood years so that it can spend them in thetough ones to stimulate jobs and growth. On theother hand, where surpluses are blown on taxcuts- or expensive wars for that matter- then willbe nothing left in the bank and governmentcannot fulfill its most useful role of using its ownfinancial clout to balance the economy over the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eptppppgh-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The myth of the greater efficiency in the privatesector is one of the enduring fallacies of thepolitics of the right. Even the slightest glance atthose areas where governments routinelyoutsource capital projects- defense procurement,major infrastructural projects and IT projects-there is astonishing inefficiency and it seemsquestionable as to how the public sector could beany less efficient. It is an innate aspect ofprivate companies that they need to make aprofit, which is by nature an inefficiency, in thatit takes resources out of any system. It is astrange thing that those who most passionatelysupport the efficiency and effectiveness of theprivate sector become meek when it comes tothe most important elements of public life-defense of the nation, policing the streets,educating the young. Equally when theastonishing levels of inefficiency and, frequently,incompetence that exist within the private sectorcome to light in the collapse of companies, bethose banks or auto-giants, apparently it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eptppppgh-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Were the theory put forward true, and that isdebatable, it would require tax cuts to benefitthe lowest paid individuals and the smallestcompanies. However the political reality is that itnever does. Poor people and small companies doindeed spend money which has a stimulatingeffect on the economy, but spending onlystimulates the economy if it is spent in the rightway. It is not possible to guarantee that thefunds that flow into a state’s economy as a resultof tax cuts will benefit that economy exclusively.Most forms of good and commodity now existwithin a global market; manufacturing andproduction have become concentrated withinstates such as China. Useful and productivebusiness activity will always require that aproportion of a business’s funds be spentoverseas. The advantage of government fundingis that it can be directed into the weakest areasof the domestic economy, with a degree ofdynamism and control that the markets willnever be able to achieve. However, recent", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eptppppgh-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Excessive regulation on the private sector putsburdens on free enterprise both in terms ofadministration and cost. By doing so it reducesconsumer choice and acts as a drag oninnovation and growth Government regulationassumes not only irresponsible companies butalso stupid consumers. Although, realistically,very little regulation has any direct impact on theconsumer but tends to involve time-consumingpaperwork demonstrating compliance so thatsome civil servant can tick a box to prove thatsomething that was already being done can beshown to have been be done. The effect of thistends to fall hardest on smaller businesses thatdon’t have large financial or legal departments.As a result it not only takes up valuable time thatcould be spent developing the business itself butmore importantly acts to discourage people fromstarting in the first place. This is particularly sowhen it’s considered that many people who startup a new company do so after many years ofworking for someone else within the same", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eptppppgh-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Government has a tendency to be inefficient as ithas no need to compete in an open marketplace,and jobs in state institutions are safe because ofthe guarantees both of the tax base andgovernment’s greater borrowingcapacity. Governments both as a whole and interms of individual employees have a tendencytowards astonishing inefficiency, because stateinstitutions are not subject to any meaningfulcompetitive pressures. Indeed, manygovernment employees earn as much or morethan those in comparable jobs in the privatesector, have preferential pension and benefitplans, lower hours and longer vacations. It is ofcourse unsurprising that anyone in possession ofsuch a job would be reluctant to give it up butalso suggests a lower level of competition forkeeping it. In the private sector such preferentialreturns would suggest that a worker would belikely to work longer hours to keepthem. Equally, because senior managers are notspending their own money and rarely have their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eptppppgh-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Reducing the size of government and, therefore,the amount it takes in tax frees up money whichconsumers can spend on goods or for companiesto expand: Both create jobs Government costsmoney. That’s an indisputable fact. So thatraises the question of whether that’s the bestway of spending it. It is clear that money couldbe spent in other ways and so if this is the choicethere is an opportunity cost in that decision asthere is in any other. There is compellingevidence that reducing the government’s take oftotal GDP stimulates the economy throughfreeing up funds to create jobs especially inmanufacturing. There is compelling evidence [i]that reducing the tax burden and unleashing thedynamism of the market by cutting regulationhas a far greater effect than governmentmassaging unemployment figures by expandingits own employment base. Indeed it also appearsto be the case that the relatively high level ofgovernment salaries in fact just puts greaterpressure on employers in the private sector to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eptppppgh-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This again is a myth routinely put forward by theright. Governments already distinguish betweenregulations that should apply to all companiesand those, more onerous ones, that apply tolarger companies only. There are certainstandards in terms of health and safety offoodstuffs, products and so forth. However, thereis clearly a different role when it comes toregulating larger companies such as banks,insurance companies and majoremployers. There are particular sectors thatrequire more regulation than others but the bulkof regulation is there to protect both staff andcustomers and it is part of the reality of doingbusiness. The idea that regulation harms smallbusiness is simply absurd as they benefit fromthe regulation of larger businesses who may beeither their suppliers or customers are alsoregulated. Equally start-up companies benefitfrom the fact that regulation evens up theplaying field with more established competitors.If nobody is allowed to cut corners or perform", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is nonsense to compare aid with the west’sactions during the nineteenth century. Yes thewest with aid sometimes wants to encourage itsown values but this is a long way from forcingthose values on the other state. The IMF maydemand certain changes and liberalisation butregardless of how much India needed the help itcould have said no.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "“White Man’s Burden” Aid is simply acontinuation of the “white man’s burden” and istherefore demeaning to the countries where it ismeant to help. It implies that western countrieshave to provide money to those who are less‘developed’ in order to develop them. Thissounds very similar to westerners having to goout into the world in order to civilize the othercountries and civilizations around the world. Thissimilarity is made even closer when western aidhas strings and institutions like the IMF impose‘liberalisation’ of markets as it did for India at theend of the 1980s. [1] Far from providing help itis imposing western ideas and values onothers. [1] Weinraub, Bernard, ‘Economic CrisisForcing Once Self-Reliant India to Seek Aid’, TheNew York Times, 29 June 1991", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is likely true that people on the groundsometimes see aid as ‘free money’. But theexistence of corruption shows a need for greateraccountability and more pressure from donors toensure that occurs rather than less. Leaving acountry because of corruption would simply showunwillingness to tackle one of the major issuesthat need to be tackled in order to ensuredevelopment. Development aid is sometimesspent on implementing schemes that may be theresult of a new idea that may not work thatbecomes a ‘fad’. But to object to this is to objectto innovation; new ideas must be tried out onthe ground before the development communityknows for sure they won’t work. Developmentthinking is moving towards just handing out cashrather than subsidies; will this work? We don’tknow, but won’t know for sure until it is triedmore comprehensively than it has been so far.[1] [1] See Helling, Alex, ‘This House would givecash to the poor to reduce poverty’, Debatabase,24 January 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Too many strings India is a booming economywith GDP growth of 7% over most of the lasttwenty years, and it is likely to overtake the UKeconomy within a decade. [1] As a resultdevelopment aid today to India is small bycomparison to what India itself can and doesspend on its poorest citizens. The UK gives just£280 million per year, less than 0.04% of India’sGDP [2] and only enough to provide £1 per yearfor every one of India’s poorest. This foreign aidis therefore not essential for poverty reduction inIndia. Indeed China has been the country mostsuccessful at reducing poverty and it has done itthrough economic growth not large amounts ofdevelopment aid. [3] Aid money should thereforego to countries that really do need the money fordevelopment rather than those who are alreadysucceeding at financing it themselves. [1]Gilligan, Andrew, ‘India tells Britain: We don’twant your aid’, The Telegraph, 4 February2012 [2] Ghosh, Jayati, ‘Yes: Should richcountries stop sending development aid to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The geography of poverty has changed; in 199094% of those in poverty lived in ‘low incomecountries’ today that is down to 28%. The restlive in ‘middle income countries’ that are oftenfast growing and able to provide much of theirown poverty reduction funding. [1] Should allmoney go to those few countries that are stillclassed as ‘low income’? Instead it must berecognised that the impact of aid is onindividuals not the nation as a whole. Aid thatbuilds a school and provides for teachers willhave little impact on the whole of the nation buta large impact on those who are able to attendschool where they would not have had thechance before. [1] Ravillion, Martin, ‘Should wecare equally about poor people wherever theymay live?’, 8 November 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The west does not know best It is clear that thedonor countries do not know how best to spendthe money they give as aid. Instead they wanttheir money spent on the latest development fadwhether this is the privatisation of basic services,microcredit, conditional cash, or particularinfrastructure projects. [1] Development canalso be misspent as a result of corruption and alack of oversight, for example the UK suspendedits aid to Uganda as a result of indications it wasbeing misused by the Ugandan government andnot “going towards helping the poorest people liftthemselves out of poverty”. [2] The LordsEconomic Affairs select committee explained whythis is the case; “aid is essentially seen by thoseentrusted with it as \"free money\", whose loss willgo unnoticed by the giver and whoseappropriation is nothing like as morallyreprehensible as appropriating local taxrevenue”. [3] [1] Ghosh, Jayati, ‘Yes: Shouldrich countries stop sending development aid toIndia?’, BMJ, Vol.346, No. 7891, pp.1-42,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Clearly it is good where aid makes a difference tosomeone’s life but we are not advocating endingaid. That aid would instead be spent in a poorercountry that is more in need than India. Thecountry that is more in need clearly needs moreaid to provide that infrastructure that helpsmultiply the value of aid. It is therefore clearlythe place where more funding should go.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It does not make sense that India should receiveaid simply because it still has poor people. Aid isused to help when the government cannotprovide for its own people and India clearlyalready provides the vast majority of help for itsown people and will provide more and more asthe economy grows. The absolute numbers makevery little difference because aid at current levelswill never pull all 1.4 billion out of poverty atonce. The government of India is improving heconditions of its poor so aid should be usedsomewhere where the government is lesscapable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "India cannot end poverty on its own Clearly ifIndia could end poverty within the country itwould do so, however at the moment it cannot.If those in India who are not poor (consideringthis to mean earn more than $13 a day, the USpoverty line) were to give 100% of their incomeabove this level to those who live on less than$1.25 per day they would still not eliminatepoverty in the country. “Indeed, appropriating allof the incomes of those living in India above theUS poverty line would cover only a modestfraction of the country’s aggregate poverty gap.”So India does not yet have the domestic capacityto eliminate poverty on its own. [1] [1]Ravillion, Martin, ‘Should we care equally aboutpoor people wherever they may live?’, 8November 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The money makes no difference India is abooming economy with GDP growth of 7% overmost of the last twenty years, and it is likely toovertake the UK economy within a decade. [1]As a result development aid today to India issmall by comparison to what India itself can anddoes spend on its poorest citizens. The UK givesjust £280 million per year, less than 0.04% ofIndia’s GDP [2] and only enough to provide £1per year for every one of India’s poorest. Thisforeign aid is therefore not essential for povertyreduction in India. Indeed China has been thecountry most successful at reducing poverty andit has done it through economic growth not largeamounts of development aid. [3] Aid moneyshould therefore go to countries that really doneed the money for development rather thanthose who are already succeeding at financing itthemselves. [1] Gilligan, Andrew, ‘India tellsBritain: We don’t want your aid’, The Telegraph,4 February 2012 [2] Ghosh, Jayati, ‘Yes: Shouldrich countries stop sending development aid to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Pressure from international donors isessential Currently the culture of giving in Indiais not mature enough to enable India to fightpoverty on its own. Aid to India thereforeprovides more than one role. It does not justprovide the money and supplies that the poorestneed, it also encourages India to do more. Whenaid is needed to put primary children into schoolas a result of the mere 3% of national incomespent on education it encourages the Indiangovernment and people to spend more onalleviating their own compatriot’s poverty.[1] [1] Agrawal, Nisha, ‘India needs to do morefor its people but cutting foreign aid now won’thelp – Oxfam’, Alertnet, 13 November 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Development aid still makes a difference Clearlysomeone earning $1 a day in India is as worthyof aid as someone earning the same amount inBurkina Faso. Equally the same amount ofdevelopment aid can still make a similar amountof difference to the individuals it is targeted. Itmay potentially make even more of a differencein the richer country because that country hasthe infrastructure to ensure that the aid issustainable and effective. [1] For example an aidprogram may help poor farmers to grow morefood but that aid is much more sustainable andvaluable if there is a road network so that theycan sell some of their produce. In India UK aidhas helped 1.2 million children go to school inthe past 10 years [2] and this investment ispotentially made more effective by India havinguniversities these children could go on to attendif they wish. [1] Economic Affairs SelectCommittee, ‘Chapter 4: The Impact of Aid’,Parliament.uk, 2012 [2] Agrawal, Nisha, ‘No:Should rich countries stop sending development", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "India still has the most people in poverty Aidshould go to those who need it most around theworld regardless of which country they live in.India still has the largest concentration of peoplein poverty in the world, according to the worldbank there are “240 million rural poor and 72million urban poor”. [1] So still almost a quarterof the world’s 1.4billion people in poverty. [2]With so many of the world’s poor people it isclear that India should be receiving a significantportion of the world’s development aid to endtheir poverty. [1] Poverty Reduction &Equity, ‘India: Achievements and Challenges inReducing Poverty’, The World Bank, 2011 [2]Poverty Reduction & Equity, ‘Overview’, TheWorld Bank, August 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The opposite is true; aid results in less Indianspending on poverty not more. In a few rarecases there may be sufficient media coverage ofan aid program to shame the government intoaction but most of the time if others arespending that simply means the Indiangovernment will save its own money. This wasthe assessment of House of Lords EconomicAffairs Select Committee when it said “Britishdevelopment aid to the poorest Indian statesmay provide a perverse incentive to the Indiangovernment to use less of its own revenue toalleviate poverty.” [1] [1] Economic AffairsSelect Committee, ‘Abstract’, Parliament.uk,2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwssd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Clearly this is taking a double standard; Indiacannot immediately eliminate poverty using onlyits domestic capacity, but the aid from othernations at the current level cannot currently dothis either. India can be reducing poverty and asthe economy grows will eventually be able toeliminate poverty entirely.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The public sector being paid extra is somethingthat is acceptable and necessary within society.Workers within the public sector often fulfill rolesin jobs that are public goods. Such jobs provide apositive externality for the rest of society, butwould be underprovided by the free market. Forexample, education would likely beunderprovided, particularly for the poorest, bythe free market but provides a significant benefitto the public because of the long term benefitsan educated populace provides. [I1] Inhealthcare the example of the United Statesshows that private providers will never provide tothose who are unable to afford it with nearly50million people without health insurance.[1] Although the average pay received bygovernment employees tends to be higher, thepeak earnings potential of a government positionis significantly lower than that of otherprofessions. Workers who chose to build longterm careers within the public sector forgo asignificant amount of money, and assume a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Collective Bargaining Leads to an Overpaid PublicSector The public sector is often significantlyoverpaid. The workers within the public sectorsof Western liberal democracies often get paidmore than people of equal education andexperience who are employed in the privatesector. In the United States there is a salarypremium of 10-20 percent in the public sector.This means that there is likely a waste ofresources as these people are being paid morethan they should be by the government. [1] Thereason this happens is that collective bargainingmeans that workers can often, through thesimple idea that they can communicate with thegovernment and have a hand in the decisionmaking process, make their demands muchmore easily. Further, governments in particularare vulnerable during negotiations with unions,due their need to maintain both their politicalcredibility and the cost effectiveness of theservices they provide. This is significantlydifferent to private enterprise where public", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Collective bargaining might hurt the democraticprocess due to its political nature, but thealternative is worse. Without collectivebargaining it is incredibly difficult for publicsector workers to get across their ideas of whattheir pay should be to their employers. This leadsto worse consequences because public sectorworkers who feel underpaid or overworked willoften move to the private sector for better jobopportunities in the future as well as a bettercollective bargaining position. Further, thosepublic sector workers that do stay will beunhappy in their positions and will likely do aworse job at work. Given that this is true andthe fact that public sector workers often chooseto do their jobs out of a sense of duty or love forthe profession, it is fair that the taxpayers shouldbe placed in a position where they are requiredto trust the public sector and the politicians towork out deals that end up being in favour of theentire state, not just a small minority. [1] [1]Bloomberg, Michael. “Limit Pay, Not Unions.”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Collective Bargaining is Not a Right Whilst thefreedom of association exists under the state andit is true that people should be allowed tocommunicate with one another and form groupsto forward their personal and political interests, itis not true that the freedom of associationautomatically grants access to the decisionmaking process. Unions in this instance areproblematic because whilst other groups do nothave access to special privileges, unions are ableto exert a significant and disproportionateamount of influence over the political processthrough the use of collective bargainingmechanisms. This argument applies to privateunions as well, although to a lesser extent, andthe banning of collective bargaining for privateunions would be principally sound. In the case ofunions in the private sector they can cause largeamounts of disruption which has a large knockon impact on the economy giving leverage overpoliticians for whom the economy and jobs arealways important issues. For example unions in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Collective bargaining is considered a rightbecause of the great benefit that it provides.Specifically, whilst freedom of association mightnot allow people to be privy to the negotiationprocess, when a large enough group of peopleform together and make a statement regardingtheir opinion, it is profitable for those in power tolisten to them. Collective bargaining in thissituation is a logical extension of that. Given thatpublic sector workers are intrinsic to thecontinued success of the state, it thus makessense that the state gives them a platform tomake their views in a clear and ordered fashion,such that the state can take them into accounteasily. [1] Further, the knowledge that such aright exists causes unions to act in a way whichis more predictable. Specifically, a right tounionise with reduce the likelihood that stateemployees will engage in strike action. Underexisting union law, groups of employees are ableto compel a state employer to hear theirdemands, and to engage in negotiations. Indeed,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Collective Bargaining Hurts the DemocraticProcess The bargain between normal unions andprivate enterprise involves all parties beingbrought to the table and talking about the issuesthat they might have. However, the public sectorrepresents the benefits of taxpayers, thepoliticians and the unions. The power that unionsexercises means that negotiations can happenwithout the consent or involvement of the publicsector’s stakeholders, the public. Even thoughpower in a democracy is usually devolved to thepoliticians for this purpose, given the highlypoliticised nature of union negotiations,government office-holders who supervise unionnegotiations may act inconsistently with themandate that the electorate have given them.This is because public unions often command avery large block of voters and can threatenpoliticians with this block of voters readily. Thisis not the same as a private business whereofficials aren’t elected by their workers. As such,collective bargaining rights for public union", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Collective Bargaining is Needed to VoiceOpinion The bargain between normal unions andprivate enterprise involves all parties beingbrought to the table and talking about the issuesthat they might have. However, the public sectorrepresents the benefits of taxpayers, thepoliticians and the unions. The power that unionsexercises means that negotiations can happenwithout the consent or involvement of the publicsector’s stakeholders, the public. Even thoughpower in a democracy is usually devolved to thepoliticians for this purpose, given the highlypoliticised nature of union negotiations,government office-holders who supervise unionnegotiations may act inconsistently with themandate that the electorate have given them.This is because public unions often command avery large block of voters and can threatenpoliticians with this block of voters readily. Thisis not the same as a private business whereofficials aren’t elected by their workers. As such,collective bargaining rights for public union", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The opposition argument here is simply a caseagainst natural monopolies. In many WesternLiberal democracies, advances in technologyhave enabled natural monopolies on telecomsand public transport to be broken down. A widerange of necessary public services- such astelecoms and power generation- now function aspart of a competitive market. As such, it isfeasible that the state could simply deal with thisproblem by breaking down other naturalmonopolies in the same way. Even if the stateacts as a monopolist in some industries, publicsector workers often have transferrable skillswhich mean they can move to other industrieswithout that much trouble. For example, a publicprosecutor will have acquired professional skillsthat enable a relatively quick transition intoprivate or commercial civil practice. [1] [1]“Identifying the Transferable skills of a Teacher.”North Central College.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Even if collective bargaining leads to a workforcethat is better able to communicate their ideas, italso leads to a situation as mentioned within theproposition arguments that results in unionshaving significantly more power over their wagesand the government than in other situations.This is problematic because it leads toconsequences where other unions feel that theyshould have the same powers as public unionsand can hence lead to volatility in the privatesector as a result. Further, given that often thenegotiators that work for public unions are oftenaware of the political power of the publicworkers, negotiations with public unions oftenlead to strike action due to the fact that it islikely that the public will be sympathetic to thepublic workers. As such, allowing public workersto bargain collectively leads to situations that areoften much worse for the public. Further, a lot ofopposition’s problems with a lack of collectivebargaining can simply be dealt with throughimplementing a more sensitive and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Collective Bargaining is Especially Necessary inthe Case of Natural Monopolies Many publicindustries exist as public industries because theyare natural monopolies. For example, rail travel,which is often public in Western Liberaldemocracies, is a sector in which it makes nosense to build multiple railway lines across thecountry, each for a different company, when onewould simply be more efficient. A similar casecan be made for things such as public utilities. Assuch, these sectors often only have a single,often public company working in that sector. Inthe case where there is a monopolist, theworkers in the sector often have no otheremployers that they can reasonably find thatrequire their skills, so for example, teachers arevery well qualified to teach, however, arepossibly not as qualified to deal with other areasand as such will find difficulty moving to anotherprofession. As such, the monopolist in this areahas the power to set wages without losing asignificant number of employees. Further, in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Collective Bargaining is a Right. Collectivebargaining is a right. If the state allows freedomof association, individuals will gather togetherand exchange their ideas and views as a naturalconsequence of this freedom. Further, freeassociation and free expression allows groups tothen select a representative to express theirideas in a way that the individuals in the groupmight not be able to. In preventing people fromusing this part of their right to assembly, weweaken the entire concept of the right toassembly. The point of the right to assembly is toallow the best possible representation forindividuals. When a group of individuals areprevented from enjoying this right then it leadsto those individuals feeling isolated from the restof society who are able to enjoy this right. Thisis particularly problematic in the case of publicsector workers as the state that is isolating themalso happens to be their employer. This hurts theway that people in the public sector view thestate that ideally is meant to represent them", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Collective Bargaining is Needed to VoiceOpinion Collective bargaining is needed bypeople in any job. Within any firm there existfeedback structures that enable workers tocommunicate with managers and executivedecision makers. However, there are someissues which affect workers significantly, but runagainst the principles of profit, or in this case theoverall public good that the state seeks toserve. In this situation, a collection of workersare required. This is primarily because ifsuggested changes go against public interestthen a single worker requesting such a change islikely to be rejected. However, it is the indirectbenefit to public interest through a workforcethat is treated better that must also beconsidered. But indirect benefit can only trulyoccur if there are a large number of workerswhere said indirect benefit canaccrue. Specifically, indirect benefit includes thehappiness of the workforce and thus the creationof a harder working workforce, as well as the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwacbr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "As discussed in the first proposition sideargument, we can curtail the rights of individualsif we see that those rights lead to a largenegative consequence for the state. In thissituation proposition is happy to let some publicsector workers feel slightly disenfranchised if itleads to fewer strikes and a situation wherepublic sector workers are not paid too much,then the net benefit to society is such that theslight loss in terms of consistency of rights isworth taking instead. [1] [1] Davey, Monica,“Wisconsin Senate Limits Bargaining by PublicWorkers”, The New York Times, 9 March 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "If school is so expensive, than shouldn't thegovernment be subsidizing school costs insteadof forcing parents to send kids to school whenthey can't afford the books and clothes? It is alsounfair to assume that parents on welfare onneglectful and do not value education.Supporting meal programs in schools andsubsidizing other costs are much more likely todraw children than forcing parents to sendchildren to school when the kids are hungry andembarrassed1. 1 United States Department ofAgriculture, \"The School BreakfastProgram\",[Accessed July 21, 2011].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Parents on welfare are more likely to need theincentives to take on the costs of sendingchildren to school. Parents on welfare benefitsare the most likely to need the extrainducements. They generally tend to be lesseducated and oftentimes be less appreciative ofthe long-term value of education. In the late90's, 42% of people on welfare had less than ahigh school education, and another 42% hadfinished high school, but had not attendedcollege in the US. Therefore they need theadditional and more tangible, financial reasons tosend their children to school. Children living inpoverty in the US are 6.8 times more likely tohave experienced child abuse and neglect1.While attendance might not be a sufficientcondition for academic success, it is certainly anecessary one, and the very first step toward it.Some parents might be tempted to look at theshort-term costs and benefits. Sending a child toschool might be an opportunity cost for theparents as lost labor inside or outside the homes", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The purpose of welfare is not to better societyper se; it is to support those who have fallen intobad times and need extra help. Expecting peopleto render a service in exchange for help isdemeaning and it undermines the purpose ofwelfare which is to help people get back on theirfeet versus tell them what they have to do to beconsidered beneficial to society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The policy has been effective in the past Themain goal of this program is increasing schoolenrollment overall. If it was too much to expectfrom families, then the program would havefailed in the cases that it was instituted.However, the opposite has been the case. 12.4million families in Brazil are enrolled in aprogram called Bolsa Familia where children’sattendance in school is rewarded with $12 amonth per child. The number of Brazilians withincomes below $440 a month has decreased by8% year since 2003, and 1/6 of the povertyreduction in the country is attributed to thisprogram [1] . Additionally it is much lessexpensive than other programs, costing onlyabout .5% of the country’s GDP [2] . Consideringthat this program has been affordable andsuccessful in both reducing poverty andincreasing school enrollment it is worth using asan incentive in more programs around theworld. [1] 'How to get children out of jobs andinto school', The Economist, 29 July 2010, [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "But the program in Brazil is biased towards ruralcommunities versus cities. In the two largestcities in only 10% of families are enrolled versus41% in the rural areas of Brazil [1] . To considerthe program effective it needs to work equallywith all members of the poor, which it doesnot. [1] 'How to get children out of jobs and intoschool', The Economist, 29 July 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Just because students attend school does notmean that they are going to receive a qualityeducation. The best educated children are thosewhose parents are involved heavily in theirschool, helping them with their homework, andpushing them to excel1. Without involvedparents, students can become just as easilydiscouraged. There really need to be programs toinvolve parents more in school, and provide goodmentors and role models for students who don'thave them. Schools also need to be improved.Just sending kids to school doesn't mean thatthey are going to learn and be determined tobetter themselves. Additionally particularly in thethird world if children don't have good schoolsand qualified teachers, then what is the point ofgoing to school? 1 Chavkin, Nancy, and Williams,David (1989), \"Low-Income Parents' Attitudestoward Parent Involvemet in Education\", SocialWelfare, [Accessed July 21, 2011].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "It is morally acceptable to make welfareconditional. When society has to step in andprovide for those who've proved themselvesunable to provide for themselves that shouldreasonably create certain expectations on thepart of those being helped. In almost everyaspect of life, money is given in return for aproduct, service or behavior. It is the same withwelfare payments; money in exchange forchildren being put in school. We expect parentsto do a good job in their role as parents.Ensuring that their children attend school is acrucial part of parental responsibility. Children onwelfare in the US are 2 times more likely to dropout of school, however studies have shown thatchildren who are part of early childhoodeducation are more likely to finish school andremain independent of welfare1. Thus, when aparent is a welfare recipient, it is entirelyreasonable to make it conditional on sendingtheir kids to school. If tax payers' dollars arebeing spent on those who cannot provide for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Requiring school attendance allows welfare to bethe hand-up that it is meant to be, and keepchildren out of crime. In the US, girls who growup in families receiving welfare handouts are 3times more likely to receive welfare themselveswithin three years of having their first child thangirls who's families were never on welfare1.Children living in poverty were 2 times morelikely to have grade repetition and drop out ofhigh school and 3.1 times more likely to havechildren out of wedlock as teenagers2. They are2.2 times more likely to experience violentcrimes. Children of welfare recipients are morelikely to end up on welfare themselves. Welfareshould be a hand up, not a handout that leads todependency on the state. It is the latter if we areonly leading people to fall into the same trap astheir parents. Education is the way to break thevicious cycle. Through education, children willacquire the skills and qualifications they need inorder to obtain gainful employment once theyreach adulthood, and overcome their condition.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Yet if kids aren't going to school anyway itdoesn't matter if the schools are inadequate.Getting kids in schools is the first step toimproving the education situation and thedropout rate. As long as we look at the educationsystem in the US and around the world as dismaland overwhelming, nothing will change.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is nothing that says the two are mutuallyexclusive. Linking welfare to school attendancecould be instituted next to other reforms thatoverall would create greater incentives forchildren to do well in school.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Connecting welfare to failure of parents isunfair. This policy requires that parents be heldaccountable and punished for the actions of theirchildren. It suggests that their failure in instillinggood values is because they care less thanmiddle-class, educated parents. That is a broadand stereotypical assumption. Such parents,many of whom are single mothers, find it harderto instill good values in their children becausethey live in corrupt environments, surrounded bynegative influences[1]. They should be aided andsupported, not punished for an alleged failure.Just encouraging putting children in schools doesnot recognize the larger problems. Some familiescannot control their children, who would rathermake money than go to school. And caps on thenumber of children these programs can apply to,as is the case in Brazil, creates problems as wellfor the families[2]. People are doing their best,but the environment is difficult. Providing saferand more low income housing could be a solutionversus punishing people for what is sometimes", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "It is unjust to make welfare conditional Welfareshould not be used as a tool of socialengineering. These are people who cannotprovide even basic necessities for their families.Asking them to take on obligations bythreatening to take away their food is notrequiring them to be responsible, it's extortion. Itis not treating them as stakeholders and equalpartners in a discussion about benefits andresponsibilities, but trying to condition them intodoing what the rest of society thinks is good forthem and their families. There is a differencebetween an incentive and coercion. An incentivefunctions on the premise that the persontargeted is able to refuse it. These people haveno meaningful choice between 'the incentive' orgoing hungry. This policy does not respectpeople's basic dignity. There is no conditionattached to healthcare and Medicaid that sayspeople have to eat healthily or stop smoking, sowhy should welfare be conditional? Allowingthem and their children to go without food if they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "School does not an education make Schoolattendance is not a positive outcome in and ofitself. It should be encouraged only if it isconducive to learning and acquiring themeaningful education needed to break out of thepoverty trap. Blaming the poverty cycle on kidsfailing to attend school ignores the fact thatschools are failing children. Public schools areoften overcrowded, with poor facilities andlacking the resources necessary to teach childrenwith challenging backgrounds. In 2011, 80% ofAmerica's schools could be considered failingaccording to Arne Duncan who is the secretary ofeducation1. Schools in developing countriesoften lack qualified teachers, and can suffer fromvery high staff absenteeism rates2. A moreeffective school system would result in fewer kidsdropping out, not the other way around.Additionally, involved parents are integral toeffective education3. Simply blackmailing themwith money to do the right thing will not work. Infact, you might actually experience backlash", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There should be rewards for success in school,versus punishment for failure to attend. Thisproblem could be addressed by subsidizingschool supplies or rewarding good attendancerecords with additional cash. Cutting benefits willonly hurt the children we are trying to help, withtheir families deprived of the resources to feedthem or care for them. Free breakfast programsin the US feed 10.1 million children every day1.Providing meals, mentors, programs that supportand help students are ways to help them getalong better in schools. There are already 14million children in the US that go hungry, and600 million children worldwide that are living onless than a dollar a day2. Why punish thosefamilies that have trouble putting their kids inschool, which only hurts those children more?There should be rewards for good grades, andreduction to the cost of school and above allprograms so that children don't have to sit inschool hungry and confused. 1 United StatesDepartment of Agriculture, \"The School Breakfast", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is perfectly just to ask people to adjustbehavior in exchange for funds. In fact, if the taxpayers' dollars were being poured into anunchanging situation that would be unfair andunproductive. For a long time the US, andcountries around the world, have struggled withmaking welfare a program that can lift peopleup. Connecting it to schools can help children.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeeghbpw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "If families have incentives to send their childrento school, and raise their children with a value ofeducation, stressing the need for them to go toschool they are more likely to finish high schooland lift themselves out of these environments.The reason why some children would rather workthen go to school is because they have beenraised in an atmosphere that does not stresseducation and the necessity to finish high school.This type of program would push parents tochange their children's values as they grow up.Additionally, a child's sense of duty to theirfamily because of welfare payments beingconnected to their school attendance would givethem further reason not to drop out, even if theydo not like or value school.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "One needs to differentiate between mature,developed, but indebted economies like the US,the UK, and developing, cash-rich economies likethe BRICs. Their share of the world economymight be increasing, but they would be betterserved investing their money in infrastructureand development, not in the IMF. Only then theymight be on par with the developed nations andcomparing quotas might become appropriate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Under representation of emergingeconomies Claims that power within the IMF isdistributed according to the reality of themembers’ weight in the global financial systemare inaccurate. The IMF reflects the financialsystem as it was 50 years ago and has done littleto acknowledge the growth of countries likeBrazil, Russia, India, and China (BRICs), whichhave far fewer votes than their economic heftmerits, while Western countries like Belgium areactually overrepresented [1] . Significant reformsto the voting quotas need to be implemented inorder to create an IMF that is true to the realityof the world financial system. [1] -- “Wanted: aFrench Revolution”. The Economist. June 30,2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "That is an argument for reforming the economicfoundations and philosophy of the IMF, notnecessarily its governance. One cannot simplyconflate the leadership of Western nations withneoliberal policies. Keynesianism is also awestern economic doctrine. Maybe the IMFshould be encouraged to adopt it in some cases.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Unbalanced decision making The decisions takenby the IMF have a deep impact on the entireglobal financial system and on developingcountries in particular, whose economies areespecially sensitive to global changes. Yet, theWestern, developed countries have the greatestsway in the decision-making process, withdeveloping countries having little influence overthe process. It creates an unjust financial worldorder, where rich and powerful countries call theshots and smaller, poorer ones bear theconsequences [1] . [1] Foot, Rosemary;Mcfarlane Neil; Mastadundo Michael. USHegemony in International Organizations. OxfordPublishing Online, November 2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The primary function of the IMF has now becomethat of a lender of last resort [1] . It keepsgovernments that are on the cusps of a default,solvent. Membership in the IMF is optional, as isborrowing from the fund. Countries only have todo what the IMF tells them when they take itsmoney. Western countries get to have moresway because they bring in the greatest financialcontributions to the Fund. It’s not unfair,therefore, for them to be allowed to placeconditions on how their money will be used bythose who choose to borrow it. [1] Bihide Amar;Phelps Edmund. “More Harm than Good”. TheDaily Beast. July 11, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "You don’t need to experience food shortages tounderstand the importance of food. The IMFposition, however, is that financial stability is aprecursor for long-term growth and prosperity.Therefore, in the short term, balancing budgetsmight take precedence over any other legitimateconcerns countries might have, like subsidisingfarming to maintain low food prices.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Neoliberal foreign policy Western dominanceleads to economic policies and loan conditionsrooted in neoliberal economic principles, likeausterity measures, which overemphasizecutting public spending. These often actually endup badly hurting developing economies,increasing inequalities and poverty (Malawi is aprominent example) [1] . Argentina’s economiccollapse attests to that [2] . [1] Hari, Johann.“It’s not just Dominique Strauss-Kahn. The IMFitself should be on trial”. The Independent. June3, 2011. [2] -- “Economic debacle in Argentina:The IMF strikes again”.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "IMF-led policies' Impact on access to food andhealthcare Since Western countries do not sufferfrom food shortages, they do not understandhow vital food and access to healthcare is forsurvival in the developing world. The IMF treatsfood and healthcare in its policies just like anyother commodity on the market, sometimes withdisastrous humanitarian consequences [1] . [1]Oxfam. “Death on the Doorstep of the Summit”.Oxfam Briefing Paper. 2002", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Member countries can not unilaterally increasetheir quotas8. So even if a country, like theBRICs became rich enough to afford buying abigger share, it would be in the interest ofWestern nations to block such a move to retainthe power under the status quo. Westerncountries are still, rightfully, dominant players.But they hold disproportionate sway over theFund. Important decisions within the IMF requirean 85% supermajority of the total voting quota.The US alone holds 17%, while EU members hold32% [1] . Effectively, the US is the only countryin the world with veto rights at the IMF. Even ifall the other countries were in agreement over acertain proposal, the US could unilaterally blockit. That is a clear example of just how dominatedthe IMF is by the West. [1] Wikipedia. “IMFArticle. Memers’ quotas and voting powers”.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con01b", "title": "", "text": "As vocal as developing countries have beenabout the need for a change in leadership at theIMF, they have often failed to come up withviable alternatives to European candidates andrecently, when given the opportunity, they failedto rally around Christine Lagarde’s (the new MD)only serious competitor: Mexico’s AgustínCarstens3.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Capitalism and a guiding principle of IMF policymaking Capitalism as guiding principle: At itscore, the IMF is a capitalist, financial institution,not an exercise in proportional representationand democracy, and it has to function on thatpremise. Drastic changes in the quota systemsthat would see the West ceding control of theinstitution, would not be based on the reality ofthe financial system, but on a political desire tomake the institution more representative. Such amove would hurt its efficiency.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Gradual and abrupt change To paint the IMF aswestern dominated and unresponsive to shifts inthe global financial order is inaccurate. The IMFis gradually accommodating the growing stanceof emerging economies like China throughreforms to its quota system [1] . Also, amongthe countries with the 10 biggest quotas areJapan (no 2), China, Saudi Arabia and Russia8.The reality is that Western economies stillrepresent the biggest players in the worldfinancial system and any change in theirleadership of the IMF should come gradually,with the potential change in status within theworld economy. There is no reason why theyshould abruptly relinquish leadership of theFund. [1] Arnott, Sarah. “Emerging EconomiesBattle for More Voting Rights at the IMF”. TheIndependent. September 28, 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Western states as large scaleshareholders Western countries are the biggestcontributors to the IMF. They bring in the mostmoney and, until recently, have rarely requiredloans from the institution themselves. In anybusiness, the biggest shareholders get to havethe most say in the decision-making process.The IMF should not be different.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The role of managing director For its entireexistence, the managing director of the IMF hasalways been European. This has createdconsiderable discontent within the developingworld, with developing countries feelingdisenfranchised and, therefore, less likely totrust and cooperate with the Fund [1] . [1]Musoko, Chipo. “Why IMF boss will not comefrom the Continent”. All Africa. May 23, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Precisely because Europe is now the IMF’sbiggest client, its MD should not come fromEurope. Questions about the independence aEuropean in such a position are already beingraised, with some pointing to the fact that thefund has been much more generous with theEuropean PIGS than with any of its previousclients. A non-European MD would maintain theFund’s credibility and integrity [1] . [1] -- “TimeFor a Change: While a euro-zone financeminister, even a talented one, should not leadthe IMF”. The Economist. May 26, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fiaghwewsco-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Unbridled capitalism is not a viable response. Abalance has to be struck between economicinterests and political imperatives. The IMF isalso a political institution, not a private bank. Itsmoney comes from countries, and therefore theIMF should be accountable to its member statesthat pay for its very existence. That means amore representative balance of power within thegovernance of the institution.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There remains a danger of not learning from pastmistakes. Forced evictions are unlawful, andhave minimal benefits in terms of humandevelopment [1] . Evictions only show thenatural path of the lawless nature of capitalism.Within capitalism, public space becomesprivatised over time in order to enable thecreation, and circulation, of profits. Cities aresocial spaces, and therefore need to be designedfor, and around, people not profits. Evictionsdispossess of their land, livelihoods, and homes;while the city is redesigned for investors, theelite, and footloose companies. Socialdevelopment and security needs to be seen asthe natural path of development. Further,comparatively, the context of African citiesdiffers to that of Europe and the US. [1] Formore information see further readings: UnitedNations Human Development Reports.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Forced evictions are a natural path ofdevelopment. Forced evictions have occurredglobally across time, they show the naturalprogression of development. Cases acrossEurope and the USA show evictions were afeature of cities and urbanisation in the past.London experienced numerous ‘slum clearances’from the 18th to the 20th Century, one suchclearance was the building of the Metropolitanrailway to the City which destroyed the slumsaround Farringdon and forced relocation of5-50,000 people from 1860-4. [1] Firstly, asmodernisation theory shows transition occurs associety progresses from ‘traditional’ to an ‘age ofmass consumption’. Evictions often occur whereinhabitants may not have the legal titles tooccupy land. Evictions enable the transition fromcommunities who occupy land based ontraditional laws and beliefs to the emergence of arefined legal system. Secondly, developmentcan only progress once new land becomesavailable - investment requires space. Therefore", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Forced evictions are not solutions as thosedisplaced will simply build new shanty towns so itwill not stop rapid growth. They fail to tackleunderlying issues across African cities - such asthe lack of access to adequate housing, services,and bad governance.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Forced evictions pave the road for African citiesto set a trend towards Eco-Cities. A keycharacter of global cities are the globalconnections made. Whether financial, economic,political, or cultural - global cities become afundamental hub providing key resources. Forcedevictions provide space in overcrowded,unorganised, cities whereby new architectureand districts can be built, and new trends set.Forced evictions provide spaces for new financialdistricts and beautiful cities to emerge acrossAfrica. Recently plans have been set toimplement 'Eco' projects across African cities.Proposed projects include the Konza Techno City,Nairobi; Eko Atlantic, Lagos; HOPE, Ghana; andKampala Tower, Kampala, as part of the VenusProject.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Forced evictions are necessary to changeperceptions. Western media and institutionsoften present an image of 'Africa' which fails tounderstand the reality, and continues to position'Africa' as the 'other', 'unknown', and in need ofassistance. Cities across Africa are anopportunity to change this idea of Africa. Forcedevictions enable local, and national, governmentsto redesign African cities. Taking the case ofSouth Africa forced evictions, in cities, have beencentral in promoting its new image. In 2010,South Africa hosted the FIFA World Cup.Stadiums were built in Johannesburg, CapeTown, and Durban and provided the internationalcommunity an opportunity to see the beauty ofSouth Africa and confirm its ability to deliver as aBRIC country. Evictions occurred to create anaesthetic city, for the greater good. The evictionswere only a small cost in the broader scale,whereby a better city would be built for all toenjoy, employment created, and touristsattracted [1] . [1] Although accurate figures of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It remains questionable whether the FIFA WorldCup has been a success for South Africa, and forthe majority of South Africa's citizens. The costsof forced evictions have outweighed the benefitsin the international arena. The publicised natureof evictions across South Africa, in the build upto FIFA 2010, highlighted a negative image ofurban planning in Africa and the unresolvedissues of equality and rights. Forced evictionshave resulted in the loss of architectural heritagefor new builds, homelessness, and thepublication of communities living withoutfreedom to rights. The Western CapeAnti-Eviction Campaign is a clear example. Thesocial movement gained momentum to exposethe undemocratic world poor communities live inand fight evictions. The communities wererelocated into 'Tin Can Towns' and 'TransitCamps'. [1] The negativity raised will have futurerepercussions. [1] For more information seefurther readings: Smith (2010) and War on Want(2013).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Since 2000, over 2mn experienced forcedevictions in Nigeria [1] . Recent plans toimplement the Eko Atlantic project along Lagos’coastline has been designed with an intention forreducing emissions, protecting the vulnerabilityof Victoria Island to climate change, andpromoting sustainable development. However,an exclusive landscape has been planned -targeting commuters, financial industries, andtourists. The need to include quotas for providingadequate housing or public services has beenneglected. Furthermore, the designs present theconstruction of exclusive open spaces. Informalworkers, such as street traders, will becomeunwelcome, destroying livelihoods. [1] COHRE,2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The idea of promoting a ‘slum-free’ environmentis often used to justify evictions. However, forjust urban planning, alternative methods need tobe used. On the one hand, cases show how slumupgrading can be achieved through communityorganisations and the provision of tenuresecurity. Organisations such as AbahlaliBaseMjondolo and Muungano wa Wanavijiji arepositive examples. On another hand, the MasterPlan’s [1] , justifying evictions, are wrong.Exclusive spaces are created as the newdevelopments cater to elites and the right tohealth becomes accessible by a minority.Additionally, slums persist as forced evictionshave a different agenda. Slum-dwellers aremerely relocated to new settlements, with poorsanitation, inaccessible, andinsecure. Furthermore, in the case of Kenya’s2030 Vision, a number of cases indicate tensionsare emerging. Rights over land, and thereforewho receives compensation, are contested. Slumdwellers are given little warning on when the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Forced evictions are a means to control rapidurbanisation and gain global city status. Africa isundergoing rapid urbanisation of 3.5% per year(by comparison China’s is only2.3%). [1] Withthe rising number of ‘Megacities’ [2] acrossAfrica, the government need to introducemethods to control the sprawling nature of citiesand create a sense of order. Mega, and Million,cities have become a representation of Africa’surban future. Urbanisation in Africa is occurringmuch faster than the governments are able tocope with. As Mike Davis (2007) suggests Africannations showcase a new type of city - a city ofslums, decay, and prevailing revolution. Thegovernment need to take more control toeffectively build future cities and define the pathof urbanisation. [1] Worldstat info, 2013 [2]‘Megacities’ are defined as cities with over 10million inhabitants (Wikipedia, 2013).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Forced evictions will create cities without slumsin the long-run. Slums and informal settlementsneed upgrading; and the percentage of slumsremains highest in Sub-Saharan Africa [1] whereslums can be up to 72% of the urban population.[2] Slums are unhealthy spaces - spaces wheredisease festers, there is limited access tosanitation and services, and overcrowdingpresents a squalid environment. Forced evictionsare an effective urban planning tool to buildhealthier cities. Residents need to be evicted toenable infrastructure to be built (i.e. roads,lighting, sewage), and services constructed (i.e.hospitals and schools). Evictions enable ahealthier environment and homes to be built inthe process of redevelopment, beneficial forinhabitants in the long-run. This has been themotive of Kenya Vision 2030 [3] which aims toprovide access to adequate housing and a secureenvironment for urban dwellers. In upgradingslums, such as Kibera, the first stage requiredrelocating residents in Kibera to multiple sites", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Forced evictions are following, and imposing, thelaw. A heavy hand is need for rights to begranted to all in the future. A majority ofinformal settlements are also illegal, future citiesin Africa need to be built on a sense of legalityand law.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Slums and informal settlements are constrainingAfrican cities from becoming global players.Space needs to be cleared and new investorsattracted, which will bring positive development.As a result of Johannesburg’s global status,Johannesburg’s Stock Exchange has continued togrow and improve [1] . Exchange Square, inJohannesburg, shows what African cities need tobecome. To become integrated into theglobal-economy city space, and priorities, needto be redesigned. [1] See Johannesburg StockExchange (2011), whereby classified as first forregulation of security exchanges.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Forced evictions are political landgrabbing. Politics justifies, and legitimises,forced evictions. Previous cases across Africancities [1] show how ethnicity, race, and politicalparty preferences, are heavily embedded in theprocess. Inhabitants may have legal rights tooccupy land - however, as in the case of the1990 Muoroto demolition in Kenya [2] , ‘legalrights’ were trumped by ethnic tribalism andinter-party competition. Further, a majority ofAfrican cities are built informally, therefore whatcan be defined as illegal? Forced evictions will failwhere entire cities are built on a state ofinformality. [1] Examples include: Zimbabwe(Operation Murambatsvina), Kenya, SouthAfrica, Tanzania, Nigeria, Ghana. [2] See furtherreadings: Klopp, 2008; and Ocheje, 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The housing crisis is unresolved by forcedevictions. Across African cities there is a housingcrisis - whereby there is a mismatch betweenhousing demand and supply. Kigali, capital ofRwanda, for example needs to build half a millionnew homes. [1] As evictions continue the crisis isbeing exacerbated. Evictions displace individualsby destroying homes; are forcing lives’ to berebuilt; and cause a rise in homelessness. Inaddition, in cases whereby resettlement housingis provided issues emerge. The new locations ofresettlement show the crisis is unresolved.Residents are rehoused into unsanitary areas,areas far from employment opportunities, and onundesired land. Slums, and informal settlements,will continue to re-emerge in new locations assolutions are not being provided. Residents areforced out of central locations without beingprovided with an effective, affordable, alternativereplacement. Alternatives need to be introducedand considered. [1] Agutamba, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Denying individuals rights to the citycommons. Forced evictions create an exclusivecity. The process of evictions means individualsare targeted, and criminalised, particularly thepoor. The right to the city - to use the city, live inthe city, and build the city - is denied to the poorand criminalised. Such denials have implicationsfor the livelihood strategies of the poor. Forexample, in the case of Johannesburg, SouthAfrica, informal street traders have been evictedfrom using open, public space within the citycentre. Such spaces are their means ofemployment, and as Abahlali Base Mjondoloshow, the evictions represent a denial of legaland human rights [1] . [1] Abahlali BaseMjondolo are a movement of shack-dwellersbased in Durban and operating across SouthAfrica. Updated articles are provided.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Forced evictions are inhumane, and make stateviolence an increasing reality in Africancities. Forced evictions are unjust and reflect athreat to human rights. By carrying out suchevents, the state has become a key actorenforcing violence, fear and insecurity to thosewhom remain in need of protection [1] . InLuanda, Angola, where 18 mass evictions havebeen noted between 2002-2006 by the HumanRights Watch [2] , individuals have been killedand imprisoned in the process. Intimidation bythe state and government officials becomes adangerous norm; and inhabitants are not treatedas humans. [1] Amnesty InternationalCampaign. [2] Human Rights Watch, 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-con05b", "title": "", "text": "Forced evictions are needed to resolve the crisis.The crisis is emerging not out of a mismatchbetween supply and demand, but rather a lack ofspace and the inefficient use of space available.Plans need to be followed for housing to meetneed, and evictions ensure such ambitions canbe achieved. Evictions provide space to buildhousing effectively. Take the newly proposedKigali City Plan 2040 [1] . 34,000 affordablehomes will be built, in estates, for differentsocioeconomic groups. Space and organisedplanning - based on evictions - are essential toachieve this. [1] See further readings:Nuwagira, 2013; and Kigali City Plan 2040.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "African cities should not aim for ‘global city’status. There is debate as to the extent to whichAfrica is experiencing rapid urbanisation. Datashows that across several countries inSub-Saharan Africa, in reality, urbanisation isslowing or static [1] . A process ofcounter-urbanisation is occurring as a result ofreturn migration and fictitious data. The politicaldiscourse of Africa’s rapid urbanisation andMegacities promotes unjustified dangerousintervention, such as forced evictions. Africancities are unique, and need to promote analternative image to define their status. Adifferent brand and image of global city status isrequired, rather than following the currentdefinition. The current definition fails torecognise the diversity of what cities do. Thedefinition of global cities introduces a criteria tofollow, and forces conformity in cities worldwide.Mega cities are not negative but have beenconstructed as being so. There remains a dangerof following a path towards 'worlding' cities: who", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Evictions show the government are recognisingresidents as holding rights and entitlements -rights to live in a safe environment, rights to ahome, and rights to sanitary conditions. TheMillenium Development Goals will be met as aresult of such policies - ensuring environmentalsustainability, reducing child mortality,improving maternal health, and combatingdiseases [1] . [1] UN MDGs, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfihb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Within cities land grabbing is a myth. A numberof cases shown as political land-grabbing andrent-seeking are misrepresented, andmisunderstood. Difficulties remain in definingwhat is a land grab and the extent of which thestate, and politics, are involved in landspeculations. The media coverage of evictions inMogadishu showcase the myth and hyperbolesurrounding African politics and evictions. Thegovernment are entitled to reclaim land andreform it for public use [1] . [1] See BBC News(2013) for full debate, whereby MohammedYusuf, an Official at Mogadishu City, defends theeviction.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeghwrar-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The change to remittances may or may notbenefit the countries themselves. It is likely thatremittances will go directly to individuals.Rwanda may have managed to persuadeRwandans in foreign countries to put money intoits sovereign wealth fund but this will often notbe an option or individuals will not want to giveto their government rather than their families.Most of the time the government will be less welloff.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeghwrar-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Provides autonomy for developingcountries Rwanda has been trying to increasethe size of remittances in order to increase itsautonomy. The President Paul Kagame has said“aid is never enough and we need tocomplement it with homegrown schemes toaccelerate growth.” He wants “a higher level ofdirect ownership in the nation’s projects” andwants it because western donors had suspendedaid. [1] A change to remittances would reducethis vulnerability; it would be much more difficultfor ‘donors’ to suspend the tax breaks theyprovide for remittances to individual countriesthan it is to cut aid. Indeed remittances arenoticeably stable with money still being senthome during recessions and can even becountercyclical as migrants will send more if theyknow things are bad back home. [2] This thentakes the issue out of the hands of the politiciansand puts it into the hands of the people. [1]Procost, Claire, ‘Rwanda seeks diasporainvestment to cut reliance on foreign aid’, global", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeghwrar-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Remittances are of course an excellent way ofreducing poverty for those who receive them;more broadly however they are unlikely to besuccessful. Money sent back as remittances areunlikely to be used to target the developmentneeds of the nation so it will not be creating thebasis of sustainable growth in the future.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeghwrar-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Remittances creates freedom of choice forindividuals Changing from ODA to Remittancesis good for freedom of choice in two ways. Firsttax breaks and other incentives will mean thatmigrants have more money. It will clearly be upto the migrant to decide if they want to or canafford to send their money home; they candecide how much they want to send, when theywant to end it, how they want to send it etc. Atthe other end it will be up to the individualrecipient to decide how they want to spend themoney received. Secondly it is good for thefreedom of choice of the taxpayer. At themoment they are having their choice taken awayfrom them as they have their own money beingspent by the government on someone else;foreign countries. The individual taxpayer seesnone of the benefit of this money and often theydon’t like paying so much aid, 59% of Americanssupport cutting aid. [1] [1] Newport, Frank, andSaad, Lydia, ‘Americans Oppose Cuts inEducation, Social Security, Defense’, Gallup", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeghwrar-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This creates freedom of choice for the donor, butat the same time takes it away from therecipient. Recipients, whether governments orNGOs, will no longer have the money to spend.They will no longer be able to target that fundingtowards those areas that need it most insteadthe money will bypass them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeghwrar-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Remittances reduce poverty There has been alot of concern that aid, particularly fromgovernments and international organisations,does not always help reduce poverty; it mightsimply create dependence, or it prevents localenterprise. Dambisa Moyo points out that“Between 1970 and 1998, when aid flows toAfrica were at their peak, poverty in Africa rosefrom 11% to a staggering 66%”. [1] Remittanceson the other hand can be very beneficial; theyprovide the money needed to start enterprises,and they are showing that the community is notdependent as its members have taken theinitiative to go and find work. Remittances havea statistically significant impact on reducingpoverty. In 2005 the World Bank suggested thata 10% increase in per capita internationalremittances will lead to a 3.5% decline in theshare of people living in poverty. [2]Governments should therefore change from themethod that is failing to one that is moresuccessful at reducing poverty. [1] Edemariam,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeghwrar-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While developed countries may be making itmore financially attractive to come to them towork and send back remittances in practice theyare unlikely to actually allow more immigrantsinto their countries. Secondly the brain drain isnot all negative for the countries concerned;migrants may return home with new skills, andconsiderably more money to invest and createnew businesses. It is also likely that many ofthose who go abroad would not have found jobsat home, particularly if highly skilled as thedeveloping country has few jobs available forpeople with their skills, so would have been adrain rather than a benefit to the economy nomatter their skill level. It should also beremembered that the costs of educating theseskilled workers will be paid all the faster due toincreases in remittances – a study of Ghanaianmigrants found that the cost of education ofemigrants was paid 5.6 times over byremittances. [1] [1] Economics focus, ‘Drain orgain’, The Economist, 26 May 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeghwrar-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Of course not all aid is ending, it will simply fallto aid agencies and charities to provide for thevery poorest rather than governments. These aidagencies will no longer need to help out thosewho are getting remittances so will have more tospend on the poorest. There may even be anincrease in individual donations in rich countriesto provide aid when individuals realise their taxdollars are no longer being spend on aid so theymay feel the responsibility to do somethingthemselves, something that giving through thegovernment shields us from.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeghwrar-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Remittances won’t be focused on developmentwork Official development aid is spent onprojects that will help encourage long termgrowth for poor countries, for example buildingschools and hospitals. These benefit theeducation and health of the recipient country.Remittances on the other hand are most likely tobe spent on day to day needs such as food andclothing. [1] The money may also be spent onschooling and health but it would be on theindividual level rather than infrastructure so doesnot increase the overall capacity of thecountry. [1] Julca, Alex, ‘Can remittancessupport development finance in developingcountries?’ un.org, 2012, p.8", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeghwrar-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Encourages a brain drain Any change from aidto remittances is going to create a brain drainbecause it will encourage working abroad. Ifdeveloped countries governments are going toprovide tax breaks or top up money forremittances then it becomes more attractive towork abroad and send back remittances becausethey can earn and send back more. The braindrain is the migration of skilled workers fromdeveloping countries to more developedcountries. This happens because the more skilledthe worker the more in demand their skills areand the more likely they are to know about andhave the ability to move to work elsewhere. Thisis a concerns developing countries because itmeans their investment in the future; througheducation often benefits developed countriesrather than themselves. Africa for example lost60,000 professionals between 1985 and 1990.[1] In total Africa has lost a third of its humancapital. This loss of human capital will mean thatthe countries affected do not have the capacity", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeghwrar-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Money won’t go to where it is needed most. Aidgoes where it is needed, remittances don’t.Development aid is able to be focused on thosewho need it most, the poorest, those who areunable to grow their own crops etc. Sub-SaharanAfrica gets $28bln in ODA or 20.9% of aid [1]whereas only $60bln or 11.5% of remittancesgoes to Africa. [2] Clearly therefore Africa wouldbe proportionally losing out. It is notable that itis middle income countries that get mostremittances, the per capital level of remittancesreceived tends to increase until that country hasan income of about $2200 before falling back.[3] There would be a similar problem withdirecting aid within nations. Remittances will goto the family of the person who is sending themoney regardless of whether they really needthis extra money. It is likely that many of thevery poorest will be those who do not havefamily members who have been able to migratefor work and send back money, these peoplewould be left in a much worse position without", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeghwrar-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This is to ignore the influence of remittances onthe market. Of course ODA may build a school,but it is just as likely to make something that thedonor country believes the recipient needs whenit does not in fact need that investment. Moneybeing sent home and then invested in anindividual’s information will help signal to themarket that there is greater need for educationalfacilities and so someone will build a school whenthere is enough demand.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeshwimra-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Employers’ reluctance to hire older staff andattempts to remove aging staff from payrolls canboth be addressed more efficiently via the freemarket. It is true that employer-providedpension plans are beginning to falter under theburden of an increasingly long-lived work force.However, this only serves to illustrate the flawsin employee benefit schemes of this type. Thestate should not attempt to prop up a method ofsocial welfare provision that is clearly ill suited tocurrent trends in the labour market. Long termemployment with particular firms, and especiallyjobs-for-life, are dwindling. If individual workerswere incentivised or obliged to obtain their ownhealth insurance, and to set up their ownpension plans, the burden of doing so would beshifted away from employers. Demand andconsumer preference would dictate the price atwhich these services were delivered, reducingthe overall cost of obtaining health insurance orpaying into a pension pot. Employers would nolonger be required to assess potential employees", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeshwimra-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Maintaining access to pension and healthcareplans Creating a mandatory retirement ageensures that businesses will be able to maintainemployees’ pension plans and healthcareschemes. In many liberal democracies thatoperate without centralised, governmentsponsored welfare systems, the support providedby employers’ insurance systems is the onlymeans of obtaining hospital care or a retirementincome for a large number of working ageindividuals. Many firms also offer so-calleddefined benefit pension plans to their workers.Pensions of this type guarantee that a worker willreceive a certain, regular level of income onretirement – an amount calculated according to afixed formula that takes account of anemployee’s salary and the length of their servicewith a company. As the Ford motor companyattempted to do in 2010, many firms will attemptto remove older employees who show no desireto retire of their own volition. The older anemployee is at the point of retirement, the more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeshwimra-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Dismantling gerontocracies A mandatoryretirement age creates increased opportunitiesfor younger workers, especially in higher rankingjobs. There is no need to apply a universalretirement age will across every sector of theeconomy. Different retirement ages can reflectthe differing demands of particular jobs. The jobperformance of fighter pilots or surgeons maysuffer as a result of the creeping debilityuniformly associated with aging – a processknown as senescence. Individuals in theseoccupations are usually compelled to retireearlier than the general population. However,there is one factor that justifies both collectiveadjustment of existing mandatory retirementages, and the imposition of mandatoryretirement ages on jobs that do not becomesignificantly harder or riskier as workers age.The absence of mandatory retirement maycreate gerontocracies – businesses that promoteemployees according to their seniority. Theleadership of gerontocratic businesses and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeshwimra-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is justifiable, in the interests of public safetyand the reputation of key professions, to compelindividuals to retire from jobs that are dependenton high levels of physical or mental health.However, proposition’s attempt to depart fromthe status quo is deeply flawed. The propositionside seem to be presenting an argument infavour of a better regulated wage market and abetter constructed corpus of employment law.Neither of these flaws in the status quo would beadequately addressed by the resolution.Moreover, forcibly excluding older individualsfrom the labour market could harm productivityof the state’s economy by increasing the timeand cost of training new workers, and reducingthe breadth of skills and expertise available toemployers. Japan is frequently cited as anexample of the harm that a “seniority-wagesystem” can do to both corporate accountabilityand innovation. The flaws of this approach toremuneration are not causally linked to the ageof the individuals that a firm chooses to employ,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeshwimra-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is equally naïve to assume that professionaleducation can only be delivered effectively by anage-based hierarchy. A more dynamic approachto the division of labour within the professionscould eliminate an overreliance on seniority-ledtraining and professional development. Forexample, both the UK and the USA drawmembers of their respective judiciaries from theranks of lawyers and barristers. These individualsreceive relatively little formal training, with thestate relying on legal professionals’ prolongedcontact and interaction with other judges toprovide aspirant members of the judiciary withan understanding of their role and duties.Consequently, barristers and advocates maypractice for decades before they are regarded ashaving accumulated sufficient experience to takeup a place on the bench. This reduces the totalnumber of judges able to oversee cases and,consequently, reduces the number of cases thata court system can process. Many Europeanjurisdictions, by contrast, do not require judges", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeshwimra-con01b", "title": "", "text": "As stated in side proposition’s first argument, theage at which retirement becomes mandatory canbe flexible. The state will always be able to raiseor lower the retirement age in response todemographic factors, such as the rate at whichdiseases of senescence begin to appear in thegeneral population. Spain [i] and France [ii] havealready passed laws raising the age at whichindividuals can qualify for a state pension.Proposition side’s arguments do not run contraryto this type of action. If the general fitness,wellbeing and life expectancy of the populationincreases, the age of retirement can be raised inresponse. An increase in the retirement age canbe made relative to a population’s averagelifespan. If an adult’s working life is extended,then the amount of time that they spend payingtax will also be extended. This increase in taxincome will offset some of the financial burdenassociated with an increasingly long-livedpopulation. Moreover, as opposition point out,advances in treatments for diseases linked to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeshwimra-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Maintain the diversity of the labourmarket Compelling retirement at a set agereduces the diversity of the labour market. Theadvantages of employing older workers areincreasingly being recognised. Higher levels ofexperience, training and education make for amore adept, reliable employee and lower trainingcosts. Loyalty is increasingly becoming acharacteristic of older workers; a well-knownstudy conducted by Warwick University in 1989observed the effect of staffing a branch of a largeBritish retailer exclusively with individuals agedfifty or over. The study’s supervisors noted thatstaff turnover at the store was six times lowerthan- accounting for statistical controls- than thestudy’s chosen comparator. Profits, meanwhile,increased by 18% and the store staff were foundto have a much wider skill base than average.[i] These trends are a marked contrast to thebehaviours that are coming to dominate the restof the working age population. Indeed, given theincreasing uptake of university degrees and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeshwimra-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Professional roles and professional knowledge Itis naïve to assume- as side proposition do intheir opening argument- that standards ofinnovation, knowledge and insight will improvewithin a business simply because it is compelledto hire younger workers. This is especially true ofthe professions – jobs and businesses thatservice pressing social needs tightly regulate theknowledge and conduct of their members and,typically, require them to continually maintain,revise and update their knowledge and skills. Inmany professional roles expertise and mastery ofthe skills underlying the job itself take anunavoidably long time to achieve. Judges in theUK have to have held legal qualifications for fiveto seven years, [i] consulting physicians forwhich it takes twelve years to get the relevantqualifications and training, [ii] architects andmaster craftsmen are all as much a product ofexperience and practice as they are educationand investment. Implicit in the cost advantage ofhiring a young professional is the knowledge that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeshwimra-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Western workers are remaining healthier forlonger The populations of almost all wealthywestern liberal democracies are aging. Quitesimply, individual citizens are living longer.Throughout the EU the number of individuals ofworking age is likely to drop from the 2010figure of 305m to 286m in 2030. Concurrently,the number of EU citizens aged over 65 will riseto 142m [i] . Compelling retirement simplyincreases the economic burden that pensionersplace on the state. An aging population increasesthe ratio of dependent individuals to workingindividuals within a state. A mandatoryretirement age is an arbitrary and unnecessarymeasure which exacerbates this problem. Theresolution also fails to take account of the factthat life expectancies throughout most of thewestern world are rising. The life expectancy of a65 year old American male is now 17.52 years.The life expectancy of a 70 Japanese female hasreached 19 years [ii] . Advances and health careand improvements in living standards have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epeshwimra-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Diversity within the labour market is lessimportant than inclusiveness. States are lesslikely to implement schemes that will allowindividuals from disadvantaged socio economicbackgrounds to obtain expensive forms ofvocational or higher education if thoseindividuals will be prevented from putting theirskills to use by an obstructive gerontocracy. Theexistence of subsidised university places, schoolvouchers and government sponsored internshipsand apprenticeships depend on economicdemand for skilled workers. Without amandatory retirement age providing apredictable degree of attrition within aworkforce, there is no guarantee that sociallyinclusive education policies will increase thenumber of young adults entering the workplace.Correspondingly, it will become increasinglyunlikely that governments will be willing tocontinue funding inclusive education. Why shouldthe state continue to subsidise the teaching ofskills that will go unused and eventually", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsfhwpusss-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Nobel Laureate economist Paul Krugman. Arguedin 2004 that: “Social Security is a governmentprogram that works, a demonstration that amodest amount of taxing and spending can makepeople's lives better and more secure. And that'swhy the right wants to destroy it.\" [1] Theproblem with Social Security is not that it doesnot work, nor that it fails the poor. Rather, asKrugman notes, social security uses limitedtaxation to implement a clear and successfulvision of social justice. As a consequence, thesocial security system has been repeatedlyattacked by right wing and libertarian politicians.Such attacks are not motivated by the merits orfailure of the social security system itself, but bypolitical ambition and a desire to forcefullyimplement alternative normative schema withinsociety. Privatizing Social Security would requirecostly new government bureaucracies. From thestandpoint of the system as a whole,privatization would add enormous administrativeburdens – and costs. The government would", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsfhwpusss-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Privatising social security will increase theamount of money that reitrees can drawon Private accounts would provide retirees witha higher rate of return on investments. [1]Privatization would give investment decisions toaccount holders. This does not mean that SocialSecurity money for the under 55’s would go toWall Street.. This could be left to the individual'sdiscretion. Potentially this could includegovernment funds. But with government’s recordof mismanagement, and a $14 trillion deficit, itseems unlikely that many people would join thatchoice. [2] As Andrew Roth argues, \"Democratswill say supporters of personal accounts willallow people's fragile retirement plans to besubjected to the whims of the stock market, butthat's just more demagoguery. First, personalaccounts would be voluntary. If you like thecurrent system (the one that [can be raided by]politicians), you can stay put and be subjected todecreasingly low returns as Social Security goesbankrupt. But if you want your money protected", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsfhwpusss-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Social Security is not in crisis and there is noneed for privatization. Social Security iscompletely solvent today, and will be into thefuture because it has a dedicated income streamthat covers its costs and consistently generates asurplus, which today is $2.5trillion. Proposition’s dire prediction of thecollapse of social security’s financial situation ismisleading. The Social Security surplus will growto approximately $4.3 trillion in 2023, and thatreserves will be sufficient to pay full benefitsthrough to 2037. Even after this it would still beable to pay 78%. Moreover, there are plenty ofways to reform Social Security to make it morefiscally sound without privatizing it, includingsimply raising taxes to fund it better.[1] Furthermore the problem that affects socialsecurity of falling numbers of contributors toeach retiree will also affect private pensions, atleast in the short to medium term, just in adifferent way. If all younger pensioners wentover to just paying for their own future", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsfhwpusss-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Privatising social security would improveeconomic growth Privatizing social securitywould enable investment of savings.Commentator Alex Schibuola argues that: \"IfSocial Security were privatized, people woulddeposit their income with a bank. People actuallysave resources that businesses can invest. We,as true savers, get more resources in thefuture.\" [1] As a result private accounts wouldalso increase investments, jobs and wages.Michael Tanner of the think tank the CatoInstitute argues: \"Social Security drains capitalfrom the poorest areas of the country, leavingless money available for new investment and jobcreation. Privatization would increase nationalsavings and provide a new pool of capital forinvestment that would be particularly beneficialto the poor.\" [2] Currently Social Securityrepresents a net loss for taxpayers andbeneficiaries. Social Security, although key tothe restructuring the of USA’s social contractfollowing the great depression, represents a bad", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsfhwpusss-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Privatizing Social Security would harm economicgrowth, not help it. Privatization during thecurrent economic crisis would have beendisaster, and so doing it now is a risk for anyupcoming or future crisis. Privatization in themidst of the greatest economic downturn sincethe Great Depression would have causedhouseholds to have lost even more of theirassets, had their investments been invested inthe U.S. stock market or in funds exposed tocomplicated and high risk financialinstruments. Privatizing social security mighttherefore increase economic growth in the boomtimes but this would be at the expense ofsharper downturns. Proposition’s argumentimplicitly assumes that the money at themoment does not improve economic growth. Onthe contrary the government is regularlyinvesting the money in much the same way asprivate business would – and often on muchmore long term projects such as infrastructurethat fit better with a long term saving than the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsfhwpusss-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The social security system is unsustainable in thestatus quo Social Security is in Crisis. SocialSecurity in the United States, as in most westernliberal democracies, is a pay-as-you-go systemand has always been so. As such, it is anintergenerational wealth transfer. The solvencyof the system therefore relies on favourabledemographics; particularly birth rate andlongevity. In the United States the birth ratewhen Social Security was created was 2.3children per woman but had risen to 3.0 by1950. Today it is 2.06. The average lifeexpectancy in 1935 was 63 and today it is 75.While this may be representative of animprovement in quality-of-life for manyAmericans, these demographic changes alsoindicate the increasing burden that socialsecurity systems are being put under. [1] As aresult of changing demographic factors, thenumber of workers paying Social Security payrolltaxes has gone from 16 for every retiree in 1950to just 3.3 in 1997. This ration will continue to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsfhwpusss-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The American people do not oppose privatization-in fact, most support it. A 2010 poll showedoverwhelming support for personal accounts.Republican voters support it 65-21, but evenDemocrat voters like it, 50-36. [1] A pollcommissioned by the Cato Institute through theprestigious Public Opinion Strategies pollingcompany showed that 69 percent of Americansfavored switching from the pay-as-you-gosystem to a fully funded, individually capitalizedsystem. Only 11 percent said they opposed theidea. [2] A 1994 Luntz Research poll found that82 percent of American adults under the age of35 favored having at least a portion of theirpayroll taxes invested instead in stocks andbonds. In fact, among the so-called GenerationXers in America, by a margin of two-to-one theythink they are more likely to encounter a UFO intheir lifetime than they are to ever receive asingle Social Security check. Even moreremarkable, perhaps, was a poll taken in 1997by White House pollster Mark Penn for the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsfhwpusss-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Most of these arguments can be undercut bynoting that the privatization of Social Securityaccounts would be voluntary, and thus anyonewho believed the argument that the governmentinvests better would be free to leave theiraccount as it is, unchanged. Those who believethey can do a better job of investing andmanaging their money on their own should begiven the freedom to do so. In this respect it isimportant to remember the origin of the moneyin these accounts: it has been paid in by theindividuals themselves. As James Roosevelt (CEOof the health insurance firm Tufts Health Plan)notes: \" Those ‘baby boomers’ who are going tobust Social Security when they retire? They havebeen paying into the system for more than 40years, generating the large surplus the programhas accumulated. Much of the money that babyboomers are and will be drawing on from SocialSecurity, is, and will be, their own.” [1] As it istheir money which they have paid in in the firstplace, members of the baby boomer generation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsfhwpusss-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Privatising the social security system would harmeconomic growth Creating private accountscould have an impact on economic growth, whichin turn would hit social security's future finances.Economic growth could be hit as privatizingSocial Security will increase federal deficits andas a result debt significantly, while increasing thelikelihood that national savings will decline whichwill happen as baby boomers retire anyway anddraw down their savings. An analysis by theCentre on Budget and Policy Priorities shows thatthe proposed privatization by Obama would add$1 trillion in new federal debt in its first decadeof implementation, and a further $3.5 trillion inthe following decade. [1] Because householdschange their saving and spending levels inresponse to economic conditions privatization isactually more likely to reduce than increasenational savings. This is because households thatconsider the new accounts to constitutemeaningful increases in their retirement wealthmight well reduce their other saving. Diamond", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsfhwpusss-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The problems with the social security aresystemic, not inherent Social security iscurrently solvent and will be into the future dueto its dedicated income stream that consistentlygenerates a surplus, which today is $2.5 trillion.This surplus will even grow to approximately$4.3 trillion in 2023, It is only after 2037 whenthere will begin to be a deficit.(11) Sideopposition will concede that there is a long-runfinancing problem, but it is a problem of modestsize. There would only need to be revenues equalto 0.54% of GDP to extend the life of the socialsecurity trust fund into the 22nd century, with nochange in benefits. This is only aboutone-quarter of the revenue lost each yearbecause of President Bush's tax cuts. [1] Budgetshortfalls- of the sort that side proposition’s caseis based on- Nobel Laureate economist PaulKrugman argues: \" has much more to do withtax cuts - cuts that Mr. Bush nonetheless insistson making permanent - than it does with SocialSecurity. But since the politics of privatization", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsfhwpusss-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Privatising social security will harm retirees AsGreg Anrig and Bernard Wasow of thenon-partisan think tank the Century Foundationargue: \"Privatization advocates like to stress theappeal of 'individual choice' and 'personalcontrol,' while assuming in their forecasts thateveryone’s accounts will match the overallperformance of the stock market. But… researchby Princeton University economist Burton G.Malkiel found that even professional moneymanagers over time significantly underperformedindexes of the entire market.” [1] Most peopledon’t have the knowledge to manage their owninvestments. A Securities and ExchangeCommission report showed the extent offinancial illiteracy for example half of adults don’tknow what a stock market is, half don’tunderstand the purpose of diversifyinginvestments and 45% believe it provides “aguarantee that [their] portfolio won’t suffer if thestock market falls” [2] Including all themanagement costs it is safe to say that growth", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsfhwpusss-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Privatization would increase national savings andprovide a new pool of capital for investment thatwould be particularly beneficial to the poor. As itstands, Social Security is a net loss maker for theAmerican taxpayer, and this situation will onlycontinue to get worse unless privatization isenacted: those born after the baby boom willforfeit 10 cents of every dollar they earn inpayments towards the up keep of the SocialSecurity system. By contrast, underprivatization people would actually saveresources that businesses can invest. As AlanGreenspan has pointed out, the economicbenefits of privatization of Social Security arepotentially enormous. In Chile, as Dr. Piñera hasnoted, there has been real economic growth of 7percent a year over the past decade, energizedby a savings rate in excess of 20 percent.[1] Martin Feldstein, a Harvard economist,formerly Chairman of the Council of EconomicAdvisors under President Reagan, estimated thatthe present value to the U.S. economy of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "While it is of course socially desirable thateveryone be able to find gainful employment andpursue happiness, this is not accomplished evenremotely by the existence of a minimum wage.In fact, it denies more people the ability topursue happiness because the minimum wageforces unemployment up as it becomes moreexpensive to hire workers. The choice to workshould belong to the individual, whether hisdecisions have an effect on the wages of othersor not. Individuals can only have control of theirdestinies when they are not limited in the rangeof their potential actions, which must include theright to sell their labor at whatever rate they findacceptable, be it at some arbitrary minimum orlower.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The minimum wage provides a baselineminimum allowing people to embark freely in thepursuit of happiness Without a minimum wage,the lowest paid members of society are relegatedto effective serfdom, and their decisions of thesemembers often force others to follow suit,accepting similarly low wages. There is no realfreedom of choice for people at this lowest levelof the social structure, since they must acceptwhatever wage is offered in order to feedthemselves and their families. Their poverty anddesperation for work makes it much moredifficult for them to act collectively to bargain forbetter wages. The minimum wage frees peoplefrom this bondage and guarantees themresources with which to make meaningfulchoices. [1] Without resources there can be notrue choice, as all choices would be coerced bynecessity. Because people’s choices areintrinsically interconnected, and wages tend toreflect the prevailing pressures of demand andsupply, when an individual makes the choice to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Employers are not stupid. Many do see the valueof higher paid workers and appreciate theirharder work and dedication. That is exactly whya minimum wage is unnecessary; firms in pursuitof their own self-interest will pay workerscompetitive wages. Furthermore, social welfarepayments will not decrease with the advent of aminimum wage since while some workers will notrequire income supplements from the state, thehigher numbers of unemployed workers will lookto the state exclusively as their source ofincome, raising the cost to the state and thetaxpayer.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The minimum wage aids in the propagation ofsocial justice and the fair treatment ofworkers Businesses operating in a free marketare concerned principally with their bottom lines.In order to increase profits, firms will seek toexploit workers, to lower wages as far aspossible. This exploitation will continueindefinitely, unless the state intervenes. Thestate does so by implementing a minimum wage.The lowest paid workers tend to be lesseducated, less skilled, and less organized thanhigher-paid employees. This makes them theeasiest to manipulate and the easiest to replace.[1] In order to stop this outright exploitation ofthe most vulnerable members of society, thepower of wage setting must fall to some extentwithin the purview of the state. Certainly, it is farbetter for state, which has citizens’ best interestat heart, to weigh in on the issue of settingwages than businesses, which tend not to careabout their workers’ welfare or have competinginterests. Furthermore, a minimum wage sends a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is no social justice in denying people theability to work. The minimum wage serves tobenefit insiders who are employed and harmoutsiders who do not have jobs and cannot getthem due to the dearth of jobs created by thewage laws. [1] The state may have the bestinterests of its citizens at heart when it institutesa minimum wage, but it accomplishes little whenit leaves more of its citizens without work, andthus dependent upon the state for survival. [1]Dorn, Minimum Wage Socialism, 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The incentive to enter the illicit market is actuallyhigher when there is a minimum wage. While therelative advantage of entering the black marketmight be diminished for some who can enter thelegitimate workforce and find employment, thehigher numbers of people now unemployedwould find it necessary either to seek welfarepayments from the government or findalternative employment. Such employment couldbe readily found in the illegal market.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Higher wages boost economicgrowth Employees work harder when they arepaid more, but employers can often be moreconcerned with the short-term bottom line andwill not treat workers in the lowest echelons oftheir firms with much consideration, viewingthem instead as disposable and replaceableeconomic units. [1] Mandating a minimum wagecan thus benefit firms, even if they do notrecognize it, by making workers more productiveand also fostering a general work ethic. [2] Asworkers feel more valued in the economicsystem, the more likely they are to work loyallyand diligently for their employers. Furthermore,better pay means more disposable income in thehands of employees, which leads to greaterdemand by them for goods and services. Thisdemand-induced economic growth is a veryimportant part of economic growth. The morepeople are able to spend, the more money flowsinto the economy, leading to more business andhigher employment. Without the minimum wage,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The minimum wage encourages people to jointhe workforce rather than pursuing incomethrough illegal channels When wages areextremely low the incentive to enter alternativemarkets is increased. This is particularly harmfulin the case of illegal markets, such as those fordrugs or prostitution. [1] When there is little tobe gained from obtaining a legitimate job, nomatter how plentiful they might be in theabsence of a minimum wage, they would beundesirable by comparison to potentially highlylucrative black market opportunities. Theminimum wage is essential for keeping theopportunity cost of entering the black marketsufficiently high that people opt always to enterthe mainstream, legal market. Furthermore,when the possibility of work in the legitimatemarket exists, even if work is harder to find dueto a minimum wage, the very possibility ofgetting such a job will serve as a disincentive topursuing illegal employment. [1] Kallem, YouthCrime and the Minimum Wage, 2004", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While economies may bounce back somewhatless quickly from downturns if wages areprevented from falling beneath a set minimum, itis a worthwhile sacrifice for the sake ofpreventing the exploitation of workers. Theminimum wage is particularly important touphold in times of recession, since increasedunemployment encourages employers to slashwages unmercifully. Such reductions canseverely harm individuals and families that oftensuffer from reductions in real wealth as a resultof recessions. Furthermore, in the case ofcompetitiveness, companies do not make theirdecisions of where to locate based solely onprevailing wage rates. Rather, they valueeducated, socially stable populations. A minimumwage ensures that working individuals have theresources to provide for the necessities of theirfamilies and tends to promote social stability andcontentment by engendering feelings of socialbuy-in that are absent in the presence ofexploitation and meager wages. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The state has an obligation to protect peoplefrom making bad decisions. Just as it tries toprotect people from the harms of drugs bymaking them illegal, the state protects peoplefrom exploitation by setting wages at a baselineminimum. Everyone deserves a living wage, butthey will not get this if there is no minimumwage. Businesses ruthlessly seeking to increaseprofit margins will always seek to reduce wages.This behavior is particularly harmful to those whoreceive the lowest wages. Upholding the right towork for any wage does not give people on thelowest wages a real choice, since it meanspeople must work for what they are given,resulting in terrible exploitation. [1] Clearly, theminimum wage is a necessary safeguard for theprotection of the weak and the vulnerable, and toguard people from unconscionable choices thatan absolute right to work would force.Furthermore, the right to work does not meanmuch if an individual can only find employmentin jobs which pay so lowly that they cannot", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Individuals gain a sense of dignity fromemployment, as well as develop human capital,that can be denied them by a minimumwage The ability to provide for oneself, to not bedependent on handouts, either from the state inthe form of welfare or from citizens’ charity,provides individuals with a sense of psychologicalfulfillment. Having a job is key to many people’sself worth, and most capitalist-based societiesplace great store in an individual’s employment.Because the minimum wage denies some peoplethe right to work, it necessarily leaves somepeople unable to gain that sense of fulfillment.[1] When people are unemployed for longstretches of time, they often becomediscouraged, leaving the workforce entirely.When this happens in communities, people oftenlose understanding of work entirely. This hasoccurred in parts of the United States, forexample, where a cycle of poverty created by alack of job opportunities has generated a cultureof dependence on the state for welfare handouts.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The free market tends to treat workers fairly Inthe absence of a minimum wage the free marketwill not tend toward the exploitation of workers.Rather, wages will reflect the economic situationof a country, guaranteeing that employment willbe at the highest possible rate, and not behampered by an artificial minimum. Someincomes may fall, but overall employment willrise, increasing the general prosperity of thecountry. [1] Employers understand that high paypromotes hard work. Businesses will not simplyslash wages in the absence of a minimum wage,but will rather compete with one another to coaxthe best and most dedicated workers into theiremploy. This extends even into the lowest andleast-skilled lines of work, as although workersmay be largely interchangeable in terms of skill,they are distinct in their level of dedication andhonesty. There is thus a premium at all levels ofa business to hire workers at competitive wages.Furthermore, employers also take into accountthat there is a social safety net in virtually every", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The minimum wage is little more than a politicaltool that ultimately harms the overall economyby raising the unemployment rate and drivingbusinesses elsewhere Politicians havetransformed the minimum wage into an indicatorof social development. Governments often citetheir raising of the minimum wage as anexample of their commitment to fostering socialjustice and equality. This is all nonsense. Theminimum wage is nothing more than a useful,simple tool that politicians can exploit withoutaddressing underlying social and economic ills insociety. [1] During times of economic expansionwages are generally rising as new businesses areformed and existing firms take on more capacityand workers. During such times, raising theminimum wage has no effect other than being auseful political move. In times of economiccontraction, firms close and lay off workers andunemployment rates rise. In such times, theminimum wage hampers the market fromclearing, keeping more people out of work than", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The minimum wage restricts an individual’sfundamental right to work Individuals areautonomous beings, capable of making decisionsfor themselves. This includes the ability to makea value judgment about the value of one’s timeand ability. If an individual wishes to sell hislabor for a certain price, then he should not berestricted from doing so by the state. A minimumwage is in effect the government saying it canplace an appropriate value on an individual, butan individual cannot value himself, which is anabsurdity as the individual, who knows himselfbetter than the state ever could, has a bettergrasp of the value of his own labor. At the mostbasic level, people should have their right tochoice maximized, not circumscribed by arbitrarygovernment impositions. When the state deniesindividuals the right to choose to work for lowwages, it fails in its duty of protection, takingfrom individuals the right to work while givingthem nothing in return other than the chimericalgift of a decent wage, should they ever be able", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Businesses are concerned with their bottom line.They will pay workers as little as possible inorder to maximize profits. Certainly in somebusinesses employers require highly skilledworkers for which they will be willing to paycompetitive wages. However, the people whomost require worker protection, those onminimum wage, are generally unskilled andinterchangeable with a large body of potentialemployees. For this reason there is little impetusto pay workers at the lowest echelons of firmsanything but the lowest possible wages. Even ifsome firms are willing to offer comparativelyhigher wages to entice honest and diligentnon-skilled workers, the overall wage schedulewill be depressed as far as is economicallypossible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeghbnmw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "An individual can maintain little dignity when heis subjected to outright exploitation fromemployers who are unconcerned about theirwelfare and who have no incentive to pay themanything but the lowest possible wages. Aminimum wage ensures that people who findemployment can feel real self-worth.Furthermore, if people do indeed only feelself-fulfilled when they are employed, people willbe all the more likely to accept poor workingconditions and low wages for sake of theirself-image. Also, young workers do have meansof gaining experience, such as through unpaidinternship programs. The minimum wage servesto protect workers of all ages and skill-levels, asno one deserves to be exploited.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epecfhwie-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There are some assumptions made in theconstruction of this argument. First of all, youcan’t hide the risk from the economiccommunity. There is no guarantee that whenissuing Eurobonds, the interest rates will drop.This is happening for two main reasons. Firstly,according to the proposition model, the bondswill still be issued at a national level, showinginvestors if the money is going to Spain, Italy orGermany, France. While these should in theoryhave the same interest rates will investors reallybuy Eurobonds where the money is destined forGreece if not getting much interest? Perceptionstill matters to the markets; will Greece andGermany really suddenly be perceived in thesame way. Secondly, even if the EuropeanUnion decides to borrow money as a whole, itsimage is not a good one. Everybody knows themajor problems that the union is facing rightnow so it is possible that concerns about thestability of the Euro as a whole will meanEurobonds drive interest rates up, not down.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epecfhwie-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Eurobonds even up interest rates within theUnion Introducing Eurobonds will lower interestrates for bonds issued by national governmentsso making the loans affordable. The most recentexample of this problem is the need ofrecapitalization of banks in Cyprus. Althoughgovernment debt and interest rates were not thedirect problem if the government had been ableto borrow at low interest rates to recapitalize itsown banks then it would have not needed abailout from the rest of the Eurozone. [1] Inorder to avoid these kinds of solutions and putpeople back to work in countries like Portugal,Italy or Spain, national governments need abigger demand for their bonds so that interestrates go down. Right now, sovereign-bonds arenot affordable for the government as theirinterest rates are extremely high. Greece has aninterest rate of 9.01%, Portugal 6.23%, and Italyand Spain near 4.30%. [2] If we choose tobundle the bonds together we will obtain a singleinterest rate that will lower the price of bonds", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epecfhwie-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The problem with long-term regulations is notthat they do not exist but rather the fact thatthey are not imposed. There is no need forfurther control and regulation when theEuropean Union already has a mechanism thatwill prevent economic crisis if it is stuck to. TheMaastricht Treaty clearly states that countries inthe European Union shall not have a governmentdeficit that exceeds 3% of the GDP and thegovernment debt was limited to be no largerthan 60% of the GDP. [1] These measuresshould be enough to prevent any country in theunion to collapse. The major problem was thatthe Maastricht Treaty was not respected by themember states and little or no sanctions wereimposed to ensure compliance. Evencomparatively stable countries have deficitsabove 3%, France had a deficit of 4.8% in lastyear. [2] The simple solution would be keepingthe regulation of the already existing treaty andsanction countries that exceed their deficits andnot impose new rules. [1] Euro economics,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epecfhwie-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Eurobonds help European integration One of themost important European Union principles issolidarity and mutual respect among Europeancitizens [1] and this can only be achieved bymore integration and stronger connectionsbetween states. The economic crisis has clearlyshown that more integration is necessary ifEurope is to prevent suffering and economichardship. From the economic perspective,unemployment rates reached disastrous levels in2012 with Greece at 24,3% and Spain 25%. [2]There is a lack of leadership and connectionbetween countries in the European Union that isnot allowing them to help one-another and solvethe economic crisis. From the political point ofview the result of this is that extremist partiesare on the rise with the best example of GoldenDawn in Greece. [3] While in 1996 and 2009 theparty didn’t win any seats in the GreekParliament, after the crisis hit in June 2012 theywon 18 seats. [4] In time of distress, the logicalsolution is not that every country should fight for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epecfhwie-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Integration cannot happen on the hoof. The eurocrisis and the political and social distress in theEuropean Union have created negativesentiments when talking about the Union. TheEuropean citizens do not want these kinds ofmeasures and there is a general sentiment ofeuro skepticism. Countries like Germany are nolonger interested in paying for Greek mistakesand Angela Merkel is strongly opposing the ideaof Eurobonds, saying that Germany might leavethe union. [1] Clearly this is not the time to beforcing through more integration against the willof the people. More than that extremist partiesare on the rise. An anti-Muslim, anti-immigrationand anti-integration party, France’s NationalFront has come out top in a poll of how Frenchpeople will vote European Union Parliamentelections. [2] In contrary to the false connectionbetween poor economy and extremism, it comesin hand the fact that the National Front reachedthe runoff in the 2002 French presidentialelections. [3] In conclusion, people are not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epecfhwie-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The long term benefits of Eurobonds TheEuropean Union should not only focus on thepresent but also try to find a permanent solutionin resolving and preventing economic crisis. Thesolution that is implemented right now throughthe European Stability Mechanism is a temporaryone and has no power in preventing furthercrisis. First of all, the failure of the EuropeanUnion to agree on banks bailout is a goodexample. [1] As economic affairs commissionerOlli Rehn admitted the bailout negotiations havebeen \"a long and difficult process\" [2] because ofthe many institutions and ministers that have asay in making the decision. More than that, itsometimes takes weeks and even months untilGermany and other leaders in the union canconvince national parliaments to give money inorder for us to be able to help those inneed. Issuing bonds as a union of countries willprovide more control to the ECB that will be ableto approve or deny a loan – one option would bethat after a certain limit countries would have to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epecfhwie-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is a common responsibility in the EuropeanUnion for helping countries that are hit harder byeconomic crises than the others. If Eurobondscreate winners and losers, the same thing can besaid about the economic crisis. Germany was oneof the winners and therefore has the duty to helpthe others. The Eurozone crisis has created abigger demand for German bonds and loweredthe interest rate they have to pay. Germany hassuch low interest rates because Spain, Italy andGreece are incapable of sustaining their debt, itis therefore a safe haven for people who want tobuy government bonds. It is estimated thatGermany gained 41 billion euros [1] in ‘profit’from these lower interest rates as a result of thecrisis and therefore has the ability and the moralduty to help countries that are worse-off. Morethan that, every prudent creditor has a profligatedebtor. French and German banks could riskloosing a few hundred millions each if Greecedefaults, the creditor accepted the risk whenthey lent the money. [2] We should remember", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epecfhwie-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Sometimes, a leap of faith is what needs to betaken in order to fix such big problems. First ofall the willingness of the union to do more inhelping countries that having difficulties willimprove its image both in these countries andabroad because it will show the EU sticking to itscore principles. Even if we agree that Eurobondsmight be a risky idea, something needs to bedone to fix the economy. We have clearly seenhow bailouts do not work and are not providing apermanent solution. The Eurozone is likely todecide on a third bailout for Greece in November2013 and little proof that this will make thesituation better for the Greeks. [1] Furthermore,the temporary solution of bailouts is takenwithout the consent of the electorate so theproblem of a democratic deficit exists in bothcases. Acting now to end the crisis will mean apossible end to such sticking plasters beingapplied without democratic consent. The EU willthen be able to concentrate on demonstratingthe advantages of the solution it has taken. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epecfhwie-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Eurobonds create moral hazard The policyproposed will shift responsibility for badeconomic decisions and create moral hazard dueto the lack of accountability. If the EuropeanUnion decides to introduce bonds with the sameinterest rate for all countries, everyone in theunion will have to suffer for the mistakes madeby Ireland, Greece, Spain, Italy or Portugal (orany other state that may make them in thefuture). The burden will be shifted to the wholeunion in the form of higher interest rates for theprudent and countries that made mistakes in thepast will pay no price for their economicinstability and poor decision-making. Thissituation will happen if the Eurobonds indeedfunction as they are planned to and the interestrates will be kept low by comparison to thecurrent rates for Greece, Italy etc. More thanthat, this situation will lead to what economistcall the moral hazard. Moral hazard appearswhere a person, institution or nationalgovernment in this case is not made responsible", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epecfhwie-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Eurobonds would create problems forGermany The situation that is implemented inthe Status Quo, with the Economic StabilityMechanism trying to save countries in collapsewill no longer be an option after introducingEurobonds. Previous arguments have explainedhow interest rates will not be lowered enough tomake countries stable again but another problemis that they will inhibit any chance of a planB. First of all, Germany has low interest ratesfor its government bonds and had it this way inthe last few years through the crisis. [1] This isallows them to take loans cheaply helping tosustain their manufacturing industry andgovernment spending, and allowing Germany tofinance bailouts. If Germany's borrowing costsrose to the Eurozone average, it could cost Berlinan extra €50bn a year in repayments – almost2% of its GDP. [2] This will clearly impact onBerlin’s ability and willingness to contribute tothe European Stability Mechanism with the knockon effect that if despite Eurobonds another", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epecfhwie-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Eurobonds create a long termburden Introducing Eurobonds will increase theburden for the European Union as a whole andchange the responsibility in the long-term. Rightnow, countries are willing to help one-anotherand the best example is the European StabilityMechanism, a program designed to helpcountries in distress with major economicpotential. [1] This is happening because theEuropean Union is not fully responsible for themistakes of the countries in the Eurozone. Ofcourse, Eurobonds is just taking a step furtherbut it also promotes a bigger burden for theunion. Such a long term burden should not bedecided and imposed in a time of crisis. If we letthe European Union and the ECB decide to backnational loans and approve Eurobonds it willeffectively be imposed upon the people. The ideais not popular with many national electorates andsuch a decision will have to be taken withouttheir consent. Germany is the clearest example,in a ZDF television poll, 79% said that they are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epecfhwie-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Moral hazard is not going to happen in theEuropean Union because alongside the benefitsof the Eurobonds comes the control from theEuropean Central Bank or other measuresimposed by the rest of the members. This isalready happening in the status quo, wherecountries are forced to impose austeritymeasures in order to receive bailout founds. [1]Under the model proposed where the ECB cancontrol the lending ability of any country in theunion, by allowing the loan or denying it at acertain limit. Countries will most certainly beheld accountable if they fail to pay back theirloans by not giving them access to further bondissuing. Eurobonds are not a tap governmentscan use for spending recklessly. [1] Garofalo,Pat, ‘Greek Austerity, the Sequel’, U.S.News, 9July 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The Brexit can’t have it both ways that it willboth deregulate promoting the free market andenable an industrial policy that allows subsidies.In practice unshackling the economy meansdamaging workers’ rights that are protected byEU legislation of which the Working TimeDirective is just the best known. Leaving wouldalso damage just those sectors the Brexit sidesays it will help; finance needs access to Europe,as do many other creative industries.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "We need to unshackle the economy The UKneeds to unshackle the economy from therestrictions the EU places upon it. EUbureaucracy and red tape holds back Britain’sservice industries. Regulations on employmentrights, hiring, and firing restrict the supply ofworkers pushing up costs to businesses. To takeone example Britain is facing a curry crisis; curryhouses are closing due to an inability to secureskilled chefs from the Indian subcontinent. [1]Being able to set the UK’s own migration systemwould enable the UK to hire people with the skillswe need. [1] Robinson, Nick, ‘Who will cookyour Indian curry?’, BBC News, 26 May 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Most of the claimed £350 million per week eitheris accounted for by the British rebate, £4.8billionin 2015 [1] – which never actually leaves the UK– or is money the EU spends in the UK. The £120million remainder is however buys access to theEU’s market. Norway pays €340 million per year– about £63 million per week if it had acomparable population to the UK – to get accessto the EU market but does not have any chanceto influence that market. [2] [1] 94.4million perweek, HM Treasury, ‘European Union Finances2015: statement on the 2015 EU Budget andmeasures to counter fraud and financialmismanagement’, gov.uk, December 2015, [2]Solberg, Erna, ‘The ‘Norwegian model’ would bea poor alternative to EU membership for the UK’,LSE, 19th April 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Leaving would take back power to control theeconomy Voting to leave would take back thepower over the British economy that theEuropean Union currently has and give it back tothe sovereign British Parliament. EU commonfisheries and agriculture (CAP) policies controlhow many fish we can catch and what iscommercially farmable. If the UK were to leavethe British government would be once more ableto shape an industrial policy; for example underEU rules it did not have the power to save PortTalbot as it is not allowed to provide subsidies tosupport the failing plant. [1] [1] Rankin,Jennifer, ‘EU sets tone as it cracks down onsubsidies for struggling steelworks’,theguardian.com, 20 January 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "British government policy has been against stateintervention in industry for decades. Rather sincethe Thatcher government the free market hasbeen considered to know best and so companiesor factories that make a loss should be allowedto go bust.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The UK is already insulated from the Euro crisisby not being a member of the Eurozone. Withthe pound sterling the UK is no more exposed inthe EU than it would be outside of the EU.Finance is globally interconnected. Leaving theEU will make no difference to this. The UK hasalready negotiated, in 2015, a deal whichensures that the UK will not be liable for anybailouts in the Eurozone. [1] However Britaincould cause such a Eurozone crisis, by leaving asthe UK leaving would have an impact on the EUeconomies just as it would on the UK’s own. [1]BBC News, ‘UK ‘strikes deal’ over Greek bailout’,16 July 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "There will be £350 million more to spend aweek Through leaving the EU Britain will nolonger send £350million per week to Europe socan spend it at home. [1] Of course much of thissum comes back to the UK but the UK will gaingreater control over how and where the money isspent. Thus for example some money comesback in the form of CAP. We would however beable to decide how this money is used onfarming rather than being dictated to by the EUor take the money out of farming all together.Even taking in to account money that comesback to the UK, and the rebate, the UK still sends£120million per week to Europe. [2] Moneywhich would be freed up to spend on helping theNHS or building more affordable houses uponleaving. [1] ‘A vote to remain is the riskieroption’, Vote Leave, [2] Ashworth-Hayes, Sam,‘UK doesn’t sent EU £350m a week or £55m aday’, infacts.org, 25 February 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "A step away from a failing Eurozone The Euro isfailing as has been demonstrated by the years’long slow motion crisis involving Greece andother peripheral countries Ireland, Spain, andPortugal. The chancellor George Osborne has inthe past said that a Eurozone recession is thebiggest economic risk to the UK. [1] This is stilltrue. The UK will be safer taking a step awayfrom integration with Europe by leaving theEU. [1] Chan, Szu Ping, ‘Eurozone recession isbiggest risk to UK, says George Osborne’, TheTelegraph, 10 October 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While it is almost certain that there will be a briefshort term shock caused by uncertainty no oneknows for sure what will happen in the longterm. A Britain that is out of Europe will be betterable to run its economy to encourage growth sowill likely do better than it does under the statusquo.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Britain can have free trade without all thebaggage of political decisions being made inBrussels. Just as the EU accounts for a highportion of UK trade so the UK is a high proportionof EU trade; around 16% of EU exports go to theUK, [1] so the EU would want to have a deal withthe UK to allow this trade to continue. [1]Portes, J., ‘After Brexit: how important would UKtrade be to the EU?’, National Institute ofEconomic and Social Research, 2 November2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Britain is needed to create a more businessfriendly Europe The UK is a leader among thecountries in the EU that is in favour of greaterderegulation, privatisation, and free trade. Assuch the UK has been a strong positive influenceon the EU in favour of these things. In the sameway the UK played a strong role in encouragingthe EU’s expansion to create a bigger market.The UK needs to remain in the EU to ensure theorganisation flourishes. Prime MinisterCameron’s deal with Europe prior to thereferendum for example included a promise bythe EU to engage in “lowering administrativeburdens and compliance costs on economicoperators, especially small and mediumenterprises, and repealing unnecessarylegislation” something that benefits not just theUK but the EU as a whole. [1] [1] Reuters, ‘Fulltext of EU's special status deal for Britain’, 19February 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Leaving may increase Britishunemployment Alongside this likely shock to theeconomy will most likely be a loss in jobs as aresult in a loss in trade. Some big employers,such as many car makers, are located in the UKin large part as a result of the access to the EUmarket. It is estimated that three million UK jobsare linked to trade with the EU. [1] Estimates ofthe number of jobs lost vary considerably; theCBI has suggested 950,000 [2] while theTreasury thinks 500,000. [3] The number mayturn out to be less but clearly a large number oflivelihoods will be damaged. [1]Ashworth-Hayes, Sam, ‘Will 3 million jobs be lostif we quit EU?’, infacts.org, 15 March 2016, [2]Kollewe, Julia, ‘ Brexit could cost £100bn andnearly 1m jobs, CBI warns’, theguardian.com, 21March 2016, [3] HM Treasury, ‘Britain to enterrecession with 500,000 UK jobs lost if it left EU,new Treasury analysis shows’, gov.uk, 23 May2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Leaving will cause a shock to the Britisheconomy The UK leaving the EU would likely bedamaging not just to the British economy butglobally with the G7 saying it would be “a furtherserious risk to growth.” [1] The damage to theUK economy would come for several reasons.First there would be uncertainty about whatcomes next; no one is quite sure what kind ofdeal the UK will get with the EU, or what willhappen to EU migrants in the UK. Additionallybusinesses that trade with the EU will haveuncertainty over that trading relationship and theUK will be a less favourable investment prospectbecause it is no longer a bridge to 500milion EUconsumers. The treasury has estimated that GDPwill be lower by 6.2% by 2030 as a result somany people will be considerably worse off.[2] [1] Asthana, Anushka, ‘Brexit would pose‘serious risk’ to global growth, say G7 leaders’,theguardian.co.uk, 27 May 2015, [2] HMTreasury, ‘HM Treasury analysis shows leavingEU would cost British households £4,300 per", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Economic growth comes with closer integrationwith your neighbours Economic integration withneighbours is the best way to economic growth.Neighbouring countries are almost always thecountries a nation trades most with; in the UK’scase the EU accounts for 44.6% of exports and53.2% of imports. [1] It is therefore in the UK’sinterest to increase integration to encourage thistrade. Throughout the world the trend is towardsregional integration rather than away from itwith regional organisations from Mercosur inSouth America to ASEAN in South East Asiaencouraging integration. [1] Office for NationalStatistics, ‘How important is the European Unionto UK trade and investment?’, 26 June 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con04b", "title": "", "text": "There is considerable churn in the jobs marketalready; with 3.7 million jobs lost a year alreadybut simply being replaced by new jobs. [1]Leaving the EU would therefore make littledifference. [1] Bourne, Ryan, ‘The EU JobsMyth’, Institute of Economic Affairs, March2015, p.9.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epechbuwbbe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is no guarantee that the EU will actuallyimplement anything in the agreement with DavidCameron. The wording is clear enough but withno specifics about how or when theadministrative burden will be lowered. Yes theUK may be fighting to create a more businessfriendly Europe but more important however isthe way that the EU increases the regulatoryburden on the UK. This regulatory burden can bemuch easier done away with by leaving the EUthan by negotiating reductions with the rest ofthe Union.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Education is a crossover point; migrating foreducation may be about a sense of belonging butit is also an opportunity. A conservative culturethat does not educate young women is notproviding them with an opportunity that isavailable elsewhere.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Intellectual women migrants outnumberintellectual men migrants The need of belongingis greater for women than for men – Bardo andBardo found that they miss home much more(5). On the other hand, unequal anddiscriminatory norms can be strong drivers ofintellectual female migration (1). More youngwomen than men now migrate for education and,in several European countries today, highlyskilled migrant women outnumber highly skilledmigrant men (1). Between 2000 and 2011, thenumber of tertiary-educated migrant women inOECD countries rose by 80%, which exceededthe 60% increase in the number oftertiary-educated migrant men. In Africa forexample, the average emigration rates oftertiary-educated women are considerably higherthan those of tertiary-educated men (27.7% forwomen and 17.1% for men).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Intellectual migrants do not necessarily discard atraditional value to replace it with acorresponding western value. For example, theyseldom renounce their religion in favor of awestern one (3). A weaker sense of nationalismdoes not have to mean greater internationalism.Instead there may be greater ties to traditionalculture, to a region or village. There may befewer ties to nation, but throughout much of thedeveloping world religion has a far greateradherence than in the west. Thus with a coupleof exceptions (Communist states such as Chinaand North Korea) it is more developed countriesthat are mostly non religious.(12)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The inferiority complex within older generationsin the developing countries affects intellectuals’sense of belonging while in their countries Aninferiority complex still exists among the oldergenerations in the developing countries asregards the western technical know-how andorganisation. A persisting attitude to place moreconfidence in the experts and specialistsbelonging to the developed countries than theeducated nationals of the country (3) couldfoster a feeling of underestimation amongstintellectuals while in their countries, andbecomes an additional driver of the continuousintellectual migration.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Some intellectual migrants already feel a certaindegree of alienation towards their nationalculture before leaving their country Intellectualsneed stimulation, organisation, freedom, andrecognition (3) that they usually struggle to findin their countries of origin. Some intellectualsfrom developing countries already feel a certaindegree of alienation towards their nationalculture before leaving their own country (3). Thismay be a result of government policy; a lack ofintellectual freedom, or because of a generallyconservative culture. Thus, they experience astrong lack of intellectual belonging despite thearising economic opportunities resulting fromtheir countries’ investments. Family ties alsoplay a strong role in aggravating or mitigatingalienation. This is why it is the young, who don’thave dependents themselves, who are often thelikeliest to migrate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "If there is really no freedom then these migrantswill be asylum seekers and refugees not trueintellectual migrants by choice. Even if there issome alienation from their own native culturethese migrants are still travelling to a much morealien culture. This being the case it seemsunlikely that alienation is the main cause. Ratherthey are travelling to a culture that is more alienbecause they believe there are betteropportunities there.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "It seems hardly likely that feeling undervaluedfor their skills is a main reason for moving. Whenmoving abroad many will instead encounterracism and concern about increasing numbers ofmigrants which would at least balance againstbeing undervalued at home. They go insteadbecause the ‘value’ of their skills is monetary –therefore about opportunities – not in terms ofreputation and confidence or belonging.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "If these young intellectuals really are politicallyconscious then they should desire to stay in theirnative country and change its system ofgovernment. It is the intellectuals who areneeded to create, and then grow a democracy sothat it represents the whole spectrum of opinionwithin the country and respects intellectualfreedoms.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Intellectual migrants are more impregnated byideas of internationalism and universalism Theconcept of nationalism as developed in Europeduring the 19th century did not undergo thesame evolution in the developing countries.Intellectuals do not identify themselves with theircountries the way Europeans do. They are moreimpregnated by ideas of internationalism anduniversalism than the western nationalist – forexample Mohsin Hamid argues our views ofliberal values should be extended beyond nationstates with their often unnatural borders. Thus, ifthey stay abroad after having adhered to thewestern way of life, they consider themselvespart of the great human lot, value freemovement as a basic human right, and do notnecessarily suffer from complexes of disloyaltytowards their home country (3).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Most young intellectuals from developingcountries are politically conscious and want to be\"actors\" in policy making Young intellectualsfrom developing countries are to a very largeextent politically conscious and active. They wantto be \"actors\" and not \"spectators\" in policymaking, all the more so when their specialism isimpacted by government policy. Those who growup in an autocratic, or not very democratic stateare likely to want to go where they can use theirvoice. Even in many democracies intellectualsoften largely liberal views both for governmentand teaching are not readily approved by theconservative regimes of their countries whereusually the older generation is in power andconstitutes a barrier against their progress.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Making a start in encouraging entrepreneurshipand gender identity is not likely to be enough tomake a county attractive when compared againstcountries that are much further down the path.According to the Global Gender Gap Report 2016Tunisia is still in the bottom quartile of therankings on gender equality.(15)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Most job vacancies in African countries ask for auniversity degree even if a degree is ultimatelynot the most important attribute for the job. (13)So the opportunities are there for those whowould be considered to be intellectuals, it iseveryone else for whom opportunities in theirnative land are lacking.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Many migrants come from countries with strongsense of belonging Many migrants come fromcountries with strong sense of belonging,national identities, and political consciousness.For instance, they are European migrants, and in2016, they were 19.3 million residing in adifferent EU Member State from the one wherethey were born (7). With migration an issue evenfrom countries with strong national identities it isclear that that identity is not the major driver ofmovement.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Many developing countries supportentrepreneurship and gender equality In manydeveloping countries, entrepreneurship issupported to create jobs and dynamic workconditions, and women are empowered andpolitically represented reducing any concerns offeeling as if they don’t belong. For example inTunisia, many initiatives are being introduced topromote the entrepreneurship ecosystemincluding angel investing and attempts to reduceadministrative barriers (9). Moreover, regardinggender equality, Tunisia’s Parliament hasapproved an amendment ensuring that womenhave greater representation in local politics. Thisamendment includes a proposal for gender parityin electoral law. (10)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Developing countries have high unemploymentrates and need to invest in jobcreation Developing countries invest ineducation and job creation because they havehigh unemployment rates (6). They need toaddress the lack of opportunities in order toimprove their economy and reduce migration.This is as much the case for those at graduatelevel as for those who have less of an education.Africa’s 668 universities produce almost 10million graduates a year, but only half findwork.(14) It should therefore be no surprise thatmany migrate overseas for opportunities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-eigsim-con02b", "title": "", "text": "A strong national identity does not necessarilyresult in a strong sense of belonging. Thatnational identity may have precluded othersenses of belonging such as religion, or evenclose community ties and interactions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsosghbsas-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Hosting can have a significant cost – the 1976Montreal games left the city vastly in debt whichit did not finish paying off until 2006 [1] . Venuesmay be under-used after the events, with the2004 Athens games seeing a large number ofvenues as unused “white elephants” after theevent [2] . [1] Davenport, 2004 [2] Smith,Helena, ‘Athens 2004 Olympics: what happenedafter the athletes went home’, The Guardian, 9May 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsosghbsas-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Economic benefits While hosting a majorsporting event is relatively expensive (althoughCape Town and Johannesburg already have anumber of appropriate venues for some of theevents already), hosting major sporting eventscreates major economic benefits. London got a£10bn economic boost from hosting the 2012Olympics [1] . This may be higher – many ofthese benefits are difficult to calculate; howmuch of a tourism boost is a result of asuccessful games? Barcelona however just likeLondon had a large boost of tourism followingthe 1992 Barcelona Games [2] . It raisesawareness of the city, and the country, and whatit offers as a tourist destination. [1] Flanders,Stephanie, ‘London 2012 Olympics ‘have boostedUK economy by £9.9bn’’, BBC News, 19 July2013, [2] Davenport, Coral, ‘A post-Olympichurdle for Greece: the whopping bill’, CSMonitor,1 September 2004,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsosghbsas-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The Athens games did not create such a buzz.Many seats were empty in the games. This wasin part a result of the poor performance of thehost nation as Greece underperformed for anOlympic host nation, not entering the top ten ofthe medals table (in a games when South Africaonly won one gold medal, that of their men’s4x100m freestyle relay swimming team). Clearlythis is a risk any host nation would take; the feelgood factor comes from the national team doingwell, not simply hosting the games.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsosghbsas-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Showcase for a nation and continent A keyreason why countries host the Olympic games isin order to boost their image abroad – China heldthe 2008 Games in Beijing as part of an exercisein national promotion [1] . This would also be anopportunity to change the perceptions of Africaamongst some elements in the outside world,from an inaccurate picture of a “third world”continent with no features other than povertyand violence to a more accurate depiction of acontinent which, while having challenges, ishaving economic growth and advancing humandevelopment. South Africa is the best nation toshowcase the development of Africa; it is Africa’sbiggest economy and one of its mostdeveloped. [1] Rabkin, April, ‘Olympic Games allabout China, Chinese’, SFGate, 1 August 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsosghbsas-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "South Africa has held events before, such as theWorld Cup – did that change perceptions ofAfrica? A well run games can change perceptionsamong those who visit but it can also damageperceptions. The South African world cup alsoinvolved slum clearance as part of a campaign of“beatification”, such actions hardly showcase anation at its best. [1] Due to its unique history,an event in South Africa may not have a haloeffect for the entire continent. A games in onecity will not affect other countries, or people’sperceptions of other African countries. [1]McDougall, Dan, ‘Slum clearance, SouthAfrica-style’, The Sunday Times, 25 April 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsosghbsas-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "National “feel-good factor” Hosting very largesporting events is a great way to advertise anation, and create a national feel-good factor.When London hosted the games in 2012, asuccessful event with a successful home team,there was a significant national “feel good factor”[1] . This can bring the benefit of bringing anation together; particularly important formulti-ethnic countries such as South Africa, itwill bring all ethnicities together in a sharedexperience helping to justify the label of ‘rainbownation’. As Sports Minister Fikile Mbalula argues“Sport is said to be a national religion in SouthAfrica. In recent years it transcends race, class,language and geographical location.” [2] [1]Hart, Simon, ‘Feelgood factor at London’sAnniversary Games next weekend as a new startfor drug-tainted athletics’, The Telegraph, 20July 2013, [2] Mabalula, Fikile, ‘South Africa:Remarks By the Minister of Sport and Recreation,Honourable Mr Fikile Mbalula At the NationalPress Club Briefing On the 2013 Afcon At the Csir", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsosghbsas-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Football is also Brazil’s national sport, and Brazilwas similarly placed (22nd) in the medal table in2012. The Olympics need not be hosted just bythe countries that are most competitive in thegames.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsosghbsas-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Some Olympic events are held outside the maincity. The football tournament uses venues acrossother cities (in the London 2012 games,Coventry, Cardiff and Manchester were amongstthe cities hosting matches), and, beinglandlocked, Johannesburg would have to host thesailing at another venue. Sailing being held inanother city is not unusual, in 2012 the sailingwas held in Weymouth and in 2008 inQingdao. Training camps are typically heldacross the whole nation, too. The nationalmorale boost typically permeates far wider thanjust the host city, including the impact in favourof a more sporting culture in the country.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsosghbsas-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Cost of hosting The Olympic games is anexpensive thing to host. The 2012 games inLondon cost nearly £9bn [1] . This cost largelyfalls on the taxpayer. These large events arenotoriously difficult to budget accurately, the2014 Sochi Winter Olympics having gone vastlyover budget with suggestions that it could costup to $50 billion [2] . It is too expensive to hostfor rich countries as it is – South Africa has alarge problem with wealth inequality as it is, andis below the world average GDP per capita [3] .Although it is unlikely to reach such expense the$50 billion for the Sochi Olympics is twice theyearly South African health budget of ZAR232.5bn. [4] South Africa would be better servedusing the money to combat HIV andpoverty. [1] Gibson, Owen, ‘London 2012Olympics will cost a total of £8.921bn, saysminister’, The Guardian, 23 October 2012, [2]Kollmeyer, Barbara, ‘Russia’s in-perspectiveprice tag for four-times-overbudget SochiOlympics: 18 Oprahs’, Marketwatch, 27", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsosghbsas-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The Olympics are not South Africa’s ‘nationalsport’ South Africa in part hosted the World Cupbecause football is the national sport of thecountry. Sports Minister Fikile Mabalula hasdeclared “In African popularity, the Africa Cup ofNations (AFCON) surpasses even that of amulti-sports event like the All Africa Games.” [1]While there is football in the Olympics othersports that South Africans support such as Rugbyare not represented. In the 2012 Olympics SouthAfrica was well down the medal table at 23rd. [2]While it makes sense to make a big investmentfor intangible benefits for a sport the countryloves it makes less sense for the Olympics. [1]Mabalula, 2013, [2] ‘Medal Table’, BBC Sport,13 August 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsosghbsas-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Hosting only affects one city and onecountry Unlike a World Cup, which spreads thebenefits more evenly, an Olympic games isfocused on one city, generally one which is amajor international city. It was expected prior tothe games that 90% of economic benefits to theUK of the 2012 games would go to London [1]. It is dubious that there would be such bigbenefits for the continent. South Africa is seen bysome in the outside world as somewhat alooffrom the rest of Africa due to its particularhistory, its history of apartheid being ratherdifferent from the normal course of Africandecolonisation. It is doubtful that the 2010 WorldCup boosted perceptions of the entirecontinent. [1] Grobel, William, ‘What are theLondon 2012 Olympics worth?’, Brand ValuationNews, April 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epsosghbsas-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Everything costs money. While the costs aresignificant, the money spent will regenerateparts of cities, create an image of the hostcountry as a place for business, and create along lasting legacy through the venues andinfrastructure built. While South Africa is notrich as the UK, Greece or Australia, its GDP percapita is around that of Brazil, which is hostingthe 2016 Games.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The number of people defrauding the system isvery small (only 0.007% of the total cost of thebenefit system). The majority of people onbenefits are seeking work. They will be hinderedin so doing, because instead of applying forwork, attending interviews and developingrelevant skills they will be forced to attend theirworkfare scheme. Thus, people will remain onbenefits for longer, costing the government morein the long term.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Workfare will eliminate scroungers, who are afinancial drain on the system Making theunemployed work for their welfare benefits callsthe bluff of those claiming benefit but not reallylooking for jobs. Such scroungers include theincurably lazy, those who are defrauding thetaxpayer by claiming welfare while holding downa paying job, and those who are working in theblack economy. Furthermore, workfare schemesrequire applicants also search for work whilstcompleting the scheme1. Moving from atraditional something-for-nothing welfarescheme to a workfare system stops all theseindividuals from being a burden on the state,cutting welfare rolls very rapidly and allowing thegovernment to concentrate upon assisting thetruly needy. 1: Kaus, M. (2000, April 16). NowShe's Done It. Retrieved July 19, 2011, fromSlate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Workfares have low standards that produce poorand potentially unsafe products. Individualsforced into workfare schemes lack incentives towork to a high standard, and may be activelydisaffected. The work they do is thereforeunlikely to benefit anyone much and raises anumber of safety issues: would you drive acrossa bridge built by workfare labour? Would youtrust your aged parent or pre-school child to aworkfare carer? Would you trust them with anyjob that required the handling of money? Giventhese constraints, it is clear that the governmentmay be unable to find enough worthwhile thingsfor their forced labourers to do.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Workfare provides skills to allow the unemployedto work their way out of poverty Workfares offerthe unemployed opportunities to develop skills towork their way out of poverty. Productive workraises the expectations of those involved byincreasing their self-respect and provides themwith more confidence in their abilities. It alsodevelops skills associated with work, such astime keeping, taking and giving instructions,working in a team, accepting responsibility andprioritising. Such skills may seem mundane butthey are very valuable to employers and theirabsence among the long-term unemployed is akey reason why they find it so hard to gain jobs.Individuals who are currently working are alsomore attractive to potential employers thanthose who are unemployed, especially thelong-term unemployed. The evidence suggestsWorkfare is a success; studies of Workfare inMaryland found that 75 per cent of those wholeft welfare had earnings within 2.5 years1 .1:Kaus, M. (2000, April 16). Now She's Done It.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Workfare schemes are of little use if there are nojobs out there for people to do– something whichis an issue of wider economic management.Often the skills which employers are reallydemanding are literacy, numeracy and familiaritywith modern information technology, whichmenial make-work tasks are unlikely to providethe unemployed with. Far better to invest inproper education and training schemes instead.Even if such skills might be developed throughworkfare schemes, will forcing people into suchwork really mean they get the benefits? Most ofthe long-term unemployed are older, maderedundant from declining industries; they do notlack skills but suffer instead from ageistprejudices among employers. Finally, if the‘workfare’ jobs that unemployed people arebeing forced into are real jobs that need doing,then they should simply be employed to do themin the normal way (either by the state or byprivate companies)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Workfare does not break the dependencyculture. People do not seek unemployment anddependency on the state. No one voluntarilyseeks to live on the very low income provided bystate benefits, instead people becomeunemployed through no fault of their own;workfare stigmatises them as lazy and needingto be forced into work by state coercion. Theschemes ignore the talents and ambitions ofthose involved, typically using them for menialtasks and manual labour that teach them nouseful skills", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Workfare schemes benefit society Society alsobenefits from the work done by those onworkfare schemes: These might includeenvironmental improvement in localcommunities, service to assist the elderly anddisabled, and work for charities or localauthorities. In many cases the labour theyprovide would not have been available in anyother way, so the addition they make toeveryone's quality of life is a welcome bonus tothe scheme. Furthermore, a 2011 study inDenmark found a 'strong and significant crimereducing effect of the workfare policy.'1 1:Fallesen, P., Geerdsen, L., Imai, S., &Tranaes, T. (2011, March 1). The Effect ofWorkfare Policy on Crime. Retrieved July 19,2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Workfare breaks the dependency culture Makingthe unemployed work for their welfare moneypositively breaks the dependency culture.Receiving unemployment benefit for doingnothing makes individuals too reliant on thestate and encourages apathy and laziness; this isparticularly true of the long-term unemployedand of those who have never had a paying jobsince leaving school. As President Clinton saidregarding welfare reform, 'the goal is to breakthe culture of poverty and dependence'. Tyingwelfare money to productive work challengesthese something-for-nothing assumptions andshows that the state has a right to ask forsomething in return for the generosity of itstaxpayers. In New York, workfare pays slightlyless than the minimum wage, preserving theincentive for the unemployed to use workfare asa stepping stone into a better-paid, long-termjob1. 1: Kaus, M. (2000, April 16). Now She'sDone It. Retrieved July 19, 2011, from Slate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Workfare projects can be designed so as not todisplace low-paid jobs: Often workfare schemesare limited to non-profit organisationsdeliberately in order to avoid a negative impactupon the local job market. In any case, manyworkers on very low pay only do such work for arelatively short time before finding better jobselsewhere, so this is not a rigid sector of thelabour force, liable to be destroyed by workfare.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Workfare schemes are an investment in people.Spending money on workfare schemes is aninvestment in people, who gain the opportunityto lift themselves out of poverty, and theeconomy, which benefits from a better supply oflabour. Although such schemes might cost moreper person than just handing out dole money fordoing nothing, their ability to deter fraudulentclaimants makes them cheaper overall. Theirsuccess in moving the unemployed into real jobsalso benefits the government and the widereconomy, through taxation and increasedconsumer spending.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Workfare does not help people getjobs Workfare schemes are of little use if thereare no jobs out there for people to do. Theevidence suggests that ‘the vast majority ofunemployment – over 9-10ths – has nothing todo with people not wanting work, and everythingto do with a lack of demand for labour’1. Assuch, with few jobs on offer, it is of little use todemand welfare recipients come in for work,rather than search harder and deeper for the fewjobs that are available. Regardless, often theskills which employers are really demanding arespecialised and at a high level, which menialmake-work tasks are unlikely to provide theunemployed with. It would be far better to investin proper education and training schemesinstead. In 2003, 60 per cent of New York’swelfare recipients did not have high schooldiplomas; if they want this majority to find jobs,they should be paying for them to go back toschool, not clean streets2. 1 Dillow , C. (2010,November 8). Small Truths, Big Errors. Retrieved", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Workfare schemes limit the opportunities to lookfor work Putting the unemployed into workfareschemes actually limits their opportunities tolook for work, by making them show up formake-work schemes when they could be jobhunting. Even if the numbers of those claimingunemployment benefit are reduced by the threatof such a scheme, that does not necessarilyremove them from welfare rolls – they may, forexample, be pushed into claiming other benefits,such as disability allowances. Others may preferto turn to crime for income rather than be forcedinto workfare projects that don’t pay enough tobe an attractive option. The evidence of theWorkfare program in Argentina suggests that thepolicy has little positive effect on finding jobs forparticipants; ‘for a large fraction of participants,the program generated dependency and did notincrease their human capital’1. 1 Ronconi, L.,Sanguinetti, J., Fachelli, S., Casazza, V., &Franceschelli, I. (2006, June).Poverty andEmployability Effects of Workfare Programs in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Workfare will damage the existing labourmarket Workfare harms those already inemployment but on very low pay, because theirmenial jobs are the kind of labour that workfareprojects will provide. Why should a localauthority pay people to pick up litter or laypaving, if workfare teams can be made to do itfor much less? If low-paid jobs are displaced, theultimate result may be higher unemployment. InNew York, public employee unions activelyopposed Workfare specifically because theyfeared it would put public employees out ofwork1. Even if workfare projects are limited tolabour for charities and non-profit groups, theydiscourage active citizenship and volunteerism asthe state is assuming responsibility for theseinitiatives. 1 Kaus, M. (2000, April 16). NowShe's Done It. Retrieved July 19, 2011, fromSlate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Workfare is more expensive than traditionalbenefits Workfare is actually a more expensiveoption than traditional unemployment benefit.The jobless are ultimately given at least thesame amount of taxpayers' money but the statealso has to pay the costs of setting up theschemes, paying for materials, the wages ofsupervisors, transport and childcare costs, etc.In a recession, when the numbers of theunemployed rise substantially, the costs ofworkfare schemes could be prohibitive and leadto the collapse of the policy. Furthermore, even ifthe state wanted to, they couldn't enroleveryone– ‘given that most people who lose ajob find another within six months, there’s nopoint dragging people into these schemes whowill find work anyway given a little moretime’1. 1 Saunders , P. (2011, July 1). Thosewho can work must not be paid to sit athome.Retrieved July 19, 2011, from TheAustralian", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Workfare allows people to demonstrate both tothemselves and others that a day at work will notalways result in failure. This greatly benefits theself-esteem of many, who have become trappedin unemployment because their past experiences(perhaps beginning with unsuccessfulschooldays) have lead them to believe that theycannot be useful and successful when doing aday at work. Workfare demonstrates that to befalse by allowing them to work in a job wherethey can see the results of their labour, and notlose out (indeed, gain benefits) as a result.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ehbusbmwtwm-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Workfare does help people to get jobs byincreasing the perception amongst employersthat the unemployed nevertheless have thepotential to be productive citizens – they’rewilling and able to work, and have gained skillsfrom being in a working environment. Thiscounters one of the key barriers to employment,which is the prioritisation of younger generationswho have not been tarred with the brush ofhaving had to claim benefits. Furthermore, manyschemes allow welfare recipients to satisfy workrequirements by counting class rime, work-studyjobs and internships – therefore, if education iswhat is felt to be missing, Workfare does notdiscourage participants from going back toschool1. 1 New York Times. (2003, April 15).The Mayor's Mistake on Workfare. Retrieved July19, 2011, from The New York Times", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epegppphw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The free market doesn’t invest in fundamentalresearch this is research to understandfundamental principles as it does not have acommercial purpose and may never result in acommercial product, ultimately, fundamentalresearch is the key enabler of innovation. Privatecompanies don’t invest in fundamental research,because by its nature it is open ended and veryexpensive and as a result may never pay backthe investment. One example is the invention ofthe laser: the foundations were laid bytheoretical physicists like Albert Einstein. Thistheoretical work wasn’t done with the purpose toinvent something like a laser, but to probedeeper into the fundamentals of reality. The firstactual existing lasers emerged only 40 yearslater, and only then did corporations begin to beinterested. More examples are DefenseAdvanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), amilitary research lab, and CERN, the operator ofthe world’s largest particle accelerator. Betweenthem, they serendipitously invented the key", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epegppphw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The free market best ensuresinnovation Companies in the free market notonly compete on price, the also compete oninnovation. This is because innovation allowscompanies to ‘leapfrog the competition’ by eitherdriving their competitors out of the market bysuddenly being able to provide a similar good fora fraction of the cost, or by creating a completelynew market for a good or service. In the lattercase, the company can expect to reapmonopoly-profits for a while until the competitioncatches up. The corollary of this is that thisinnovation literally destroys older, moreinefficient businesses in a process called ‘creativedestruction’ (Capitalism, socialism anddemocracy, 2008). Currently well-knownexamples of this are Apples’ iPad, which createda market for tablet computers that didn’t existbefore, Microsoft’s capturing of the PC-softwaremarket or Google’s search engine, which madethe competition irrelevant overnight. Thesemonopolies are, by their nature, temporary: the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epegppphw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The procedural justice of free exchange isimportant, but is presumes that humans are bornwith equal talents and in equally enablingenvironments. This is obviously not true: peoplecan be born to parents with high or lowsocio-economic status and the talents they areborn with, like IQ, are normallydistributed. Suppose you’re born with hightalents but to parents with a low socio-economicstatus. That means your parents do not haveenough income to spend on your education: theirmoney is all spent on the basic necessities likefood and housing. Since you don’t get theeducation you need to further develop yourtalents, you will also likely remain stuck in thesame socio-economic class, as will your children,and their children. At the same time, the childrenof rich parents get more opportunities: evenwhen they’re moderately talented, their parentscan invest in maximally developing their talentsor even give them a large endowment to livefrom. An example of this lack of ‘social mobility’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epegppphw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The free market is the most efficient way tomatch supply and demand In a free market,goods are voluntarily exchanged at a pricearranged solely by the mutual consent of sellersand buyers. The aggregate ‘market price’ is theresult of all individual transactions and containsimportant information for both buyers andsellers. When there is more demand than supply,prices rise (because buyers have to ‘outbid’ eachother), making it attractive for new producers toenter the market and thus adding supply. Whenthere is more supply than demand, prices fall,causing some sellers to leave the market sincetheir production costs are higher than the priceat which they can sell. Thus, in the long run,markets settle on an ‘equilibrium price’ wheredemand and supply are exactly equal. Examplesof the free market actually working are allaround us: take the supply of the pen and paperused to take notes on. If the price is too high atone store, anyone would move to another storewhere it’s cheaper. Therefore, sellers have an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epegppphw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It might be that under theoretical conditions,free markets match up supply and demand in thelong run, but as the famous economist JohnMaynard Keynes said: “in the long run we are alldead”. Even if a stable equilibrium is theoreticallypossible, in practice, it almost never happens,with high fluctuations in price, shortages andexcesses as a consequence (A Tract on MonetaryReform, 2000). An example of a market neverreaching equilibrium is the so-called, empiricallyobserved, ‘Pork Cycle’. When prices for porkmeat are high, producers flock to the market.Since it takes a while, anywhere from months toover a year, to raise pigs before slaughter, priceswill continue to rise and producers continue tojoin – until suddenly, the new supply reachesmaturity and there is a sudden excess of porkmeat on the market. This excess will then last fora longer period, since many producers are‘locked in’, waiting for their pigs to mature. Thesame dynamics operate in the market for skilledlabour, since getting the required vocational", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epegppphw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The free market is morally superior because itoperates on liberty Liberty is one of the highestvalues human beings strive for. Liberty meansthat individuals ‘own’ themselves: individualsonly decide for themselves what to do with theirminds and bodies during their lifetime. Privateproperty is an extension of this, because privateproperty comes about by undertaking an activitywith one’s own body or mind: when I pluckapples from a wild apple tree, they become myproperty through me using my own body to dothe plucking. Similarly, free exchange is anextension of this, because it only comes about ifboth parties perceive the exchange to bebeneficial to them: I will only sell the apples Iplucked if I get more value in exchange than thevalue that continued possession of the applesgives me. Free markets are the only system ofallocating goods and wealth in society that relieson these basic notions of liberty to operate. Ifsomeone becomes rich in a free market, thenthat came about through free exchange: this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epegppphw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The notion that labour alienates might havelooked true in Marx’s days, but nowadays,employers have learnt that if they want to getthe most from their workforce, they need tomake their jobs meaningful. Employers can dothis by offering work that fits an employee’s‘intrinsic motivation’ (Intrinsic motivation atwork, 2009), and by designing the work processin such a way that it facilitates ‘flow’ (Beyondboredom and anxiety, 2000). Interestingly, thesedays, companies actually compete for labour bymaking their work environment moremeaningful, as for example Google’s ‘Life atGoogle’-page shows (Life at Google). As to theidea of allowing a market in organs: if peoplewillingly and knowingly choose to sell theirorgans, what is wrong with it? Also, consider thestatus quo: demand is still there, but theprohibition effectively lowers supply, leading to asignificant number of deaths every year for lackof donor organs. Why is that morally morejustifiable?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epegppphw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It’s not true that all markets naturally lead to aconcentration of power. Whenever concentrationof market power, even leading up to a monopoly,does happen, this is caused by the underlyingcost structure of the industry, whereby acompany experiences increasing returns to scaleand relatively high fixed costs. This means it ismost efficient for the first entrant in a market tobecome as big as possible, as fast as possible.An example of such a natural monopoly used tobe the markets for utilities: when the distributingnetworks for water or energy weren’t built yet,the first company to expand would gain a naturalmonopoly. Given that a natural monopoly is aconsequence of the underlying cost structure ofthe industry, there is not much one can do tochange it. Basically, one can choose between aprivate unregulated monopoly, private monopolyregulated by the state, and governmentmonopoly (Capitalism and Freedom, 2002). Ofthese, the private monopoly is best. Agovernment monopoly would not just be a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epegppphw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The free market fails in providing public andcommon goods A ‘common good’ is a resourcewhich has finite but replenishable supply butwhich is by its nature ‘non-excludable’ (meaningit’s hard to exclude individuals from using theresource). One example is the stock of fish in thesea. If all fishermen would refrain fromoverfishing, the fish population would have timeto restore itself. But each individual fishermanhas an incentive to capture and sell as much aspossible. Since in a free market, there is nogovernment coordinating supply and demand,each fisherman acts on their individualincentives. The result is rapid, irreversibledepletion of the common good (Tragedy of thecommons, 1968). A ‘public good’ is a resourcewhich is also ‘non-excludable’ but is also‘non-rivalrous’, that is a good whoseconsumption by one consumer still allowssimultaneous consumption by other consumers.One example of this is the air we breathe: everybreath I take does not prevent you from taking a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epegppphw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The free market degrades human dignity Thefree market views the human body and thehuman mind as a mere instrument: the onlyvalue an individual being has is the value it cansell its labour (whether it be manual or mentalwork) for on the market. Workers don’t workbecause they want to produce something theythemselves find inherently valuable; they workto earn a living. And given that most people arenot entrepreneurs or business owners, thismeans that most people will spend the most oftheir waking day labouring for goals set to themby others, in partial processes subdivided anddefined for them by others, all to create productsand services which are only valuable to others,not to themselves (Alienation, 1977). Thiscommodification of the human body and mindcan go so far that humans actually start sellingthemselves: free market proponents propose tolegalize the selling of one’s own organs. Whenhumans start selling themselves, they perceiveno value in themselves anymore – all they see in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epegppphw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The free market naturally leads to concentrationof power in the hands of corporations Manyglobal markets are dominated by a few big firms:look, for example, to the markets in fast food,dominated by McDonald’s, or the market fordrilling and selling oil, dominated by Exxon, Shelland BP. This concentration of market power isnatural outcome of free markets, this is becauseof economies of scale – a production line canproduce each individual unit faster and morecheaply than if products were made individually.Also partly because the transaction costs ofmarkets are too high (i.e. the costs ofnegotiating, monitoring and managing all theexchange relations necessary for production anddistribution of the good or service involved),corporations have an incentive to structurallyorganize themselves into large firms (The Natureof the Firm, 1937). This also creates barriers toentry; while an individual may be able tomanufacture an individual unit it is much moredifficult to set up a whole factory from scratch in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epegppphw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "A free market can only operate when some basicconditions have been met. One of these is thecondition that exchange of private property ispossible. It’s important to realize that privateproperty is both a normative concept but also alegal reality: in everyday life, private propertyexists because there are contracts and titledeeds that prove that something is my privateproperty. This legal dimension of privateproperty is key to realizing how the governmentcan make free markets work even for commonand public goods. The key is to create privateproperty rights that are rivalrous and excludable,and enforce them accordingly. It is these privateproperty rights that are traded, not necessarilythe good itself (The Private Production of PublicGoods, 1970). For the public good of roads, theprivate property right the government can createis the right to operate a toll booth on that road.For the common good of fisheries, thegovernment can create conditional exploitationrights to private actors, and for carbon dioxide", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Fears about national security are greatlyoverblown, and are often simply an attempt tojustify protectionist measures. Very fewcompanies pose a national security risk, andthose that do are covered by existing regulations– so that, for example, the USA could veto DubaiPort World’s bid to take over American ports.Most SWFs do not seek full control of companiesthey invest in, so they are not in a position tomanipulate their assets for political gain, even ifthey wished to. [1] In reality, countries set upSWFs for economic reasons and they represent amajor national investment, the value of whichwould be expensively destroyed if they oncetried to abuse their position. Nor are there anyactual examples of a country trying to exertpolitical influence through its sovereign wealthfund. Overall, tying a wide variety of states intothe international economic and financial systemis beneficial, as it gives them a stake in thepeace which the global economy needs forprosperity and so makes them less likely to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "SWFs can harm national security Sovereignwealth funds raise worrying issues about nationalsecurity. Unlike mutual funds or private equitygroups, which seek only to maximise theirinvestors’ returns, SWFs must be regarded aspolitical entities. Rather than passively holdingtheir assets, they may seek to use theirpurchases to gain access to natural resources,advanced technologies, including those crucial toour defence, or other strategic sectors. [1] Forexample Gulf states are using their SWFs toinvest in food and natural resources from LatinAmerica. [2] They may engage in economicnationalism, shutting factories in westerncountries to give an unfair advantage to theirown industries [3] . While it has not yethappened they may even attempt economicblackmail, threatening to turn off the lightsthrough their control of energy companies andutilities if governments do not fall in with theirforeign policy aims. Allowing countries such asChina, Russia and various Gulf states to buy up", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Transparency is a good thing, but it would beunfair to single out sovereign wealth funds forspecial punishment over this issue. Hedge fundsand private equity groups are even lesstransparent than SWFs, and their influence in theglobal economy is much greater. [1] Somecountries (e.g. Norway) already operate verytransparent investment strategies. Many haveagreed to the Santiago Principles whichencourage transparency and disclosure offinancial information. [2] It is likely that othercountries will come over time to follow their leadvoluntarily, as it is in the interest of their owncitizens to see that the state is managing theirmoney in an efficiently and honestly. [1]Avendaño, Rolando, and Santiso, Javier, ‘AreSovereign Wealth Funds’ Investments PoliticallyBiased? A Comparison with Mutual Funds’, 2009,p.9. [2] Ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Sovereign wealth funds must be regulated Anumber of possible models of regulation havebeen suggested for sovereign wealth funds.Some, such as Gilson and Milhaupt, have arguedthat state-owned investment vehicles that buyshares abroad should not be allowed votingrights in that stock. [1] Others would put a capon SWF investments, so that they cannot take astake of more than, say 20% in any businesswithout government approval within the countrythe SWF is investing in [2] – meaning that theycan only be passive investors. Both theseproposals would ensure that they are unable toabuse a dominant position while still allowingcountries to benefit from cross-borderinvestment in a globalised economy. At the sametime such rules would prevent any broaderprotectionist backlash so the Sovereign WealthFunds themselves could welcome theregulation. [1] Gibson, Ronald J., and Milhaupt,Curtis J., ‘Sovereign Wealth Funds and CorporateGovernance: A Minimal Solution to the New", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Sovereign wealth funds can undermine economicindependence Sovereign wealth funds (SWFs)have become very important players in theglobal economy. The already exceed the assetscontrolled by hedge funds and will surpass thestock of global foreign exchange reserves. [1]They are now so big that their activities can shiftmarkets, such as Norway’s Government PensionFund did when short selling Iceland’s banks,leading to panic and instability when they sellassets suddenly. [2] Their purchases can meanthat companies owned by other states can endup dominating the economies of smallercountries, undermining their own sovereigntyand economic independence. It is also worryingthat many SWFs are controlled by undemocraticstates which have a questionable commitment tocapitalism; should we allow such states toexercise so much power over oureconomies? [1] Lipsky, John, ‘Sovereign WealthFunds: Their Role and Significance’, 2008, [2]The Economist, ‘Sovereign Wealth Funds", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Sovereign wealth funds are not new and they arestill only a tiny part of the global financialsystem. They represent only about 2% of globaltraded securities, and are dwarfed by otherfinancial actors such as mutual funds, or privateequity groups and hedge funds. [1] What ismore, in comparison with these other players inthe global financial system, SWFs are long-terminvestors looking many years, even decades intothe future. This means that they are likely tobring calm, rather than irrational volatility tomarkets, as they will not be rushed into dumpingassets based on a few months of bad data. [1]The Economist, ‘Sovereign Wealth FundsAsset-backed insecurity’, 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Regulations already exist to prevent foreigninvestments that might compromise nationalsecurity. [1] Other than this it would be unfair todiscriminate against certain classes of investors.Wealth-creating capitalism relies upon investorsseeking to maximise the value of theirinvestments. Without voting rights or thepossibility of exercising majority control of acompany, SWFs would be unable to ensure thatmanagers were working hard on their behalf,allocating resources efficiently and being heldaccountable for their decisions. [1] Gibson,Ronald J., and Milhaupt, Curtis J., ‘SovereignWealth Funds and Corporate Governance: AMinimal Solution to the New Mercantilism’, 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "While it may be true that the state is often a badmanager of assets and businesses in this casethe state is not usually involved in themanagement of the assets. This is being donethrough the wealth fund which is often in largepart run by people whose background is infinance rather than in government. This use ofexternal independent asset managers in itselfshould be enough to ease worries over statecontrol. [1] Because SWFs don’t seek to havecontrol over the majority of the businesses theyinvest in discredited government economicplanning is not an issue. [2] Indeed SWFs areoperating much more like private companiesthan state owned enterprises. [1] Mezzacapo,Simone, ‘The so-called “Sovereign WealthFunds”: regulatory issues, financial stability andprudential supervision’, 2009, p.46. [2] Rose,Paul, ‘Sovereign Wealth Funds: Active or PassiveInvestors?’, 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Sovereign Wealth funds are nottransparent Sovereign wealth funds suffer froman almost total lack of transparency. Mostcountries maintain secrecy about the size of theirfunds and the extent of their holdings, theiraccountability to government, their investmentstrategies and their approach to riskmanagement. Without knowing these things, it isimpossible to gauge whether political oreconomic objectives will dominate the SWFs’behaviour, or indeed whether they will make safeand responsible shareholders in any business –secrecy breeds corruption. For these reasons,Jeffrey Garten of Yale has argued that SWFsshould be obliged to publish independentlyaudited accounts twice a year. He has alsopointed out that many countries operating SWFsprotect their domestic economy from foreigncompetition and investment. We should demandreciprocity, so that countries seekinginvestments abroad must open up their owneconomies fully before they are allowed to hold", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "State ownership is not a good way of controllingfunds The ownership of important businesses bysovereign wealth funds runs counter to theeconomic policy pursued by almost everygovernment over the past 25 years. In the 1970smany states owned nationalised industries aspart of an attempt at socialist economic planningthat has now been discredited. State ownershipdistorted incentives, interfered with managementand produced decades of underinvestment, poorservice to consumers, and national economicfailure with the most extreme example being theSoviet Union itself. Since the 1980s countrieseverywhere have followed the example ofThatcher’s Britain and privatised their industries,freeing them to compete efficiently and togenerate more wealth and jobs than they hadever done in state hands. Going back to stateownership of business is a dangerous backwardstep, especially as it is now foreign governmentsthat are doing the nationalising.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Fears about the unrestrained influence ofsovereign wealth funds will likely stimulate widerprotectionism anyway if effective regulation isnot introduced. Protectionist politicians mayexploit fears of foreigners to restrict any kind offoreign investment, and seek to build up nationalchampions as a defensive measure. This riskslosing all the economic benefits of globalisation,such as opportunities to unwind financialimbalances and to spread expertise, whiledirecting capital to areas where it can have thegreatest impact. Better to regulate SWFs now forfear of a greater backlash later.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "In many cases sovereign wealth funds are noteven good for the states that own them. Almostall are emerging economies with limited financialexpertise available to them, and they are notequipped to invest the money wisely. This hasled to SWFs paying inflated prices for dodgywestern companies, whose share price hassubsequently collapsed, resulting in the loss ofbillions of dollars of national wealth for exampleChina Investment Corporation lost $500millionon Blackstone, Qatar Investment Authority mayhave lost as much as $2billion in its attempt tobuy Sainsburys. [1] Surely it would be better toinvest the money at home, or even return it totheir people in the form of lower taxes. [1] TheEconomist, ‘The rise of state capitalism’, 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "SWFs can help the financial system in times oftrouble Sovereign wealth funds should becredited with coming to the rescue of the globalfinancial system during the turmoil of 2008. Withtheir long-term horizons for a return on theirinvestments they have been willing to providebillions of dollars in new capital to distressedcompanies, at a time when other sources offunding have headed for the door. [1] Theirmoney has allowed firms to continue trading andso safeguarded jobs at a time of greatuncertainty. It has also helped prevent completecollapse of global equities prices, on which manypeople, through their pension funds, depend fora secure future. Moreover unlike some othertypes of funds such as hedge funds SWFs havean interest in keeping the global economy stableand reducing the impact of any downturns astheir own country is bound to be affected byglobal economic conditions so responsibleinvestment practices are encouraged. SWFstherefore “can play a shock-absorbing role in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "SWFs should be welcomed for the benefits theybring rather than ostracized for doing whatothers do. Developed countries are guilty of agreat deal of hypocrisy in their attitude to thesovereign wealth funds of emerging economies.In the past their own companies were used asinstruments of state power, for example BP’sorigins lie in Britain’s attempt to dominate Iran’s(at the time known as Persia) oil wealth. [1] Thedeveloped world is always willing to buy assetson the cheap, as shown by American banksbuying up Asian banks during the Asian Financialcrisis at the end of the 1990s. [2] Recently SWFshave proved willing to channel a great deal ofinvestment into poorer states, particularly inAfrica, their investments have already surpassedthe IMF and World bank’s, [3] boosting theireconomies and assisting their long-termdevelopment through the provision ofinfrastructure such as roads and ports. This is amuch more equal relationship than thatpromoted by the west, with its manipulation of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Restricting SWFs is protectionism Restricting theactivities of sovereign wealth funds is a form ofprotectionism, which is itself likely to stimulatefurther demands for barriers againstglobalisation. Western countries opposeprotectionism when it is from other countriespreventing western companies investing so itwould be hypocritical to want protectionismagainst those same countries buying the firmsthat want so much to invest in emergingmarkets. [1] It should be remembered thatalmost 40% of SWF assets are controlled bySWFs from advanced industrialised states. [2] Asa result SWF investments abroad contribute togreater economic openness around the world. Byexposing emerging economies and authoritarianstates to developed world standards oftransparency, meritocracy and corporate socialresponsibility, they will help to spread liberalvalues and raise standards. They will also givemany more nations a stake in internationalprosperity through trade, encouraging", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "SWFs represent good economic management bycountries with surpluses Sovereign wealth fundsare highly beneficial for states with largefinancial surpluses. Traditionally they have beenrun by resource-rich countries which wish todiversify their assets to smooth out the impact offluctuations in commodity prices on theireconomies and revenues. The fund can then bedrawn down then prices are low. [1] Indeed 30of 38 SWFs in 2008 were established for such astabilization role. [2] By holding investmentsabroad, oil-rich countries such as Qatar andNorway have also built up valuable nationalreserves against the day when their fossil fuelseventually run out. Kiribati, a pacific islandcountry, put aside wealth from mining guanofrom fertilizer. Now the guano is all mined butthe $400million fund boosts the island’s GDP bya sixth. [3] In any case, allowing all the incomefrom natural resources into your domesticeconomy is well known to lead to wastefulinvestments and higher inflation – better to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The amounts sovereign wealth funds invest inthe poorest countries is tiny compared to theiroverall portfolio. In 2008 the head of the WorldBank Robert Zollick was attempting to persuadesovereign wealth funds to invest just 1% of theirassets in Africa. [1] Investment by SWFs inAfrica is not all good. Sovereign wealth funds areguilty of bad behaviour in the developing world.Some government-backed firms from China andthe Arab world (not all of the SWFs) haveprovided capital to maintain some of Africa’sworst rulers in power, in exchange for theopportunity to gain access to the naturalresources of their misruled states. Sudan forexample has sold 400,000 hectares to the UnitedArab Emirates. [2] This has allowed dictators toignore the conditions (e.g. for political freedomsand economic reforms) attached to fundingoffered by western aid donors and internationalinstitutions such as the World Bank. It alsocontrasts sharply with the behaviour of westerncompanies, who are led to act more responsibly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghwarasw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Sovereign Wealth Funds could potentially helpthe financial system but they will only do so if itis in the national interest of their country to doso. It is this political dimension that is the reasonfor more regulation. Moreover regulation ofSWFs will not prevent these funds from helpingthe global financial system. They will still be freeto invest. Moreover it does not reduce theincentives for them to do so either, regulationwill make no difference to a state’s motivationsin a time of crisis – the national interest willremain key.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This price-lowering effect is most likely to be feltin those industries where the majority of thecosts are in wages; these industries are likely tobe service based industries. Individuals,especially poorer individuals, rarely buy services,so the effect on the poorest is likely to belimited.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "This will distribute wealth more evenly As aresult of having to pay important directors andemployees a lower wage, businesses will be ableto produce their goods and services for a lowercost, and sell therefore sell them for a lowerprice. This will lead to a more equitabledistribution of wealth, as the poorest will becomerelatively richer, as prices will fall. This will alsobe true for small businesses, which will be ableto obtain cheaper legal and financial advice andbusiness consultancy, and are therefore morelikely to succeed. Sports provide a good exampleof this. In major league baseball salaries for theplayers more than doubled in real terms between1992 and 2002 while ticket prices rose 50%. Asplayers wages take more than 50% of teamsrevenues a cap would mean a significant cut incosts that could be passed on to theconsumer.1 1 Michael J. Haupert, \"TheEconomic History of Major League Baseball\",EH.net Encyclopedia, December 3rd 2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is equally likely that money is a significantmotivator in productivity, and that limiting wageswill therefore harm productivity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Equality is in and of itself a good thing Firstly, itlimits social tension that may arise due to publicdissatisfaction with high wages; see the attackson the famous banker Sir Fred Goodwin in theUK1. Secondly, people may feel that societyrecognizes them as being more equal, increasingthe perceived self-worth of many, avoidingfeelings of inferiority and worry about their socialworth, and making them feel closer to otherpeople. See, for example, Sweden, which has thelowest Gini Coefficient (indicating low levels ofinequality) in the world, and also some of thehighest levels of GDP per capita, life expectancyand literacy rates, and low levels of crime andobesity2. Furthermore, a Forbes report suggestsSweden is one of the happiest countries in theworld (along with Denmark, Finland and Norway,3 other countries with a low Gini Coefficient)3. 1BBC News Website, 25th March 2009 2 CIAWorld Factbook, 20th July 2011 3 Forbes , \"TheWorld's Happiest Countries\", July 14th 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Systems for implementation This system wouldbe best implemented by imposing a mandatory100% tax on all personal income over $150,000,and all bonuses over $30,000. This means thatsome revenue could still be raised from this ifpeople did continue to pay large salaries andbonuses, although they are unlikely to do so.Furthermore, it would be best implementedthrough international cooperation, to limit theopportunity of one country to be able to offerhigher salaries and poach talented individuals.Countries may agree to this as it prevents a 'raceto the top' in salaries, where companies have tooffer more and more money to attract the bestpeople.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Some evasion of this is inevitable; figures show$2 trillion of unreported income in the US in20081. Furthermore, international cooperation isunlikely, as each country has a strong incentiveto renege on agreements to attract moretalented people to their country. 1 E . Feige,\"America's Underground Economy: Measuringthe Size, Growth and Determinants of IncomeTax Evasion in the U.S\", January 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Social tensions are greatly exaggerated, and onlyactually felt when a specific crisis and against avery specific figurehead (in the case of FredGoodwin, an entirely isolated example, the largeamounts of media coverage he received for hisrole in the banking crisis). Furthermore, feelingsof inferiority are typically reasoned away bypeople, who explain other's greater income interms of their willingness to work hard, or beinglucky. The feeling of superiority over others canbe considered a motivator that encourages somepeople to work (See Opposition Argument Onebelow). Finally, Sweden may be disanalogous asan example as they (and other Scandinaviancountries) have a strong collectivist spirit thatmay be lacking in other countries.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "It is likely that foreign demand will displacenational demand for properties, especially in keycity areas (such as New York or London).Furthermore, having a nice house is one of thestrongest incentives to have a job and be aproductive tax-paying member of society; loss ofthis incentive may decrease a society's outputlevel and tax revenue.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "This will enable people to better choose theirjobs When wages are better standardized acrossprofessions, people are less likely to feel sociallypressured into seeking out a higher paid job. Assuch, they are more likely to choose their job onthe basis of other factors, such as how muchthey enjoy the job, or how ethical the workingpractices of a company are. This will lead tohappier, and hence more productive, employees.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "This will limit the control of the rich over keyscarce resources Some resources –most notablyhousing – are very important to large numbers ofpeople, and owning them gives people a greatdeal of happiness. This policy will limit richerpeople owning several properties while otherslive in rented accommodation or smaller houses,as price competition for such properties will beless intense, and poorer people will be betterable to compete through savings. Estimates in2005 suggested there were 6.8million secondhomes in the USA1.This is a good thing, as it islikely that a person (or family) values their firstproperty more than another person values theirsecond property, known as the law ofdiminishing marginal returns. This is perhaps thebest example of the ways in which inequalityleads to worse outcomes for society. 1 E .Belsky, “Multiple-Home Ownership and theIncome Elasticity of Housing Demand”, October2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is still significant social prestige to being adoctor that will motivate people to take up therole; the same will be true for other high-paidjobs where there is a lot of training, such aslawyers. This prestige is often a key part of thereason people do the job in the first place; manydoctors are paid far less than people working inbusiness or financial services at similar levels ofseniority. Finally, the unpleasant jobs mentionedtypically are done for a salary well below the capproposed, and they still have adequate people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The effect of high salaries on levels of laborsupply is likely to be marginal. People work inpart due to the significant social pressure ofhaving a job and advancing themselvescomparatively against others. This motivationwill still exist, as there will still be rewards toadvancing your career; a salary closer to thesalary cap, and the added responsibility andsocial (or business) standing such advancementprovides. While there may be fewer peoplewilling to work 18 hour days, 6 days a week, thiswork is being done because it is valuable – sothe firm will need to employ more people to doit, and the work is spread over a larger numberof people, possibly even increasing employment", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "This motion will lead to people leaving thecountry, and will limit the intake of skilledworkers Many industries, especially at thehighest paying end, rely on people of variousnationalities. This is especially true in placesseen to be financial centers of the world, such asNew York, London and Tokyo – for example,175,000 professional or managerial roles weregiven to immigrants in the UK in 20041. When apolicy such as this is instigated, many people willleave to other countries that do not have such alimit, especially if they are initially from anothercountry. Furthermore, it will be difficult for acountry to attract talent while this policy is ineffect, as the significant difficulty moving countryinvolves, such as leaving friends and familybehind, cannot be compensated for by a higherincome. 1 John Salt and Jane Millar, Office ofNational Statistics “Foreign Labour in the UnitedKingdom: current patterns and trends”, October2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "High salaries incentivize people to take risks andundertake research Many entrepreneurs aredriven by profit. This is the reason that peopletake out large loans from banks, often with theirhome as security, and use it to set up abusiness; the hope of profit and a better life.Without that incentive, the risk has a far lowerreward, and therefore will appear to be not worthit. Entrepreneurs not only give others jobs, butstimulate the economy with new ideas andbusiness practices that can spill over into otherareas of the economy. Even within businessesthat are already established, this policy will beproblematic. For example, why wouldresearchers at a pharmaceutical company try todevelop a new drug if they realize they can'tfinancially benefit from it? GlaxoSmithKline spentover $6bn dollars on research in 2010 alone1.This policy could limit such research into the typeof technology (or medicine) that advancessociety. 1 FierceBiotech , \"GlaxoSmithKline: TheWorld's Biggest R+D Spenders\", March 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "High salaries incentivize people to do difficult orunpleasant jobs Some jobs are extremelydifficult or unpleasant. Consider a doctor, whotrains for many years, often unpaid, in order todo their job – and the average doctor’s salary inthe USA is close to the proposed cap, andsurpasses it with merely 5 years experience1. Orconsider a sewage worker or firefighter, whosejob is one that many people would not want todo. High salaries are a good way of encouragingpeople to do these jobs; limiting the ability topay high salaries will mean that some vital rolesmay be less appealing, and the job will not bedone. 1 Payscale , “Salary for People with Jobsas Physicians/Doctors”, July 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "High salaries incentivize people to workhard People respond to incentives, and one ofthe most direct incentives is a financial one.Higher salaries encourage people to deploy theirlabor. This benefits society by increasing taxrevenues that can be spent on redistributivepolicies; for example, consider the muchmaligned investment banking profession. It isnot uncommon for investment bankers to work14 to 18 hour days, and to work at weekends; itis unlikely they would do this without theincentive of high salaries and bonuses, at least inthe long run. The taxation on financial serviceproviders (that rely on such hard work) and theworkers themselves is significant; in 2010 in theUK, it was 11.2% of total tax receipts1.Furthermore, the deployment of labor may leadto more supporting workers being needed andtherefore job creation. 1 PWC , \"The Total TaxContribution of UK Financial Services\", December2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Under this policy, companies will not be able tospend their profits on inflating their salaries, andso are more likely to have a long-term outlook tothe company. The best way to advancelong-term interests is through research; it ispossible that all their excess profit will be spenton this. While entrepreneurs may be driven byprofit, the salary proposed is sufficiently highthat it can be aspired to; most entrepreneurs willstill be motivated by it, as they seldom alreadyhave a job that already pays so much.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-befhwimsc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The significant difficulty of moving country, suchas leaving behind friends and family, and leavingbehind an area (or even language) you knowwell, are likely to limit emigration. As forimmigration, the skill set is typically alreadywithin the country; if not, this policy mayencourage a focus on an educational system toensure it is. Finally, if the argumentation aboutequality leading to a better and happier society iscorrect, this in itself will attract immigrants tohigh-paying jobs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epfthwpebd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The single biggest impact the US government, orany government, can have on the economy iswhat it does with its own money. By creatingjobs through public expenditure it stimulateslocal economies and creates growth. Proponentsof the baby boomer crisis theory also ignore onevery significant fact – these people did not causea financial crisis before they started working inthe late sixties. It also seems unlikely that all ofthem will stop work as life expectancies are nowmuch longer than in the middle of the lastcentury and a majority can be expected toremain economically active.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epfthwpebd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Paying off national debt via austerity measureswould free-up money used for interestpayments The first of the baby boomers startretiring in 2011 and, as a result, qualify forMedicare. There are 78 million people in thisgeneration and all of the statistics suggest thatthey are likely to live significantly longer thanprevious retiring generations [i] . As a result theUS has some very big bills coming in the nextfew years and a decreasing base of thoseworking and paying tax revenue to paythem. This is really not the time to be wastingmoney on interest for deficits built up to supportprogrammes that are unnecessary. Paying downthe debt frees up tax revenue for much neededsupport, both financial and medical, for seniorsas they retire. [i] Laurence J. Kotlikoff and ScottBurns. “The Coming Generational Storm.” MITPress 2004.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epfthwpebd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The only ways to control the deficit, other thanstimulating growth and the tax revenues itproduces, would be either to cut services or toincrease taxes. Both actions would harm thelonger term objective of stimulating growth asthey both take cash out of the real economy. Bycontrast, focusing on domestic spending torestart the economy will produce long termstability; whether through stimulus packages orother methods. The idea that there is no need torun at a deficit during a time of recession isabsurd. In the light of the financial challengescurrently faced by the US, but also in the longerterm, it is vital that the government has theability to run its expenses at a deficit to act as astimulus. The reality is that it is in the interestsof everyone, not just Americans, for the USgovernment to be able to spend relatively freely.Surpluses are nice but they are a luxury theworld’s financial engine can rarely afford.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epfthwpebd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Governments need to live within theirmeans Ultimately the US Government has topay its bill just like everyone else. Ultimatelymaintaining a permanent deficit harms theeconomy creating both inflationary pressuresand effecting interest rates. However, thesepressures are not the main source of concern.Although deficits in times of plenty are a graveconcern, during a recession most economistagree that deficits may be necessary. However,the US is no longer ‘mostly in debt to itself’ ashas been the case in the past. [i] Increasingly,its debt is owned by the major Asian economies;especially China. The implications should conflictarise between the two are severe as China,effectively has the capacity to bankrupt the USand the dollar at a time of its own choosing. [i]John W. Schoen. “Just who Owns the US NationalDebt?” MSNBC 3 April 2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epfthwpebd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is incredibly unlikely that China would ever callin its debts as any damage done to the dollarwould be fairly insignificant compared to theimpact on China’s own economy andcurrency. America can afford to service its debtsand doing so is a major stimulus to the globaleconomy. Nobody has an interest in breaking thedollar, as doing so would cause a run on everybank in the world – including the Bank of China.China holds reserves roughly equivalent to M1 –cash in circulation in the US (although it’s worthnothing this represents about four percent of theactual dollars in the world) and so a massiverelease of dollar-denominated assets would hurtthe dollar greatly. The results would see theprice of oil, and most other commodities,skyrocket as they are priced in dollars and wouldbring the entire global financial system to a halt.China has no interest in either of these thingshappening.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epfthwpebd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Many of the reasons for operating a debt havenow been eliminated At the end of the Clintonpresidency the government was running at ahealthy surplus following the longest sustainedperiod of growth in US history. Bush Chose tospend that on tax cuts and two extremelyexpensive wars (the War in Iraq was the mostlycostly war, in relative terms, in US history exceptfor WWII). Obama was landed with the problemsthat Bush created, but has chosen to extendspending rather than control the deficit.As Thecountry is no longer at war, there is no realreason to be running at a deficit. AlanGreenspan, and many others, have pointed outthat the impact of continued deficits is likely tobe higher interest rates – at a time when thecountry can ill afford them – which will hurt theeconomy. [i] [i] Mark Gongloff. “GreenspanWarns Against Deficits”. CNN. 26 February 2004.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epfthwpebd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "If China moves to recall the trillion dollars or sothat they are owed because they no longer trustUS debt, or even just to offload it, the effect onthe average American would be devastating. Thebenefits in increased exports would be more thancompromised by increased costs for basic goodsand services. Inflationary pressures wouldbecome severe and interest rates – one of theFed’s primary tools in fighting the recession –would be forced to rise to combat it. It simplymakes no sense to run the risk of the sort ofcollapse that would ensue if the governmentloses the ability to borrow because of a lack ofconfidence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epfthwpebd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This may well have been the case when a AAAcredit rating could simply be taken for grantedbut it is no longer the case. Standard and Poorhas down-graded America’s credit rating [i] andChina looks set to follow suit [ii] . A lower ratingmeans paying higher interest on governmentborrowing. This is new territory for the US; aneconomy that has no experience of anythingother than top ratings. Suddenly all that moneyfrom China doesn’t look so cheap and the engineof the world economy is running in to trouble.It’s time to stop being reliant on other people’smoney. [i] Robert Peston. “US Loses AAA CreditRating After S&P Downgrade”. BBC. 6August 2011. [ii] Peter Beaumont. “ChineseRatings Agency Threatens US With New DebtDowngrade.” The Guardian. 12 November 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epfthwpebd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "A recession is not the point at whcih debtsshould be paid back. The state should focus onjob creation strategies It would be the height ofirresponsibility for the US government to eventhink about giving anything a higher economicpriority than the creation of jobs at a time whenunemployment is running at 9.1%. It isessential that the federal government uses itseconomic muscle to get Americans working againrather than settling fairly obscure points ofeconomic theory. Taking money out of thesystem will cost jobs and hurt business, it willalso lead to redundancies in the public sector.Ultimately it would be self-defeating. Admittedly,the Bush regime should have been running theeconomy at a surplus but it didn’t and that is thereality that the current government needs todeal with.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epfthwpebd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The US should focus on divising ways in which topay the medicare and medicaid bills faced by itspopulation The realities facing the USgovernment are that it has two separate sets ofbills to pay. On one hand there are those tocentral banks and overseas investors. The othersare to its own citizens who have been giving thegovernment their tax dollars over the course of aworking lifetime on the understanding that theywould recoup that money in healthcare and otherbenefits at a later stage. The priority has to bedomestic expenditure.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epfthwpebd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Nobody is going to risk financial instability in theUS by calling in the principle sum on the loansthat it has taken out There really is no problemwith the Federal Government running at a deficitvirtually permanently – as it has for most of itshistory. There is no threat of a default as thiswould require any lender to commit financialsuicide as a result. The deficit allows the mostpowerful economic actor on earth to act as astimulus to those in smaller roles. Paying downthe debt reduces money supply and, ultimately,contracts the economy. By relying on the savingsof nations like China, through bonds and otherinstruments, the US is furthering its traditionalrole of being the primary engine of globaleconomic growth. [i] [i] Rich Millar. “DemocratsRubin, Schwarz Clash on Spending Versus DeficitCuts”. Bloomberg. 11 June 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epfthwpebd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "At some point the US needs to come to termswith its debts and a gradual collapse ofconfidence in the US’s ability to pay its debts willnot help the American economy or anyone else’s.With a declining tax base – both as a result ofunemployment and an increasing burden ofeconomic inactivity through retirement, thegovernment will increasingly have todemonstrate that it is ‘good for the money’rather than just assuming that something willturn up. Despite hundreds of billions poured intothe economy since the start of Obama’s time inoffice, the economy remains stagnant. As aresult it’s time for the government todemonstrate that it can use austerity as well aslargesse to solve the problem.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwpaja-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The social problems that have taken root inAmerica result from a number of convergingcauses. While many individuals may desperatelywant to contribute to the debate surroundingthese problems, attributing the decliningperformance of the American economy highlyvisible social divisions is misleading andunproductive. The division between rich andpoor as well as the low taxes on the rich existbecause a lower tax burden on the rich promotesinnovation within economies. Specifically, it isoften the rich that engage in enterprise, be itthrough their own businesses or as part of largecorporations. The lower tax burden on the richmakes taking risks in order to develop newtechnology more profitable for the people makingthose risks. Promotion of enterprise and riskduring recessions should be a priority forAmerican policy makers, because it is often newproducts that drive economic growth by creatingnew markets which drive demand and also byincreasing productivity. As such, an increase on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwpaja-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The Jobs Act Redresses the Balance Between theWealthy and the Middle Class One of the moredivisive problems in America is the increasinginequality between the wealthy and members ofother classes. The harms that could, and haveresulted from this extend to the Occupy Protestsin the tail end of 2011, as well as riots With therich consistently seeming to get richer despitethe poor economic climate, many of the less richwithin the American economy feel that the stateis playing against them, conferring advantageson those best able to lobby politicians and makelarge election campaign donations. This isproblematic when it is state mechanisms that willenable American’s who lack access to costlyuniversities to better educate and trainthemselves, thus making them more employablethus allowing them to help push the Americaneconomy out of recession. A popular consensushas emerged amongst America’s middle class,which portrays the recession as an eventtriggered by the rich, with rhetoric regarding", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwpaja-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The American Jobs Act may be projected tocreate a lot of jobs. However, this comesfollowing tax cuts and a fiscal stimulus packagein 2009. In the past these measures to help theeconomy failed, with unemployment remainingstagnant at around 25 million despite the effortsby the government in 2009. The reason thisoccurred in 2009 is that despite the stimuluspackage there was a strong degree ofuncertainty within the economy. As such, eventhough consumers and producers were facing alower tax burden it became apparent that neithergroup was willing to take big risks in a highlyuncertain economic environment. The possibilityof recession was all too apparent, and thisaffected both business and consumerconfidence. Given the Eurozone crisis at themoment, the situation in 2011 is very similar,with much of the world economy waiting on theoutcome in Europe to see whether recession orrecovery awaits. Such a climate is not conduciveto risk taking on the part of firms. Hiring extra", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwpaja-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The American Jobs Act Will Help the Long TermUnemployed The long term unemployed inAmerica are important to the economic recovery.Whilst those who are temporarily unemployedwill eventually come back into employment andstart contributing to the economy, they will oftenbe offset by those losing work. For the U.S.economy to gain headway, spare capacity mustbe created in the economy for those who havenot been employed for a long period of time.Should the U.S. be able to harness these workersand create extra employment capacity to keepthem in employment, then the U.S. economy willsee a boost as the number of people gainingwork will outnumber those losing work to a moresignificant level than seen ordinarily in aneconomic recovery. The American Jobs Act helpsin this area by creating what is known as a“Bridge to Work” program which capitalises oninitiatives that many states have put into place inorder to deal with long term unemployment.Specifically these programmes help those", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwpaja-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Whilst long term unemployment is an issuewithin America, it is not an issue to be focusedon during a time of economic recovery andpotential recession again. In a recession thereare significantly more people who suffer fromtemporary unemployment because businessesthat are unable to survive the hardships of therecession often shut down. This means followinga recession there are a large number of skilledworkers in the work force who lack jobs. Asrecovery gains pace, these workers arere-employed at a greater rate than other workersare made redundant. Given that these people arealready skilled and can already make a verysignificant contribution to the economy, it seemsillogical that a bill intended to promote economicrecovery should focus on the long-termunemployed at all. Presumably, most people whosuffer from long term unemployment will take afew years to acquire the skills needed tomeaningfully contribute to the economy. At thispoint, the economy will likely already be out of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwpaja-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The American Jobs Act Helps Small Business andCreates Jobs The American Jobs Act helps smallbusinesses and is also set to significantlyincrease the number of jobs available to people.Small enterprise is particularly important in thecreation of jobs because these businesses tendto be start-up businesses. Many start-ups areentrepreneurial in character, and succeed or failon their ability to identify and exploit newmarkets. Increasing investment in new andemergency markets spurs the creation ofadditional jobs within those markets. Thanks tothe cuts in payroll tax contained in the Jobs Act,many small businesses will stand to benefit bygaining some of the money paid to thegovernment back. The President’s plan will alsoeliminate payroll taxes entirely if firms add newworkers or increase the wages of their currentworkers. As such, there will be significantincentives for small businesses to hire moreworkers.1 Cuts to payroll taxes, combined withthe other changes planned by the bill, are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwpaja-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Whilst successful individuals may be confrontedwith an increased tax bill, the American Jobs Actalso significantly reduces taxes on businesses.This is especially important with respect toinnovative risk as it is businesses, notindividuals, which bear the main brunt of riskfollowing innovation. As such, it is reasonable toassume that the effect of higher tax on the richwill often be negated, with respect to innovationby the lower tax on businesses.1", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwpaja-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Even if the American jobs act is not deficitneutral, it will have a significant effect in thefuture, through spending more in the present tospeed the American recovery period and preventa double dip recession. During the boom period itwill be significantly easier to pay any increaseddeficit back. Further, even if the American creditrating is to be downgraded further, changes inthe credit rating are played to be moresignificant than they actually are. The Japanesefor example have had their credit ratingdowngraded by Moody’s to Aa3, however, bondinterest in Japan is 2% at its highest levels onlong term Japanese bonds whereas it is 3% inthe U.S.7 The change in the credit rating ofJapan did very little to increase interest on itsbonds. The reason is that investors still believethat Japan is a stable market despite its deficitwhich amounts to 233% of annual economicoutput. As such, even if the credit rating of theU.S. does get downgraded it is likely to do littlein terms of increasing U.S. bond repayments", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwpaja-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The American Jobs Act Encourages Risk WithoutInfrastructure or Results in Inaction By TheAmerican Jobs Act is problematic because one ofthe main causes of the recession was excessiverisk taking in certain businesses. This recklessbehaviour was the result of poor regulatoryinfrastructure – the state and independentagencies were doing too little to monitor banks’conduct. Whilst some spending from the act isgoing on the improvement of infrastructure inthe form of better checks and balances onbusinesses such as banks which are critical tothe economy, the majority of the spending isinstead going on tax breaks. Whilst taking riskand encouraging risk is generally a good thing inrecessions, the way in which money is put at riskmust be controlled. If it is not controlled wellenough then there is a significant chance thatsuch spending could simply lead to anotherrecession because of another crisis in anotherfinancial sector.9 Alternatively, businesses mayopt to place a greater focus on debt repayments.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwpaja-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The American Jobs Act Will Not Help SuccessfulBusinesses While the American Jobs Act giveshelp to small businesses it does nothing to helpproven companies that already have a record ofsuccess as is shown by their size. Indeed thesecompanies may even be hit by the revenueraising side of the act. It is often the wealthy-both businesses and individuals- that engage inenterprise and risky expansions into newmarkets. A lower tax burden on the rich makestaking risks in order to develop new technologymore profitable and more appealing. Promotingprivate enterprise and risk taking is a keystrategy in resolving recessions. It is often newproducts that drive economic growth by creatingnew markets, which drive demand. An increasein the tax burden of America’s wealthiest citizensand corporations is problematic. It impedes thisgrowth and innovation-led recoverystrategies. It is important to note that the riskthe American economy needs to promote is riskthat is well regulated and, further, is risk in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwpaja-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The American Jobs Act is Not Deficit Neutral Oneof the issues with the American Jobs Act is thatwhile it is claimed that it will be deficit neutralthis may not actually be the case as the costs arefront loaded whereas the revenue is not. TheCongressional Budget Office estimates it will beneutral by 2021 but will increase the deficit by$288 billion in 2012,11 meaning there is a lot ofscope for mistakes in the revenue increases oreven higher interest rates than expectedmeaning it contributes to the deficit. If itcontributes significantly to the deficit then theeconomic benefit that the jobs act might createcould simply be subsumed in greater repaymentson bonds in the future by the U.S. As such, anyspending under the jobs act will have to berecouped elsewhere in the American systemunder taxation. Logically speaking, whilst extragovernment spending could potentially be moreefficient, such sweeping changes that areclaimed to cause such a significant amount ofbenefit to the American economy are almost", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epehwpaja-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Whilst the jobs act does not fully coverinfrastructure, more acts can be drafted in orderto deal with this problem. Further, the financialsector is likely to now be significantly more waryof the problems that initially caused therecession. This is because the collapse ofLehman and the Sub Prime crisis as well as thefollowing recession significantly hurt theirbusinesses. As such, especially so soon after theglobal banking crisis, such companies are goingto be more careful about taking unnecessaryrisks. Whilst this attitude might decay over time,by the time it has decayed enough that actionmust be taken, it is likely that America will beout of recession. Further, it is believed that rightnow, the general health of the corporate sector issound. This means that whilst there is thepossibility that businesses will opt not to use taxbreaks to increase wages and pay debt, it isfairly unlikely. Even if another recession hits, thecurrent strength of the corporate sector is suchthat it is likely to be able to weather the storm", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "For countries that are dependent on theirresources and lack developed industries, freetrade does not promote efficiency. Free trademakes them overly dependent on theirresources, which other countries are coming inand buying. This is because their domesticindustries cannot compete with those of thedeveloped world, so they have difficulty fosteringsectors besides raw goods. They are forced torely on supplying materials, rather than beingable to build innovative industries. That does notoffer efficiency, it just suppresses economies. Forexample Nigeria is dependent on oil for 95% offoreign exchange earnings and 80% of theirbudget money1. Trading oil is not making it amore diversified, sophisticated economy. 1 CIAWorld Fact Book, \"Nigeria\", CIA,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Free trade promotes global efficiency throughspecialization. Operating at maximumproductivity is one of the most important aspectsof an efficient economy. The right resources andtechnology must be combined to produce theright amount of goods to be sold for the rightprice. Therefore all markets should strive forhighest efficiency. In order to maximizeefficiency in the international economy, countriesneed to utilize their comparative advantage. Thismeans producing what you are best at making,compared to other countries. If Mary is the bestcarpenter and lawyer in the US, but makes moremoney being a lawyer, she should devote moreof her time to law and pay someone for hercarpentry needs. Mary has an absoluteadvantage in law and carpentry, but someoneelse has a comparative advantage in carpentry1.Comparatively it makes more sense for someoneelse to do the carpentry, and for Mary to be thelawyer. It is the same in the internationaleconomy. Countries can be more efficient and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Therefore, there is no empirical evidence thatproves that poverty is reduced. If countriesremoved all agricultural subsidies domesticproduction would decrease and world food priceswould increase. Poor countries that import foodwill suffer from increased food prices due totrade liberalization. 45 of the least-developedcountries on earth imported more food than theyexported in 1999, so there are many countriesthat could be severely harmed by increasing foodprices1. 1 Panagariya, Arvind (2003), \"ThinkAgain: International Trade\", Foreign PolicyMagazine,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Free trade creates substantial cooperativerelationships between trading partners. Therehas long been a debate as to whether aid ortrade is more effective in promoting developmentand cooperative relationships. Being interlockedthrough trading relationships decreases thelikelihood of war. If you are engaged in amutually beneficial relationship with othercountries, then there is no incentive tojeopardize this relationship through aggression.It leads to more cooperative relationshipsbecause trading partners have incentives toconsider the concerns of their trade partnerssince their economic health is at stake. Thispromotes peace, which is universal good. In1996, Thomas Friedman famously pointed outthat no two countries with a McDonalds—a signof western liberal economic policies—have evergone to war together.1 Academic studies haveshown that this is specifically a result of freetrade. In 2006 Solomon Polachek of SUNYBinghamton and Carlos Seiglie of Rutgers found", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Free trade is the economic policy that manyliberal countries—who are less likely to go to warwith each other—have chosen. It’s not the policythat makes them liberal. These studies showsuch a strong correlation, because the countriesthat have chosen free trade are largely a hugeblock of countries that already get along,particularly the EU countries and the US. Thesecountries already have the productiverelationships necessary for peace. And historyhas shown that those relationships can befostered without resorting to free trade. Forexample, for many years after World War II,Japan protected many national industries, but itwas a peaceful country with a productiverelationship with the West. Therefore, the costsof free trade are not necessary to achieve thatbenefit since it can be fostered under differentconditions. 1 Paul W. Kuznets, “An East AsianModel of Economic Development: Japan, Taiwan,and South Korea,” Economic Development andCultural Change, vol. 35, no. 3 (April 1988)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Although free trade may promote innovation andgrowth, because of issues like dumping (whererich countries sell their products very cheaply inpoorer countries and make it impossible for localindustry to compete), or jobs being exported toplaces where labor is cheaper, free trade hassignificant costs and does not necessarily fosterbenefits for all. It is necessary to grow infantindustries and create jobs, and free trade hurtsboth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Free trade reduces poverty. Free trade reducespoverty for two reasons. First, it creates direct\"pull up\" as Columbia economist, JagdishBhagwati calls it because it creates demand for acountry's good and industry and thus employsthe poor and expands jobs1. Additionally itcreates more revenue for government that canbe directly targeted towards anti-povertyprograms. Independent research XavierSala-i-Martin at Columbia University estimatesthat poverty has been reduced by 50 millionpeople in the developing world during the era offree trade, since 19871. Hong Kong, Singapore,South Korea, and Taiwan have been liberalizingtrade for the past 40 years and have not sufferedfrom one-dollar-per-day poverty in the last 20years1. If agricultural subsidies were removedfrom developed countries, food would becomemore expensive as there would be fewerproducers, and poor farmers would have a bettershot at competing and making a living. Freetrade promotes the necessary monetary flow and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Free trade promotes growth in allcountries. Through global competition,specialization, and access to technology, freetrade and openness allow countries to growfaster—India and China started in the 1980s withrestrictive trade policies, but as they haveliberalized they have also improved their growthenormously1. The International TradeCommission estimates that a free tradeagreement between just Colombia and the USwould increase the US GDP by $2.5 billion2.When industries have to compete withcompetition around the world, they are pushedtowards innovation and efficiency. Entrepreneursare more productive if they have to compete.Free trade increases access to technology whichalso increases overall development. Because offree trade, prices are lower for everyone. Tradeoffers benefits to both developed and developingnations by encouraging competition, efficiency,lower prices, and opening up new markets to tapinto. 1 Panagariya , Arvind (2003), “Think", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Even with tariffs the steel industry in losing jobs.Nothing can save steel. It simply does notoperate as effectively as other global steelindustries. Further, protectionism helps a smallgroup of workers, the rest of American industrythat is dependent on steel for their operation ishurt by high prices and inefficient production1.Protectionism puts the good of the few above therest. Additionally, the WTO was created toensure that dumping does not happen. Theproblem with infant industry is it's hard todetermine when to start the transition away fromprotectionism, and often it never develops fully.For example, Brazil protected its computerindustry and it never was able to compete evenpast the infant industry stage2. 1 Lindsey, Brinkand Griswold, Daniel T. (1999), \"Steel QuotasWill Harm US\", CATO Institute, 2 Luzio, Eduardoand Greenstein, Shane (1995), \"Measuring thePerformance of a Protected Infant Industry: TheCase of Brazilian Microcomputers\", Review ofEconomics and Statistics,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Marian Tupy of the Center for Global Liberty andPropensity states, \"In the history of the world, nocountry has ever suffered military defeat, orcapitulated to sanctions, due to the inability toproduce a domestically producible product\"1.Globalization also means there are manypartners to trade with, so even if a country is atwar there are plenty of options of other countriesfrom which to buy necessary products. 1 TheIndustrial College of the Armed Forces (2008),\"Industry Study\", National Defense University,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Free trade hurts the world's poor Free tradecreates demand for extremely cheap productsproduced by poor people in terrible conditions inthird world countries. In Indonesia, there arepeople working in sweatshops for 60 cents anhour1. It is estimated that there are 158 millionchild workers around the world2. Free tradecreates demand for the products produced bythis modern day form of child and adult slavery.The governments of the countries where thistakes place do nothing to improve the workingconditions. Sweatshops are produced by freetrade and demand for cheap goods, and the waythat workers are treated is inherently wrong.Therefore free trade is not a force for globalbetterment, but instead hurts the cause of thepoor and their standard of living. 1 Krugman,Paul (1997), \"In Praise of Cheap Labor\",Slate.com, 2 UNICEF, \"Child Labor\",", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Implementing true free trade is unfeasiblebecause it is unreasonable An increasingnumber of countries are looking to bilateral FreeTrade Agreements that will help themspecifically. They are not directly open to freetrade with all countries. These FTAs areundermining the position of the World TradeOrganization which is meant to push countriestowards economic liberalization1. Countries haveno reason to start trading freely with everyone, ifthey already have FTAs with the most beneficialtrading partners. The Doha round seeks toreduce trade barriers in industry and agriculturehas been going on for ten years, but there is stillno agreement. Disputes are becoming morecommon when it comes to trade. In 2009, therewas a dispute over the US putting tariffs onChinese tires that has created tension in thetrade relationship between those two countries2.Considering that the WTO countries have beendebating the Doha round for ten years, it isunreasonable to think that countries are going to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-con03a", "title": "", "text": "It is just to protect industry and jobs. Whencountries dump their products in other marketswithout barriers, they undercut the ability forlocal industries to compete. If those localindustries try to compete, large foreign ormultinational companies can use extremely lowpredatory pricing to make it impossible for thesmaller industries to break into the market. Thefully developed industries in rich countries arealmost impossible for poorer, still developingeconomies to compete with. If they are not giventhe chance and have to compete with largeinternational industries from the beginning,domestic industry in poor countries will have ahard time. The overall economic development ofthe country will thus be inhibited1. Additionally,competition can cost jobs, as industries becomeless profitable and labor is outsourced, so thereis reason to retain protectionism as countries puttheir economic health first. For example, Americahas long protected its steel industry, as in 2002when it adopted a controversial 40% tariff,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Free trade jeopardizes countries' security. If acountry goes to war with one of its tradingpartners, it needs to have the capacity toproduce all of the necessary tools for wardomestically, and not depend on other countriesfor supplies and parts. Additionally there is fearthat disease-causing agents and bioterrorism canenter countries through the trade of poorlyinspected food1. For reasons of national securityit makes sense to retain the capacity to producewhat is necessary to win a war and to protect thedomestic population. This is one of the reasonswhy countries—such as the US1—like to protecttheir agricultural industry. Free trade is a threatto global security. For countries to stay safe,they need to retain some protectionism in theirinternational trade policy. 1 George W. Bush,“Homeland Security Presidential Directive 9:Defense of United States Agriculture and Food,”U.S. Department of Homeland Security, accessedJuly 15, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Opening up in FTAs is the first step towardsliberalization in the larger sense and opening upto all free trade, so it should not be considered afailure. Additionally, free trade needs to balanceinternational and domestic goals so coming to anagreement is difficult, but the WTO has beensuccessful in the past. The current problems withthe Doha round do not spell the end to the WTOor free trade1. 1 Meltzer, Joshua (2011), \"TheFuture of Trade\", Foreign Policy Magazine,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-feghbgft-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Sweatshops are unfortunate, but free trade canbenefit from cheap labor without relying onexploiting workers. Economically, cheap labor isa step in the right direction for poor countriesand their people. Making 60 cents an hour in afactory that exports goods is better than 30cents an hour working in the field, trying to feeda family in Indonesia1. Paul Krugman explainsthat sweatshops allow the poor to get jobs, andmanufacturing development has a ripple effecton the rest of the economy and its development.Taiwan and South Korea, and even the US, wentthrough this type of industrial development andit is better than the alternative, which is failedfarming or dependence on aid1. If workers arebeing exploited—which is different from beingpaid low wages that are actually good by thestandards of the country—then that should beregulated by governments, but that in no wayinfringes upon free trade. 1 Krugman , Paul(1997), “In Praise of Cheap Labor”, Slate.com", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Guaranteeing a temporary job for young peopleis a temporary solution. Having a job for a shortperiod of time will not guarantee morepermanent employment. Britain’s MandatoryWork Activity scheme does some of this proposalby having very short term unpaid job placementshowever a study has shown that having thisplacement had zero benefit when it comes togetting a job. [1] Even if it did impact on thosewho took part in the scheme it is no help if itdoes not increase the number of permanent jobsas there will be the same number of youngpeople in the same small pool. A more long termsolution is necessary. This would require morejobs, and more training to ensure that skills fitthe jobs that are available. [1] Malik, Shiv,‘Mandatory work scheme does not improve jobchances, research finds’, 13 June 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "This policy is necessary to avoid a lostgeneration Rising youth unemployment can beconsidered an international timebomb. Youngpeople are the next generation of workers andconsumers in the economy. When they areunemployed, the situation can be alarming. Thisis because of the importance of getting a jobearly on so as to avoid becoming long termunemployed. The UN Secretary general, BanKi-Moon, has called for stronger policiesinvolving young people [1] . The ILO has warnedthat youth unemployment can lead to apathytowards government and political instability [2] .The lack of experience in work may cause a lostgeneration. This must be averted, and the EU isone of the best placed to do this. The temporarywork scheme would encourage business tochange their attitude and hire more youngworkers. Having to hire young people, even for ashort time, would help break negativestereotypes and often the employers would thenoffer longer term work. This would help to fill the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "While there is a benefit to diversity it does nothave to be obtained by employing youngerpeople but instead by having racial and genderdiversity. Companies have the right to choosetheir own recruitment practices. It is up to them,and them alone, who they choose to recruit. Ifthey believe in such benefits and that theyoutweigh any other priorities then they willalready be recruiting young people. That theyare not doing so shows that businesses do notbelieve the benefits are as high as they are madeout to be. Government should not be compellingbusiness to employ people government shouldonly be interfering with business in order tocreate a level playing field between companies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The EU should guarantee youth a job in order toequal their chances. The EU member statesshould rely more on public employment services,which should be focused on finding jobs foryoung people. With government funding, theycan work with the private sector to offer decenttemporary jobs to young people. This model iscommon in the Nordic states [1] and othercountries, such as Austria, Germany andSwitzerland also have similar programs. Youthunemployment is already far higher than forolder people. Less than a third of under 25s whowere looking for a job in 2010 found one in 2011[2] – this may be due to ageist discriminationagainst young people, and employers seekingpeople with experience. People over 25 are alsoconsidered as a high risk group. They have littleexperience so the employer is taking a risk inemploying them. There is also a desire forstability; those who already have a family areunlikely to want large changes so employers feelthey can bet on them for the long term. If the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Age ‘discrimination’ runs both ways. Manycompanies operate policies of age discriminationagainst older workers. Older employees are oftenlikely to have more out of date skills. Accordingto a survey of businesses, the reasons for nothiring older workers are their lack of flexibilityand unwillingness to learn new techniques, lackof foreign languages, little knowledge oftechnology and a dislike of change [1] . Thosewho are nearing the end of their career and arejust as likely to be unable to find a news jobbecause of these problems and are thereforelikely to find themselves forced into earlyretirement. When this happens these people willno longer be counted among the statistics forunemployment so much older unemployment ishidden. If a ‘lack’ of experience is a good reasonfor the government to provide a job then havingthe ‘wrong’ experience should be just as good areason. Focusing just on youth would bewrong. [1] Daskalova, Nadezhda, ‘Companyattitudes towards employing older workers’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "These placements will only be for six months.This combined with the intent not to make theprogram too expensive means that the benefitwill be limited in terms of the fiscal boostprovided. Those who are getting a salary only forsix months are not likely to feel rich from gettingthat money so will probably try to save any theycan. Also, these roles would be most likely to beunskilled. The benefit in terms of investmentwould therefore not be particularly great. Yes theyoung people involved are getting experience butthis is different from providing them withtechnical skills that make them competitive in aglobal marketplace.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Increased workforce diversity While we oftenthink of workplace diversity as being abouthaving people from all over the world and bothmen and women a good age balance is necessarytoo. By bringing in this policy, younger workerswill be in the same workplaces as olderemployees, and vice versa, making for moreworkplace diverse. Employees will learn fromthose with more experience, in addition to theother advantages of a more diverse workforce.[1] One of these is more engagement andengaged workers perform 20% better and areless likely to leave. [2] Another is that youngpeople will contribute new and innovative waysof thinking, with different viewpoints pushing thebusiness forward. [3] Finally a company needs tohave all ages in the business to ensure that thereare people with experience when older workersretire. Diversity is also crucial for theappearance of a business. The kind of companythat attracts a broader pool of individuals meansa greater range of talented candidates to choose", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "This policy is good for EU economies. If thegovernment is employing people then it is goingto be boosting the economy. Providing a fiscalboost by spending money is one of the mostaccepted ways of boosting the economy. In thiscase spending money on temporary workers isgood in several ways. First it is a fiscal boost tothe economy. The government will be paying thetemporary workers. These workers will havemore money to spend and will probably mostlyspend it rather than saving. This in turn boostsdemand for other goods and services so meaningthere needs to be more output with the resultthat some jobs will be made permanent. There istherefore a positive feedback loop. The secondway in which this helps the economy is that it isinvestment. It is investment because thegovernment is paying for young people to gainexperience and for companies to be trainingthese temporary workers. The result of this is amore skilled workforce who in the long term willbe more productive. There is a final possible", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Training is indeed the answer but it makes sensefor this to be done on the job rather than simplyin lecture theatres. Where there are skills gapsthese gaps should be filled by encouraging andpaying for temporary jobs to help fill those roles.In this way the young people involved will gainthe skills for an area of the economy where thereare vacancies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Businesses are already regulated in who they canhire and on what terms– for that reason thereare child labour, minimum wage andanti-discrimination laws. These kind ofregulations come both from nationalgovernments and the European Union.Governments have always had this right. Thispolicy is therefore not damaging freedom ofchoice any more than many other regulations. Itwill most likely not be necessary to make takingon the temporary jobs compulsory because thegovernment is paying for it and how manycompanies will turn down something that isessentially a subsidy?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-con02a", "title": "", "text": "This policy would only serve to discriminateagainst unemployed people older than 25 Eventhough there are large numbers of young peopleunemployed, they only make up around a fifth ofthe total unemployed population. 26.654 millionmen and women were unemployed in July 2013in European Union. Only 5.560 million of themare young people. [1] The result then is clearlygoing to be discriminatory against those who arenot among the young. This would simply meanthat more qualified, equally unemployed peoplewould be passed over due to their age. It shouldbe remembered that the youth will be morecapable of bouncing back when the recessionfinally ends and there are jobs available. Theyare more flexible, they have more of the skillsnecessary for modern work such as knowledge ofcomputers, and they are more willing to retrainto get a job. The result is that when the jobs areavailable they will be the ones who are able tofind work. Older people on the other hand willfind it much harder to find another job without", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The policy is not a long term solution. Jobguarantees for young people may place them inemployment for some time at a low cost, butdoes not offer a permanent solution. TheSwedish job guarantee scheme has beencriticised for this reason [1] . They will not createa solution based on skills, qualifications andeconomic growth because employers have littleincentive to train up workers who are onlytemporary. If the company is not looking toexpand there will be little point in wastingresources on someone they are not going to takeon over the long term. Training has to be thesolution to youth unemployment. Thegovernment should be training young people tofill the gaps that do exist in the market placesuch as care workers. When young people haveskills that are in demand then they will be able toget full time employment without having to relyon temporary employment schemes to ‘makework’ for them to do. [1] Eurofound, ‘ YouthGuarantee: Experiences from Finland and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Temporary employment for youth acts againstfreedom of choice for businesses In a freemarket the core concept is freedom of choice.The consumer chooses what they want to buy.And by the same measure there needs to befreedom of choice for employers. They need tobe able to decide what products to make, how tomarket them, and who to employ. Companiesshould be looking for those who are bestqualified for the job rather than satisfying agovernment quota to provide temporarycontracts to young people. Even if thegovernment is paying for this employee they arestill utilising the resources of businesses.Businesses will often have limited space sohaving some of that space taken up bymandated temporary workers is not the mostproductive use that the company could bemaking of that space. It is clear that this wouldbe a ‘make work’ scheme because there arealready only around two million vacancies,compared to five and a half million unemployed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-bepeechbem-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It should not be assumed that today’sunemployed youth will be the target forrecruiters in the future. In four or five years’time there will be more graduates from highschools and universities looking for work andthose companies that want to employ youngpeople will look to them rather than people whohave been out of work for several years. Theresult then will be a generation who have neverworked and never picked up the skills for a joband may never get the opportunity to do sowithout government help. Older people who areunemployed at least have the skills they havelearned in the workplace and a past record to fallback on.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "If those who are unemployed were the rightpeople to be doing those jobs, they alreadywould be. Employers want to maximise theirbottom line and will hire the best workers theycan find. Forcing them to take on lower skilledand less able employees reducescompetitiveness and causes inefficiencies. \"Thebell curve for worker productivity can be dividedinto roughly four groups. People in the top 16%who produce the most (superior), peoplebetween 84% and 51% who produce more thanaverage, people between 50% and 17% whoproduce less than average, and people in thebottom 16%.\"1 Having to hire people from thelower 16% will cost businesses a fortune in lostproductivity. 1 Dr. Wendell Williams, \"TheIncredible Cost of Bad Hire\" October 11th, 2001", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "There should be a legally mandated ceiling onweekly working hours, because it createsemployment. According to the CIA WorldFactbook, non-industrialised countries have anaverage of 30% unemployment andindustrialised nations have somewhere between4-12% unemployment1. Underemployment isconsidered to be even higher, though precisefigures are by their very nature impossible toacquire. By capping the working hours of thosein employment, the unemployed stand anincreased chance of entering theworkforce. With no option but to hire more staff,businesses will have no choice but to hire thecurrently out of work to fulfil their labourrequirements. This is economically beneficial, asthe costs of long term unemployment to aneconomy are enormous. In industrialisedcountries the unemployed are already being paidvia taxes, with this change there can be at leastsome productivity from them. 1 \"Worldunemployment figures by country\" The Cia World", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Business will replace workers not with otherworkers, but with machines, especially in the ageof robotics and other automated mass productionmethodologies. Businesses will replace the lostmanpower not with more manpower, but withmachines wherever possible. \"Automation haseliminated some 10 million jobs, mostly inmanufacturing\" (between 1994 and 2004)1 Theactual effect will be to boost productivity ANDincrease unemployment for the economy thatimplements it. The other alternative businesscan choose is to outsource labour to a countrywhich doesn't have the same stringentstandards, which also increases unemploymentin the economy with a cap on worker hours. Insuch a case, the employment, production andbusiness all leave the capped area. 1 Gregory M.Lamb \"Automation streamlines services andhigh-tech, but at what cost?\" USA Today 30thAugust 2004", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "There must be a maximum amount ofperformance that people are capable of, givenrest and reward. To work people too long is towaste their potential. Human beings requiredowntime in the form of sleep and rest in orderto maintain their peak functioning. Long workinghours cut into this rest and sleep time andtherefore reduce their effectiveness as workers.A cap on the amount of work that people do perweek allows for proper rest periods. Tiredworkers are prone to making mistakes, one ofthe mistakes they can make is to think they canskip necessary sleep with no ill effects. \"Whilesome people may like to believe that they cantrain their bodies to not require as much sleep asthey once did this belief is false\"1 A mandatorycap on the hours they work removes the decisionfrom them and avoids this problem. 1 SarahLedoux – “The effects of sleep deprivation onbrain and behaviour” Biology 202 Bryn MawrCollege 01/03/2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While people do indeed need proper rest anddowntime in order to perform to their maximumpotential, exactly how much rest they needchanges from individual to individual. A \"one sizefits all\" approach through legislation willnecessarily mean that some people who couldwork quite comfortably with no ill effects will beprevented from doing so. The choice to work ornot rightly belongs to them, as does even theirdecision to risk their health. It might be worth itto someone to take a chance on sleepdeprivation in order to earn more pay.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Workers already have protection from over work.They have the ability to say \"no\" and they alsohave the ability to find themselves other, lesslengthy employment. The fact that jobs withlong hours exist is proof that people are happywith the situation. A survey of people opting outof the European working time directive showsthat 1 in 4 workers opt out of a limit to theirworking hours. \"The survey also demonstratesthat working hours have not substantiallychanged since the introduction of the new rulesbecause of the large-scale use of the opt-outclause.\" Not only that but workers can alreadyclaim for work related injuries, stress andmaltreatment via the tribunals and courts, so adeterrent already exists for businesses tooverwork their employees. 1 Liza Morgan \"Littleoption But To Opt Out under Working hourRules\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Introducing a cap on working hours would reduceunemployment. One of the most fundamentalprinciples of economics is that of supply anddemand. By artificially reducing the supply (ofhours) then demand must increase for otherlabour, ceteris paribus. The only question oncethat is realised is what limit should there be onworking hours to ensure full employment. (Oremployment at maximum practical capacity.)The purpose of the economy is to serve people,and having a large percentage of peopleexcluded when there is an easy and obvious fix isto fail in the economies mission.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "A maximum working week provides protectionfor workers. In the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights in article 23 “Everyone has theright to work… to just and favourable conditionsof work” and article 24 “Everyone has the rightto rest and leisure, including reasonablelimitation of working hours and periodic holidayswith pay”1 both relate to a fundamental freedomfrom being forced to work too hard. Working fortoo many hours per week can affect health,wellbeing and productivity over the medium tolonger term. In extremis, as we can see in the“karoshi” phenomenon in Japan, people can workthemselves to an early grave.2 Even in lessextreme examples, we can see health issuesaffecting productivity and causing medicalproblems which require paying to treat. TheWHO estimates that work related stress costs$300bn p.a. in the US, to take one example.3 Itgoes without saying that all this avoidable stressand medical trouble needs paying for. That thebusinesses themselves manage to push those", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It isn't actually being suggested that we reducethe total amount of work done. What is beingsuggested is that we have some of theunemployed be allowed to get access to thelabour that is required via limiting the hoursexisting workers can put in. GDP growth can stillbe achieved as the amount of work remainsunchanged. In fact, as more of the populationbecome involved in the workforce a lot of otherproblems and costs will disappear from theeconomy and society that imposes a maximumworking week.\" two economists argue that adrop of two percentage points in unemploymentwould mean a 9% decline in burglary, 14% inrape and robbery and 30% in assault.\"1 1 Prof.Rudolph Winter-Ebmer \"\"Identifying the Effect ofUnemployment on Crime\" CEPR Discussionpaper, 2001", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "That's right, even more jobs would be created byhiring people to check on procedures, workplacesand hours worked. When there are literallymillions of displaced potential workers and all thesocial and economic problems unemploymentcan cause this is no bad thing. Not only that butthere are already policing of business operationspresent in all advanced economies, this functioncould be simply added to the list of things tocheck for by those agencies. New employmentwithin existing organisations is therefore created,so there is a doubling effect from this policy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The market already limits worker hours when leftto its own devices, no intrusion is required. Longhours which reduce worker effectiveness alreadymake a business less competitive. The invisiblehand will remove those businesses which exploittheir workers, or who don't take into accountemployee motivation and what they need to getmaximum productivity far more effectively asthey are beaten in the marketplace by thosecompanies which do take those things intoaccount. Improvements in worker conditionsalways come first from the private sector seekingto maximise profits. This has been true as farback as the industrial revolution.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Small and mid sized businesses cannot afford theextra costs involved in complying with such apolicy. Each new worker has certain fixed costsassociated with their employment. Tax,insurance, training, office space, record keeping,background checks, sickness, disciplinary as wellas necessary equipment, the actual cost of hiringthem and advertising for them and other benefits(usually this adds up to 1.25-1.4x base salaryper worker.1 1 Joe Hadzima \"How Much Does anEmployee Cost?\" Boston Business Journal(reprinted for MIT 2005)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There should be no legally mandated ceiling onweekly working hours as it limits economicgrowth. The transaction, hiring and humanresource costs of forcing businesses to take onmore workers mean that productivity is reducedand resources are wasted. While GDP might risebecause of these actions, GDP will rise due to afallacy of the \"labour theory of value\"1 kind.Effort isn't in and of itself productive, though itwill add to many measures of GDP. Currentlydisplaced workers would be better servedinventing new products and services for theeconomy they are in. 1 Mick Brooks \"AnIntroduction to The Labour Theory Of Value PartOne\" Marxist.com 15th Oct 2002", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Policing such a policy creates its own set ofproblems for the society and costs for theeconomy Complying with any regulation has acost attached, and so does policing thatregulation in order to make it effective. Howwould anyone know who was working where andfor how long without either a very acceptingpopulace or a very draconian state? At bestthere will be ignored regulations - 14-16% of theeconomy is already avoiding legalresponsibilities1 and with employers dissuadedfrom taking risks that are larger than they wouldotherwise be, a working week cap has the effectof making the \"shadow\" economy even moreattractive to businesses. 1 Friedrich Schneiderwith DominikEnste, \"The Growth of theUnderground Economy\" IMF Paper 2002", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Only some SME will be affected, and those onsuch a knife edge financially would probably nothave lasted long in the face of competition in anyevent. Such enterprises are really beingsubsidised by taking advantage of their workersat the expense of those workers health.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beegshbtsb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Given the market is already moving in such adirection, there is no need to wait for the slowwhittling away of the less optimal when it can bedone right away by legislation. This will give ahuge head start compared to any economy whichuses the market mechanism and make anyeconomy who takes this road advance in termsof productivity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Unfortunately housing upgrade programs do notalways equate to reductions in disease. The vitalcomponents including the need for improvedcommunity sanitation, access to services -including water and health-care are oftenignored. Ananya Roy (2009) shows how theinformal nature of India’s state constrictseffective planning, and is continuing to ensureslums are kept off the map - limiting access toservices.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Upgrading housing: tackling the diseaseburden Slum upgrading involves in-situinvestment to improve informal settlements; andintegrate slums into the city. Two forms of slumupgrading may be classified: the provision ofbasic services (i.e. housing and sanitation) andthe provision of secure land tenure. The burdenof disease is higher in slums due to inadequatesanitation, overcrowding, and a lack ofventilation. Diseases and infections - includingdiarrhoea, cholera, malaria, TB, and tropicaldiseases, remain prevalent throughout due tostagnant water and a lack of services. Researchindicates higher rates of child and elderlymortality in Nairobi’s slums, in comparison to therest of the population (Kyobutungi et al, 2008).Improving housing does not just mean buildingbut also ensuring planning standards arefollowed to create sufficient living space andfacilities to reduce the ill-health disadvantage.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "There are schemes to financehomebuilding Affordability is a key challenge forslum-dwellers to enter the housing sector -challenges range from being able to accesscapital required to buy property, to the volatileprices in Africa’s property market. Improvinghousing in slums enables dwellers a choice toexit and move up the property ladder. Differentapproaches have emerged of how provide ameans to access finance and generate propertymarkets. First, housing micro-finance schemesare presenting a flexible means to access credit[1] . Second, cooperative loans, such as Nigeria’sFMBN (Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria) areacting to increase homeownership by providing asecondary mortgage market for low-incomefamilies and make finance available. The aim isto ensure repayments are equal to rent costspaid. [1] See further readings: Riecke, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "To tackle gender discrepancies an engenderedstrategy is required on land, not onlyhousing. For example, Gulyani and Connors(2002) illustrate the Kalingalinga slum upgradingproject in Zambia resulted in negative effects forwomen. Following investment in slum upgradingthe proportion of female-headed householdsdeclined with a rise in the proportion of rentersand relocations. Slum upgrading raised livingcosts to women, and without legal land rightsfemale-headed households were forced torelocate and resettle.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Ensuring supply = demand A key issue ensuringthe growth of slums is the demand for housing isfailing to be met. Investment is required tosupply housing. Taking the case of SocialHousing programs provided by PAHF(Pan-African Housing Fund) demand is being metby providing affordable houses. 41.5mn US$ hasbeen confirmed by PAHF, of which will bededicated to fulfil the need for houses.Investments are focusing on urban areas acrossSub-Saharan Africa, and are operating throughpartnerships [1] . If slums are ever to be haltedthere need to be many more such projectsensuring the supply of houses outstripsdemand. [1] See further readings: PHATISA,2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Cost-effective planning for ‘Slum Cities’ We livein a planet of slums (Davis, 2006), and slumsremain a key, and growing, characteristic ofcontemporary African cities. Slums articulate theinfrastructural deficit across African cities -investments are needed. Slums are a key urbanchallenge; and need to be tackled, removed, andreplaced. “Slums represent the worst of urbanpoverty and inequality” (Annan, 2003:v). Slumsrepresent an increasing concern. They are oftenin unstable environments so are at high risk ofbeing affected by climate change which willfurther increase costs unless effective strategiesare implemented today. Providing safe andsecure housing provides a means to tacklearticulated problems. Planning will organise thestructure of housing communities, follow laws toprovide adequate toilets for the population, andenable space for service provision - whetherhospitals, police, or schools. Investing in housingwill help alleviate chaos; and implement orderedplanning for ‘Cities Without Slums’ [1] . [1] The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Are slums really a key challenge? Estimations onthe problem of slums may vary depending onwhich definition is used. Second, the language ofthe ‘slum’ matters when analysing and applyingsolutions (Gilbert, 2007; Jones, 2011). Theemotions and stigmatic connotations attached to‘slum’ enables dangerous aestheticintervention. Working towards a ‘city withoutslums’ neglects how and why slums haveoccurred and suggests governments can applyquick solutions to rid the problem. National aimsto remove ‘slums’ has forced governments tofocus on the physical problem - infrastructureand housing deficits - rather than understandingwho lives in slums and solutions are needed forthe dwellers. There remains a need tounderstand slums as a space of Africanurbanism. Slums will be cyclically reinforcedunless aspects of power, poverty, and politics,are considered.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Slums are not simply an articulation ofinadequate supply of, and a hyper-demand for,housing. Alternatively, slums emerge throughdeterioration, crime, globalisation, and poverty.Therefore provision of housing does not providethe means for all solutions and may themselvesagain deteriorate into slums. Slums areheterogeneous; therefore their emergence is farfrom a universal causality. Secondly, it remainsdebatable as to whether the needs of informalsettlement dwellers are met through housingschemes, such as PAHF. In previous cases, suchas in South Africa’s NUSP [1] , inhabitants havebeen forced to relocate, causing disruptions tolivelihoods. Finally, emphasis needs to be placedon building ‘homes’, not ‘houses’. [1] Seefurther readings: NUSP, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "Finance markets being promoted are introducingrisk when insurance, and safety-nets, remainminimal. Investments in housing financeschemes needs to raise questions. Firstly, whoorganises micro-finance schemes? The idea ofpositive social capital within the communityneeds reflection; participation in microfinance isnot democratic or available to all (see Jones andDallimore, 2009). Second, the provision ofloans, and finance, raises concern over futurerepayment and whether the housing bubbleproposed will remain stable. Employment withinthe informal sector means income is volatile andunpredictable - can housing payments beadapted to irregular income realities when profitsare desired? Incorporating slum dwellers into afinancial-market will not remove slums and maysimply get the dwellers into debt.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "History and tradition is reflected in the buildingstyles adopted across Africa. Upgrading schemeschanging the design of housing styles, are bothreplacing traditional knowledge and practices,but also potentially eco-friendly designs.Investment in housing by private and publicactors is failing to incorporate traditionalpractices, meaning cities are being built throughmodernist planning ideals. Slum dwellers needthe right to build. Dwellers need to be providedwith an enabling environment to use their owncapacities to meet their own housing needs [1]. [1] See further readings: Turner, 1978.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Gender empowerment Slum dwellers,particularly women, are affected by violence andcrime. COHRE (2008) indicates women living inslums are at risk of violence and illnesses, suchas HIV/AIDS, due to insecurities experienced ona daily basis in personal and private spaces.Figures show that in Nairobi slums 1 latrine isshared amongst 500 people (Cities Alliance,2013). Fearing to go to the toilet at night due torisk of rape, women’s geographical experience ofthe city is constrained [1] . Therefore investingin houses, including building indoor toilets,provides empowerment, safety, and preventsgender based violence. [1] See furtherreadings: SDI, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Tackling hazardous environments Reports arefrequently raised on fire outbreaks and hazardsin slums. For example, a fire in Khayelitshatownship [1] , Cape Town, resulted in five deathsand significant damage. The use of highlyflammable materials, in a desire for fastconstruction, places slum-dwellers prone torisk. National investment in housing, byproviding materials, such as bricks, or trainingon how to build stable house designs, will ensuresafety. Haphazard building can be controlled byinvesting in housing designs andinspections. [1] See further readings: Lobel,2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Slum dwellers in Nairobi are shown to pay highrents for low-quality housing - a reality identifiedby Gulyani and Talukdar (2009). Estimationsshow around $31mn USD was paid in the form ofrents, by poor slum dwellers in Nairobi in 2004.Nevertheless the high-prices did not lead to thematerialisation of improved housing. If a landlordcan charge high rents in poor housing stock whyshould he invest in new buildings? Moreover ifnot done systematically the slum as a whole willnever be brought out of poverty rather thepoorest areas will simply move around to wherethose who have not had opportunities arestaying.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-con01b", "title": "", "text": "As long as the stated objective is to tackle theissue of housing and remove slums, informalsettlements, and squatting, who is investing isnot important. The end goal is a key concern.The stated objective of the investor needs towork harmoniously towards removing slums forpractical change to emerge.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Housing politics: who stays in slums? What kindof city is desired versus being implemented byurban housing investments? The effect ofdecisions to relocate and design housing policiespresent implications for the social life of citiesand whether existing inequalities aresustained. For example, issues around housingin South Africa refer to a history of racialinequalities. While in Kenya concern is raisedover ethnicity and political clientalism. Further,slum upgrading schemes need to provide anopportunity to change gender inequalities. Forexample, the precarious position of women inhouseholds may remain unchanged unlessjoint-titling is provided. Widows need to beassured the houses built will enable theirfreedom to stay out of slums following thebereavement of the male-head in thehousehold. Ultimately slums remain throughupgrading programs. Whether the programprovides houses in-situ or through relocation,slum dwellers are contained and kept in poor", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Alternative: Replacing slums by providingopportunities Slum dwellers need to be grantedrights to occupy and security of tenure.Slum-dwellers need to be provided withopportunities to progress - recognised asright-holders, or obtain a greater income. Auseful method may involve regulating theinformal economy - where a large proportion ofslum dwellers work - to provide minimal wagesand employment conditions. Such a proposal willenable dwellers to enhance financial capital andreduce vulnerability through labour security.They will then have the money to upgrade theirhome. Alternatively, establishing a rental marketprovides an opportunity for replacing slums. Akey myth within discussions on the housingproblem suggests dwellers want to behomeowners and the rental market remainsnegative. However, renting enables flexibility toinhabitants and provides an income to landlords.Such funds can be invested within microfinance,community, schemes and individual", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Investment is needed: but by who? Housing isrequired, however, a crucial component withinthe debate is who needs to provide funding andbe involved in decision making; does it need tobe the government? The consequences ofinvestment are influenced by the actors involved.With the need for quality control adamant,greater recognition of who is investing, and forwhat purpose, is needed. Allowing everything tobe done by private firms will often meanevictions and houses just being made so as toincrease rent or to sell to those who are not longterm residents. Otiso (2003) provides a case ofslum upgrading in Mathare 4, which showcasesthe need for a tri-sector partnership - involvingpublic, private, and voluntary actors, forupgrading to meet need and resolve shortages inhousing. The question might go further; can thecommunity fund upgrading itself, if so is it thebest allocation of funding and how is payment tobe kept equitable?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiasfhbac-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Organisations, such as SDI and Cities Alliance,have recognised the diverse experiences ofslum-dwellers and their multiple needs. Thedifferent programs are catered to local contexts,and work towards developing equal, and just,initiatives for the urban poor. The aim is to stopcyclic reinforcement of slums.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is important to remember that many areas ofpolicy remain under national control and eventhose areas that are decided at the Europeanlevel are agreed by the member states (9). TheEU legislation, however, is important for creatingtrust between trading partners in the EU. Even ifsome of the laws seem trivial or unnecessary, itis the trust in the other countries’ complianceeven in these laws, which creates a stablemarket in which actors can expect larger lawsand agreements to be honoured. The politicalaspects of the union therefore complement theeconomic aspects. As regards austerity, theBritish are implementing their own austeritypolicies, without Commission involvement, andare doing just as badly as anyone else (10). Onthe contrary, someone needed to sanitise theGreek economy, and it was evident that theywere not going to do so themselves. EUdecisions, as a whole, are preferable. We shouldremember that when countries agree to austerityas part of a bailout it is not a violation of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A European political union intrudes on itsmembers’ sovereignty Many of the policies ofthe political union intrude on national legislation.In many cases, EU policies go against nationaltraditions or redefine laws that were alreadyfunctional. Occasionally EU policies even causedirect harm, when countries have less freedomto tailor them to their own conditions. Duringthe past few years, the Commission’s powershave included monitoring Member Statesimplementation of austerity policies in return forbailouts. However, everyone, including the IMF,agrees that austerity was unsuccessful and hasseriously hampered recovery (7). Being a part ofa political union inevitably means that sacrificeshave to be made and this often intrudes onnational sovereignty by reducing he room formanoeuvre of national governments. Intrusionby the EU would be justified if it createssubstantially better laws or solid trade benefits;however, regulations on the shape of cucumbers(8) do neither of these. The EU should not have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is uncertain how many countries wouldrealistically want remain in a trade bloc that doesnot support democracy as a core value. Distillingthe EU to a trade bloc that does not care aboutdemocracy and human rights would run the riskof allowing in non-democracies which in turnwould merely alienate most of its currentmembers. Many EU countries would not wish tobe associated with non-democracies. Even onlyconcerning trade, many would not want to maketrade concessions to undemocratic countrieswhose regimes they cannot trust, as this mightjeopardise the reliability of their trade with thiscountry. (12) As such there would be very fewpotential new members as a result of movingback to a trade bloc. The better solution is tobring the standard of democracy in neighbouringcountries up to the point where they can join theEU. To encourage other democracies such asNorway to join there could be concessions madesuch as on the common fisheries policy. (12)Mansfield, Edward D.; Milner, Helen V.;", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A European political union is by necessityundemocratic The EU is too large for ademocratic structure. Since it deals not withcitizens directly but with Member States, aquestion arises as to which agents should makefundamental decisions. Should every MemberState get an equal vote, or a vote in proportionto the size of its population? If nation states getequal votes, a lot of people in larger states suchas Germany, France or Spain may findthemselves highly disenfranchised. On the otherhand, if states get votes in proportion to the sizeof its population, countries such as Luxembourgwill be forever hesitant to join, and rightly so, forits citizens would most likely be excluded. Thedemocratic deficit in the EU is no less visible inpractice. The Commission is not directly elected(4); Council politics are confusing, take a longtime, and grind to a halt whenever Germany is inthe middle of elections (5); and the votingturnout for European elections, where MEPs areelected, is too low to be considered a fair", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is not true that not being fully representativemakes a political entity undemocratic. In nationalpolitics we elect representatives to then makedecisions on our behalf rather than haveconstant referenda, or even rather than requireunanimity within Parliament. We expect not tohave perfect representation. Furthermore, statesthat feel disenfranchised always have the optionof leaving the EU; in fact it is much easier than itwould be to leave an unrepresentative nationstate. It is important to remember that MemberStates have consented to acting within thisframework. Even if the political entity is flawed,it can always be improved. Much more powercould be given to the European Parliament, andthere are already plans for the President of theCommission to be elected through theParliament. Moreover if turnout is a problem forthe elected legislature’s legitimacy then this is aquestion of encouraging turnout which mighthappen organically due to increased relevancebut if not could be managed if necessary through", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The reason that there is such trust in the statusquo lies in that these countries have collaboratedin a political union for decades. Once thisstructure has been removed, it is easy to turnprotectionist and to start trade wars. This isprecisely the source of the failure of trade blocssuch as NAFTA. Without the presence of apolitical body, it was possible for the US todevelop protectionist policies within the tradebloc framework. By subsidising their agriculturalproducts to outcompete Mexico’s in Mexico itself,the US severely harmed its trade partner’seconomy (14). This is a harmful form of trade.The EU benefits from its current more balanced,controlled and mutually beneficialstructure. (14) Faux, Jeff. “How NAFTA FailedMexico”, The American Prospect. 16 June 2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The EU as a trade bloc would be more inclusiveto current and new members The Europeanproject has gone too far for many Europeancountries. For some such as Norway orSwitzerland the EU has already gone far past theamount of integration they would be willing toallow. Even Member States are increasinglyfinding that the EU’s intrusiveness and the costof supporting smaller economies outweigh anypotential benefit. Britain has expressed thisdiscontent particularly strongly. (11) This is aproblem for the European Union. The problem ofits alienated Member States is only likely to getworse as it seeks to continue expanding: newcountries will have increasingly divergent valuesand will be harder to integrate while deepeningwill mean more countries are left behind. Inpractice, this means that the EU will facemassive barriers to its goal of integration, andcompromise all its other goals in the process.The best solution then is to go back to a stage inthe EU’s development that every country", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "A European trade bloc can succeed without apolitical union The European area only consistsof liberal democracies, which consistently honourtheir agreements. While historically a politicalunion might have been necessary to furtherstrengthen the Coal and Steel Treaty (the EU asit originated) between recently belligerent states,these countries can now obtain the benefit of thetrade union through multilateral agreements.They simply have to regulate protectionism andtariffs so countries can remain competitive andbarriers to trade remain low. In the event that acountry does not comply, the external pressurefrom the other countries, together with softsanctions, is more than enough to keep the tradebloc functional.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The EU, in practice, is not a particularlyconsistent or effective promoter of democracy. Ithas been unsuccessful in countries such asUkraine and Georgia in the Europeanneighbourhood (18): this suggests the EU canonly lead countries into democracy when theconditions already exist for this change tohappen naturally. The example of Hungaryshows how powerless the EU can be whenpressing Member States to stay democratic oncethey have got in, extremist parties haveexpanded, the independence of the judiciarythreatened and freedom of the press reduced(19). Its structure may make it difficult tobecome a member without democratizing, butalso difficult to justify expelling a Member State.Such cases damage the credibility of the EU as apromoter of democracy. But a change to a tradebloc would not damage the ability of the EU topromote democracy; states could still be forcedto democratize as a condition of joining. (18)Emerson, Aydin, Noutcheva, Tocci, Vahl and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "While it might be true that some of thesebenefits are a consequence of the political union,all of these can be maintained in other forms.This is particularly evident by the fact thatnon-EU countries such as Switzerland andIceland participate in these schemes, withoutbecoming members of the political bloc. Bydisassembling the political union, countries canfurthermore opt to participate in someagreements, while not participating in others,thus maximising everyone’s benefit.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Political union lends international credibility to atrade bloc Trust is a valued asset on theinternational market. When multinationalcorporations trade in astronomical figures, theymust be able to trust in the political goodwill ofthe governments of the trading partner, toensure that all parties to the agreement honourits conditions. Major trading partners, such asChina and the US, are immense markets whereone body can represent the whole country; thisis also the case with the European Union throughthe European Commissioner for Trade. Havingone person who can negotiate for the whole blochas immense benefits in terms of economies ofscale and making the European Union a majorpower in trade negotiations. Without a politicalunion that provides a framework that binds themall members equally Europe would lose out(16). A single point of contact for tradenegotiations is good because it gives the EU alarger market share, it allows smaller EUcountries to benefit from the larger EU countries’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Political union has numerous non-economicbenefits which a trade bloc lacks Linkingcountries together politically is something wehave done throughout history to preserve peaceand ensure consistent channels ofcommunication. Thanks to the European Unionnot only have millions of people gained greaterfreedom of movement and a freer flow of ideas:we have also secured very stable relationsbetween a large number of states that previouslywere often at war with each other. All MemberStates, since they are tied both politically andeconomically, have a great interest in preservingstability in Europe and are incredibly unlikely toengage in hostility. Simple economics does notprevent war, as shown by the amount of tradebefore World War I, but political unions ensurethat differences are worked out throughdialogue. Because of this, it seems unthinkablefor war to happen in the near future, anachievement that has been recognised by theawarding of the Nobel Peace Prize (24).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Political union is necessary for Eurozonerecovery What is needed for the Eurozone toflourish is an economic-political union with asingle budget, so that capital can flow to where itis needed and fiscal policy can make up forimbalances between Member States (20). Thealternative, as we have seen, is internaldevaluation, which is a very painful andexcruciatingly ineffective ways of achieving thesame for a ridiculous price. (21) The EuropeanUnion therefore needs to be looking forward tomore integration rather than backwards to less.More integration can fix many of the problems inEurope; balancing regional disparities throughfiscal transfers, eliminating the democratic deficitthrough a more powerful parliament, andpreventing problems with nationalism byempowering regions. (20) Traynor, Ian.“Eurozone should form political union, saysGermany’s ECB firefighter”, The Guardian. (21)Persson, Mats. “Can the euro be saved throughinternal devaluation alone – and at what political", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The European political union is a tool forpromoting democracy The EU has the ability todemand certain conditions from candidate statesbefore they join. It has explicitly set ademocratic standard countries must satisfy to bemembers. This is a powerful tool that repeatedlyhas incentivised reform in terms of human rightsand democracy. In particular, countriesemerging from Former Yugoslavia and Turkeyhave engaged in structural reform during the lastdecade as part of the process towards becomingMember States (17). It is also stronger forenabling a common foreign and security policywhich encourages cooperation between memberstates when setting policy ensuring all memberswork together. The EU, therefore, can be astrong force for democracy. This is good, notonly because democracy is intrinsicallypreferable to non-democratic systems, but alsobecause democracies will be more likely to tradeand freer trade produces more economicbenefits. If the EU were to be merely a trade", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-con05b", "title": "", "text": "The premise of this argument is that Europeancountries are so connected that in entering warwith another European country you woulddirectly harm yourself. A European trade bloc isenough to ensure this, by interconnectingEuropean economies to make war too expensiveto be considered. Furthermore, while it is clearthat there have been no great wars since WorldWar Two, conflicts have not entirely beenprevented; to the extent that they have, perhapsit is not the EU’s merit as the EU did not do muchto prevent conflict in the former Yugoslavia (25);finally, perhaps the EU may even be blamed forthe rise of nationalism and ensuing politicaltension in countries such as Greece so there is agrowing potential for future conflict as a directresult of political union (26). (25) “The EU andthe Nobel Peace Prize”, Charlemagne, TheEconomist. 12 October 2012. (26) Mariam Onti,Nicky. “Soros Blames Merkel For Golden Dawn”,Greek Reporter. 7 October 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "European integration has been immenselybeneficial to EU economies The political unionhas had extensive benefits for the Europeantrade bloc. Member States have the samelegislation, for example, on labour conditions andprotection of consumers (15). They also havesimilar property law. This allows products andideas to freely move and be sold in differentcountries much more easily as there can be lessbureaucracy at borders and companies can moreeasily expand abroad. The European politicalunion also allows countries to streamline theirproduction, students to access betterinternational tuition, companies to move tocountries where they can most boost growth,and cheap labour to move to where there isdemand for their work as is currently the casewith people from the Mediterranean countriesmoving to Germany for work, it is estimated that80,000 south Europeans are moving to Germanyevery year (27). If the EU did not have acommon legislation, its freedom of movement", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The Eurozone is not the same thing as the singlemarket, which is the foundation of the EU tradebloc. It would probably even be good for Europefor the Eurozone to be dismantled as it wouldallow currency devaluations to restorecompetitiveness to failing economies in Europe’speriphery. The European trade bloc wouldcertainly survive, and it is likely that the weakereconomies would be in a much better position inthe long-term because their products would becheaper while still being a part of the singlemarket (22). Further political union, on the otherhand, would involve huge financial risks byeliminating any form of national flexibility to dealwith economic problems. (23) (22) See “ThisHouse Would Abolish the Single EuropeanCurrency”, Debatabase. (23) Issing, Otmar.“The case for political union isn’t convincing”,Europe’s World. 1 June 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-ecegiehbe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The benefits outlined in the argument are onlyvalid if the political aspect of the EU functionsefficiently. The EU’s undemocratic nature andunnecessary bureaucracy create uncertaintyabout whether the EU will even exist in thelong-term. Adding to that the growingresentment to the EU in several Member Statesand looming referenda, the EU is an unstableentity. A trade bloc, on the other hand, is notconflated with issues regarding sovereignty,national identity, immigration and other sensitivepolitical issues. Therefore, it is likely to beconsidered safer by potential trading partners.When the EU is not a political agreement, foreigninvestors can have more trust that the countriesinvolved now will remain involved in the future.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egppgghwgo-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "President Bush took a series of extremelydifficult decisions that were necessary fornational security. Admittedly they wereexpensive but they made the world a safer place.His decisions on taxation ensured that allAmericans benefitted from economic growth. Hehad already done the heavy lifting all the Obamaadministration needed to do was allow themarket to bring the economy out of recession.Instead he has interfered and regulated whileconstantly spending money that wasn’t there onpolicies that weren’t priorities. There’s nodenying that the economy was in trouble whenObama got the keys to the West Wing but thejob of being president is solving these things, notcomplaining about them. He wanted the job andhas singularly failed to deliver. Instead he haspursued a left-wing, interventionist agenda thatbelieves that government can provide all theanswers. Except there is a big problem: he hasno experience of running anything. He was ajunior Senator in an era where the country tends", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egppgghwgo-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "After eight years of misrule under Bush, in themiddle of an appalling recession expectingeverything top get done in four years was alwaysfantasy Given the size of the challenges facingthe Obama administration when he was elected,they were never going to be resolved in fouryears. Perhaps his largest mistake was notamending his “Yes, we can” slogan with thecaveat “but it’s going to take a while.” A debt of$14tn was never just going to vanish like themorning mist, particularly in the depths for arecession caused, in large part, by the Bushadministration’s inability to regulate their friendsin the banking industry, to start unnecessarywars and to give away tax breaks to therich. Equally, Obama came into the job at a timewhen most of the rest of the world was barely onspeaking terms with the US and has had torebuild bridges with all of the traditional alliesbeyond the ever loyal UK and Israel – althougheven they were looking edgy by the end of thebush era. Even getting up to the starting line", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egppgghwgo-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The republican primaries have yet to even beginso it is too soon to be writing off the whole party.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egppgghwgo-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Obama has delivered some remarkable reformsin fantastically difficult circumstances Onmatters as diverse as healthcare to the conflictsin Iraq and Afghanistan, President Obama haspulled a whole series of rabbits out of theapparently impossible hat he inherited fromBush. Among other surprises he took the lead ina G20 summit that produced $1.1tn to act as abailout fund. He’s effectively resolved thecatastrophes in two major conflict zones. He’sensured that poor families actually stay in theirhomes. Increased funding for student loans,extended unemployment insurance at a timewhen 7,000 Americans a week were losing theirbenefits and, on top of all that he’s introduced ahealthcare package that will give security andpeace of mind to millions of Americans. All ofthis has been accomplished in the face ofextraordinary difficulties that were not of hismaking [i] . [i] Athleen Rosell. \"Devil'sAdvocate: Re-Elect Obama.\" The Daily Titan.April 19th, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egppgghwgo-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Nobody denies that Obama talks a good gameand that he came into office facing some bigproblems. However, the reality is that he simplyhasn’t stepped up to the plate. The economy is ashambles; unemployment is at over nine percentand only looks to grow, the debt is running at$14tn and the deficit is out of control. His muchvaunted healthcare plan is a rehash of MittRomney’s plan in Massachusetts. His onlysolution to any problem is to throw money thatthe government doesn’t have at it [i]. Ultimately, he has proved himself long onrhetoric but very short on delivery. His campaignwas based on an idea that he could provideleadership to a nation in trouble. Instead he hasrushed after either verbosity or inaction andfrequently both [ii] . [i] Karl Rove. \"Why ObamaIs Likely to Lose in 2012.\" Wall Street Journal.June 22nd, 2011 [ii] John Feehery. \"Opinion:Obama’s fatal missteps.\" The Hill. October 3rd,2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egppgghwgo-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Given the current state of the Republican fieldand the gravity of the challenges facing the US,Obama may well be not only the best but theonly hope The Republican Party primarycampaign currently resembles a dismemberedchicken’s head in frantic search of a body. Palin,Trump, Perry… A string of gaffes followed by acollapse after collapse. [i] Obama at the veryleast has the capacity to inspire confidence andthe experience of four years in office. If, asseems most likely, the Republican candidateends up being Mitt Romney, the former governorof Massachusetts, then he would represent afigure who is almost as unpopular in his ownparty as he is with Democrats. Divided anddivisive a Republican victory in 2012 wouldfragment congress, terrify the markets andworry international opinion. Furthermore, theonly policy option they appear to have suggestedfor dealing with the economic mess is to donothing except, perhaps, cut taxes some more;thereby increasing the deficit and further", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egppgghwgo-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is a perennial Republican attack – thatDemocrats cannot be trusted with nationalsecurity. Obama has proven that to be untruesettling issues in Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan.He has, however, managed to do it withoutoffending anybody or having his effigy burnt onthe streets in Canada and Europe [i] . He hasmanaged to re-forge the supportive attitude ofmuch of the world towards combating terrorismand worked with leaders of other majoreconomies to tackle the economic troubles in theglobal economy. President Bush was the onealways looking for votes with his fake bonhomieand folksy charm for the voters back home.Obama by contrast treats his allies with respectand receives it in return and abundance. [ii] [i]President Obama. \"Let's reclaim the post-9/11unity.\" USA Today. September 08, 2011 [ii]President Obama. \"Let's reclaim the post-9/11unity.\" USA Today. September 08, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egppgghwgo-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Obama took the lead in putting together aninternational solution to the financial crisis. Hehas taken bold decisions to prevent the crisisturning into a full-blown depression, such aspushing through the American Recovery andReinvestment Act of 2009 which was to give anestimated $787billion stimulus to the economy,[i] and has acted to control the worst excesses ofWall Street through the Dodd-Frank Wall StreetReform and Consumer Protection Act. [ii] He haspassed consumer protections legislation relatingto credit cards and mortgages and established aframework to double US exports by 2015. Hecreated and Advanced Manufacturing Fund tohelp the economy away from its addiction to theantics of Wall Street wide boys and return thefocus to industries that make something tangibleand, in the same spirit, rescued Detroit from itsown suicidal tendencies. He has freely concededthat unemployment is too high and is working toaddress that in the midst of an economic crisisthat was not of his making. However, he is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egppgghwgo-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Obamacare is neither one thing nor the other;even his flagship policy shows that Obama isalways the politician and never the leader thatthe US needs Obama managed to steer a billthat everyone disliked through Congress. Heangered the Republicans, and lost the support ofsome democrats in congress, 39 voted againstthe bill, [i] as well as more than a few Democratvoters, and ended up watering it down enoughthat his own core supporters failed to show upfor congressional elections in 2010. [ii] He isreluctant to show leadership in any area of policyand when he does, as Mitt Romney puts it, actsmore as “a politician in chief than a commanderin chief” [iii] . From the outset the President hasbeen considerably more about spin thansubstance, usually trying to pass off his ownmistakes as those of someone else. Of course allpoliticians do this but, usually, they also dosomething else as well; Obama is a one trickpony. [i] Cannon, Carl M., ‘The 39 HouseDemocrats who Voted Against Their Party’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egppgghwgo-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Obama has no clear foreign policyagenda Obama’s foreign policy to date has,frankly been a mess. He has failed to stand up toIran and has allowed both Russia and China totake advantage of his ‘reset’ policy. He hasignored the growth of hostile powers whileshowing a similar disregard for America’sAllies. Simply by dint of not being Bush, Obamahad the possibility of a huge upsurge in supportoverseas but he has tended to act more theclown than the statesman at internationalgatherings, for example insulting Israeli PrimeMinister Benjamin Netanyahu at the G20 summitin Cannes; responding to French PresidentSarkozy he said \"You are sick of him, but I haveto work with him every day.\" [i] Once again hisdesire to be the politician than the leader applieseven at events where nobody has the vote. [ii][iii] [i] FoxNews.com, ‘White House Silent onConversation With French President InsultingIsraeli Prime Minister’, 8 November 2011 [ii]Nile Gardiner. \"Barack Obama’s disastrous first", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egppgghwgo-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Obama has singularly failed to resolve Americaseconomic woes, which was the single largestissue when he was elected Beyond the rhetoric,beyond the inspirational speeches, there was oneissue on voters’ minds when they supportedObama; the economy and jobs. He has simplyfailed to deliver. He likes to portray himself asthe master of public policy; a kind of philosopherking. However the reality couldn’t be furtherfrom the truth [i] . On the issue that hasdominated international discourse since hiselection, the economic meltdown, he has simplyfailed to deliver. He accepted a fiscal stimuluspackage that contained plenty in the way of porkbut little in terms of practicality. He has failed tocreate jobs, the unemployment rate is still at 9%up from 7.8% when he became President. [ii]And Obama has singularly failed to tackle thedeficit, which has increased by $4 trillion sincehe took office, [iii] apparently seeming moreinterested in spending on unnecessaryprojects. [i] Jonah Goldberg. \"Where's the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egppgghwgo-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The reality is fairly simple; Obama is a skilledpolitician, that is beyond dispute. However, he isalso a respected constitutional scholar, the manwho caught Bin Laden after eight years ofBush-bluster, who delivered the Democrats –and the American people - their holy grail ofuniversal healthcare. Contrast this with aRepublican leadership who either can’tremember their own policies or who seem tobase them on assertions, such as the one madeby Michelle Bachman that Jefferson and Mason,both of whom owned slaves, worked tirelessly toabolish slavery. [i] Mitt Romney the candidatethe Rupublicans finally decided on is out of touchwith ordinary voters, making gaffes such assaying his wife drives 'a couple of cadillacs'. Thecontrast could not be clearer; at least thepresident knows the difference between the Warof Independence and the Civil War and caresabout ordinary voters. [i] Roper, Richard,‘Bachmann, Palin should just admit gaffes, thenmove on, Chicago Sun Times, 29 June 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This is based on several potentially faultyassumptions first the trust fund may not beaimed at helping to prevent pollution of clean upafterwards; it may simply be given the role ofgenerating the biggest possible return. Second itassumes that politicians see themselves as tiedto the people so that they have a reason toprevent pollution, in practice in an autocracy or afaulty democracy this may not be the case. Thedesire may therefore be to invest as muchmoney as possible in the trust fund and thereforeto exploit the resource as fully and cheaply aspossible. Even if the money is going into a trustfund the self interest is in polluting as we shouldremember that dictators are likely to believethey will still be around to see the benefits indecades to come.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A fund would prevent pollution Environmentaldamage is an example of the ‘tragedy of thecommons’ where if a resource is not owned by anindividual (or is free to all) then it will beoverexploited. This is because it is in everyone’sself-interest to use it as much as possible. Theresult is pollution; politicians and oil companieswant to exploit the oil as cheaply as possible sothey dump pollution on the local population. Forexample, the $19 billion ruling handed down lastyear by a court in Lago Agrio, a town nearEcuador’s border with Colombia, held Chevronaccountable for health and environmentaldamages resulting from chemical-ladenwastewater dumped from 1964 to1992(1). Putting oil wealth into a trust fund canhelp prevent this kind of abuse. There are tworeasons for this. First if politicians are not gettingan immediate benefit they will be less inclined tooverlook pollution and there won’t be money tobuy support for drilling and pollution to continue.The second is that since the fund is meant to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Not all politicians are incapable of investing forthe long term. After the economic crisis in whichthe world saw the perils of “living in themoment”, politicians will be more cautious in theway they spend money. Politicians have in thepast been able to build visionary projects such asthe EU, or high speed rail, or invest in reducinggreenhouse gas emissions; in Europe, domesticgreenhouse gas emissions fell by over 15 %between 1990 and 2010, due also toimprovements in energy and fuel efficiency, sothere is no reason to think they could not do soagain.(1) As a result, we do not need a separategroup for taking these decisions for thepoliticians, as they would do it bythemselves. (1) European Environment Agency,“Mixed success for European environmentalpolicies”, Spiral, 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Oil wealth flowing to politicians discouragesdemocracy The wealth from oil, or other naturalresources, holds back democratization as a resultof the “resources curse” or “paradox of plenty”.Resources provide money, and money is what isneeded to run a security state. When money cancome from natural resources there is little needto tax the people, instead it becomes a “rentier”economy where the dictator has resources to buysupport without recourse to taxation. [1] It isessentially the opposite of the well-known idea‘no taxation without representation’; if themoney comes not from taxes but from oil whatneed is there for democracy? This proposaltakes away the option of having access to largeoil revenues instead providing only a limitedamount to the state rather than the pockets ofthe dictator. This prevents the buying of keygroups such as the army and the policy who canbe used to repress the population. It is not bychance that the only countries in the Arab MiddleEast that could be considered democracies", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The biggest problem African countries face isinstability whether from rebellions, coups,international conflicts, or terrorist organisation.The inevitable result is violence. What thepopulation needs is safety to enable socialbenefits like healthcare and education. Money topay for an army can therefore be a good thing. Agood well paid professional force is needed toensure stability and prevent conflict. Nigeria forexample would surely have split apart without alarge army; violence from terrorist groups likeBoko Haram is increasing creatingMuslim-Christian tensions.(1) Without stabilitythere can be no democracy; votes can’t be held,so financing for stability is a good thing. Egypt isa good example that shows a well-trained armycan work for the benefit of democracy; it firststood aside while the people overthrew Egyptiandictator Mubarak and then stepped in when itwas believed Morsi threatened democracy. (1)“Nigeria’s troubles ,Getting worse”, TheEconomist, Jul 14th 2012 (2) Siddique, Haroon,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Having oil does not just provide the money toundermine, or prevent democracy taking hold; italso provides an immense source for corruption.Oil revenues provide a revenue stream that isnot dependent on the people but simply upon theglobal market and oil production. In a countrywith no checks and balances, accountability ortransparency the money will inevitably go to theelite. This is how Equatorial Guinea can be richwhile having most of the population in poverty.Dictator Obiang himself is worth an estimated$700million or the equivalent of about 4% ofGDP.(1) A trust fund can ensure that moneyfrom oil goes to the poorest not the richest. It ismanaged outside the country and away frompolitical pressure. If the government is corruptand uses the national budget to its own ends thetrust fund can provide the dividends asinvestment in individual development projects toensure the money is used where it is mostneeded. All the time it can be transparent toshow when and where the government is trying", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Long term benefits It is very tempting torecklessly use an unexpected windfall of moneyimmediately. But the best thing to do is to investfor the long term either to build infrastructurethat will pay back its cost in future economicgrowth, or to invest it in funds that will continuepaying dividends long into the future. Theexample of how Britain and Norway spent theirNorth Sea oil revenues is very revealing: “theBritish governments spent their North Seawinnings on cutting national borrowing andkeeping down taxes. Whatever came in wentstraight into the day-to-day budget. By contrast,for the past 16 years Norway has squirreledaway the government's petroleum revenue in anational oil fund”(1) which now has $810 billionin assets, almost twice the country’s GDP,providing 5% returns.(2) The advantage of suchinvestment is that they will continue to bringincome even after the oil is gone. The oil willtherefore benefit future generations as well asthe current one. A panel of experts which are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Preventing Corruption Having oil does not justprovide the money to undermine, or preventdemocracy taking hold; it also provides animmense source for corruption. Oil revenuesprovide a revenue stream that is not dependenton the people but simply upon the global marketand oil production. In a country with no checksand balances, accountability or transparency themoney will inevitably go to the elite. This is howEquatorial Guinea can be rich while having mostof the population in poverty. Dictator Obianghimself is worth an estimated $700million or theequivalent of about 4% of GDP.(1) A trust fundcan ensure that money from oil goes to thepoorest not the richest. It is managed outsidethe country and away from political pressure. Ifthe government is corrupt and uses the nationalbudget to its own ends the trust fund can providethe dividends as investment in individualdevelopment projects to ensure the money isused where it is most needed. All the time it canbe transparent to show when and where the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The change need not be dramatic; it need notapply to all oil revenues at once. For exampleonly revenues from new fields could go into theindependent fund while existing revenues to thegovernment are maintained. Services thereforewon’t need to undergo contraction. The impacton politics would also be minor; people electthose who get things done not those who blameothers for their problems. Moreover all of thepoliticians will have the same constraint of a lackof funds so no single party will have an unfairadvantage.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Politicians only think about themselves and onlyfor the short term looking for re-election. Theresult will be the money used for populistmeasures even if it is not sustainable. Theexample of Greece proves this idea, as therepublic sector wages rose 50% between 1999 and2007, despite having a deficit (1). Everyonewants more money, so will vote for suchmeasures. They don’t think about the question ofhow that money will be acquired in the long runso will go for unsustainable policies that kick theproblem to future generations. Only anindependent body will be immune toshort-termism. (1) ‘Eurozone crisis explained’,BBC News, 27 November 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-con02a", "title": "", "text": "An independent trust fund discouragesinvestment. When it is politicians who controlboth the investment and the amount funds beingreturned from that investment then they have anincentive to encourage more investment. Theywill want more exploration to find moreresources, they will promote technologicaladvances to be able to extract more from thesame fields, and they will be willing to grantmore production licences. If on the other handthe money goes into a trust fund then thegovernment and parliament has little incentive toencourage the market and every incentive tohold it up. The oil only provides a risk;unpopularity due to environmental impactswithout any benefit in return. The result will bethat the costs of drilling will be seen in theenvironmental damage it causes whilecommunities do not get any of the benefit as themoney is being squirreled away ‘for the future’.This is hindering the market and so reducing theeconomic benefits to the country.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Keeping funds from government has negativeconsequences for spending Let us not forgetthat in most of the cases when we talk about oilrevenues, we are talking about very large sumsof money, which can have an immense impact onthe budget. In countries where oil alreadycontributes to the budget any change could beimmensely disruptive to the government’s abilityto deliver services. If we take Venezuela as anexample oil revenues account for 25% of GDP(1), with government expenditure of 50% of GDP(2) any drop in oil revenues would have animmense impact upon social policies such aseducation, health and welfare. For those wherethe funding would be new that country would beforegoing a potentially transformative sum ofmoney that could help to eliminate poverty orprovide universal healthcare andeducation. Such a drop in funds flowing into thegovernment would also have a huge impact onpolitics; politicians would block theimplementation of a proposal that takes away so", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-con01a", "title": "", "text": "For the people and accountable to the people Acountry’s resources should be useddemocratically. The resources that are foundunder the soil belong to the nation and thereforethey should be used for the benefit of the people.Even where there is private ownership extendingto mineral and energy resources it is theresponsibility of the owners to use thoseresources for the good of the nation. The onlyway for this to happen is if there is ademocratically accountable body in charge of thefunding; this has to mean a democraticparliament. Putting the money in an‘independent fund’ is not very accountable. Evenif it is independent there is no saying what themoney will be used for, or that the fund is notreally designed to funnel money back to a fewindividuals.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiaghwpto-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Is it better that money should be wastedimmediately or should the return be spread out?Any prudent population would choose the latter.Most populations are wary of untrammelledexploitation of natural resources of the kindbeing promoted for fear of the devastatingenvironmental impact. Recent failures of bigcompanies to protect the environment, likeChevron(1), only add to this discontent and lackof trust. The case of Rosia Montana GoldCompany which wants to get a permit to minefor gold in Romania is also very illustrative.Following the request of this company to exploitcertain mountainous areas in the Carpathian, aseries of nation-wide protests have emerged.Thousands of people from across the nation aregoing out on the streets on a weekly basis toprotest against this project.(2) An independentfund won’t disincentivise investment; money willstill be returned to the nation’s treasury to beused by politicians but because it takes longer toflow into the treasury there is less incentive for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The opportunities for trade are severely limitedbecause of barriers imposed by the internationalsystem. The arguments made by pro-tradeproponents are often couched in the rhetoric ofmarket economics. Yet the international tradearena represents anything but a free market.Instead, tariffs, taxes, subsidies, regulations andother restrictions operate to disadvantage somecountries. Because of their weaker bargainingand economic power, it is typically developingnot developed countries that are on the losingend of this equation. The agriculturalprotectionism of the EU and USA, in particular,means that developing countries are unable tocompete fairly. Furthermore, even if we were toaccept that trade is more important, they shouldnot be seen as alternatives; they can readily becomplements. Trade is not inevitably magic andaid is not inevitably damaging. They depend oncomplementary policies. For example,aid-for-infrastructure programs that encouragetrade could enable African exporters to compete", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Trade provides developing countries with animportant basis for their own improvement. Togear up to be successful trading partners,developing countries often need to go through anumber of key changes. As well as developingtheir own economy and their manufacturing orservice sectors, they may need to build tradeinfrastructure in other ways. For example,increased trade would focus their attention onsuch things as good governance, the benefits ofa broadly stable currency and internal security.Although such developments may come about asa facilitator for trade, in the best case scenariothey may be seen as structural changes whichwill have a trickle-down benefit for the broadersociety in the underdeveloped country. China forexample has reformed its agriculture, created alarge manufacturing sector and is increasinglymoving into high tech sectors as a result oftrading with, particularly exporting to, the richworld and as a result has lifted more than 600million people out of poverty between 1981 and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Trade can be as short term as aid is; demand isvery cyclical so if a country specializes inproviding that good or service it can soon findthat the product they are providing is no longerdesired by consumers, or that there is a newproduct that makes what they provide obsolete.Even if there is a long term partnership betweentwo trading partners it may simply mean tyingthe poor country into a different kind ofdependency. Instead of the poor country beingdependent upon handouts it is dependent uponthe richer country buying its products or nottrying to undercut it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Financial contributions from the West haveproved detrimental for Africa. Between 1970and 1998 when aid was at its peak, poverty rosealarmingly from 11% to 66%. This statistic alonesuggests aid is damaging to African welfare.Africa began borrowing money in the 1970swhen interest rates were low, but a rising ratesin 1979 caused 11 African countries to default.Even after restructuring, they fell deeper intodebt. While the Marshall Plan had been asuccess, the same approach would not favorAfrica; as Dambisa Moyo contends, it lacks therequired institutions to utilize capital efficiently.Debt servicing meant money was passing fromthe poor to the rich, leaving Africa in aprecarious global position. Furthermore,countries which have rejected aid as an approachto combat poverty have prospered, indicating anadditional correlation between aid and a ruinedeconomy 1. 1 Edemariam, A. (2009, February19). 'Everybody knows it doesn't work'.Retrieved July 20, 2011, from The Guardian:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While aid appears unsuccessful for Africa, theapproach itself should not be criticized on thebasis of results in one continent. Westerncountries have simply provided African countrieswith generous payments allowing them tostabilize their economy. It many aspects of life,emphasis is not often attributed to whatresources are available but how they are used.Though more guidance on how to invest themoney may have been useful, Africa itself musttake responsibility for how it has spent themoney. The evil behind aid is allegedlyoverreliance: a country becomes dependent onreceiving more and more aid. However, afocused approach to budget and organization ofcapital could certainly put aid to good use.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Resources will only be scarcer without aid;further chaos and corruption will ensue. Therewould be no need for fighting should resourcesbe shared out equally. If aid is transferred togovernments there is surely a centralizedmethod of doing so; aid itself is not the problem.Africa could escape the issue of receivingpayments according to donors’ vested interestsby administering a list of causes for which itdesires support, accepting contributions wheredemands fall exclusively within its categories.Again, aid is not detrimental but its carelessdistribution and allocation is.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Trade is a long-term basis for internationalco-operation. Whereas aid is mostly short term,particularly for individual projects or limited tothe donors priorities, the other partner in atrading relationship is likely to represent anongoing market for goods or services. So when adeveloping country has the capacity to engage intrade with another country, there is a stronglikelihood that that trade will blossom into anongoing trading partnership. This will allow afirm basis for a flow of cash or goods into thedeveloping country, largely independently ofwhether the developed country is doing well orbadly economically at a given moment. This canbe contrasted to the flow of aid. It tends to beless predictable, both because it is manipulatedfor political reasons and also because it can bequite ephemeral and so, if the developed countrygoes through a bad economic time, the aidbudget makes an easy target for a reduction inspending as is shown by the arguments in theUnited States where the USAID Administrator", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Systemic aid' is detrimental to Africansociety While aid threatens the economy, it alsoposes hazards for society in Africa. As Moyocontends, it merely fosters civil war as peoplefight over scarce resources that cannot feasiblybe equally distributed. According to DrNapoleoni, $1.6bn of $1.8bn in aid received byEthiopia in 1982 – 1985 was invested in militaryequipment1. As a result aid is often limited;some donors refuse to make payments unless aproportion is devoted to a specified cause or ifsome act is done in return. Moyo refers GeorgeBush’s demand that two thirds of his $15bndonation towards AIDs must go topro-abstinence schemes. Such requirementsfurther impede Africa’s ability to create adomestic policy and think for itself. Aid is solelyto blame for its dependent state. 1 Herrick, L.(2008, May 14). Money raised for Africa 'goes tocivil wars'. Retrieved July 20, 2011, from NewZealand Herald", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Aid money is often misspent, even when handledhonestly. By imposing solutions from outside, itfavors big projects, \"grand gestures\" andcentralization - all of which may beinappropriate, only benefit a small number ofpeople, and suffer from intended consequences.By contrast, the profits of trade trickle down tothe whole population, giving people the power tospend additional income as they choose, forexample by reinvesting it in worthwhile localindustries and enterprises.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "All countries have something to trade. Many ofthe world’s poorest countries have a lot ofnatural resources so they can take part in trade.Even if a country does not have sufficient naturalresources it still has people. In order to be ableto take part in the globalized manufacturingindustry it need only be willing to accept lowerwages than its rivals. Alternatively if it islandlocked and has not opportunity to trade inmanufactures it can invest in education in orderto become a services hub. All states have acomparative advantage somewhere, they justneed to find it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Trade requires infrastructure Trade does notexist in a vacuum. It needs a wider infrastructureto support it, e.g. roads, railways, ports,education to produce capable civil servants toadminister trading rules, etc. For example Malawias a landlocked country needs roads andrailways to link it to ports in neighboring Angolaand Mozambique. Without foreign aid,developing countries are not able to develop thiskind of support, and so cannot participateeffectively in international trade. This is evenmore the case when it comes to creating thenecessary legal infrastructure and effective civilservice. Aid is not always in the form of money -it may also be given through expert advisors whohelp countries prepare for the challenges ofglobalization. Such were the efforts in the 1960sby the developing world, but they were droppedin favor of poverty relief. If restarted andrestructured, they would yield much betterresults, without the fear of commodity pricesdropping, enabling African countries to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The global economy is not welcoming to Africanplayers The international trade arena representsanything but a free market. Instead, tariffs,taxes, subsidies, regulations and otherrestrictions operate to disadvantage somecountries. Because of their weaker bargainingand economic power, it is typically developingnot developed countries that are on the losingend of this equation. The agriculturalprotectionism of the EU and USA, in particular,means that developing countries are unable tocompete fairly. In the EU, for example, each cowgets over 12 USD every day, which is manytimes more than what the average Sub-Saharanperson lives on 1. Furthermore, Africa has yet tobreak into the global market for manufacturedexports: this is very difficult precisely because ofthe success of low-income Asia. 1 BBC News.(2008, November 20). Q&A: CommonAgricultural Policy. Retrieved July 21, 2011, fromBBC News:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Trade does not allocate resources effectively Aidallows for money in a given country to beallocated well against need. At the micro- levelas well as the macro, trade is an inefficientdistributor of resources in a developing country.Under it, most if not all of the benefit of thetrade will stay with a small elite of people whoare often amongst the richest in the country inthe first place. They may then move the moneyoffshore again. Alternatively, if it remains withinthe developing country, it may well simply beused to buttress their own position in a waywhich further entrenches their social andeconomic position. So, the benefits of trade flowto few people and often they are the least needy.Aid, by contrast, may be targeted againstspecifically identified groups or areas on thebasis of need, often being given through localgroups, such as churches, mosques, healthclinics, etc. If one looks at the Gini index (incomeand wealth equality) ranking, it is plain that thetop (most inequality) is occupied by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Free trade is dangerous Exposing fragiledeveloping economies to free trade is very risky.There is a short-term danger that a flood ofcheap (because of developed world subsidies)imports will wreck local industries that areunable to compete fairly. For example China’sdominance in textile manufacturers has reducedthe amount African countries can export to theUS and Europe and is causing protests inZimbabwe and South Africa against cheapimported Chinese clothing. 1 In the longer termeconomies are likely to become dangerouslydependent upon \"cash crops\" or othercommodities produced solely for export (e.g.rubber, coffee, cocoa, copper, zinc), rather thanbecoming self-sufficient. Such economies arevery vulnerable to big swings on theinternational commodity markets, and canquickly be wrecked by changes in supply anddemand. For illustration, one only needs to lookat Greenfield’s “Free market-free fall” 2. Hewrites: “Trade liberalization encouraged", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-con05b", "title": "", "text": "Even if that were true, people naturally want totrade with each other, seeking to turn theirparticular resources or skills to their advantage.All too often trade is limited not becausegovernment action is needed, but because thegovernment actually gets in the way withrestrictive rules and statist controls. Forexample, regardless of their terms of trade withdeveloped nations, developing countries could allbecome more prosperous if they removed thebarriers they have erected to trade with eachother. Putting the emphasis on trade rather thanaid redirects attention from what developedstates should or could be doing for thedeveloping world, to what developing countriescan and should do for themselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Trade may not help those most in need. Aid islinked to need. Trade rewards those who are ableand willing to engage in trade. This involves anumber of elements – as well as having therights sorts and quantity of goods and servicesand being willing to sell at the desired price, acountry may need to meet certain other criteriaof a purchasing country. For example, thatcountry may make demands in terms ofcorruption, human rights, political support at theUnited Nations, or any other of a large number ofpossible preconditions for a trading partnership.This will suit some countries in the developingworld. But for others it will act as a bar to trade.They will therefore not receive the redistributionof wealth that is claimed for the global tradingweb. In this way, trade can distribute its benefitsvery unevenly. By contrast, aid can in theory bemore evenly distributed and can be targetedagainst identified need rather than against theability to compete in a trading marketplace.While aid has not always been targeted", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This argument borders on the absurd. Trade ismuch more likely to yield benefits for theordinary men and women of Africa, than aid everhoped to be. Aid and its unregulated flow areprecisely what kept numerous dictators in power(Zimbabwe’s Mugabe, to name but one) allowingthem to starve their people while taking weekendtrips to the Ivory Coast in private jets. Trade, onthe contrary, creates jobs, and those jobs createdemand for other jobs - which is what matters tothe ordinary person.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-fegippghp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Yes, trade might require infrastructure, but Asiancountries required it just as much, maybe morethan the African ones do. As Moyo argues in“Dead Aid” all of this is to be achieved not byclinging to aid, but by creating a stable enoughatmosphere with favorable terms for FDI. TheChinese have already invested billions of dollarsin Africa and are likely to invest much more. Thatway, the African countries get both trade andinfrastructure, without being at the mercy ofdeveloped nations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Corruption in any form creates inefficiency and‘drag’ on the economy – it is an unofficial form oftransaction tax and has the same effect on theeconomy. The proposition focuses on the ‘seen’detriment to public servants of losing incomefrom bribery but ignores the ‘unseen’ benefit ofending bribery which is that the cost of livingnaturally falls with the cost of doing business.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Bribery is sometimes necessary forsurvival \"Survival\" corruption, practised bypublic servants, is usually the result of smallsalaries, perhaps in highly inflationaryeconomies, which do not allow them to make aliving. Such as with the junior police officersmentioned in the previous point. Without bribery,public administration would collapse altogetheras no one would have any incentive to getanything done. Thus the level of corruption isdetermined by the poor economic situation of thecountry as well as by the policy of thegovernment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The developed world also carries part ofresponsibility for the situation in the developingworld due to its role as the bribe-payer. After all,it is largely multinational corporate interests thatsupply the bribe payments. They defraud thecitizens of developing countries who get a lessgood deal as a result, as well as the interests ofshareholders at home whose money is divertedinto the pockets of foreign officials. This showsthe necessity of treating the bribing of foreignofficials as a criminal offence in companies’ homecountries. It also requires the publication of allpayments relating to foreign deals.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Individuals may have no choice People are oftenmade to give bribes to officials because ofunfavourable economic, social or bureaucraticconditions. Officials may refuse to serve clientsunless they are paid. For example in Delhi policeofficers regularly take lunch without paying andmore senior officers take 10,000 each month toallow the restaurant to stay open late. [1] Inthose countries where state institutions areextremely corrupted, refusal to give a bribe maycost financial losses for business representativesor even health and liberty for citizens who needmedical service and access to justice. [1] Burke,Jason, ‘Corruption in India: ‘All your life you payfor things that should be free’, guardian.co.uk,19 August 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The position of civil society plays a key role inreducing corruption. Its action in taking a moralstand against corrupted officials is an importantprecondition for effective anticorruption policy.Hence, citizens who put up with the necessity togive a bribe become a part of the problem. It isnot just the case of public officials abusing theirpositions, but of people who are tempted tochoose the easiest way out. Recentdevelopments in India show how quicklyexpectations can change once people begin tomake a stand. Anna Hazare went on a hungerstrike creating a mass movement againstbribery. Now there are websites such asipaidabribe.com popping up to shine a spotlighton corruption. [1] The change is the first step inthe fight against corruption. [1] Campion, MuktiJain, ‘Bribery in India: A website forwhistleblowers’, BBC News, 6 June 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "In different cultures the lines between theacceptable and unacceptable are drawndifferently. However, there are limits in allsocieties, beyond which an action becomescorrupt and unacceptable. The abuse of powerfor private gain and the siphoning off of public orcommon resources to private pockets should beillegal and unacceptable in all cultures andsocieties.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Bribery is sometimes the cost of doingbusiness Bribery is often inevitable for foreigncompanies that invest in those countries, wherecorruption is widespread and the conditions forbusiness development are unfavourable. InRussia IKEA, the Swedish furniture company,was asked to pay bribes to get electricity for itsstores and refused hiring generators instead,however the generators themselves had theirprice inflated, as a result IKEA suspendedinvestment in Russia. [1] It illustrates that bribegiving is just a result of political system withweak democratic traditions. That is why manycompanies from developed countries, wherecorruption levels are low, tend to practise briberyin the developing world. [1] Kramer, Andrew E.,‘Ikea Tries to Build Public Case Against RussianCorruption’, The New York Times, 11 September2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Bribery is only wrong under a Western-centricnotion of corruption Norms and values differbetween countries. In many non-westernsocieties gift taking and giving in the publicrealm is a matter of traditions and customs.Moreover, gift giving is a part of negotiations andrelationship building in some parts of the world.It is hypocritical for the west to target developingcountries for this as many so-called democraciesare hopelessly compromised by businessinterests through political funding andlobbying. The United States Foreign CorruptPractices Act bans large bribes but allows for thepayment of small ‘customary’ sums in order toease transactions. [1] [1] The Economist, ‘Whena bribe is merely facilitating business’ June 11th2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Foreign companies simply adapt to the politicaland economic conditions that exist in differentcountries. You cannot blame them for high levelof corruption, which is the inner problem of thestate. Involvement of business representatives inanti-corruption actions may contradict theirinterests by providing access to commerciallysensitive information. If bribery was banned,companies would be unable to operate, resultingin less investment and so less development insome countries.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Corruption is not always wrong – it cansometimes be a reaction to greater injustice. Forexample, the Mafia arose in 19th CenturySouthern Italy as a mediating institution for an‘in group’ facing autocratic tyranny. Outsidersare treated badly, but then most groups ofpeople that we label as legitimate also treatoutsiders differently to their members.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Variation in standards leads to a ‘race to thebottom’ of corruptibility International standardson prosecution of companies who bribe foreignofficials may encourage positive changes innational legislation as well, thus eliminating legalflaws to combat corruption. Different nationalrules and standards for combating corruption arenot sufficient in the era of global investmentsand international business transactions. Variationbetween national standards enables corruption tospread. In much the same way as companies andrich individuals make use of tax havens andplaces where taxes are lower and less regulated,all but two of the UK’s FTSE 100 of topcompanies are set up in tax havens, [1]companies wishing to hide illicit transactions mayattempt to take advantage of weaker standards,wherever they are found. In India national lawshave clearly not worked with relation to politicalparties as only one of 45 parties has providedinformation in response to the Right toInformation act. [2] That is why international", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The demand for bribes would end if companiesstopped supplying them The risk of corruptiondemand greater transparency from business.Companies have a big impact on the socialenvironment and they have a responsibility toaddress it. Co-operative actions between thebusiness sector and state institutions areessential for effective anti-corruptionpolicy. Companies that gain a reputation forreporting officials asking for bribes will find thatofficials stop asking for them. In turn they needa legislative environment that protects theirinterests. The OECD Convention on CombatingBribery of Foreign Public Officials is an importantstep forward in this sphere. [1] [1] ‘OECDConvention on Combating Bribery of ForeignPublic Officials in International BusinessTransactions’, oecd.org, 1997,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Bribery is morally wrong Corruption is themisuse of power for financial gain. It takes thecore harm from unequal distribution of wealthand the resulting disparity in availability of goodsand services and magnifies it by including accessto just and nominally public services. It mustalways disproportionately harm the least well offin society either by denying them what is theirsby right or by forcing them into financialhardship to obtain it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-egplhbbsa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The bribery of foreign officials cannot be foughtby international means efficiently if the level ofcorruption at the national level is high. Itdepends on the political will of nationalgovernments, the activities of civil society andother social conditions that exists inside thestate. This explains why in many countries therehas been little enforcement of the OECDConvention on Combating Bribery of ForeignPublic Officials. [1] In most OECD countries thepolitical will to prosecute major bribery cases islacking. This explains why international efforts tocombat corruption are inefficient. [1]Transparency International, ‘2008 ProgressReport on Enforcement of the OECD Conventionon Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officialsin International Business Transactions’, 22 June2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tppphwift-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The much-acclaimed simplicity of the flat tax infact makes it too simple to properly reflect a verycomplicated reality. Goods and services vary inorder to make them accessible to differentpeople; there exist both luxury and economyversions of the same goods because companiesrecognise that people have differing ability andwillingness to pay, and hence price these goodsdifferently. It would therefore be strange for thestate to tax both kinds of good at the same rate,as if their respective buyers had the samediscretionary income and could both afford tobuy the product with the additional uniform flattax on it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tppphwift-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Why a flat tax is simpler: The current system of'progressive' taxation whereby higher earnersare taxed a higher percentage of their incomerequires the identification and administration ofmultiple different tax brackets spanning theentire spectrum of earnings in a nation. Thiscauses a number of problems. The bracketsthemselves may be largely arbitrary cut-off linesbased around round numbers, with no realjustification as to why one person increasingtheir earnings by as little as £1000 should lead tothem suddenly being propelled to a new taxbracket, when the actual difference to theirincome is negligible in overall terms. Moreover,the administration of multiple tax brackets isincredibly complicated and difficult, requiringevery taxpayer to record their income andexpenditure (in order to try and qualify for taxexemptions and 'loopholes') in meticulous detailand then to properly express this on lengthy andcomplicated government forms, a process whichcan cause anger, frustration and alienation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tppphwift-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This argument ignores the fact that there is stillanother channel for the allocation of resources,namely the government. In the given example ofagriculture tax credits verses manufacturingwithout such credits, if resources did not go intoagriculture because of the special credit, theywould have gone not into manufacturing but intogovernment (through the closing of loopholes,and thus the disappearance of a means of beingtaxed less), and government is far less neutral tothe market than any other allocation. Therefore,if the argument assumes that the best allocationof resources is that which most closely resemblesa genuinely free market, then in this example aflat tax produces a worse situation, as anyallocation of economic resources in the privatesector (no matter how 'distorted) is closer to thefree market (and thus 'better), than if thoseresources went into the hands of thegovernment. So if reflecting the market is theuppermost concern, a flat tax is a worseproposition as it brings into higher rates of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tppphwift-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Why a flat tax is fairer In a welfare state such asthe United Kingdom, everyone enjoys the sameaccess to services provided by the government,and so it should stand to reason that everyoneshould also contribute equally to the funding ofthose services. As not all individuals are equal intheir wealth and income, it is impossible to dothis on the basis of everyone paying in the exactsame numerical amount of money. However, thisparity can be achieved by everyone paying thesame percentage of their income in tax to thegovernment, and this is exactly what a flat taxis, and so equality in contribution to governmentservices (mirroring equality in access togovernment services) is achieved. This principleof equality is important for two reasons: firstly, ifwealthier citizens feel they are being unfairlyburdened by the current requirement that theypay higher percentages of their income to fundgovernment services than those on lowerincomes, they may feel a disincentive to workhard (which creates wealth for the whole", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tppphwift-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The aim of a welfare state is to allow provideaccess to vital services for all, but especially forthose who could not otherwise afford them -tolift the burden of poverty somewhat. A flat tax,however, would actually increase the burden onthe poorest. [1] For example, if under aprogressive taxation system the highest rate oftax was 50%, and the lowest 10%, if taxrevenues were to be maintained when switchingto a flat tax system, then it would be impossibleto simply extend the 10% rate of tax to all, asthis would mean a large effective drop inrevenue (as 40% less is collected from the topbracket with no gains anywhere), and so the ratepaid by all would have to be somewhere between10% and 50%, meaning an effective tax rise onthe poorest and middle classes, while the richestreceive an effective tax cut. This hardly seems'fair' or in keeping with the aims of a welfarestate, as the argument purports to serve. [1]Ulbrich, Holley. “Flat Tax Is Class Warfare”. U.S.News & World Report. April 12, 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tppphwift-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Why closing tax loopholes is good: Tax credits,deductions and loopholes distort resourceallocation in a market situation because peoplerespond to the differing tax rates and so putmore resources into the areas which theloopholes apply to than they would otherwise.For example, current tax credits for investmentmean that more resources go into investmentthan they would in the absence of that credit, asthe returns on the placing of resources in thisarea are higher than others (as it is subject to alower rate of tax). A government may even setcertain tax credits and loopholes which favourcertain industries or economic sectors, such asagriculture, on the basis that this is politicallyuseful (in winning votes), when this againdistorts resource allocation in the economy.These distortions may prove harmful as theycause certain sectors to be over-valued orover-invested in due to their favourable taxstatus, to the detriment and neglect of othermore highly-taxed areas (for example,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tppphwift-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The status quo, whereby governments selectwhat areas to tax and at what rate, leads to evenmore examples of regressive taxation than isalleged of flat taxes. For example, the so-called'sin tax' on alcohol and cigarettes are designedto limit people's consumption thereof (and thusmitigate the harms of excessive consumptionand abuse), but in fact have highly regressiveresults. This is because those on lower incomesare both more likely to consume large amountsof alcohol and cigarettes, and because thisexpenditure thus represents a larger share oftheir income. Consequently, by proportion thetaxes on alcohol and cigarettes actuallyredistribute wealth from the poor to the rich. [1]Therefore there is no reason to believe thatgovernment discretion in what is taxed and howmuch actually leads to less regressive taxation;it may even be more so. [1] Barro, Josh.“Alcohol Taxes are Strongly Regressive”.National Review Online. March 25, 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tppphwift-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This argument fails to account for the fact thatelected governments are even worse atdetermining what is 'fair' when it comes to taxpolicy than the arbitrary circumstances describedwhen the government has the option to taxdifferent persons at different rates on the basisof their income. In effect this allows the lesswealthy majority to decide what the'circumstances' of the more wealthy minoritymean they 'should' pay in taxes, which may infact be inaccurate and based more upon a desireto 'punish' the wealthy and appropriate theirresources for the majority in an unfair manner.This populist tendency in elected governments iswhat makes them so bad at deciding 'fairly'based upon 'circumstances', not sectional orclass interests, and so why the power to setdifferent tax rates to different people should betaken out of the hands of the government byinstituting a flat tax.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tppphwift-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Why tax 'loopholes' can be good: Many of theso-called 'loopholes' which a flat tax would close,by ending the exemptions given when youengage in certain kinds of expenditure under thecurrent income tax system, are actually positivefeatures which incentivize 'good' economicbehaviour. One of the great advantages fromowning a home, for example, is the resultingability to deduct mortgage interest paymentsfrom taxes. This makes owning a home moreexpensive, meaning a greater number of peoplewill be able unable or unwilling to buy homes,and will thus be forced to rent instead. Thisharms their long-term economic prospects, astheir mortgage payments would result in themeventually owning an asset whereas rentpayments bring them no return, and asself-owned homes become in less demand, thevalue of the homes which hundreds of thousandsof people have already spent decades payingmortgages for will plummet. This would alsocause great harm to the construction industry as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tppphwift-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Why a flat tax is regressive 'Regressive' meansthat a tax impacts upon the poor more greatlythan upon the rich, and this is exactly whatoccurs with a flat tax. Because everyone paysthe same percentage, both a rich and poor manwould for example pay 10% of their income intax. As the poor spend a greater percentage oftheir income on their basic necessities (such asrent and food) than the rich do, as the rich havefar more discretionary income to spend onluxuries. [1] Therefore, the impact of a 10% taxupon a poorer person is far greater in terms oflimiting their ability to buy things they may wantor need than it is upon a richer person, andconsequently the harm of taxing a poorer personat the same rate as a richer person is greaterthan the harm of taxing a richer person at ahigher percentage. Even if the 'personalallowance' allows the poorest in our society toexempt their income from the flat tax (which, ofcourse, offers no relief to the middle class, whonow pay a greater percentage tax on their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tppphwift-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Why a flat tax isn't 'fair': The arguments infavour of a flat tax argue that it is more 'fair'than other forms of taxation because ittheoretically treats all persons and all forms ofincome equally by taxing them all at the samerate. This firstly fails to explain why any arbitrarypercentage at which the tax is set is necessarilythe 'fair' number and thus why everyone shouldreceive the wonderful privilege of paying thatexact number and not another based upon theirincome, expenditure and circumstances. Theeffect of the tax upon different individuals indifferent circumstances is thus key to the tax'ssupposed 'fairness', and to the undermining ofthis argument. For example, say both Mr Smithand Mr Jones earn £50,000 a year. However MrSmith is a young man with few assets who reliesupon his personal savings to finance a futurebusiness, and Mr Jones is an old man who hasalready built up or inherited £500,000 in assets.There is no clear reason why it is 'fair' for themto both pay the same rate of taxation despite", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-tppphwift-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This argument again assumes that governmentsdo a good job of deciding what areas and sectors'deserve' loopholes and which do not. The factthat the distribution of resources would change ifwe abolished certain tax loopholes is probably asign that these areas have been artificiallyinflated in terms of their resource allocation bythese very tax credits and loopholes, and shouldtherefore be returned to market standards. Theselection of many of these sectors for creditsmay well have been done not on an economicbut rather on a political basis, for example inorder to protect jobs in some sectors and helpboost a government's votes at election time.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "NAFTA's harmful effects on American industryoutweigh its benefits. Americans are not helpedby lower prices if they lose their job and have nomoney. Furthermore, evidence shows theAmerican jobs lost through NAFTA were largelyhigh-wage manufacturing jobs, therebyexacerbating income inequality.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The US has benefitted from NAFTA through lowerprices and increased trade The increase inlow-cost Mexican goods has benefitted USconsumers1, thereby improving the standard ofliving for working Americans. US exports haveincreased by $104 billion2, thereby bolsteringmanufacturing. While some jobs have been lostdue to NAFTA, these have been primarilylow-skill jobs; reducing the number of low-skilljobs in the economy allows the US to concentrateon more profitable, white-collar jobs. And eventhese low skilled workers benefit from having topay less for their goods. 1 Marla Dickerson,\"NAFTA has had its Tradeoffs for the U.S.:Consumers and Global Companies Benefitted,but Critics See Pitfalls,\" Los Angeles Times,March 3, 2008. 2 Robert Scott, Carlos Salas,Bruce Campbell, \"Revisiting NAFTA: Still NotGood for North America's Workers,\" EconomicPolicy Institute, September 28, 2006, 5.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There is little reason to believe that NAFTA was akey agent in Mexican political change. In thetime after NAFTA was signed, Mexico alsoexperienced an economic crisis linked to acurrency collapse1. Its president fled the countryon corruption charges and drug-relatedcorruption continues to plague the country.Mexico has had both good and bad political andeconomic experiences since the implementationof NAFTA, and it is impossible to say that NAFTAcaused the freer elections in 1994 and thereforehas been overall beneficial for Mexico. 1PaulMagnusson, \"Did NAFTA Backers BamboozleAmerica?\" Business Week, May 8, 2000.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "NAFTA has benefitted Canada. Canada alreadybenefited from having the world's biggest marketnext door and under NAFTA this benefit isexpanded immensely. Under NAFTA, Between1994 and 2003, Canada's economy grew at 3.6%annually, and employment has risen1. NAFTAhas also help equalize agricultural flows betweenthe US and Canada. NAFTA has given Canada anadvantage in the US, the world's biggest market,as well as zero-tariff access to a wide variety ofAmerican products2. 1 Lee Hudson Teslik,\"NAFTA's Economic Impact,\" Council on ForeignRelations, July 7, 2009. 2 George Myles andMatthe Cahoon, \"Canada and NAFTA: a 10-YearMeasure of Success,\" BNET, January 2004.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While Canada has experienced some economicbenefits due to NAFTA, these benefits do notoutweigh the harms for North America overall.Furthermore, as the Con discusses below,Canada has struggled to reconcile itsenvironmental regulations with NAFTA, therebyhurting it environmentally, if not economically.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "If anything, NAFTA has harmed internationalcooperation by damaging the parties involved.Due to the continental free trade agreement,Mexican farmers have lost their livelihoods,American manufacturers have been laid off,environmental harms have increased, and theagreement has failed to create the job stimulus itpromised. We can only hope that NAFTA is not atypical example of international cooperation, forsuch would not bode well for the internationalcommunity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "NAFTA has improved democracy inMexico. Trade liberalization has caused socialupheaval that created greater demand forgenuine democracy within Mexico1. The electionof 1994 is considered to be the first free electionin the modern history of Mexico2. In 2000, thefirst opposition president (not a member of theInstitutional Revolution Party) since 1929 waselected3. Many scholars credit the liberalizedeconomic environment fostered by NAFTA forthis political development towards a genuinedemocracy4. 1Kevin Kelley, \"Good NAFTA?,\"Utne: The Best of the Alternative Press, 2011,2. 2Renee G. Scherlen, \"Lessons to Build on: the1994 Mexican Presidential Election,\" Journal ofInteramerican Studies and World Affairs, 1998,21. 3Sam Dillon, \"Mexico's Ousted Party Tries toRegroup After Stunning Defeat,\" New YorkTimes, July 13, 2000. 4 Geri Smith and CristinaLindblad, \"Mexico: Was NAFTA Worth it: A Taleof What Free Trade Can and Cannot Do,\"Business Week, December 22, 2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "NAFTA has bolstered cross-continentalcooperation. By expanding their free traderegions to the entire continent, Canada, the US,and Mexico have demonstrated the plausibility ofgreater international cooperation. AlthoughNAFTA is not on the scale of the EU, it similarlydemonstrates the ability of nations to worktogether for mutual benefit, thereby increasinginternational cooperation. NAFTA helps create asecure North American continent where none ofthe states need be worried about the othermembers in much the same way as the EuropeanUnion does in Europe. Competition andpotentially wars are prevented through greatertrade integration as is shown by Europeanintegration since the second world war.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Corn is only one product in a complex tradesystem. While NAFTA has undoubtedly given UScorn farmers an advantage, it has also benefitedMexican avocado famers- and everyoneemployed in the industry1. Automobileproduction has shifted away from the US andtowards Mexico after NAFTA2. Each countrycannot expect to export more of every product-what Mexico has lost in corn production, it hasgained in other areas. 1Amy Clark, \"Is NAFTAgood for Mexico's Farmers?,\" CBS, February 11,2009. 2 Scott, Robert, Carlos Salas, and BruceCampbell. \"Revisiting NAFTA: Still Not Good forNorth America's Workers.\" Economic PolicyInstitute, September 28, 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The loss of US production jobs is part of agreater global trend; NAFTA is not responsiblefor this change. Mexico and Canada areresponsible for only one-fifth of the growth in theUS trade deficit. The rapid acceleration oftechnological communication has madeoutsourcing and offshore production easier thanever1, and the US is losing jobs to countries thatdo the work as a fraction of the cost. 1 ThomasL. Friedman, \"The World is Flat: a Brief History ofthe Twenty-First Century,\" (New York: Picador,2007), 148.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-con02a", "title": "", "text": "NAFTA has interfered with Canadian lawsconcerning environmental protection. UnderNAFTA, if foreign investors believe they are beingharmed by regulations, they may sue forreparations under special tribunals1. Canadaregulates commercial use of its lake and riverwater2, fearing ecosystem damage, and hadpreviously banned the importation of a gasolineadditive MMT3. Due to lawsuits brought byAmerican companies Sun Belt Water Inc. andEthyl Corporation, the Canadian government wasforced to change legislation to allow thesecompanies to conduct business. By compellingCanada to reduce its standards forenvironmental protection, NAFTA has failed tomeet Canada's interests. 1 Joseph E. Stiglitz,\"The Broken Promise of NAFTA,\" New YorkTimes, January 6, 2004. 2 \"The Sun Belt NAFTACase.\" Sun Belt Water, 2004. 3 Kerr, Jim. \"AutoTech: MMT: the Controversy Over this FuelAdditive Continues.\" March 10, 2004.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-con05a", "title": "", "text": "NAFTA has reduced workers' bargainingpower. In reducing barriers to imports andexports, NAFTA has shifted bargaining power infavor of producers, who can more easily relocatefactories if workers in an area are toodemanding. This allows more exploitation ofworkers, something that we should bepreventing rather than encouraging. By allowingcompanies to move production across the US,Canada, and Mexico, NAFTA creates adisadvantage for workers in all three countries1.This essentially helps the rich get richer whilemaking those who are poor, or middle classpoorer increasing income inequality. 1 Scott,Robert, Carlos Salas, and Bruce Campbell.\"Revisiting NAFTA: Still Not Good for NorthAmerica's Workers.\" Economic Policy Institute,September 28, 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-con04a", "title": "", "text": "NAFTA has failed to give Mexico a competitiveedge in the global economy. Although NAFTAgives Mexico a slight advantage over itscompetitors, this edge has been insufficient;Chinese labor is still cheaper, and imports moregoods to the US than Mexico does1. Real wagesin Mexico have actually decreased 0.2% andincome disparities between Mexico and the UShave grown2. In failing to provide sufficientmeans for Mexico to compete with otherdeveloping nations, NAFTA has failed to serve itsparties' interests. 1 Smith, Geri and CristinaLindblad. \"Mexico: Was NAFTA Worth it: A Taleof What Free Trade Can and Cannot Do.\"Business Week, December 22, 2003. 2 Stiglitz,Joseph E. \"The Broken Promise of NAFTA.\" NewYork Times, January 6, 2004.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-con03a", "title": "", "text": "NAFTA was severely damaging to independentMexican farmers. US farm subsidies make itimpossible for Mexican farmers to competewithout tariffs; the so-called free trade actdisadvantages Mexican workers because theirAmerican counterparts are not working under afree trade system1. While Mexican consumersbenefit from lower prices, rural farmers tend tobe much poorer than city residents in Mexico.Therefore this agricultural loss benefits the richat the expense of the poor1. 1 Joseph E. Stiglitz,\"The Broken Promise of NAFTA,\" New YorkTimes, January 6, 2004.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-con05b", "title": "", "text": "NAFTA has reduced the cost of production. In afree trade economy, workers only have the upperhand in bargaining if there is a labor shortage.NAFTA does not deprive workers of somethingthey are entitled to; if a company saves moneyby relocating production, new workers get hired,goods become cheaper, and consumers benefit.NAFTA may have disadvantaged certain workers,but it benefits other workers and consumers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-con01a", "title": "", "text": "NAFTA caused a severe trade imbalance betweenthe US and its neighbors. As NAFTA has allowedmanufacturing to relocate south of the borderand export to the United States the US hasturned from having a trade surplus to a tradedeficit. In 1993, the US had a trade surplus withMexico and a stable deficit with Canada1. AfterNAFTA, the US' deficit with its neighborsincreased $107.3 billion, creating a netdisplacement of over 1 million jobs. NAFTA wassupposed to stimulate job growth in the US, notjob loss; this failure demonstrates the harmsthat NAFTA has caused its members. 1 Scott,Robert, Carlos Salas, and Bruce Campbell.\"Revisiting NAFTA: Still Not Good for NorthAmerica's Workers.\" Economic Policy Institute,September 28, 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-con04b", "title": "", "text": "NAFTA gave Mexico an edge; that does not meanMexico's problems would disappear. Mexico'seconomic problems are the result of a low taxbase and poor education, among other issues1. Atrade agreement alone cannot solve a nation'scomplex socioeconomic issues. Though it isimpossible to know what would have happened,it is fair to speculate that Mexico would importeven fewer goods to the US if not for NAFTA.Therefore, even if Mexico has yet to become anindustrial powerhouse, NAFTA can still beconsidered advantageous. 1 Joseph E. Stiglitz,\"The Broken Promise of NAFTA,\" New YorkTimes, January 6, 2004", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-epiahbnhba-con02b", "title": "", "text": "NAFTA allows companies to shed light onantiquated regulations. The advantages anddisadvantages of MMT are contested1, and theCanada's grounds for prohibitions on the waterexportation that Sun Belt wanted to do werequestionable1. Environmental protection isnecessary, but should be reasonable; ifregulations are preventing business for no goodreason, those regulations should bereconsidered. 1 \"> Jim Kerr, \"Auto Tech:MMT: the Controversy Over this Fuel AdditiveContinues,\" March 10, 2004, <", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "If retailers need to unload an item, it is totallywithin their rights to do that, as long as theydon't use that item to trick consumers intobuying more expensive items. Selling off goodsat a low price, when not planned, would also notharm producers because it would not be a caseof \"retail price management (RPM),\" in whichproducers agree to sell the product for less to theretailer.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The use of loss leaders can have damaging socialeffects. Typically it is less healthy products thatare heavily discounted, such as alcohol and fatty,sugary and salty processed food. Heavilyprocessed food should cost more than fresh food,but supermarkets don't use fresh fruit orvegetables as loss leaders. The practice tends todistort the shopping behaviour of many of thepoorest in society, pushing them into poor dietsthat lead to obesity, bad dental health and poornutrition. Banning the practice would make iteasier to encourage healthier diets and lifestyles.Selling alcohol below cost price leads to largesocial harms caused by alcoholism andbinge-drinking. The use of alcohol as a lossleader has already been identified as a problemin some countries. In New Zealand, for example,Foodstuffs and Progressive Enterprises—the twocompanies that own all of the major supermarketchains in the country—agreed not to use alcoholas a loss leader.1 Of course companies in mostcountries would not agree to such a promise", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The use of loss leaders allows greatercompetition in the retail sector. It helps to drivethe overall level of prices down by allowing muchgreater variation in pricing than would bepossible if all goods had to be offered at costprice plus a small profit margin. Loss leaders alsoallow new entrants to make an immediate impactupon a mature marketplace dominated by asmall number of entrenched incumbents, and sothey are a valuable tool in maintaining pricecompetition over the long term.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Banning loss leaders would help suppliers Thepractice of loss leaders is bad for suppliers.Farmers and manufacturers are often forced bythe dominant retail giants to participate indiscount schemes, sharing the losses at thedictate of the retailer. If they refuse they will bedropped by the retailer and cut off from themarketplace. The American Antitrust Institutehas concluded that these \"Resale pricemaintenance (RPM)\" agreements—which areagreed upon because retailers have all of theleverage—are usually illegal.1 Prohibiting lossleaders will prevent this abuse of marketdominance by the big retail companies andensure a fair deal for our farmers. 1 John B.Kirkwood, Albert Foer, and Richard Burnell, “TheAmerican Antitrust Institute On the EuropeanCommission’s Proposed Block ExemptionRegulation and Guidelines on VerticalRestraints,” American Antitrust Institute,September 27, 2009, page 5-6.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The use of loss leaders in marketing campaignscan benefit both retailers and producers.Below-cost price offers are typically used at theintroduction of new products in order toencourage consumers to try something for thefirst time. Whether it is a new vegetable orcheese, a different breakfast cereal or animproved type of soap powder, it is in theinterest of farmers and manufacturers to buildconsumer awareness and market share quickly.In the long run, if consumers like the newproduct, prices will rise and both producers andretailers will profit from it, so it is quitereasonable that producers are asked to share inthe costs of launching it at a discount.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Banning loss leaders protects consumers frompredatory marketing tactics. Loss leaderstrategies exploit consumers by providing partial,misleading information. Giant retailers are notcharities; they do not offer heavily discountedgoods in order to help the poor. Instead theyhave calculated that they can attractprice-conscious shoppers in with headline dealson a few loss-leading basics, and then persuadethem to pay over the odds on a wider range ofgoods with big profit margins. In this way, lossleaders are a con trick on consumers who arebewildered by deliberately confusingmarketing–an onslaught of advertising andever-changing promotions to the point that theyare unable to compare the prices of rival firmsand make a rational choice about where to shop.In their paper, “Loss Leading as an ExploitativePractice,” Zhijun Chen and Patrick Rey show howretailers use loss leaders to trick consumers bygiving them incomplete information.1 And in thelong term, by driving out smaller retailers and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The prohibition of loss leaders would promotecompetition in the market. Selling items at aloss is a predatory strategy used by largeretailers to drive out smaller businesses, and soprohibiting them would protect competition. Thepractice is especially bad for small businesses,which cannot compete with the massive retailfirms behind huge hypermarkets. Thesedominant corporations have the deep pockets tomake a short-term loss in order to increase thevolume of their sales. The whole basis of thispolicy is to drive smaller firms that cannot affordto offer loss leaders out of business. France hasregulated its retail sector to prevent this kind ofabuse of market dominance, in order to preserveits traditional shopping streets with familybusinesses. Other countries should follow theFrench example and ban loss leaders to protectsmall business and boost competition.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is not the government's place to forcelifestyles on people. There is plenty ofinformation around on what constitutes abalanced and healthy diet; people should be leftto make up their own minds about what they buywith their own money. In any case, loss leadersmake very little difference to the overall pricecomparison between processed and fresh food.Fresh food like fruit, vegetables and raw meat isexpensive because it will soon rot and so it incurshigher transport and storage costs thanprocessed food with a long shelf life. Ifgovernments want to change the balance incosts, they would be better off putting a tax onthe unhealthiest foods rather than interferingarbitrarily in the realm of the marketing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The government should be able to stop largeretailers from exploiting consumers andproducers. There is no doubt that retailers havea reason for selling items below market value,but they are only able to profit from such anillogical strategy by exploiting consumers andproducers. They trick consumers into buyingmore expensive items and they force producerswho have minimal leverage to lower thewholesale price in order to take the loss leaderprice into account.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Loss leaders are an inexpensive option availableto less well-off customers. The use of heavilydiscounted loss-leaders is good for shoppers,especially low-income consumers, who are mostappreciative of a bargain that will help themstretch their limited budget. Customers are notstupid but instead canny consumers who are wellable to see through the marketing ploys of thebig retailers. Often price-conscious shoppers willstock up on the most heavily discounted items,but then go elsewhere for the rest of their shop.On the other hand, attempts in countries likeFrance to regulate retailers have just resulted inprotection for the existing firms that dominatethe marketplace, and in a lack of competition,which drives up the cost of the weekly groceriesfor everyone. The same items can cost 30%more in France, where loss leading is banned,than in Germany where it is not and discountstores flourish1. Prohibiting this strategy will hurtconsumers. 1: Economist, \"Purchasing-powerdisparity: French shoppers want lower prices, but", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Selling at a loss is a practical way of shiftingproducts that have failed to sell. Retailers findthemselves all the time with stock that they needto unload, that nobody is buying. This isespecially a concern with items that have asell-by date after which they may not be soldand so become worthless. In such a situation,selling below cost price is economically rational,as it means that the retailer realises somemoney on their stock rather than none at all.Visit any open-air market at 3.00 p.m. and youwill see traders slashing the prices of unsoldperishable goods for just this reason. If a retaileris going to sell an item below price level, it mightas well use that item as a marketing device. Canyou imagine the same market trader slashing hisprices, but not shouting them to passersby?Sometimes retailers need to sell items below theprice level, and they should be allowed to marketthem cleverly in order to make up for some ofthe loss in revenue.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Banning loss leaders will interfere in the market,causing a net economic loss for society. Byrequiring retailers to sell items at least at costlevel, the government is creating an artificialprice floor, which will cause prices to rise andcreate a net loss for society. Basic economicsexplains that artificial price floors upset the freemarket, costing a net economic loss for society,which will eventually be paid by all sectorsinvolved. The harm that prohibiting loss leaderscauses to prices is well documented. Accordingto a study by the French newspaper La Tribune,a basket of identical items costs 30% more inFrance than it does in Germany, partly becauseof the ban on loss leaders1. In fact, this is thevery reason why Ireland repealed its loss leadersban. The Minister for Enterprise, Trade &Employment said at the time, \"The single mostimportant reason for getting rid of the [law] isthat it has kept prices of groceries in Ireland atan artificially high level.\" Indeed, a studypublished in the British Food Journal concluded", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The government has no right to tell businesswhat it should charge for its goods. It should beup to business what it charges for its goods; if itdecides to charge less than the cost price, itmust have a market-based reason to do so, andit is not the place of government to intervene. Itis well-known that consumers focus on the pricesof a few staple goods, such as bread, milk, bakedbeans, etc. So it is rational for retailers with highfixed costs (in wages, rents, power etc.) to setthe prices for these key products very low, andeven make a loss on selling them, because it willentice more shoppers into their stores. Theseconsumers will also buy other products on whichthe store does make a profit, and overall salesvolumes and profits will rise.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-con04b", "title": "", "text": "There is a good and a bad side to loss leaders forconsumers, but prohibiting the practice willalways be worse. The obvious benefit toconsumers of loss leaders is that they areinexpensive goods to buy. While it is possiblethat some people will then buy more expensiveproducts because they have entered the store,every item has a price tag, so the customer isalways aware of his decision, which means this isnot a predatory practice. Banning loss leaders,on the other hand, is catastrophic for consumers,as it will always result in prices rising. Whenannouncing the repeal of Ireland's loss leadersprohibition, Irish Minister for Enterprise, Trade& Employment Micheál Martin said, “Verysimply, the [law] acted against the interests ofconsumers for the past 18 years.”1 Loss leadershave positive and negative effects on consumers,but a ban is all bad. 1 Ireland Business News,“Groceries Order abolition.”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-economy-beghwprsci-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Loss leaders do not help lower-income customersbecause they are aimed at people who will buy alot of expensive goods at the store. PatrickDeGraba of the U.S. Federal Trade Commissionargues that, when retailers act strategically, lossleaders are aimed at highly profitablecustomers1. Retailers have no interest intargeting less well-off consumers, because theywon't then spend a lot of money in the store.Therefore, they are more likely to offer ahigh-quality item below its true cost; this will stillbe too expensive for many people, though. Forexample, stores will offer discounts onhigh-quality turkeys at Thanksgiving, becausepeople who buy them are likely to buy a lot offood. Loss leaders may provide discounts forsome consumers, but prohibiting the strategywould not hurt lower-income customers. 1:Patrick DeGraba, \"Volume Discounts, LossLeaders, and Competition for More ProfitableCustomers,\" Federal Trade Commission Bureauof Economics (Working Paper 260), 2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "If Japanese ministers wish to exercise theirfreedom of religion then there are plenty of otherShinto shrines that they could visit. Freedom ofreligion does not mean that politicians should befree to do as they wish knowing that it will insultothers. The consequences of attempts toexercise freedom of religion in a volatile situationcan be immense; Ariel Sharon’s visit to theTemple Mount while leader of the opposition wasone of the sparks for the Al Aqsa Intifada.[1] [1] ‘Al Aqsa Intifada timeline’, BBC News, 29September 2004,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of religion Everyone is entitled tofreedom of religion and that applies to theJapanese as much as any other peoples.Yasukuni is a shrine in the Shinto religion –equivalent to a church - and was the center ofstate Shinto through the first half of thetwentieth century. [1] Refusing to allowJapanese ministers to visit the shrine mighttherefore be said to be similar to barring Britishpoliticians from Westminster Abbey becausethere is a memorial stone to Oliver Cromwellthere and as a result it could be interpreted asoffensive to the Irish – Westminister Abbey’spage notably avoids mentioning the Wexford andDrogheda massacres that are remembered bythe Irish. [2] [1] EDITORIAL ‘Lawmakers mustrespect constitutional separation of religion andstate’, The Asahi Shimbun, 13 August 2013, [2]‘Oliver Cromwell and Family’, WestminsterAbbey,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "If ministers were visiting the shrine as part oftheir private lives then they should visitanonymously not publically as part of the largeevents at the shrine. If an individual is goingunder the glare of the media to take part in aformal event then it is clearly they are not doingso just for their own private and domesticreasons because it is a public event. As a publicevent then the position of the person in questionbecomes important.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Every nation should be allowed to respect its wardead Every nation should be allowed to honor itswar dead how it wishes. Wars are horrifyingtimes and atrocities are almost alwayscommitted by all sides. Japan’s actions in itswars, particularly the Second World War wereparticularly brutal but this should not mean thatJapans leaders should be banned from payingtheir respects to their ancestors who diedfighting for their country. Most nations do this inone way or another. The difference is thatYasukuni has those who were convicted criminalsenshrined but others also honor those who havecommitted acts that might be consideredcriminal. Perhaps the most extreme example isthe Mausoleum of Mao Zedong right at the heartof Beijing where there are still big celebrations tomark his birthday – unlike Shintoism in JapanMaoism is still very much part of the ideology ofthe state. [1] [1] Analects, ‘Mao’s birthday Partytime, The Economist, 7 June 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "If the Japanese politicians wish to honor theirwar dead there is another option for them; theycould visit the Chidorigafuchi National Cemetery.The Chidorigafuchi National Cemetery houses theremains of the unknown Japanese soldiers whodied overseas during the second world war. [1]This is both a broader cemetery in that it honorscivilians who died in the war as well as soldiersand narrower as it is only those remains that areunidentified so it does not contain war criminalsas Yasukuni does. [1] ‘Chidorigafuchi NationalCemetery’, Ministry of Environment,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Is a domestic matter for each individual Thevast majority of members of the governmentwhen visiting Yasukuni do so only in a privatecapacity and not as representatives of thegovernment. As private individuals in their ownlives anyone should be allowed to visits any suchsites they wish. Minister Keiji Furuya argues“Paying homage to the war dead is a purelydomestic matter and it’s not for other countriesto criticize us or intervene in these matters” andPrime Minister Abe agrees that it should not be adiplomatic issue “As for when I might go toYasukuni Shrine, or whether I will go or not, Iwill not say as this should not become a politicalor diplomatic issue”. [1] That there has beencontroversy and criticism even when it clearly isa domestic private matter, such as formerRepublic of China (Taiwan) President LeeTeng-hui visiting the grave of his elder brother in2007 shows that critics, in this case the People’sRepublic of China, are simply interested infinding an opportunity to attack the Japanese", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is silly to argue that visiting a shrine makes acountry look militaristic. Of course in most casesmilitaristic symbolism and militarism goes handin hand but this is not the case here. Japan by itsactions is not militaristic and no amount of visitsto shrines will make it so. Japan is committed toa pacifistic constitution; Article 9 states “Aspiringsincerely to an international peace based onjustice and order, the Japanese people foreverrenounce war as a sovereign right of the nationand the threat or use of force as means ofsettling international disputes.” [1] Despiteflashpoints with all its neighbours only 25% ofthe Japanese public want to increase Japan’sdefense capabilities – although this is rising. [2]It is notable that he Yashukan itself accepts thatits position on the war is a challenge to themainstream Japanese opinion. [3] [1] ‘TheConstitution of Japan’, Prime Minister of Japanand His Cabinet, 3 November 1946, [2]Hayashi, Yuka, ‘As Tensions Rise, Pacifist JapanMarches Into a Military Revival’, The Wall Street", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Those going to Yasukuni are not going to honourthe class A war criminals but the more than twomillion others who have given their lives forJapan. It is unfortunate that there are warcriminals enshrined in the cemetery but it iswrong to conclude that because they are therethose visiting must be visiting the war criminals.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Visits sour relations The visits by seniorJapanese politicians to Yasukuni are clearly amajor issue in international politics that damagesrelations between Japan and its neighbours,particularly the People’s Republic of China andthe two Koreas. Whenever ministers visit there isa round of recriminations this is oftenaccompanies by cancelling discussions and visitsas in april 2013 when South Korean ForeignMinister Yun Byung Se cancelled his visit. [1]South Korean President Park Geun-hye notes “If[Japan] does not have the courage to face itspast and does not take an attitude of taking careof its partners’ pain, it will be difficult to establishtrust to proceed toward the future.” [2]Diplomacy is about trust, Yasukuni underminesit. Even attempts to minimise damage bysending representatives, as done by PrimeMinister Abe in August 2013, does not helprepair relations with China responding “It doesnot matter in what form or using what identityJapanese political leaders visit the Yasukuni", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Separation of Church and State In most moderndemocracies there is a strict separation ofChurch and State. This is the case in Japan justas in the United States of France. Theconstitution states “No religious organizationshall receive any privileges from the State, norexercise any political authority” and bans the useof public money on any religious institution. [1]Lawmakers, and in particular cabinet ministers,visiting the Yasukuni shrine break this principle.[2] The constitutionality of visits has beenchallenged before and was ruled to be inviolation of article 20 of the constitution (quotedabove) by the Osaka High Court in September2005. [3] Clearly no state should have seniormembers of the executive regularly breaking itsown constitution. [1] ‘The Constitution ofJapan’, Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet,3 November 1946, [2] EDITORIAL ‘Lawmakersmust respect constitutional separation of religionand state’, The Asahi Shimbun, 13 August2013, [3] ‘Koizumi’s Yasukuni trips are ruled", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Makes Japan look militaristic Ministers and MPsvisiting Yasukuni makes Japan look much moremilitaristic than it really is. There are tworeasons for this. The first is the class A warcriminals who should not be honoured as itappears to be honouring their militarism. Thesecond is that Yasukuni itself has an overtpolitical mission that essentially promotes suchmilitarism. In the Yasukuni’s museum theYashukan Japan’s wars are portrayed as wars ofliberation from Western colonialism and fightsagainst bandits and terrorists [1] – exactly thesame justifications used in World War II itself.The museum, and its close ties with the shrine,display the unreconstructed view that Japan wasthe victim of the Second World War not theaggressor. When politicians visit the shrine theyare showing their support for this interpretation.This could be solved by making the museummuch more balanced; admitting that Japanstarted the wars they were involved in,information about the massacres such as at", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Honouring war criminals is wrong It is wrong tohonour war criminals whose actions resulted inthe deaths of thousands – or if you count theresponsibility for the whole war in East Asiamillions – of lives including the lives of Japanesecitizens. The results were horrifying criminalacts. If Yasukuni is at all about remembrancethen these individuals should not be enshrinedand politicians certainly should not visit. EvenEmperor Hirohito – Emperor during the SecondWorld War – was opposed to their beingenshrined. After the enshrinement of the warcriminals in 1978 he stopped visiting theYasukuni. He is quoted by Imperial HouseholdAgency Grand Steward Tomohiko Tomita in hismemoirs “At some point, Class-A criminalsbecame enshrined, including Matsuoka andShiratori. I heard Tsukuba [the chief priestbefore the enshrinement] acted cautiously”However he questioned “What’s on the mind ofMatsudaira’s son [the chief priest at the time ofenshrinement], who is the current head priest?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The ruling in this case, as in others, wasequivocal as it considered the problem to be thatthe visits by then Prime Minister Koizumi were inan official capacity. Koizumi put his name downas Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi which thecourt considered made it official. [1] If the visitshad been considered to be in a private capacity itwould have been ok. Most cabinet ministerswhen visit emphasize that they go in as privatecitizens not as state ministers. [1] ‘Koizumi’sYasukuni trips are ruled unconstitutional’, TheJapan Times, 1 October 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwvys-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The visits to the Yasukuni Shrine are mostlytaken by the PR China and the Koreas as anopportunity to complain and bring up oldwounds. Simply stopping visiting Yasukuni is notgoing to solve the fundamental problems inrelations between these nations – disputes overLiancourt Rocks/Dokdo/Takeshima and PinnacleIslands/Senkaku/Diaoyu or provide thedemanded apologies over Japan’s World War IIconduct which in any case when offered tends tobe rejected as not enough. [1] Ultimatelyforeign relations between nations do not have tobe linked to history; many countries putconflicting pasts behind them. If the othercountries of North East Asia wanted goodrelations with Japan they would simply ignorethese visits. [1] AP, ‘China dismisses Japaneseapology for war aggression’, USA Today, 22 April2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilpws-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Referring back to counterargument one, thisagain assumes the a priori existence of individualrights. Moreover, following this logic, as allindividuals would, behind a \"veil of ignorance\",most certainly choose to live is a developed,prosperous nation, all developed nations wouldhave the moral obligation to literally relocate theentire population of the developing world intotheir own countries. Simply because somethingmay be seen as \"preferable\" to some peopledoes not a moral imperative create. Further, thisexperiment assumes universality of anyconception of rights or \"human rights\". Thesubjective nature of what it means to be ahuman being between different faiths andcultures leads to different conceptions of what\"dignity\" means to humanity and thus enforcingthe conception of \"dignity\" held by the militarilypowerful on other states does not necessarilyprotect it, but in many ways can erode it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilpws-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "National sovereignty ends when human rightsare systematically violated. States violate theirright to non-intervention through systematichuman rights abuses by violating the contract oftheir state. States derive their rights of controland on the monopoly of violence through what iscalled the ‘social contract.’ A state gains its rightto rule over a population by the people of thatstate submitting to it their rights to unlimitedliberty and the use of force on others in societyto the state in return for protection by that state[1] . The individual is sovereign and submits hisrights to the state who derives sovereignty fromthe accumulation of an entire population’ssovereignty. This is where the legitimacy andright to control a population by force comesfrom. When a state is no longer protecting itspeople, but rather is systematically removing thesecurity and eroding away the most basic rightsand life of those citizens, they no longer arefulfilling the contract and it is void, thusremoving their right to sovereignty and immunity", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilpws-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Interventions can be small and successful. It isthe interventions that take a long time tosucceed, such as Kosovo, or even fail such asSomalia, or those where many people do not buyinto the justification such as Iraq that areremembered. However this forgets that therehave also been many small successfulinterventions and sometimes the threat ofintervention is enough. Sierra Leone is theforgotten conflict of Tony Blair’s premiership inthe UK. In 2002 Britain sent 800 paratroopersinto Sierra Leone, originally just to evacuateforeigners from the country but became anintervention when the British helped governmentforces drive out rebels which may have savedmany lives. However it may also haveemboldened Blair to help with intervention inIraq. [1] This example also shows that it isimportant to have support on the ground as theBritish were seen as being legitimate and therewas a functioning government who could do therebuilding. Where this luxury does not exist it is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilpws-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Individual rights are created by the state and donot exist in a vacuum, nor do they exist outsideof the realm of the existence of a state. To arguethat a “social contract” exists where one gives uptheir “rights” to the state is to suggest that theserights somehow exist outside of the scope of thestate existing, which they do not. Statesempower individuals to have the capacity to dothings and thus allow for practical rights to exist.The rights they allow or disallow, whether“human rights” or otherwise, are simplyconstructions of the state and its denial ofcertain rights is therefore in no way a breach ofany contract or trust [1] . No state or externalorganisation has any right to decide what a stateshould or should not construct as its citizen’srights and therefore has no basis forintervention. [1] Burke, Edmund. \"Reflectionson the Revolution in France.\" Exploring theFrench Revolution. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jun 2011.< .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilpws-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "This deters future human rights abuses. The useof force sends a strong message to oppressiveregimes that their behaviour will not betolerated. Human rights abuses happen aroundthe world because there is no mechanism to stopit. Oppressive regimes thrive simply becausethere is no real, coherent deterrent to theirabuses. Sanctions target their populations nottheir personal enrichment they gain throughsiphoning off money from domestic industry,diplomatic sanctions have no tangible impact onstates and peacekeepers are useless when thereis no peace to keep. The only true deterrent toregimes around the world is the danger that astrong military rival from outside will interveneand stop them and remove them frompower. Sending a strong message that theinternational community can and will intervene inthe cases of human rights abuses seriouslyincreases the costs in regimes'cost-benefit-analysis of state behaviour anddeters them from committing human rights", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilpws-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Most human rights abuses are motivated byideological factors that are not rationallycalculated through a \"cost-benefit-analysis.\"Much of the world's human rights abuses arecommitted along ethnic or religious lines andthus are not open to incentives and disincentivesbut are rather absolutist obligations they thinkthey have from their religion or ethno-culturalbeliefs. Moreover, most interventions are costly,damaging for the intervening forces and aregenerally unappealing to domestic populations inthe states that are intervening. As such, thepolitical will for intervention is usually quite lowand not feasible. Most regimes will know this andthus take this \"message\" from the internationalcommunity with a grain of salt and thereforehave no impact on their actions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilpws-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This is unlikely to happen in the majority of casesas not all countries have an anti-Western biasand not all intervening forces have to be Westernor identifiably Western. Moreover, the best wayto gain the support of a population is to tangiblyimpact their lives and demonstrate thecommitment to their protection and their cause.The best solution for anti-intervention force biascomes with the intervening force itself when realpeople see troops fighting in a real way toprotect them and their rights. There is no morepowerful way to build trust than to save amember of someone's family or community infront of their eyes. Thus, this is a self-correctingissue. Although there may be initial issues withbacklash from the region, most people willwelcome those who are risking their lives to savethem and their families.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilpws-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Force does more harm than good. The use offorce is incredibly damaging to the people youare trying to protect. Military interventioninevitably leads to further casualties and loss ofcivilian life. All warfare has civilian costs due toimperfect strategic information, the use ofhuman shields and the simple fact that morebombs, troops and guns leads to more violenceand thus more death of those caught in thecrossfire. Adding to this the propensity of forcesto hide among civilian populations and, often,the lack of identifiable military uniforms, leads tofurther human costs and prolonged guerrillawarfare. Adding to human cost is theinfrastructural costs of prolonged warfare,particularly seen in interventions includingbombing campaigns, leads to prolonged andsustained damage caused by the use of forceboth during war and in reconstruction. Forexample, the NATO bombing campaign in Kosovoin 1998 led to 1,200-5,000 civilian deaths [1]. If we are aimed at protecting the human rights", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilpws-con03a", "title": "", "text": "This is an illegitimate violation of nationalsovereignty. Human rights are a social constructthat are derived from the idea that individualshave created on the subject. States empowerindividuals to have the capacity to do things andthus allow for practical rights to exist. The rightsthey allow or disallow, whether “human rights”or otherwise, are simply constructions of thestate and its denial of certain rights is thereforelegitimate practice of any state [1] . Theimposition of one state’s conception of whatrights should or should not be protected is in noway morally justifiable or universally applicable.Different religions and cultures create differentconstructs of human dignity and humanity andthus believe in different fundamental tenets and“rights” each person should or should nothave. It is not legitimate to impede uponanother state’s sovereignty due to subjectiveconsideration imposed upon the less powerful bythe superpowers of the global system. [1]Burke, Edmund. \"Reflections on the Revolution in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilpws-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Foreign intervention fragments the conflict. Theuse of force by foreign agents fragments conflictswhich perpetuates the war. The countries whoare likely to and historically have participated inhumanitarian intervention are developedWestern nations such as the US, UK, Canada andFrance either unilaterally or under organisationalbanners such as NATO. In the vast majority ofthe world, the West is not well-liked and theeducation systems, media and local history havecreated negative perceptions of the West as\"imperialists\" and colonialists. Intervention canoften be seen as \"neo-colonialism\" and the Westtrying to assert power to change regimes insideother countries around the world. This, combinedwith the inevitable human cost of the use offorce, turns local populations against theintervening forces and allows government forcesto cast any resistance movements that cooperatewith the intervening forces as traitors to theircountry. This is both bad in terms of causinglarge military opposition from both sides of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilpws-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Although there are some subjective elements ofrights, there is generally a consensus amongstmost people that fundamental human rights,such as being alive, are universally good.Although we should not impede sovereignty forsubjective things, genocide, ethnic cleansing andother systematic abuses of human rights arethings that are universal and thus should beprotected for all people around the world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agdhwiafrk-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There is no appetite for, and little interest in, theoutside world in the North. Those reunions thathave been organised have been established bythe South. As far as the citizens of the North areconcerned they are living in a utopia that is theenvy of the world. There is little evidence thatNorth Koreans are clamouring for reunification,although there is some appetite for it in theSouth, it is diminishing as the generations thatremember a united country die and the youngergenerations take a look at the cost of doingso. It is also highly questionable what eitherparty would get from the union. The North wouldgain little except mass unemployment as theyare simply not equipped for a 21st centuryeconomy and the south would get all of thesocial unease that usually accompanies massunemployment. Talk of a shared culture andheritage is all very well but simply doesn’t paythe bills in is a fairly dubious claim at best – thelanguages are now unrecognizable to each otherand the last sixty years have eradicated anything", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agdhwiafrk-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Kim Jong Un is unlikely to consent to any form ofunified government that does not include himand his family Although the regime inPyongyang has expressed an interest in areunified country, progress has been painfullyslow. It took twelve years to get from initialcontact to the first meeting. It seems likely thatany suggestion of reunification is more anegotiating ploy than emblematic of any seriouscommitment. If reunification is to be achieved, itwill happen in spite of the current leadership inthe North rather than because of it. Thecontinued separation of the two Koreas is, inmany ways, an accident of history. They wereonly divided in 1945 for administrativeconvenience. If the Soviet and Americanleaderships had been able to develop a moresensible agreement then the two would neverhave been separated in the first place. Thismeans that for the sake of administrativeconvenience sixty years ago, four thousandyears of history has been torn apart. From the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agdhwiafrk-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Although the famines in North Korea are now anannual fixture and are routinely exacerbated bythe regimes whimsical refusals to accept foodaid, it is difficult to see how the situation wouldbe improved by what would probably be a longand protracted war followed by permanentunemployment. South Korea has no welfarestate to speak of and retired people live off theincome of the working ‘middle’generation. Mostly the situation works well but itdoes assume that at least somebody in thehousehold is capable of getting a job at somepoint. Per capita incomes are approximately fiveper cent of those to the South. Although it ispossible to make a moral argument that theworld has a responsibility to avert anotherfamine in the North, they certainly do not havethe moral authority to impose, asked andunwanted, a solution that runs the very real riskof making things worse for citizens on both sidesof the 38th parallel. It is questionable as towhether the South has the right to meddle in its", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agdhwiafrk-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "North Korea represents a clear danger to itsneighbours and their allies and that is unlikely tochange [1] Tania Branigan The Guardian 23November 2010 [2] Green, Shane, ‘NorthKorea North Korea is virtually the definition of arogue state. It remains technically at war withthe South and frequently this manifests itself inacts of aggression. In any other situation theregime bombing of Yeonpyeong island wouldhave been considered an act of war and met witha military response [1] . The regime’s relentlesspursuit of nuclear weaponry poses a very realthreat. The regime has tested missiles at leastcapable of reaching Tokyo and Seoul and hasindicated a desire to be able to reachWashington, [2] James Cartwright, vicechairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is worriedthat they will be able to hit the west coast withina few years. [3] It seems reasonable to assumethat, with the limited resources of the statebeing spent on these two goals, rather thanfeeding the people, the regime will ultimately", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agdhwiafrk-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "North Korea may well be a dangerous state withan unstable leader but neither the regime northe nation is suicidal. There may be a largemilitary but it simply lacks the resources tomount an invasion. The occasionaldemonstrations of military prowess have farmore to do with negotiations about aid than theyhave to do with a genuine military threat to theSouth. It is inconceivable that North Koreawould take any significant military action withoutthe agreement of Beijing and it is inconceivablethat any military action would achieve more thana gnat bite from the point of view of either theAmerican or Chinese military. Although KimJong-Il may be a master of sabre-rattling as aform of brinkmanship it is staggeringly unlikelythat the sabre would ever be unsheathed. It isworth noting that the idea that Pyongyang wouldcommit financial suicide by attacking their mainform of financial support – South Korea – isrelatively ridiculous. The shifting relationshipbetween the two Koreas has more to do with the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agdhwiafrk-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Despite the tyranny of Kim Jong-Un, the controlhe exercises over his people has eliminated thepossibility of revolution There is grindingpoverty in the North as well as brutal repressionand all the other trapping of a militarydictatorship. The only alternative future for theNorth is of a failed state going economically andsocially in the opposite direction from the rest ofEastern Asia but now armed with nuclearweapons. The security threat this poses to theregion is terrifying. However, it seems unlikelythat the regime has any intention of surrenderingtheir absolute power and the people are unlikelyto remove him however bad things get, NorthKoreans do not have access to the tools such asmobile phones and the internet that made theArab Spring possible. [1] Instead the people willcontinue to be fed a diet of propaganda and notmuch else. As well as the security implicationsthere is a simple issue of morality, in any othersituation where the actions of a governmentwere impoverishing a people to, quite literally,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agdhwiafrk-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Although the younger generation in South Koreadoesn’t have the hunger for reunification of theirparents and grandparents, very few are hostileto the prospect per se, they are only concernedabout the cost. It seems unlikely that this wouldin any way reflect the ‘50-53 war which was abattle between the US, the Soviet Union andChina and just happened to be hosted on thepeninsula and to its huge cost. One of theadvantages of involving China is that it would bethe clearest possible demonstration to the SouthKorean people that the superpower wascommitted to the long process of rebuilding theirmutual neighbour. This answers several of thepossible objections. China gets the benefits ofsecurity and South Korea gets an important allyin the process of rebuilding the North.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agdhwiafrk-con01b", "title": "", "text": "China has an enormous interest in not having anunstable nuclear power on its doorstep. It alsohas an interest in Pyongyang doing nothing toupset the region’s relationship with the West.That in and of itself should be enough for Chinato at least increase the trade and support it givesto North Korea. China is already investing inNorth Korea, such as at the port of Rason, [1] itwould want to protect these investments,Chinese firms main criticism of operating inNorth Korea is the business environmentsomething that unification would improve. Thesame can be said for Japan and the other AsianTigers. Rates of growth in North Eastern Asiahave been spectacular in recent years and do notlook set to diminish in the long term. It is alsoworth noting that the estimates for the costs ofreunification vary and $5trillion is on the upperend. Also that is the cost for getting the North towhere the South is now. It took the South 60years. North Korea would be following the samepath as part of a larger and richer nation and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agdhwiafrk-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Forcible \"liberation\" is contrary to the principle ofself determination The absence of a civil societyin North Korea makes it very difficult to know ifthere is a great upwelling of dissent in thecountry but there is certainly very little in theway of evidence of it. For the same reason, thereis no obvious government in waiting, there isnothing that could take over from the triad ofparty, army and state that currently runs thecountry except and imported elite from theSouth. As a result an uninvited militaryintervention the people of North Korea would endup, in effect being ruled by a ruling elite thatthey don’t know. The influence of the regime iseverywhere in the North and an occupying forcewould need to attempt a process similar to thedisastrous de-Ba’athification actions in Iraq. Theresults do not seem likely to be anydifferent. Replacing a heavily armed rogue statewith a similarly heavily armed failed state wouldnot seem to represent much in the way ofprogress. A rogue state can, at least, be mostly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agdhwiafrk-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There is little interest in unification among youngpeople in South Korea There is one very obvioushistorical example which speaks to attempts tounite Korea by force: the 1950-53 war. It seemsunlikely that even the most ardent supporter ofreunification south of the border would be keento repeat that fiasco which had at least 910,000battle deaths and total death toll up to3.5million. [1] In addition, the youngergenerations have much less interest in theproposal than their parents and grandparentsdid. As a result the grand coalition would runthe very real risk of one of the component partsactively opposed to the proposal and the otherhalf at the very least unhappy about it. Theassumption that the North Korean army willsimply roll over or melt away is reminiscent ofthe ideas about swift victories in Iraq andAfghanistan and so it seems unlikely that the USpublic would be too keen to sign up for a secondKorean War. Ultimately to work this proposalneeds the support of the peoples of North and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agdhwiafrk-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Reunification of the Korea peninsular isunaffordable Estimates of the cost ofreunification vary wildly but one thing is clear,they’re all very large. One recent estimate put itat $5 trillion – or $40,000 per capita for SouthKoreans for 30 years. [1] The economy of theNorth is virtually non-existent, it was never thathealthy even when Moscow was propping it up,in 1992 it collapsed completely. Now only themilitary has any money at all. A whole series onunfinished and unnecessary vanity projects arethe only thing resembling an infrastructure androads and factories would simply need to be builtfrom scratch. Although it is tempting to makethe comparison with the reunification ofGermany, the two situations are very different.Incomes in the East were about one third to onehalf of those in the West and the population wasabout a quarter that of its more populousneighbour. The population of the North is abouthalf of the South and incomes are at about 5 percent. [2] The Republic of Koreas simply could", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agdhwiafrk-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There are certainly difficulties in seeing how anindependent North Korea could be reasonablyexpected to joined the global community ofnations. However, that is not the case here.There are still ties between the North and South,of blood and kindred if nothing else, two potentforces in Korean culture and Confucianthought. The situation is different from Iraq andthe lessons of the De-Ba’athication processappear to have been learnt; that middle ranking,and often senior, apparatchiks do not necessarilyhave a loyalty to the former regime.De-Ba’athication was much more extensive thanits equivalent in post-communist Europe wheregenerally only those over a certain level wereexcluded [1] while after World War II very fewJapanese were excluded from the bureaucracy.[2] It seems unlikely that the mistake would berepeated. The closest analogy to where theNorth is now is not the oft-cited East Germanybut South Korea’s own prodigious economicgrowth. On the basis of which there should be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Africa has witnessed significant economic growthsince the inception of the ‘War on Terror’, and itis predicted that between 2013 and 2023 therewill be an annual increase in GDP of 6% a year[1] . This implies that US military assistance tohelp counter-terrorism activities will not beneeded in the future to same extent. Inaddition, the emergence of the African Union’scomposite peacekeeping force has created anarmy with counter-terrorism abilities. This forcedraws from multiple countries which reduces thecost for each member, creating an economicallyviable African force. [1] The Economist, ‘Africarising: A hopeful continent’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "African states can’t afford the full cost Africa isthe least developed continent in the world andwill struggle to independently maintain aspecialised counter-terrorism force. Thirty four ofits fifty four states are classed as ‘leastdeveloped countries’ [1] . The result of poorfunding and bad governance is a decreasedefficiency of security and military services inthese states. In turn, this has resulted indestabilisation of the region. Wages, training,and military equipment are expenses which fewAfrican countries can afford alone. Kenya, forexample, had to disband its Police Reserve unitin 2004 as unpaid officers had turned tocorruption to ensure a decent wage, despite theneed to combat terrorism in the state as shownby the attack on Nairobi’s Westgate shoppingmall [2] . Aid from the United States enablesthese African states to field financially viableforces which can then participate incounter-terrorism. Before military aid was cut toEgypt in 2013, the US provided $1.3 billion", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Other actors are gaining strength in thecounter-terrorism scene. Despite its weaknesses,the AU has participated successfully incounter-terrorism actions such as that of Darfurand Somalia. Other Western actors have alsopresented themselves as an alternative. In 2012France intervened in Mali and preventedextremist Muslim and Tuareg separatists fromgaining control of the state. The US’ response tothis same incident was limited in contrastdemonstrating numerous alternatives toAFRICOM.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Specialism of the United States in counterterrorism The United States has one of the mostelite and experienced counter-terrorism forces inthe world, Africa could only benefit from the helpthey offer. Branches of the US military whichspecialise in counter-terrorism, such as the USNavy SEALs and Delta Force, receive rigoroustraining and have gained experience fromnumerous operations. Many African states lackthe ability to train and utilise such forces, whichis why US help is welcome. US military adviserswere sent to Uganda to help combat the Lord’sResistance Army [1] (LRA) and assisted with ‘animpact disproportionate to its size’ [2] . Between2011 and 2013, the LRA’s attacks were halvedand the conflict’s death toll decreased by 67%.The experience that these forces provide isvisibly valuable for Africa’s counter-terrorismactivities. [1] Shanker,T., ‘Armed U.S. Advisersto Help Fight African Renegade Group’ [2] BBC,‘US forces join jungle search for Kony’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The use of US Special Forces does not guaranteesuccess in counter-terrorism operations. Theseforces have made mistakes in the past, asdemonstrated by the failure in the battle ofMogadishu. Despite two years in the field, the USassisted African forces have still not foundJoseph Kony (leader of the LRA) which puts theSpecial Forces’ usefulness in to question. Thereis also the issue of sending the ‘right man for thejob’. Military advisors who are female or lowerranked are often not respected by the forcesthey train [1] . [1] Metrinko,M.J., ‘The AmericanMilitary Advisor’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Providing military assistance against terrorismcan have a negative effect on global stability.Operation Restore Hope in Somaliamisappropriated the state as a terrorist havenand anti-terror missions failed to target thenature of the conflict [1] . This led to continuedinstability within the country which thenproduced a significant Islamic, terroristmovement in 2006. [1] Lyman, P. N., ‘The Waron Terrorism in Africa’ pg.4", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "There are few alternatives The United States isthe only significant actor in region which can berelied upon in counter-terrorism issues. Due tothe “War on Terror” and a need to maintain amilitary equipment export industry [1] , the UShas been a reliable ally for many African states.The alternatives are less attractive. Africannations often dislike their neighbours involvingthemselves in their affairs, exemplified by thesecond conflict in the Democratic Republic ofCongo – the Great War of Africa that drew innations across the region attempting to securetheir own interests. The limited effectiveness ofthe AU’s army has also prevented them frombecoming a prominent actor incounter-terrorism. The failure of the AU’smeasures in Sudan during 2003 forced them toappeal to the UN for aid. This was effectively anadmission of failure [2] , signifying these actorsas weak in comparison to the USA. [1]Plumer,B., ‘The U.S. sends Egypt far moremilitary aid than it needs’ [2] Lyman, P. N., ‘The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Increased global security The presence of USmilitary equipment and counter-terrorism forcesin Africa will result in greater security for the restof the world. Many of the terrorist groups whichhave existed in the ‘ungoverned’ spaces of Africahave an international agenda. Al-Qaeda andother groups have used Africa as a base to planattacks against the West, such as the 2004Madrid bombing [1] . The disruption anderadication of these groups is therefore beneficialas it will prevent these groups from acting freelyon the international stage. [1] Lyman, P. N.,‘The War on Terrorism in Africa’ pg.2", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The US Congress has taken steps to reducesecurity assistance to states which havecommitted mass human rights abuse [1] . InOctober 2013, President Obama announcedcutbacks in military aid to Egypt after a militarycoup and crackdown on protestors [2] . Inaddition to these penalties, there are also goodgovernance programmes run by USAID in unisonwith counter-terrorism policies to ensure ahealthier transition to democracy, reducing therisk of repression [3] . [1] Ploch,L., ‘CounteringTerrorism in East Africa: The U.S. Response’pg.38 [2] Gordon,M.R., ‘In CrackdownResponse, U.S. Temporarily Freezes SomeMilitary Aid to Egypt’ [3] Ploch,L., ‘CounteringTerrorism in East Africa: The U.S. Response’pg.55", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The rise in terrorist activity in Africa since 2006has reshaped this priority. Following the Kenyanexample, the Nairobi mall massacre and thesubsequent attacks have acted to change theprioritisation of terrorism in some countries. Inearly 2014, Kenya’s Defence Secretary RaychelleOmamo stated that there was going to be agreater focus on counter-terrorism in the future[1] , this event has shown many Africans thatterrorism is an issue that requires seriousattention. [1] Otieno,B., ‘Kenya: China to HelpKenya Safeguard Territory’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Militarisation of US policy in Africa Thebroadening of USAID to accommodatecounter-terrorism assistance has detracted fromlong term development goals. When Secretary ofState Condoleezza Rice announced the change ofUSAID’s focus, the agency transformed from oneof development to one of a ‘quasi-security’nature [1] . Since 2001, USAID has been forcedgo beyond its traditional humanitarian role.Development goals, which are crucial dealingwith the root causes of terrorism such as povertyand poor state-citizen relationships [2] , arebeing sacrificed for short term militaryobjectives. The military training of police hasactually served to detract from development, aspolice financially exploit citizens with their newlygained power [3] . Africa’s urgent need fordevelopment suggests that the expansion ofUSAID’s role is disadvantageous for thecontinent. [1] Hills,A., ‘Trojan Horses? USAID,counter-terrorism and Africa’s police’ pg.629 [2]Gast,E., ‘U.S. Counterterrorism in the Sahel’ [3]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Disrupts international relations UScounter-terrorism support of certain Africanstates has resulted in the indignation of theirrival states. Africa’s complex history of conflictshas created enmity between states. The selectionof some states for counter-terrorism support hasweakened relations between these states and theUnited States. Eritrea, for example, has beenhostile towards the United States due to thelatter’s support of Ethiopia, who fought a warwith Eritrea from 1998-2000. Eritrea accused theUS of supporting Ethiopian occupation of Eritreanlands and caused the state to withdraw from USregional counter-terrorism plans [1] . [1]Lyman, P. N., ‘The War on Terrorism in Africa’pg.7", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Props up authoritarian regimes The USA hashelped solidify the rule of several oppressiveregimes in Africa through its counter-terrorismassistance. In an effort to prevent terrorism fromgaining a foothold in Africa, US policy hassupported states which have poor human rightsrecords, allowing them to continue brutalregimes. The training and equipping of counterterrorism units by the US has been linked toincreased repression and unaccountability frompolice forces [1] . This approach strengthenedthe Sudanese regime, who committed atrocitiesin Darfur while simultaneously received aid fromthe USA [2] . US support on the continent couldbackfire if highly trained but repressive forcesbecome prominent. [1] Hills,A., ‘Trojan Horses?USAID, counter-terrorism and Africa’s police’pg.638 [2] Lyman, P. N., ‘The War on Terrorismin Africa’ pg.13", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Many Africans do not prioritisecounter-terrorism The US focus on terrorism hasdetracted attention away from the more pressingissue of domestic crime. High rates of murder,manslaughter, rape, corruption and the illicitdrug and small arms trades are of greaterimportance than counter-terrorism to manyAfricans. The misplacement of funds by USAID instates like Kenya, has detracted attention awayfrom the major threats to citizens. Hillscommented in 2006 that ‘their (Kenyans)concerns focus on the ineffectiveness of thecountry’s criminal justice system in the face ofrising crime’ and claims that the counter-terroristtraining received by them does little to improvedomestic crime rates [1] . [1] Hills,A., ‘TrojanHorses? USAID, counter-terrorism and Africa’spolice’ pg.637", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-con04b", "title": "", "text": "In general, the USA’s counter terrorismassistance has led to greater regionalco-operation. Shared intelligence and resourceshave become necessary to efficiently combat theglobal threat of terrorism. The US assisted a jointMali-Niger venture to regain their desert regions,increasing co-operation between these twostates [1] . Intelligence co-operation betweenNorth and Sahelian Africans has increasedsignificantly since the beginning of the “War onTerror”, improving international relationsbetween these countries. [1] Lyman, P. N., ‘TheWar on Terrorism in Africa’ pg.18", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-athwuhfto-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Counter-terrorism helps ensure security, which isclosely linked to development. Before it ispossible to improve health care, education,poverty and other development factors, it isnecessary to have a secure environment [1] .The action to broaden USAID’s developmentagenda is therefore taking a more practicalapproach towards ensuring that long termgrowth can occur in a stable environment. [1]Beswick,D. & Hammerstad,A., ‘Africanagency in changing security environment:sources, opportunities and challenges’ pg.476", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Acting due to a change of government is not theprerogative of another state. Putin is within hisrights not to recognise that government and togrant asylum to former president Yanukovychbut not to take action within the Ukraine tochange the situation. The coup however was nota coup but an abdication. “Yanukovych has losthis legitimacy as he abdicated hisresponsibilities. As you know, he left Ukraine – orleft Kyiv, and he has left a vacuum ofleadership.” It was therefore Yanukovych whoessentially decided that he was no longer incharge by leaving Kiev and not making anystatements for several days. [1] Moreover theUkrainian constitution (both 2004 and 2010versions) gives the right to impeach thePresident to Parliament [2] this is what theParliament has done. [1] Psaki, Jen, ‘Daily PressBriefing’, U.S. Department of State, 28 February2014 [2] Constitution of Ukraine, Article 85 (7& 10), wikisource, 2004 , 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Necessary response to an illegal coup Thecurrent government in Ukraine is the result of anillegal coup. On the 21st February Yanukovychand the opposition in Ukraine agreed to EUproposals that restored the 2004 Ukrainianconstitution and set Presidential elections forlater in 2014. The two sides were “to create acoalition and form a national unity government”.Thus Yanukovych was to remain President untilthe next elections. [1] The opposition howeverignored this deal. As Putin puts it “Theyimmediately seized his residence rather thangiving him a chance to fulfil the agreement... Hedidn’t have any chance of being reelected.” TheUkrainian opposition used illegal andunconstitutional means to effect regime change.Russia therefore has a right to act to protectthose who there has been an “armed seizure ofpower”. [2] [1] ‘Agreement on the Settlement ofCrisis in Ukraine - full text’, theguardian.com, 21February 2014 [2] Siddique, Haroon, ‘Putin:Yanukovych ousting was ‘unconstitutional", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Historical and cultural claims are not worth muchwhen it comes to sovereignty over territory; ifthey were then every country in the world wouldbe involved in disputes with their neighbours. In1994 Russia agreed the Budapest Memorandumwith the US, UK and Ukraine in it committing “torespect the independence and sovereignty andthe existing borders of Ukraine [and] reaffirmtheir obligation to refrain from the threat or useof force against the territorial integrity or politicalindependence of Ukraine”. [1] Russia signedagreements in 1997 that recognised Crimea as apart of Ukraine in return for a lease on the baseof the Russian Black Sea Fleet. [2] Russia hastherefore not been contesting sovereignty and sohas no legal claim. [1] Presidents of Ukraine,Russian Federation and United States ofAmerica, and the Prime Minister of the UnitedKingdom, ‘Budapest Memorandums on SecurityAssurances, 1994’, cfr.org, 5 December1994 [2] Felgenhauer, T., ‘Ukraine, Russia, andthe Black Sea Fleet Accords’, dtic.mil, 1999", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Approval of the Parliament The Russianparliament has agreed to approve force “inconnection with the extraordinary situation inUkraine, the threat to the lives of citizens of theRussian Federation, our compatriots” [1] TheRussian Federal Council approved the moveunanimously so allowing Russian troops to beused. [2] This gives President Putting theauthority to use the Russian military in Crimea,or elsewhere in the Ukraine, if he believes it isnecessary. The Crimean Parliament has alsoasked to join Russia and is to have a referendumto show the support of the people for this action.“From today, as Crimea is part of the RussianFederation the only legal forces here are troopsof the Russian Federation, and any troops of thethird country will be considered to be armedgroups with all the associated consequences.”[3] This clearly gives Russian troops the right tobe in Crimea. [1] Kelly, Lidia, and Polityuk,Pavel, ‘Putin ready to invade Ukraine; Kiev warnsof war’, Reuters, 1 March 2014 [2] RT,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Invited by the legitimate government PresidentYanukovych is Ukraine’s legitimate President. Heis therefore perfectly at liberty to allow Russiantroops into his country to keep the peace inmuch the same way as countries around theworld welcome US troops on their soil asprotection from external threats or UNpeacekeepers to keep the peace domestically.Yanukovych in a letter to Putin called “on thePresident of Russia, Mr. Putin, asking him to usethe armed forces of the Russian Federation toestablish legitimacy, peace, law and order,stability and defending the people of Ukraine.”[1] [1] ‘Yanukovich sent letter to Putin askingfor Russian military presence in Ukraine’, RT, 3March 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This is a very different situation from agovernment inviting in UN peacekeepers. Firstthe Russians are an involved party – part of thecause of the conflict due to the protests in Kievfirst breaking out due to Yanukovych turningfrom the EU to Russia a country so involvedwould never be asked to be involved in a UNpeacekeeping force. Secondly a UNpeacekeeping force requires not only theapproval of the government but of the UNSecurity Council. [1] This has not beenforthcoming in this case. On the other hand it isdifferent from basing in another country as theUS does as that does not involve coercion. Or forthat matter taking vital strategic points such asairports and surrounding the host countriesmilitary bases. [2] [1] ‘Role of the SecurityCouncil’, United Nations Peacekeeping, accessed4/3/2014 [2] Fraser, 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Approval by one parliament may make the actionlegal within Russia but it does not make aninvasion legal under international law. TheRussian parliament has no legal authority overCrimea or other regions of Ukraine so cannotauthorise the use of troops within that country –that is something only the Ukrainian parliament,or in extremis the UN Security Council canauthorise. Similarly the Crimean parliamentcannot legally simply decide that Crimea is nolonger a part of Ukraine, even a referendum doesnot enable such a transfer of sovereignty. Selfdetermination should be internal, not external.[1] [1] Supreme Court of Canada, Reference reSecession of Quebec, [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "“Russian mobilisation is a response to animaginary threat. Military action cannot bejustified on the basis of threats that haven't beenmade and aren't being carried out.” Argues USUN Ambassador Samantha Power. [1] There islittle threat to Russian citizens or minorities fromthe new government. Putin has accused the newgovernment of intimidating minorities andincreasing anti-Semitism but Ukrainian Jewishorganisations have said “does not correspond tothe actual facts”. [2] Any protection of citizensshould not be pre-emptive. While it is right thatthe Crimea should be consulted on its future thisshould be done without any Russian intervention.Having Russian soldiers on the ground biasesany referendum helping to make it illegitimate.With the referendum having happened afterintervention Russia cannot say it was reacting tothe demonstrated will of the people. [1] Mardell,Mark, ‘Ukraine's Yanukovych asked for troops,Russia tells UN’, BBC News, 4 March 2014 [2]Zisels, Josef, et al., ‘Open letter of Ukrainian", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Crimea should be Russian Russia has a strongclaim to the Crimea; The territory was onlyhanded over in 1954 by Nikita Krushchev forpolitical reasons. [1] Previously it had beenRussian for three hundred years. HistoricallyCrimea is Russian not Ukrainian. CulturallyCrimea is important to Russia too, it was themain Russian tourism destination during theSoviet Union and Symbolised Russia’s gains inthe 18th and 19th Centuries. [2] Russia for mostof the 1990s refused to accept Ukraine’sindependence, let alone Crimea that Crimeashould be a part of it with the Russian Parliamentengaging in actions such as declaring Sevastopola Russian city. [3] Therefore the sovereignty ofthe region should be considered to becontested. [1] Pravda, ‘USSR's NikitaKhrushchev gave Russia’s Crimea away toUkraine in only 15 minutes’, 19 February2009 [2] Judah, Ben, ‘Why Russia No LongerFears the West’, Politico, 2 March 2014 [3]Minorities at Risk Project, ‘Chronology for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Need to protect Russian civilians It is the peopleof Crimea who are important and their interestsshould be considered. Putin told the FederationCouncil that Russia is responding to a “threat tothe lives of citizens of the Russian Federation…and the personnel of the armed forces of theRussian Federation on Ukrainian territory”. [1]Russia needs to protect both the Russian citizenswho are in Crimea and the ethnic Russians wholook to Moscow not Kiev. The Crimeanparliament has agreed to hold a referendum on25th May on “Autonomous Republic of Crimeahas state sovereignty and is a part of Ukraine, inaccordance with treaties and agreements.” [2]This was put forward to 16th March with twooptions; Do you support Crimea's reunificationwith Russia? Do you support the restoration ofthe Constitution of the Crimean Republic dated1992 and Crimea's status as a part of Ukraine?[3] The 97% vote for joining Russia and 83%turnout conclusively show that this is the will ofthe Crimean people. [4] [1] RT, 1/3/2014 [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Negotiating with the new government wouldmean recognising it. Russia may well recognise anew government after elections are held and thegovernment is once more legitimate but untilthen there is little to negotiate. Moreoverelections must be held only when there isstability. At the moment Russia won’t recogniseany elections because they would be held undera situation of terror where “there is the dangerthat a fascist element will come to the fore, andsome anti-semite will come to power.” [1] [1]Siddique, 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Russia is hardly the first nation to send troopsacross a border without UN Security Councilsupport, indeed there is quite a list; Iraq,Afghanistan, Libya, Kosovo. All undertaken bywestern powers. Russia is not threatening theuse of force it is simply guaranteeing that itscitizens will not come to harm and putting themilitary on standby just in case such protectionis necessary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Any cross border troop movements are aviolation of sovereignty States are allowed totake measures for “self-defence if an armedattack occurs”. [1] The movement of troopsacross the international border from Russia intoUkraine, and from the Russian base inSevastopol clearly is a violation of sovereigntyand Ukraine if it wishes has every right to useforce to defend itself even if the Russians don’tfire first. [2] [1] United Nations, ‘Article 51’,1945 [2] Deeks, 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Damaging to Russia The United States wants toisolate Russia economically with Kerrythreatening Putting “He may find himself withasset freezes, on Russian business, Americanbusiness may pull back, there may be a furthertumble of the ruble.” [1] Even without economicaction Russia is already suffering fallout from themarkets. The Moscow stock exchange fell 11.2%- or almost $60billion. The ruble reached all-timelows against the dollar and the euro and theCentral bank was forced to raise interest rates by1.5% to prevent further losses. [2] Longer terminvestment is likely to be hit as US and Europeancompanies are less willing to invest in a countrywith an aggressive foreign policy. [1] Swaine,2014 [2] Adomanis, Mark, ‘The Invasion OfCrimea Is Crushing Russia's Stock And CurrencyMarkets’, Forbes, 3 March 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-con04a", "title": "", "text": "What are the consequences of violatinginternational norms? President Putin has notedthe west is being hypocritical by highlightingtheir role in the middle east over the last decade.And it is true that violating the prohibitionagainst force does not carry any immediatesanction, and that which it does carry arediscretionary to individual powers. However thatdoes not mean the violation does not matter;instead it means that any attempt to annexCrimea will be seen as completely illegitimate.[1] International institutions are also likely toreact, albeit slowly and not very effectively.Institutions such as the Council of Europedemand “Ukraine's territorial integrity must berespected and international commitmentsupheld” [2] while the OSCE is sending monitorsto Ukraine. [3] Some institutions may excludeRussia altogether; there have been suggestionsfrom Secretary of State Kerry that Russia couldbe thrown out of the G8. [4] [1] Voeten, Erik,‘International law and institutions look pretty", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Russia should negotiate with the newgovernment If Putin is truly concerned aboutUkraine’s government being illegitimate andunconstitutional then he should be supportingelections as soon as possible to settle thequestion of who the government. Putin himselfaccepts that Yanukovych has “no political future”and helped him for “humanitarian reasons”. [1]If this is the case then military action in Ukraineis superfluous; what Russia needs is a newgovernment in Ukraine that is legitimate. Theaction in Crimea however simply unites Ukrainianopinion against him making it less likely that apro-Russian candidate stands a chance ofwinning the election. Already 58% of Ukrainianssupport integration with the EU. [2] A rashattempt on Crimea could ensure Putinpermanently loses Ukraine from Russia’s sphereof influence. [1] Siddique, 2014 [2] Titchenko,Ilya, ‘The Deadly illusion of a divided Ukraine’,Kyiv Post, 2 March 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-con05b", "title": "", "text": "While there has been some economic fallout forRussia this is likely to only be temporary, as therisk of actual conflict goes away the markets willreturn to normal. There is almost no chance thatthere will be any sanctions that do real damagebecause much of Europe is dependent on Russiafor gas; Germany gets around 39% of its gasfrom Russia, and this accounts for almost 9% ofits energy consumption and other smallereconomies in Eastern Europe are even moredependent. [1] Impose sanctions and Russiacould squeeze gas supplies. [1] Ratner, Michaelet al., ‘Europe’s Energy Security: Options andChallenges to Natural Gas Supply Diversification’,Congressional Research Service, 20 August2013, p.10", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It is an invasion without Security Councilsanction The legality of Russia’s invasion ofCrimea is simple “Russia’s military interventionin Ukraine violates international law.” [1] The UNCharter is unambiguous “All Members shallrefrain in their international relations from thethreat or use of force against the territorialintegrity or political independence of any state”.[2] Russia has both threatened the use of forceby its parliament authorising the President to useforce on Ukrainian territory [3] and actually doneso by sending troops into Crimea. The only legalway for the UN Charter’s prohibition on force tobe avoided is through a Security Councilmandate. Which Russia does not have. [4] [1]Posner, Eric, ‘Russia’s Military intervention inUkraine: International Law implications’,ericposner.com, 1 March 2014 [2] UnitedNations, ‘Article 2’, Charter of the UnitedNations, 26 June 1945 [3] RT, 1/3/2014 [4]Deeks, Ashley, ‘Russian Forces in Ukraine: ASketch of the International Law Issues’, Lawfare,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This action by Russia shows (once again) thatthe consequences of violating internationalnorms is practically zero. As such the actiondamages the credibility of that norm, especiallywhen applied to a powerful state like Russia. [1]The main problem is Russia is a member of theseorganisations; as a Security Council member theUN can do nothing, similarly it is blocking a fullscale monitoring mission by the OSCE. [2] As forthe G8, a talking shop, is Putin really likely tocare? [3] [1] Ku, Julian, ‘Russia Reminds theWorld (and International Lawyers) of the Limitsof International Law’, Opinio Juris, 2 March2014 [2] AFP, 2014 [3] Judah, 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-egilpwhbrh-con02b", "title": "", "text": "“Ukraine is not [only] our closest neighbour, it isour fraternal nation... we will not go to war withthe Ukrainian people.” [1] There have been noshots fired and the action is not a hostile act, it issimply to protect the Crimeans. Russia has notengaged in an armed attack as the forces inCrimea have not fired a shot. [1] Siddique, 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The veto is not wielded as an ideological tool, butrather a tool of national interest like any otherdiplomatic tool. The recent case of Libya,whereby the veto power was not used by any ofthe P5, demonstrated the ability of the SecurityCouncil to align themselves to the cause ofcivilian protection. For this reason, it should alsobe noted that collective security is oftenindistinguishable from the national interests ofthe P5. The military might of each of the P5members individually, and within separategroups, notably the UK and US axis within NATO,is such that the avoidance of disagreement iscrucial to international peace. Even if the P5 didcast their vetoes for reasons of ideologicalself-interest, this cost is outweighed by themaintenance of unity that becomes ever morecritical in the post-Cold War multipolar world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The veto is wielded as an ideological tool. In therare recent circumstances in which the vetopower has been utilised, it has been hijacked byideological demands and petty national interests.The P5 are able to use their veto powers not toenforce legality, justice and transparency in theinternational environment, but rather appeasetheir allies and punish their enemies. Chinaprevented peacekeeping operations proceedingin Guatemala and Macedonia on account of theengagement of those countries with Taiwan1.The veto is no longer applied for themaintenance of collective security, but thesubstantiation of internal security. 1 He, Yin,'China's Changing Policy on UN PeacekeepingOperations', Institute for Security &Development Policy, July 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The veto power is still as relevant as it ever was.As the opposition notes, the veto power wasgranted to ensure the victors in World War IIthat they could prevent the escalation to worldwar that had so ravaged their lands andpopulations. The maintenance of the 'long peace'over the subsequent half-century can be at leastpartially attributed to the effectiveness of theSecurity Council veto; the P5 are tempted awayfrom military solutions towards diplomatic feudsdue to their ability to bring overbearing politicalpower to bear on rivals. For example, fears ofIran's acquirement of a nuclear weapon havebeen abetted by US-sponsored efforts to imposesanctions on the regime. Without the vetopower, the Security Council would not remain inits current, useful form and may not haveprevented a resort to war in this case.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The Security Council knows it has to reform. Allthe Security Council members know that at somepoint there is going to have to be reform of thecouncil. This will most likely mean moremembers being admitted to the Council. Thethree countries whose grasp on the SecurityCouncil is tenuous due to their relative powerhaving declined; UK, France and Russia, willlikely be willing to give up their veto in order toretain their seats. The United States and Chinawould then have to follow or face the rest of theinternational community and devalue the UnitedNations. A half-way house would probably beagreed where the veto could be retained in a fewareas much as it has been within the EuropeanUnion decision making process. This could thenbe slowly eroded over time.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The veto power is a barrier to discourse,preventing the U.N. from acting where themajority of its member states want itto. Purported U.N. actions that would clearlyantagonise a member of the P5 never even reachthe Security Council; such is the awareness thatthe veto would stall its progress. The statistics ofthe numbers of vetoes passed at any particularpoint in UN history does not reveal the truedefect of the institutional arrangement. In anattempt to circumvent this, countries andmilitary alliances are forced to act unilaterally.NATO initiated military action against Yugoslavia,under the imprimatur of the United States andthe United Kingdom, without receiving SecurityCouncil authorisation. It had become evidentthat any UN military involvement would bevetoed by both China and Russia. Furthermore,the silence of the Security Council whilst Russialaunched a relentless and brutal campaignagainst Chechnya was deafening. Nevertheless,there is little that can be done such is the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The Security Council is a unifying force,regardless of its veto powers. Its history ofmandating U.N. interventions to preventhumanitarian disasters is on the record andclear. Though many point to the Srebrenicamassacre in the former Yugoslavia, few recall thesuccess of the U.N. mission in bringing thatconflict to a peaceful resolution. Furthermore,unilateral actions, undertaken without recourseto the Security Council, are often eventuallyrectified through the Council anyway. Thelegality of the NATO action in both Yugoslaviaand Kosovo was subsequently scheduled forconsideration by another organ of the UN, theInternational Court of Justice. Following theconflict NATO and Russia sought and achievedSecurity Council endorsement of the campaign.The Council then authorised the deployment of apeacekeeping force in order to police Kosovo.The Security Council thus proved to be a unifyingforce despite the presence of the veto power.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The efficacy of the United Nations SecurityCouncil is dependent on the participation of theworld's most powerful states, which is in largepart due to the possession of the veto power.Removing the veto, or granting it only to thosewho contribute their fair share to the UnitedNations budget risks undermining the verystructures that have made the Security Councilthe platform for co-ordinated internationalaction. For example, whilst China is not one ofthe top contributors to the budget of theorganization, it's economic and military strengthare enormous and if the Security Council is toremain relevant, China must be encouraged toremain at the table. The veto power ensuresunilateralism is a secondary thought.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The veto power is an anachronism that does notsuit the contemporary international society andit's power relations. The permanent five (P5)were given this privilege for two reasons thathave no application in the post-Cold War world.Firstly, the Allied powers, with the addition ofChina, sought to bind themselves to the UNorganisation that was designed to prevent thedepredations of the Second World War everrecurring. Secondly, the P5 held unrivalledstrategic might through their possession ofnuclear weapon technology or imminent nuclearcapacity. Yet, the UN is no longer in any dangerof imminent collapse. The P5 will abandonneither the organisation nor the cause of globalpeace by loss of the veto power. Moreover, theglobal power balance has shifted dramaticallysince 1945; the P5 'do not reflect the geopoliticalrealities of today'1. Nuclear proliferation hasaccelerated in the past decade, such that interalia India, Pakistan, North Korea, Egypt, Iraq andIran are developing inter-continental ballistic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The Permanent Five no longer contribute to theUnited Nations to a degree expected of theirspecial status. Funding contributions to theUnited Nations should directly relate to theinfluence that member organizations thereafterhave on its actions; with the veto in place, this isno longer the case. The Permanent Five, as thegroup of nations granted the most constitutionalpower in the United Nations, should contribute aproportional amount of resources to theinstitution. Initially, this was the case – however,by 2004, Japan was contributing 19 per cent ofthe UN budget, second only to that of the UnitedStates [1]. In third place, contributing 8 percent, was Germany, another state lacking a vetopower and any ability to overrule the interests ofP5 nations, all bar one of whom contributed lessto the UN budget [2]. Furthermore, India andBrazil, whilst not contributing financially to thedegree of Japan and Germany, have permittedlarge swathes of their armed forces to join U.N.peacekeeping operations to fulfil the mandates", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Constitutional change within the UN is possibleand thus worthy of full discussion. As RichardButler has observed, a proper debate about thedefects of the veto might at the least yield amore constructive interpretation of the nature ofthe veto and its application1. An informed publicawareness of the potential for the SecurityCouncil to be bypassed or hijacked might lead topressure for exercise of the power in accordancewith the Charter aims. Notably, China waspersuaded or compelled not to cast the veto inrespect of the Council measures on Kosovo. Thisreasonable approach prevailed in spite of vocalChinese opposition to the bombing campaign,and the destruction of the Chinese embassy byNATO forces. 1 Butler, R. (1999, August 19).Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered. RetrievedMay 13, 2011, from Chicago Tribune:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Treaties do not confer permanent and inalienablerights; they should be constantly subject toreform when their dictates conflict with thewishes of their voters. In an institution like theUnited Nations, which espousesself-determination, the existence of a powerwhich is immune from reform is not a source ofpride. If the veto powers had a right to the vetowhen they were first introduced, that right hasnow been lost in the chorus of disapproval foundamong the very same U.N. member states thatgranted them that right. In a politicalenvironment, if an elected official loses the will oftheir voters, the elected official does not get tochoose whether they keep those elected powers.The power remains with they who grant thepowers, the voters.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The veto power has proven a success in themaintenance of peace. The veto power has beenwielded with increasing success both during andsince the Cold War. Between 1945 and 1990,240 vetoes were cast1. Yet between 1990 and1999 the power was utilised on only 7 occasions,whilst more than 20 peacekeeping operationswere mandated. This figure exceeds the totalnumber of operations undertaken in the entiretyof the preceding 45 years. The prodigious use ofthe veto during the Cold War period might havesaved the world from the realisation of nuclearwar. Now, increasing nuclear proliferation is areason for maintaining the unity of the P5 bymeans of the veto. The current rhetoric concerns'rogue states' gaining possession of nuclearweapons. These are states whose potentialdeployment of arms is unpredictable and withwhom there is limited international dialogue. Ifthe P5 is split on a matter of internationalsecurity, any one or more of its members couldbecome equally 'rogue'. 1 Global Policy Forum.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The veto power reduces the risk of nuclearescalation. The P-5 veto holding members of theUN SC are unique in that they are the onlycountries that have nuclear arsenals (not simplya small stock of nuclear weapons). They are theonly countries with the power to initiate full-scalenuclear war. Therefore, it is important that thatthey be able to end measures with their vetopower to ensure that measures are not realizedthat could foment serious international tensionand possibly nuclear war. In other words, 'yougive (veto power) to the nations who- thanks totheir nuclear missiles- already have effectiveveto power anyway'1. The gift of the veto powerencourages such nuclear states to act within thesystem, ensuring that 'they have a strongerstake in acting within the system than actingoutside of it'2. 1 Beck. (2004, December 5). TheSecurity Council Veto Power, or Got Nuke?Retrieved May 13, 2011, from Incite: 2Fassbender, B. (1998). UN Security CouncilReform and the Right to Vote: A Constitutional", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Abolition of the veto is practicallyimpossible. The abolition of the power of veto issimply impossible to imagine. The P5 will notwillingly cede their pre-eminent position ininternational politics. And unsurprisingly, eachmember would have the constitutional power ofveto over any proposal to remove the veto.Articles 108 and 109 of the United NationsCharter grants the P5 veto over amendments tothe charter, requiring them to approve strippingaway their own veto powers. Given the influencewielded by a veto-bearing state, it is unlikelythat any of the P5 would agree to give up thisprivilege. Therefore, this whole debate isundermined by the sheer impossibility of it beingremoved, without the wholesale destruction ofthe United Nations as an organization or, at best,as a relevant organization.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The veto power was granted legally to the P5 bythe other participating states, and therefore theP5 have a right to those powers. There is norequirement in the UN Charter for the vetopower to be distributed according to geopoliticalrealities. Whilst democracy and equality are theprinciples that direct the General Assembly, theywere never intended to apply to the SecurityCouncil. The Security Council was conceived asthe 'hegemonic' organ, designed to beresponsible and effective. As such, the vetopower was a tool to ensure the Security Councilwould not be encumbered by democracy.Therefore, the privileges of the P5 'appear asrights bestowed upon them' by the states whoratified the UN Charter in 19451. As aconsequence, the non-permanent members ofthe UN Security Council have little to complainabout when they themselves are responsible fortheir 'diminished status' under the Charter1. Theprice paid for their diminished status is theeffectiveness of the Security Council. 1", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwascv-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Only the abolishment of the veto power wouldenable global action free from the politicalmotives and inherent power politics of the vetopowers. Absent of the veto, motions would beconsidered and passed on merit, not on theself-interest and political motives of the vetopowers.As Tarik Kafala argues, 'the majorityview at the Council would prevail and we mightexpect more resolutions passed, more situationsidentified as threats to world security, morecases of states being reprimanded and sanctionsbeing imposed'1. Far from destabilising the worldorder, the removal of veto power would merelyenshrine self-determination within theorganization that purports to carry that principleto the world. 1 Kafala, T. (2003, September 17).The veto and how to use it. Retrieved May 13,2011, from BBC News", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Under international law there are only twoinstances where secession is possible; in thecase of foreign occupation and as a result ofdecolonisation. The third category espoused bythe proposition is disputed and naturally leads toabsurd consequences: how small a group ofpeople on how small a plot of land canunilaterally declare independence? Moreover,the Kosovan claim for independence is notclear-cut. The population ratio ofKosovo-Albanian to Serb inhabitants of Kosovo isconstantly in flux. In addition, the current ratiohas far fewer Serbs because of enforced orfear-driven flight from the region after NATOintervention gave Kosovo-Albanians the upperhand in the region. In 1971 Serbs were 18.4% ofthe population. [1] The Kosovo-Albanians havesuffered undeniably over the last decade.However, that should not lead us to ignore thevery genuine historical significance of Kosovo toSerbia, particularly to the Orthodox faith. Thereis a historical tradition of both Serbs and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Self-determination is a humanright Self-determination is a right recognised bythe United Nations Charter and forms the basisof relations between all nations on earth. Thus,Kosovo-Albanians have international law on theirside in their pursuit of an independent homeland.If the UN Charter is not explicitly on the side ofthe Kosovo-Albanians it is difficult to see whichpeople it does support. The very credibility ofinternational law and international societydepends on support for causes like that ofKosovan independence where the people in aregion have had their right to self-determinationinternally totally frustrated. [1] [1] Kumbaro,Dajena.‘The Kosovo Crisis in a International LawPerspective: Self-Determination, TerritorialIntegrity and the NATO intervention’. NATOOffice of Information and Press. 2001.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Ethnic Serbs are suffering right now in Kosovo. Alarge portion of them have been displaced fromtheir homes and a significant number of SerbianOrthodox churches and cemeteries have beendemolished or vandalised. It is hypocritical touse to suffering of one side to justify a transferof sovereignty while simultaneously ignoring thesuffering of the other side.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The people of Kosovo are distinct from theirneighbours Kosovo-Albanians are ethnically andculturally distinct from Serbs. They live in ageographically distinct location, Kosovo which isseparated from Serbia by the Prokletije,Kopaonik and Zegovac mountains. Theycomprise 1.7 million people, living within adistinct area, who as the majority are ethnicallyAlbanian and religiously Muslim are clearlydifferent from the Serbs who until recently ruledover them. There was initially a peacefulresistance movement led by Ibrahim Rugova,established after the loss of autonomy and rightsthe region experienced in the 1990s. Howeveronce this failed to make progress in 1997 anarmed resistance movement called the KosovoLiberation Army emerged. [1] Slobodan Milosevicthe Serbian leader responded with in ethnicpersecution resulting in NATO intervention whichin itself should be enough reason to supportindependence. For all these reasons,Kosovo-Albanians deserve to be allowed to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "An ethnic or religious difference from the rulersof one’s country is not a sufficient condition tonecessitate independence. It is perfectly possiblefor example to be a Muslim in a predominantlyChristian country, or someone of Irish heritageliving in England, without calling for a separate\"state within a state\". Not just any minoritygroup deserves to have its call for sovereignindependence recognised. There have to beadditional and better reasons, other than asimple difference in ethnicity or cultural heritageif a people are to ground a valid claim forsovereign independence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Britain does though claim sovereignty over faraway locations such as the Falkland Islands andGibraltar. The controversy of those claims is notmitigated that they are populated by ethnicBritons who immigrated on assumption of Britishcontrol. Ethnic nationalism has a very badhistory, both around the world and in theBalkans in particular. Out of the nineteenthcentury explosion in popularity of nationalisticideologies grew the bitter tensions and wars ofthe twentieth century. The last thing that weshould be doing is promoting a continuation andan extension of this divisive and destructive wayof perceiving the world. Ultimately, anindependent state would be created just becauseit was believed that there is too much bad bloodbetween the Serbs and Kosovo-Albanians forthem to live in harmony. To create an ethnicallyexclusive state because of animosity withanother ethnic group is not a solution; it is arecipe for disaster.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Reversing de-facto sovereignty would be anaffront to those who suffered from ethniccleansing The NATO action in Kosovo wasjustified as a humanitarian intervention toprevent the oppression and murder ofKosovo-Albanians. It makes a mockery of thataction and the liberal-internationalist,humanitarian rhetoric that underpinned it, tothen deny these over a million people the right todetermine their own future free from outsideinterference. Tony Blair for example stated “Wecannot let the evil of ethnic cleansing stand. Wemust not rest until it is reversed.” [1] If theyshould then choose to seek EU membership,then that is their right and a clear opportunity forthem to gain greater prosperity outsideSerbia. Kosovar Albanians have suffered muchover the last decade at the hands of Serbia. It isoffensive to suggest that they must submit toany arrangement that preserves Serbiansovereignty over Kosovo. Serbia/Yugoslaviaforfeited whatever right it had to govern Kosovo", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The popular sovereignty of the Kosovan peoplemust take precedence over otherconsiderations The present fact of a distinct,Kosovo-Albanian people living in Kosovo musttake precedence over any traditional, religious orhistorical claim to Serbian sovereignty over thatland. It is certainly true that Kosovo ishistorically and culturally important to Serbia. Ithas a particular significance for the Orthodoxfaith. However, consider the following analogy.Great Britain is, officially, a Christian country.This fact gives the British no valid territorialclaim to sovereignty over Bethlehem (the literalbirth-place of Christianity), particularly whenthere are people already living in the area.Historico-religious, traditional associations with aplace can never override the rights of anindigenous population to remain in possession ofits land and sovereignty. There are clear,historical precedents for granting Kosovoindependence. These precedents can be seenregionally in the post-communist independence", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This argument depends upon how one definesthe ‘territorial integrity’ of a state in Article 2.Certainly it would not be legitimate for a state tosimply declare based on an old treaty or historicclaim that its territory encompassed that of aneighbour and to invade, therefore therequirement to respect territorial integrity mustonly refer to de facto integrity. Given that Serbiahas no actual control over the territory of Kosovoit is not a violation of the rights of the Serbianstate to recognise it as an independent nation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-con01b", "title": "", "text": "In the last decade Kosovo has leveragedremittances and direct investment from theKosovar diaspora to achieve robust growth. Ithas also made significant progress in developingkey social and economic institutions necessaryfor a viable state. In adopting the Euro as legaltender it has gained a strong financial anchor.Kosovo also benefits from low public debt and astrategic cash reserve. [1] It is also wrong toargue that Kosovo would be unviable because ofits size as Kosovo has a population considerablylarger than many independent states in Europetoday (eg Iceland, Malta, Cyprus, Estonia). [1]IMF ‘Republic of Kosovo: Concluding Statementof the 2011 Article IV Consultation Mission’. May30 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Now is not the appropriate time There are stillwidely reported incidents betweenKosovo-Albanians and Serbs. [1] Mafia-stylegangs dominate the area, [2] many associatedwith the KLA paramilitaries who struggledagainst Serbia, and are involved in internationalcrimes such as drug and people trafficking.Moreover, there was an effective Serb boycott ofrecent elections in Kosovo. The region has clearlynot yet healed its wounds and to put even morestrain on the already tense relations between thetwo communities is simply not advisable. InSerb-dominated North Kosovo, schools utilitiesand municipalities are integrated into Serbia’ssystem, not Kosovo’s. [1] Potok, Zubin, ‘NATOsoldiers wounded by gunfire in Kosovo clash’,Reuters, 28 November 2011, [2] Lewis, Paul,‘Kosovo PM is head of human organ and armsring, Council of Europe reports’, guardian.co.uk,14 December 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-con04a", "title": "", "text": "It will be bad for regional stability Not only will amove toward independence be bad news for theSerb minority population and for regionalrelations in general. Some areas of northernKosovo are ethnically Serb, while parts ofsouthern Serbia have an Albanian population, sothe border is likely to be in dispute. It will alsoincrease tensions in neighbouring Macedonia.There is a large, Albanian minority in the north ofMacedonia. In the aftermath of NATOintervention in Kosovo separatists attempted toput the cause of independence from Macedoniaon the map. The Macedonian government is notwilling to cede any of its territory and anyresurgence in separatist terrorism - which wouldbe the inevitable consequence of independencefor Kosovo - would lead to bloody conflict in thatregion. [1] Not only Serbia but also Macedoniaand Greece fear a struggle for a Greater Albania.Thus, in the interests of preserving peace andpreventing loss of life, we should postpone thesettlement of the question of sovereignty until", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The UN charter is against it. Article 2 of the UNcharter requires all member states to ‘refrain intheir international relations from the threat oruse of force against the territorial integrity orpolitical independence of any state’. SecurityCouncil Resolution 1244 (1999), whichauthorised the deployment of an internationalforce to Kosovo to manage security andgovernance, explicitly affirmed the commitmentof all Member States to the sovereignty andterritorial integrity of the Federal Republic ofYugoslavia (the name for the Union of Serbia andMontenegro which ended in 2006) and the otherStates to that region. [1] Recognition of anindependent Kosovo is a violation of theterritorial integrity of Serbia and thus a violationof the rights of the Serbian state. [1] UNSecurity Council Resolution 1244", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-con01a", "title": "", "text": "An independent Kosovo is not a viable state Anindependent Kosovo would be too small for it tobe a viable state. It is one of the poorest regionsin Yugoslavia, with a per capita GDP of only$2750, [1] and needs to be a part of a largerstate for it to benefit from the developmentsubsidies, economies of scale and labourmovement rights that are offered by membershipof a larger state. The creation of an independentsovereign state would entail the introduction ofdestructive tariffs and other bureaucraticobstacles to the regeneration of the region,which must be the first priority. The avid desireof Slovenia and other former communistcountries to join the political and economicproject of the European Union is a clearindication of the way that Balkan people shouldbe directed. [1] Background Note: Kosovo,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Whilst the ideal of Serb and Kosovar living inharmony is an honourable one, the internationalcommunity should not waste energy trying toengineer such a society when both sides appearcommitted to exclusive, nation-state modelswhich involve the political and social hegemonyof one group over the other. Multiculturaltoleration is a fine liberal, democratic ideal but itdoes not fit every empirical reality. The tensionsare too great to make such a system work.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ggvhwrkis-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The uncertainty over Kosovo’s status is a causeof tension. Drawing a line under the whole issueand making it clear that Kosovo will not revert tobeing part of Serbia again allows for a relaxing ofnationalist tension and for serious discussions tobegin over land swaps that would make theborder more sensible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This would be a very risky course to take;currently there is 51% support for independenceand that could as well go up as down when giventhe opportunity. With both the Spanish andCatalan economies in crisis it is likely that such areferendum would only be bolstered by anger atthe government due to the state of the economy.This might therefore be an option for Spain atsome point in the future when the economy isback on its feet and so less of an issue but at themoment it would be waving goodbye to Spain aswe know it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Control over Catalan destiny would reducetensions and may help preventindependence For Spain by far the biggestreason for allowing a referendum is that it maywell be the best way of keeping Catalonia withinSpain over the long term. So long as Spain saysit will not allow a referendum or give theCatalans control over their own destiny themovement for Catalan independence is likely toget stronger as it can focus on the denial ofdemocratic rights – Spain is waving a red flag tothe bull. Allow a referendum, particularly if it hasto be accompanied by a long period ofcampaigning for reflection and Catalans will haveto agonise whether it is in their own bestinterests, 1 decide whether they want to damagetheir economy by having large companies suchas Planeta the world’s largest Spanish languagepublishing business pulling out, 2 severextensive links with Spain, and risk theirmembership of the European Union which Spainwould veto. 3 If Spain were to offer as an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Such a decision by the Catalan governmentwould clearly be against the Spanish Constitutionand therefore illegal. The constitution makes it“the Army’s mission is to guarantee thesovereignty and independence of Spain, todefend its territorial integrity and theconstitutional set up” so such a move wouldinvite a military response. Some members of theruling PP party have already stated that theGuardia Civil should take over the Mossos(Catalan police). 1 There are also members ofthe army who would be willing to take suchaction, \"Catalan independence? Over my deadbody and that of many soldiers\" says ColonelFrancisco Aleman who also compared the crisisto the start of the Spanish Civil war in 1936. 2 1Guibernau, Montserrat, ‘Calls for independencein Catalonia are part of an evolution of Spain’sdemocracy that the country’s constitution mayhave to come to accommodate.’, London Schoolof Economics and Political Science, EuropeanPolitics and Policy, 8 October 2012, 2 Mason,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Catalans clearly want self determination Everypeoples has the right to self determination. Thisis enshrined in the UN Charter right at the startin Article 1 as a purpose of the United Nations“To develop friendly relations among nationsbased on respect for the principle of equal rightsand self-determination of peoples” and is also inother major international agreements. 1 Largenumbers of states have been recognised sincethis principle of self determination wasrecognised by the world in 1945 a great many ofthem states that are less natural states in termsof size, economy, ethnicity or geography so itwould be wrong to deny a right exercised by somany others from the Catalans. It is clear thatthe Catalans wish to exercise this right to decidetheir own destiny democratically through areferendum. When polled by the Catalan SurveyInstitute 74.1% said they would be in favour oforganising a referendum with 19.9% against, theremaining 6% were undecided. 2 1 The UnitedNations, ‘Charter of the United Nations’, 26 June", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is far from clear whether self determinationgives peoples the right to decide whether theyshould be independent. The Supreme Court ofCanada has looked at this issue with reference toQuebec that has in the past argued for its rightto self determination. The court argues “Therecognized sources of international law establishthat the right to self-determination of a people isnormally fulfilled through internalself-determination -- a people's pursuit of itspolitical, economic, social and culturaldevelopment within the framework of an existingstate. A right to external self-determination(which in this case potentially takes the form ofthe assertion of a right to unilateral secession)arises in only the most extreme of cases and,even then, under carefully definedcircumstances.” This is because such a rightmust fit in with the principle of territorialintegrity of existing states. 1 1 ‘Reference reSecession of Quebec’, Supreme Court of Canada,[1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 Para 126/7", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Not getting your way in a democracy is not anexcuse for turning to violence. Catalonia insteadmust attempt to persuade the other regions ofSpain to allow a referendum or if it can’t thenaccept that the majority in Spain do not wantCatalonian independence and respect theirposition. Violence will not help persuade the restof Spain of its case; it did not for the Basques,and will not for Catalonia. So far the Catalanindependence movement has recognised thiswith Lopez Tena the leader of the CatalanSolidarity for Independence party states “Wewould under no condition follow that [violent]path. That’s not how things are done in ademocratic country.” 1 1 Primor, Adar, ‘Catalanleader predicts independence in about two years,and close friendship with Israel’, Haaretz, 4October 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Catalonia will hold its own referendum regardlessof Spain’s position Catalonia is likely to go itsown way and decide it should make its owndecisions regardless of the rest of Spain’s views.Artur Mas Catalonia’s President says \"If we cango ahead with a referendum because thegovernment authorises it, it's better. If not, weshould do it anyway\". 1 So regardless of theSpanish position in his next four year term hewill hold a referendum asking “Do you wantCatalonia to become a new state within theEuropean Union?” If Spain then does not backdown about allowing this then there may well bea constitutional crisis. So far the Catalan optionis simply to “internationalise the conflict we willhave to go to Brussels to explain that they don'teven let us consult with the people”.2 Ultimately despite being within Spain so longas support for independence remains strong theCatalans probably have more cards to play; theyprovide more in taxes than they receive so couldcut Madrid off, or in the final play they could", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "If a referendum is not allowed violence may bethe result The worst case scenario is one inwhich the Spanish government continues to denythe Catalan people the ability to decide forthemselves democratically and peacefully then itis possible that eventually the result will be achange from a peaceful movement to a violentone. Some outside observers see parallels withthe break up of Yugoslavia where the solutionhas to be further decentralisation and the centeraccepting a democratic route – in Yugoslaviafailure to do so ultimately lead to several wars. 12 For the moment there are only the slightest ofhints that things may get more radical if deniedPujol the General secretary of the governingCatalan party says \"There will be no way to avoidit. If we don't deliver it someone else will. Moreradical parties. But in a negotiation… it's not thebest thing to reveal what you are going to donext\" so there is the possibility some factions ofthe independence movement turning to violenceas Eta did in the Basque region if denied the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is not up to the Spanish state to choose whenthe Catalans should be able to have areferendum on independence. A time of crisis isas good as any; economic grievances are one ofthe main drivers in the desire for independenceso it should come as no surprise that there isincrease desire for a referendum when there isjust such a crisis. Spain has already shown thatit considers that there never has been and neverwill be a right time for a divorce. Even in thegood times attempts to get an autonomy statutewere met by challenges in the constitutionalcourt which after years of deliberation watereddown the agreement which had already beenwatered down by the Spanish Parliament. 1 Morerecently it was in large part the refusal of theSpanish Prime Minister to consider a request toconsider Catalonia the same way as the Basquesand Navarra in terms of finances that triggeredthe current crisis. 2 1 Pericay, Gaspar, ‘TheSpanish Constitutional Court shortens thecurrent Catalan Statute of Autonomy’, Catalan", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Section 2 of the constitution continues “itrecognizes and guarantees the right toself-government of the nationalities and regionsof which it is composed and the solidarity amongthem all.” 1 However it is not the constitutionthat is the problem blocking a referendum;rather it is the Spanish parliament. Thegovernment and parliament clearly could ask theKing to allow a referendum on Catalanindependence if it so wished. It should do so inorder to prevent any more existential challengesto the constitution; constitutions have to beflexible if they are to survive the government istherefore wrong to treat it as a static unchangingdocument and justification for ruling out areferendum for Catalan independence. 2 1Cortes Generales, Spanish Constitution, 27December 1978, Section 2 2 Guibernau,Montserrat, ‘Calls for independence in Cataloniaare part of an evolution of Spain’s democracythat the country’s constitution may have to cometo accommodate.’, London School of Economics", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Catalan independence would lead to furtherbreak up of the Spanish state The issue ofCatalan independence does not just affectCatalonia but the whole of Spain. All the regionsof Spain have strong regional identities andCatalan is merely most widely spoken regionallanguage with the both the Basque region andGalicia in particular having their own languages.Therefore a Catalan bid for independence mightprompt other regions to make a bid forindependence too. Moreover Catalan is spoken inregions outside Catalonia so these regions couldpotentially decide they are better off withCatalonia than Spain. 1 The basques inparticular, who have already turned to thepolitical path from that of violent separatism, arelikely to take inspiration to work towardspeaceful independence if the Catalans succeedand are allowed a referendum. 2 If Catalonia isallowed to secede then why should the Basqueregion be any different? 1 McCormick, Mark,‘The languages of Spain – interactive’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The middle of a crisis is not the right time fordivorce Both Catalonia and Spain are in themiddle of an economic crisis. Spain is consideringa bail out by the European central bank and theprospect of losing 20% of its economy and theuncertainty while it happens would have animmense impact on the rest of the economy at atime when Spain already has unemployment of23%. On the other side Catalonia’s regionalgovernment needs bailing out by Spain’s centralgovernment; it is seeking 5 billion Euros from abailout fund set up by the Spanish government.Therefore while Catalonia may be the richest partof the Spanish economy but its government ismissing its deficit targets. 1 It is thereforeexactly the wrong time for Catalonia to berocking the boat with a referendum onindependence and the uncertainty this creates.Catalonia needs the Spanish government for itsown bailout and the Spanish government needsstability if it is to avoid a bail out from theEuropean Union and the conditions that are likely", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Spain is one indivisible nation The Spanishconstitution does not allow the holding ofreferendums on independence by Spanishregions. Spain is a single ‘demos’ made up of allthe regions together rather than being separateand simply brought together under one banner.The Constitution says it “is based on theindissoluble unity of the Spanish Nation, thecommon and indivisible homeland of allSpaniards”. 1 Moreover while referendums maybe allowed for “political decisions of specialimportance” “The referendum shall be called bythe King on the President of theGovernment's proposal after previousauthorization by the Congress.” 2 So the callingof one is first up to the national government todecide one is needed and then requires theapproval of the national parliament. In case thatwas not clear enough it is reiterated in section149 on the role of the State and Regions “TheState shall have exclusive competence over thefollowing matters: Authorization of popular", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eplgvhwar-con02b", "title": "", "text": "For the most part this is simply being alarmists.However if other Spanish regions do wish to gotheir own way then all the arguments for whyCatalonia should be allowed its own choice applyto them as well.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehrilsim-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Whatever the strengths and weaknesses of thePalestinians' legal case, their foremost argumentfor a 'right of return' has always rested on aclaim of victimhood; this claim is highly disputed(as outlined below). Without this moralculpability on the part of Israel, there is noresponsibility to right the situation on the part ofthe Israeli state. Moreover, the 'individual'nature of the right of return is not helpful to thePalestinian case: Stig Jagerskiold argued in 1966that the right of return was intended as anindividual and not a collective right: \"...[it] isintended to apply to individuals asserting anindividual right. There was no intention here toaddress the claims of masses of people who havebeen displaced as a by-product of war or bypolitical transfers of territory or population, suchas the relocation of ethnic Germans from EasternEurope during and after the Second World War,the flight of the Palestinians from what becameIsrael, or the movement of Jews from the Arabcountries.\" [1] The claimed legal 'right of return'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehrilsim-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Palestinians have a right to return underinternational law Article 13 of the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights states that\"Everyone has the right to leave any country,including his own, and to return to his country.\"[1] This right clearly applies to the Palestinians,as shown by UN General Assembly Resolution194: “The General Assembly, Having consideredfurther the situation in Palestine ... Resolves thatthe refugees wishing to return to their homesand live at peace with their neighbours should bepermitted to do so at the earliest practicabledate, and that compensation should be paid forthe property of those choosing not to return andfor loss of or damage to property which, underprinciples of international law or in equity, shouldbe made good by the Governments or authoritiesresponsible.\" [2] This resolution was furtherclarified by UN General Assembly Resolution3236 which reaffirms: \"the inalienable right ofPalestinians to return to their homes andproperty from which they have been displaced", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehrilsim-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This argument again assumes that Israel ismorally responsible for the current plight of thePalestinian refugees, which is untrue as Israelwas not responsible for their exodus (as outlinedbelow). Moreover, it is Arab countries, not Israel,which keep Palestinians in a state of limbo. It isthe failure of Arab states to incorporatePalestinians into their societies by offering legalstatus which keeps the Palestinian refugees intheir current indeterminate position, not Israelipolicy. Furthermore, self-determination is not anabsolute right. Not every territory and region inthe world that seeks independence has the rightto it. This is due in no small part to the fact thatsuch a system would be unworkable. Certaincriteria must be met for a territory and people toobtain a legitimate right to self-determination,including not compromising the fundamentalsecurity or nature of the original state,something which recognising the Palestinianright of return would do to Israel. Such policiesare often pursued by Arab states explicitly as a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehrilsim-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A Palestinians were forced to leave and so have aright to return Especially in the 1948 War,Palestinians were forcibly removed from theirhomes and towns en masse by the IsraeliDefence Force (IDF). The traditional Israeli pointof view arguing that Arab leaders encouragedPalestinian Arabs to flee is simply untrue. In fact,Arab leaders intended for the Palestinian Arabpopulation stay put. Historians such as BennyMorris, Erskine Childers, and Walid Khalidi statethat no evidence of widespread evacuationorders exists, and that Arab leaders in factinstructed the Palestinian Arabs to stay put. [1][2] [3] . According to Morris, whatever thereasons driving many into flight, temporaryevacuation under local orders, contagious panic,fear of Jewish arms, or direct expulsion manumilitari, the 700,000 odd Palestinians who didbecome refugees acquired that status as a resultof compulsory displacement or expulsion, sincethey were not permitted by Israel to return.(1)In terms of the cause of the Palestinian flight,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehrilsim-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The characterization of the 1948 Palestinianexodus as forced by Israel is incorrect. In thevery same passage quoted opposite, Morris goeson to argue that only \"an extremely small,almost insignificant number of the refugeesduring this early period left because of (Israeli)expulsion orders or forceful 'advice' to thateffect\". [1] Count Bernadotte, the UN mediatorin Palestine, testified that \"the exodus of thePalestinian Arabs resulted from panic created byfighting in their communities, by rumoursconcerning real or alleged acts of terrorism, orexpulsion.\" [2] Thus, Israel is not responsible foracts of flight from Palestine which were largelymotivated by imagined fears, which were thecause of almost all the Palestinian refugees, asthey were not directly expelled or threatened bythe IDF. The Palestinians of 1948 may havemade a tragic choice, for themselves and fortheir descendants, but this does not make Israelmorally responsible for this choice and itsconsequences, as in almost every case Israel", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehrilsim-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Denying the right to return harmsPalestinians Palestinian refugees represent thelongest suffering and largest refugee populationin the world today. During the creation of Israelin 1948, approximately three quarters of amillion Palestinians were forced to becomerefugees. Together with their descendants, morethan 4.3 million of these refugees are todayregistered with the United Nations while over 1.7million are not. Approximately 32,000Palestinians also became internally displaced inthe areas occupied in 1948. Today, theserefugees number approximately 355,000persons. Despite the fact that they were issuedIsraeli citizenship, Israel has also denied theserefugees their right to return to their homes orvillages. [1] The fact that these refugees areforced by Israel to continue living abroad, mostlyin refugee camps, further harms Palestinians bydenying them the right to self-determination intheir homeland which they were expelledfrom. The 1993 Vienna Declaration, which", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehrilsim-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The 1948 UN General Resolution 194 specificallyapplies the right of return to the Palestinianrefugees. Paragraph 11 states \"that the refugeeswishing to return to their homes and live atpeace with their neighbours should be permittedto do so at the earliest practicable date, and thatcompensation should be paid for the property ofthose choosing not to return and for loss of ordamage to property which, under principles ofinternational law or in equity, should be madegood by the Governments or authoritiesresponsible.\" [1] [1] United Nations. \"UNGeneral Assembly Resolution 194\". UnitedNations. 11 December 1948.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehrilsim-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The inalienable rights of refugees are notnegotiable, nor are they subject to the interestsof the state which they would be returning to.International law considers agreements betweenan occupier and the occupied to be null and voidif they deprive civilians of recognized humanrights including the rights to repatriation andrestitution. [1] Therefore the interests of thestate of Israel are not legitimate reasons to denythe right of return which is owed to Palestinianrefugees. Moreover, the right of return is feasiblein Israel due to the availability of empty land.80% of Israelis live in 15 percent of the land andthat the remaining 20% live on 85% of the landthat belongs to the refugees. Further, of the20%, 18% live in Palestinian cities while theremaining 2% live in kibbutzim and moshavs. Bycontrast, more than 6,000 refugees live persquare kilometer in the Gaza Strip, while overthe barbed wire their lands are practically empty.[2] [1] Al-Awda - The Palestinian Right ofReturn Coalition. \"Factsheet\". Al-Awda - The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehrilsim-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Palestinian refugee crisis was created and isperpetuated by the Arab states and thePalestinians themselves The current Palestinianrefugee crisis is largely the creation of thePalestinian people themselves, who largely leftvoluntarily (or at least not by Israeli force) in1948, and the Arab states who both started the1948 war against Israel and who have kept thePalestinians in limbo ever since instead ofintegrating them. Firstly, Palestinian flight fromIsrael was not compelled but was predominantlyvoluntary, as a result of seven Arab nationsdeclaring war on Israel in 1948. Israel officiallydenies any responsibility for the Palestinianexodus, stating that their flight was caused bythe Arab invasion. Efraim Karsh states that mostPalestinians chose their status as refugeesthemselves, and therefore Israel is thereforeabsolved of responsibility. [1] Morris argues thatonly \"an extremely small, almost insignificantnumber of the refugees during this early periodleft because of (Israeli) expulsion orders or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehrilsim-con03a", "title": "", "text": "No real 'right of return' exists in internationallaw Article 13 of the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights does not guarantee a right ofreturn because the clause \"everyone has theright to leave any country, including his own, andto return to his country\" was meant to guaranteethe right to leave. According to its legislativehistory, Article 13 was aimed at governmentswhich imprisoned certain subgroups of their ownnationals by preventing them from movingbeyond their national borders. According to itssponsor, the mention of a \"right to return\" wasincluded to assure that \"the right to leave acountry, already sanctioned in the article, wouldbe strengthened by the assurance of the right toreturn. [1] Moreover, Article 13 only guaranteesa specific right to return \"to his own country\". [2]But, the Palestinians who were displaced werenever citizens or legal residents of Israel.Therefore, they can have no right of return toIsrael. U.N. General Assembly Resolution 194,furthermore, does not specify a 'right', but rather", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehrilsim-con01a", "title": "", "text": "A Palestinian right of return would destroy the'Jewish State' in Israel If all or a large majorityof Palestinian refugees and their descendantswere to implement a 'right of return', it wouldmake Arabs the majority within Israel and Jewsan ethnic minority. This amounts to abolishingthe Jewish people's right to self-determination,which they hold under the 1993 ViennaDeclaration. [1] It would also mean eradicatingIsrael as a Jewish state, which was the intentionbehind its foundation. The majority of Israelisfind a literal right of return for Palestinianrefugees to be unacceptable, pointing to thisworry that as they become a minority Israel as aJewish state would be undermined.[2] Re-enforcing the need for the existence of aJewish state (as a safe haven for persecutedJews) is the presence in Israel of758,000-866,000 Jews who were expelled, fledor emigrated from the Arab Middle East andNorth Africa between 1945 and 1956, to whomthe Arab states which expelled them are not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehrilsim-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The Zionist project which led to the state ofIsrael intended to displace Palestinians from thevery beginning, long before the so-called Arab'aggression' in 1948. Theodor Herzl, whopresided the First Zionist Congress, had providedthe ideological underpinnings of the Zionistmovement in his pamphlet, Der Judenstaat,which was published in 1896. Herzl called for acolonial project for the exclusive benefit of theJews and suggested that Der Judenstaat would'form a portion of the rampart of Europe againstAsia, an outpost of civilization as opposed tobarbarism.' Efforts of the Zionist politicalmovement to implement their project, with thesupport of the Imperialist Great Powers, incomplete disregard to the Palestinian rights andhuman reality in Palestine, were responsible forinitiating and prolonging the conflict in andaround Palestine. The establishment of anexclusive Jewish State in a country where themajority of its people were not Jewish meanttransplanting Jews from all corners of the world", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A great many of the world’s leading states aremulticultural/ethnic rather than ethnic states.The United States, Brazil, India, and Indonesia totake just a few. These states have been able toconstruct national identities that are not justbased upon ethnicity. For cosmopolitandemocratic states the border being an accidentof history does not matter [1] ; this is whatAfrican states need to do as well not carvethemselves up. [1] Ratner, 1996, p.591", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Ethnic borders allow nation states In Africaborders are artificial often running through ethnicgroupings without consideration for culture oreven local geography with the exception of watercourses. [1] Altering these borders to reflectethnicities and culture would help states tocreate their own national identity as theiridentities would not be split. Having the whole ofan ethnicity within one state will help preventmisappropriation of culture and history byanother state. [1] Michalopoulos, 2011, p.19", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "That such a move will reduce conflict relies on alot of assumptions; most notably that thechanges won’t spark a lot of new conflicts.Territory is the biggest source of violent conflictsamong states and this will create a large numberof new such conflicts. When there is a response76.6% of the time it will be military whenterritory is in dispute compared to 49% whensomething else is the cause, and such disputesare three times as likely to escalate to war (7.3%to 2.5%). [1] The redrawing process would alsomean suffering as states attempt to pre-emptnew borders by moving those of the ‘wrong’ethnicity and as insurgencies are stepped up.The Abyei area of Sudan shows what is likely tohappen; it was to have a referendum to decidewhether to join the North or South but the northoccupied the region before it could be carriedout. [2] [1] Hensel, 1998, pp.20-1 [2] Copnall,2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Redrawing could be democratic A redrawing ofborders would allow for democratic participationin the building of new African states. There wouldhave to be plebiscites in local areas to determinewhere borders should run and extensiveconsultation so that the borders are drawn basedon the wishes of the people this time. Theopposite of what happens at the moment. Forexample much of the Bakassi homeland wasceded by Nigeria to Cameroon as a result of anInternational Court of Justice ruling on thecolonial border and many people are askingNigeria to resettle them as they don’t shareCameroon’s culture. [1] Clearly the people wouldsurely much prefer to have their destiny in theirown hands than letting the borders be settled byan international court pouring over 19th centurymaps. [2] [1] Chinwo, 2012 [2] Fisher, 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Ethnic borders erase a wrong ofhistory Imperialism and Colonisation is one ofthe great wrongs of history where much of theglobe was carved up without any reference tothe facts on the ground. When the west drewborders peoples were split, and kingdoms andcultures carved up. Independence may haveended some of the worst aspects of imperialismbut it exacerbated the problem of borders. [1]Africa has since seen the problems that this hascreated and should realise the need to breakfrom the colonial legacy. [1] Michalopoulos,2011, p.4", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Changing borders won’t erase the wrong – ithappened and that should be recognised.Borders are simply one by-product and if thereare individual borders that are particularlyproblematic then they might need to be redrawnbut there should not be a comprehensivechange. To do so might simply create a newwrong with thousands of conflicts over whereborders should run.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Plebiscites and consultation across the whole ofAfrica. The project would take years or decadesto come up with agreed upon borders. Smallareas state might wish to be ceded to aneighbouring state when those closer don’tcreating enclaves and exclaves [1] as well as arecipe for conflict. [1] Exclave.eu", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "First changing borders encouraging developmentrelies on the assumption that there won’t beconflict. Second if independence movements gainindependence then there will be a lot moreinternational borders and the barriers to tradethese impose. Finally we need to think about thisthe other way around; when there are ethnicgroups on both sides of the trade they areencouraging and facilitating trade between thetwo states – this is something to be encouragednot changed. Having the same ethnicity on bothsides of the border works in the same way ashaving emigration in encouraging trade. Becauseof networks overlapping between the twocountries trade will increase. In Spain forexample doubling the number of immigrantsleads to an increase in exports to theimmigrant’s country of origin by 10%. [1]Economic development is not always stifled atborders; two of the four Nigerian states with GDPper capita of over 2000NGN are on the borderwith Benin. [2] [1] Peri, 2010 [2] AlifArabia,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Preventing conflict Redrawing borders could helpresolve conflict in Africa. Michalopoulos andPapaioannou find \"civil conflict intensity, asreflected in war casualties and duration, isapproximately 35% higher in areas wherepartitioned ethnicities reside.\" Conflict duration is18.5% higher. [1] They identify seven differentways in which artificial borders lead to, orintensify conflict; 1, partitioning ethnicitiescreates irredentist demands 2, partitioningmakes an independence movement morelikely 3, when borders are not marked the ethnicgroup has a reason to attempt to change theborder 4, patronage politics leads todiscrimination against minorities 5, splittingethnicities encourages smuggling andcriminalisation 6, splitting resources that werepreviously part of an ethnic group’s homelandwill leave the ethnic group trying to engineer theresources return 7, partitioning reducesdevelopment so increases inequality with andresentment towards the center of the state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Encouraging development Using data fromsatellites measuring luminosity Michalopoulosand Papaioannou find that border areas withpartitioned ethnic groups are up to 60% lessdeveloped than those towards the centre ofcountries so are not artificially split. Ethnicity issignificant for trade. For example between Nigerand Nigeria prices of millet increase at the borderby 23.2% when it is also the border betweenethnicities but only 9.3% when the sameethnicity is on both sides of the border forcowpea the figures are 20.2% and 14.4%. [1]Moreover internally where there is an ethnicborder between markets there is a similarincrease of 21% for millet and 22% for cowpea.[2] Ethnicity may also affect the ability to gaincredit from other traders. [3] It therefore makessense economically to have borders at ethnicboundaries due to the natural trading relationswithin an ethnic group. Splitting an ethnic groupcreates unnecessary hardship by making it moredifficult to trade. [1] Aker, 2010, p.16 [2] Ibid,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There are many ‘odd borders’ around the worldwithout problems. Not least between Belgiumand the Netherlands. There are about twentytiny enclaves at Baarle as 5732 parcels of land ina 50km border region were parcelled outseparately. [1] Yet there has been no conflictbetween the two since Belgian independence.Odd borders don’t matter – it’s the willingness tocooperate that counts. [1] Smith", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It has since been accepted in the 1989Guinea-Bissau/Senegal case that a colonygaining independence need not be bound byagreements concluded by the imperial power. [1]Borders have never in the past been fixed, theyhave changed usually as a result of conflict butalso more peaceful changes such as demarcationor unification. African states should not bebinding themselves to an out of date territorialsystem forced upon them by their imperialoppressors. [1] Ratner, 1996, p.620", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Encourages Secessionism There are at least 834different ethnicities in Africa [1] and could be asmany as 3315. [2] If the ethnicities along theborders are being allowed to choose where theybelong then every other ethnicity should,anything else is inconsistent. This is necessary tosolve long running campaigns for independencesuch as by Western Sahara where the peoplewould not want to have to choose betweenMorocco and Mauritania. [3] On the other hand ifonly groups which are already in revolt are askedwhether they wish independence then such aproposal is simply hypocritical failing to take intoaccount that groups that have been non-violentmay also wish independence. [1] Michalopoulos,2011, p.1 [2] Wentzel, 2013 [3] BBC News,2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Damages dreams of African unity The AfricanUnion Constitutive Act has as an objective to“achieve greater unity and solidarity”. This issomething that is damaged by making bordersopen to question. Borders at the moment are asettle but redrawing borders will open updisputes between African countries as everystate will fear losing valuable pieces of territory.It will make that the primary international issuefor decades setting back cooperation onpeacekeeping or a common market. If Africanunity is the ultimate objective then bordersshould not matter.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Would create odd borders. Unfortunately ethnicgroups don’t all live in a block with clear dividinglines between them and the neighbouring group.Borders reflecting ethnicities will be squiggly.Often there will be enclaves. Even enclaves maynot be enough to get everybody from eachethnicity in the ‘right’ nation. This is shown in theformer Yugoslavia where when a nation forKosovars was created Serbs were suddenly onthe wrong side of the border. This is theproblem with not going based uponadministrative borders. The question isimmediately raised; how finely grained shouldthe border be calibrated? A border cannot bemoved to suit every individual.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Violates current states sovereignty One of thecore principles of sovereignty is that of territorialintegrity. In the process of decolonisation thiswas expressed through the principle of utipossidetis, that the administrative divisions ofthe previous state should form the borders thenew states so as to prevent gaps in sovereigntyand the conflict that would create. [1] The OAUin 1964 went so far as to solemnly declare ��thatall Member States pledge themselves to respectthe borders existing on their achievement ofnational independence.” [2] Any alteration toborders would be attacking this principle. NoAfrican state is going to accept a change that islikely to redraw many of their borders, opendisputes with neighbours and possibly createnew states. [1] Shaw, 1997, p.356 [2] OAU,1964", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Solving the conflicts and preventing violence isthe first step to real African unity andcooperation. Redrawing the borders is a radicalsolution that has yet to be tried as it will makesstronger and reduce the threat of secessionmovements it should make African leaders morewilling the work with neighbours.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehwrabre-con02b", "title": "", "text": "In addition to meeting the demands of someindependence movements, there could be adecrease in the number of such organisationsdue to reduced prospects. If it is unlikely to get awhole province then they may be less inclined toattempt to secede. [1] There have been conflictsin Kivu, DR Congo, but the Banyamulenge themain group involved only makes up around 4%of the population [2] – would they desire to splitfrom Congo if they were not likely to take thewhole province? [1] Ratner, 1996, p.591 [2]Wikipedia", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Not all rebels have disarmed; the FDLR grouphas said it will disarm but has not done so. [1]The disarmament, demobilization andreintegration programme faces coordination andfinancial problems. There is a security threatfrom volatile border regions that might reversethe whole DDR effort as militias and militaryunits struggle for control over resources andterrorise the local population. MONUSCO can'tprotect the repatriated civilians, which maymean any demobilisation is only temporary. Ifviolence flares then so will guns be taken uponce more. [1] Mvano, Chrispin, ‘U.N. Congopeacekeepers question Rwandan rebeldisarmament claim’, Reuters, 4 February 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "There has been disarmament anddemobilisation In a war-torn society MONUSCOhelps with disarmament, demobilization andreintegration (DDR). DDR is of crucial importancefor the future stability of the DRC. They haveused the latest technology and decades of UNexperience with visible success. Thousands ofex-combatants have already been returned totheir homes and reintegrated into the lives oftheir communities. By March 2011 almost210,000 ex-combatants had been through thedemobilisation process – out of an estimatedtotal of 300-330,000. [1] And almost 32,000 of39,000 child soldiers had been reunited withtheir parents. [2] [1] ‘Democratic Republic ofCongo: Disarmament, demobilization andreintegration (DDR) and reform of the army’,Amnesty International, 25 January 2007, [2]‘Demobilization and Reintegration in theDemocratic Republic of Congo (DRC)’, The WorldBank, 11 March 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The presence of the UN has not stopped humanrights abuses. A recent UN report has highlightedthat the Congolese army itself has been involvedin such abuses particularly sexual violence.Convictions by the ICC are welcome butprosecuting a tiny number of leaders is a drop inthe ocean of criminality that occurred, and stilloccurs in the DRC.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Elections have been a success The electionsprocess is moving ahead well. While electionscannot be said to be an unqualified success therehave been two general elections, in 2006 and2011. Local media is vibrant and competitive.And there were a large number of candidates. Inthe 2011 elections the observers from theAfrican Union and other organisations welcomed“the successful holding of elections” and “thespirit of cooperation and solidarity”. [1] Moreoverthe whole election process is moving ahead; thecountry’s first ever local elections are planned for2014. [2] This will provide the people with muchmore say over their daily lives. In a country withlittle centralised power like the DRC localelections are as important as national ones. [1]African Union et al., ‘Joint Declaration on thepresidential and parliamentary elections in theDemocratic Republic of Congo’, au.int, 30November 2011, [2] Enough Team, ‘A First forCongo: Local Elections Announced for 2014’,enough, 26 November 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Elections do not show the UN is moving Congotowards becoming a functioning democracy. In2011 President Kabila has changed the electionsystem to strengthen his own chances ofre-election. The elections were hardly free andfair; the AU election monitors have everyincentive to praise the elections but even theynoted violence occurring. The US statedepartment said “we believe that themanagement and technical execution of theseelections were seriously flawed, lackedtransparency and did not measure up to thedemocratic gains we have seen in recent Africanelections.” [1] The Carter Center found “multiplelocations… reported impossibly high rates of 99to 100 percent voter turnout with all, or nearlyall, votes going to incumbent President JosephKabila.” [2] Worse the elections were marred byviolence with at least 18 people killed in the runup to the vote. [3] [1] Nuland, Victoria, ‘StateDepartment on Results of Presidential Election inDRC’, US State Department, 14 December", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "As recently as January 2014 the United NationsSecurity Council noted in a resolution “that thesituation in the DRC continues to constitute athreat to international peace and security”.[1] In the border regions of Ituri and Kivuarmed fighting still goes on despite the supposeddefeat pf M23. In December 2013 the bodies of21 slaughtered civilians were found with thefinger of blame pointing at the National Army forthe Liberation of Uganda (NALU) and the AlliedDemocratic Forces (ADF) showing that the fightis not yet fully won; there are still groupsfighting. [2] [1] ‘Resolution 2136 (2014)’,United Nations Security Council, 30 January2014, [2] UN News Service, ‘Congo-Kinshasa:UN Boosts Attack Force in East After GruesomeMassacre of Civilians’, allAfrica, 16 December2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Convictions by the ICC show international justicein action There has been some justice for pastcrimes. The former warlord Thomas Lubanga [1]and warlord and politician Jean-Pierre Bemba [2]have both been put on trial in the Hague for warcrimes. Lubanga was found guilty of using childsoldiers and given a 14 year sentence. [3]Additionally rebel General Laurent Nkunda hasalso been arrested in neighbouring Rwandaalthough there have as yet been no chargesagainst him [4] the government of the DRCwishes to extradite him. showing thataccountability is being introduced and providinga warning for current militia leaders. [1] ‘TrialReports: Lubanga Trial’, [2] ‘Trial Reports:Bemba Trial’, [3] Wakabi, Wairagala, ‘LubangaGiven 14-Year Jail Sentence’, the Lubanga Trial,10 July 2012, [4] Nienaber, Georgianne, ‘WhatHappened to Congolese General LaurentNkunda?’, Huffington Post, 20 January 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Peace may finally be at hand With the CeasefireAgreement of Lusaka in July 1999 the so-called\"Africa's World War\" ended. Foreign occupiers(Rwanda, Uganda, Angola, Zimbabwe…) officiallyremoved their troops from the territory underthe sovereignty of the Democratic Republic ofthe Congo (DRC). MONUSCO has been involvedin the process of peace-building ever since theLusaka Agreement. The agreement ended theinternational element of the fighting leaving justconflicts with rebel militias. This too is now closeto being finished. In November a peace deal wassigned between the government and M23 inKenya as a result of aggressive UN action. [1]With a deal struck with the biggest remainingrebel group DRC is close to permanentpeace. [1] ‘DR Congo government 'signs dealwith M23 in Kenya'’, BBC News, 12 December2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While a factional, corrupt government that can’tcontrol its territory is an impediment to peace itis not the United Nations main responsibility.MONUSCO has done what it can in coordinationwith other United Nations agencies, donors andnon-governmental organizations, providingassistance for the reform of security forces, andthe re-establishment of a State based on the ruleof law. It has more than 2,000 civilian staffhelping to build institutions. In the years afterthe Lushaka agreement revenue collectiondoubled from 6.5% in 2001 to 13.2% of GDP in2006 showing that the government bureaucracyis being put back on its feet even before theconflict is completely ended. [1] It also showsthe government does still have control. As aresult international investment has started toflow in and life is better for the large majority ofCongolese, especially in the calmer westernareas. [1] Harsch, Ernest, ‘Building a state forthe Congolese people’, Africa Renewal, January2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-con01b", "title": "", "text": "MONUSCO is working on improving thehumanitarian situation in the DRC. They deliverhumanitarian help and medical equipment. Forexample the peacekeepers regularly build healthclinics. [1] Quick impact programmes arespecially meant to address humanitarian issuesand work with the population affected. Withoutthe work of the UN, the desperate situation ofthe Congolese people would be even worse. [1]‘MONUSCO Builds and Equips a Medical Clinic inMahagi, Ituri District, Oriental Province’,MONUSCO, 12 September 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Resources still flow out of the country There isconsiderable evidence of a continuation ofcriminality linked to exploitation, including fraud,smuggling, counterfeit money, extortion, and taxevasion. Many natural riches are flown directlyout of the country without being taxed – orworse being taxed by rebel groups. FRPI forexample collects a tax of 3-5g per week frommines within their control. It is estimated by theUN that $383-409million worth of gold wassmuggled out of the country in 2013.[1] Reports indicate that criminal networks withpolitical links transport and sell ‘unofficial’quantities of minerals and other forms of wealth– such as ivory as a result of poaching, in returnfor arms. Child and slave labour is still beingused – it has been estimated that in small minesup to 40% of the miners are children. [2] [1]Alusala, Nelson et al., ‘Final report of the Groupof Experts on the Democratic Republic of theCongo’, United Nations Security Council,S/2014/42, 23 January 2014, , pp.36, 37, 42,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Allegations of misconduct by peacekeepers UNtroops have sometimes perpetrated violencethemselves. 63 soldiers were expelled in 2005from the mission due to being involved inabuses. In 2008 100 Indian blue helmets wereaccused of paying for sex with underage girls.The allegations have continued with a reportedattack and gang rape of a 15 year old inFebruary 2011. [1] Moreover the effort toprofessionalise the Congolese army has also hadlittle impact; the 391st Commando Battaliontrained by US special forces has been accused oftaking part in the rape of 97 women and 33 girlsin November 2012. [2] If even those meant tokeep the peace are perpetrating violence themission has to be considered a failure. [1]Caplan, Gerald, ‘Peacekeepers gone wild: Howmuch more abuse will the UN ignore in Congo?’,The Globe and Mail, 3 August 2012, [2]Whitlock, Craig, ‘U.S.-trained Congolese troopscommitted rapes and other atrocities, U.N. says’,Washington Post, 14 May 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The government is not in control Thegovernment is a place of constant ethnic frictionsthat impede the performance of its duties. [1]Corruption is rife; the world bank gives DRC acontrol of corruption rate of only 5%. [2] But thebiggest problem is that the government can’texercise control over the country. The vastnessof Congo, and its lack of any roads or rail linksbetween population centers, ensures this is thecase. People have no trust in the democraticstructures and display no national feeling.Instead loyalties are to the more than 200 ethnicgroups. Some of which are shared withneighbouring countries – which aregeographically closer so loyalties lie more withthose countries than the DRC government. Thisis also a problem with other resources such astin. [3] The UN has been able to do little toprevent government corruption, or to encouragegreater national feeling. [1] ‘Annan disquietedby rising factionalism in DR of CongoGovernment’, UN News Centre, 30 March", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-con01a", "title": "", "text": "An ongoing humanitarian crisis Althoughgradually improving the humanitarian situation inthe DRC remains critical. Congo is lackinghospitals, access to safe water and adequatesanitary facilities. Life expectancy remains low atthe age of 50.6 for women and 47.3 for men,and child mortality is 109.5 per 1000 births [1] .The country is constantly facing differentepidemics; measles and even plague, [2] withHIV/AIDS a major threat. The humanitariansituation is unlikely to improve quickly when theDRC is not fully at peace. Even when this doesoccur DRC will still be one of the poorestcountries in the world with littleinfrastructure. [1] United Nations StatisticsDivision, ‘Democratic Republic of the Congo’,World Statistics Pocketbook, accessed 5 January2014 [2] Piarroux, R. et al., ‘Plague Epidemicsand Lice, Democratic Republic of the Congo’,letter Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol.19 No.3,March 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-con04b", "title": "", "text": "While such incidents are abhorrent and the UNhas recognised “that an ugly stain is left on theseheroic efforts by the appalling misconduct of aminority of peacekeepers” [1] such instances donot jeopardise the overall mission. Few minorinstances should be treated as criminality notequated with a country in civil war. [1] Annan,Kofi, ‘In Africa, Annan stresses thatpeacekeepers must adhere to conductstandards’, UN News Centre, 30 January 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbuidrch-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The recorded economy of the DRC and its realGDP are showing signs of growth. The UN Panelof Experts has finally provided detailedinformation about the involvement of a range ofAfrican, European and North Americanbusinesses in illegal or illicit exploitation ofnatural resources in the DRC. Sanctions havebeen implemented to help stop these practices.[1] With the support of the UN, measures havebeen implemented intended to increase thecontrol of the ministry of finance over stateexpenditure, and new statutes havestrengthened the independence of the CentralBank. [1] ‘Resolution 2136 (2014)’, UnitedNations Security Council, 30 January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There is no reason to believe that Africanopinions are disregarded when in the UNSC.Three out of 15 members is not particulardisproportionate. First of all, many decisions aretaken in the United Nations General Assembly, acompletely democratic body, in which the AfricanUnion due to its 54 members has a lot ofinfluence. Therefore Africa is notunderrepresented on economic and developmentissues. Moreover the UNSC is usually followinglocal concerns; the African Union has a chance tointervene on African security issues first likeevery other regional organisation. Indeed the AUis increasingly providing peacekeeping and evenintervention as in Somalia. [1] [1] African UnionPeace and Security, ‘Somalia (Forward AMISONHQ)’, African Union, 12 September 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The UNSC mostly deals with Africa Africa’s goalis to be fully represented in all thedecision-making organs of the UN, particularly inthe Security Council, which is the principaldecision-making organ of the UN in mattersrelating to international peace and security. In2013 the majority (23 out of 41) of UNSCresolutions concerned Africa. [1] Beyond 2013almost 70% of issues considered are African;further 90% of peacekeeping personnel are inAfrica. The African continent is keen to ensurethat their opinion is considered on prospectiveembargos and military interventions. At themoment African countries are “preached torather than consulted as equals” this mustchange. [2] [1] United Nations Security Council,‘Resolutions adopted by the Security Council in2013’, un.org, 2013, [2] Spies, Yolanda K., ‘Themultilateral maze and (South) Africa’s Quest forPermanent United Nations Security Councilrepresentation’, University of Pretoria, , p.99", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Despite Africa’s demands for increased influence,they are not in a position of power and it iswithin their interest to maintain positive relationswith the developed powers. They have numbersbut despite their economic growth in the pastdecade Africa is still more dependent than anyother region on foreign help. The budgets ofGhana and Uganda, for example, are more than50 percent aid dependent. [1] Moreover, theyneed foreign troops in order to maintain orderand fight rebel groups. In 2013, there were 15peacekeeping missions in Africa playing anecessary role in maintaining order in countriessuch as the CAR. [2] [1] Ayodele, Thompson etal., “African Perspectives on Aid: ForeignAssistance Will Not Pull Africa Out of Poverty”Cato Institute, 14 September 2005 [2] “UNPeacekeeping”, Better World Campaign,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "An African voice would change priorities for thebetter An African state with veto power in theUNSC would have much more leverage to getAfrican positions listened to. This is somethingthat is particularly important as Africa is theregion that is most commonly on the UN agenda.An African permanent member would likely alterthe priorities of the Council for the better. Itwould be the first UNSC member without nuclearweapons, indeed if it were South Africa it wouldbe a state that had given up nuclear weapons sowould be in favour of disarmament. [1] Theremight be more attempts to solve the ‘rootcauses’ of conflicts rather than just providing aresponse when a conflict breaks out as Rwandapromoted as president of the UNSC in 2013. [2]An African member might also be moreinterested in development issues, pushing onclimate change etc. It would provide more of aview from the South. [1] Graham, Suzanne,‘South Africa's UN General Assembly VotingRecord from 2003 to 2008: Comparing India,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Countries on the UNSC do already take aninterest in the Africa, illustrated by French troopshelping local democratic governments form Maliand CAR defeat various outlaw rebel groups.[1] Secondly, simply giving a veto to an Africanation, does not guarantee that they willpromote beneficial policies. South Africa forexample has been accused of using UNSCmembership to defend human rights abusers,South Africa’s response was that human rights\"have always targeted mainly the developingcountries\". [2] [1] “Sand on their boots”, TheEconomist, Jan 24th 2013 [2] Humphreys, Joe,‘SA defends human rights voting at UN’, TheIrish Times, 20 November 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The current UNSC Membership is outdated Thecomposition of the council is outdated and mustadapt to a much-changed world in the 21stcentury. It is clear that there is growingdiscontent among African countries regarding thecurrent structure of the UNSC. “We don’tunderstand why you have three countries out offive countries on the Security Council aspermanent members with a veto coming fromEurope,” Simbarashe Mumbengegwi, Zimbabwe’sForeign Affairs minister has said. [1] SouthAfrican Minister of International Relations andCooperation Maite Nkoana-Mashabane appealedfor United Nations Security Council (UNSC)reforms and inclusion of Africa with at least twopermanent seats, he made it clear that SouthAfrica expects a UNSC seat when reform occurs.[2] The United Nations is meant to presentsovereign states equally. The currentmembership was created in 1945 when therewere 51 member states; most of them European,now there are 193 of which almost a third are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Assessment of fees for the UN is not done on thebasis of the influence of the member within theUN, rather it is done through a formula based onnational income. The payment is formembership, not to buy influence. [1] As far aspeacekeeping forces are concerned, South Africais already a prominent contributor. In the UN’sassessments of present troop contributions forpeacekeeping efforts South Africa is 10th. Itsrecord in promoting peace on the continentincludes playing leading roles to end conflicts inBurundi and the Democratic Republic of theCongo, and most recently in Ivory Coast. [2] [1]Committee on Contributions, ‘Regular budgetand Working Capital Fund’, United Nations,2013, [2] African Union Monitor, ‘Africa and theUN Security Council Permanent Seats,Pambazuka News, Issue 204, 28 April 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is no evidence that an African state wouldconstantly use the veto if they had it. No Africanstate has the kind of interests around the worldthe current members have so a veto is only likelyto be wielded over African issues. Such a vetowill simply be ensuring that the African side isput before the council. Moreover an African vetowould not prevent the council from being useful;it won’t even have the effect the cold war did.Since 1990 62 UNSC resolutions were adoptedper year, during the cold war only 15 were onaverage. If the UNSC could operate then it canoperate with more veto members now. [1] [1]Okhovat, Sahar, ‘The United Nations SecurityCouncil: Its Veto Power and Its Reform’, SydneyUniversity, CPACS Working Paper no.15/1,December 2011, p.12", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "International competition for seats onUNSC African countries are not the only oneswho wish to have a chair at the P5 table. Thereare more financially and military prominentcountries who also have expressed their desiresfor having a veto power. [1] Among them, themost important are Germany and Japan who are,the second and third largest contributors to theUN budget. Offering an African state permanentmembership to the UN, would likely offendGermany and Japan. The reason UNSC reformhas not gone ahead is that all potential membershave other powerful countries that would beopposed to their membership. Thus for exampleJapan is opposed by China. And the G-4 (Japan,India, Germany, Brazil) are generally opposed bythe 'coffee club' of 40 mid-size countries led byArgentina, Pakistan, Italy, Mexico, South Koreaand Spain. [2] [1] Parashar, Sachin, “Insistenceon veto may delay UNSC reform process”, TimesOf India, 16 January 2012 [2] Alam,Mohammed Badrul, ‘For a Rightful Place: UNSC", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Who should get the seat? There is not justcompetition from countries outside Africa butalso internally. If there is only to be onepermanent African member or even two whoshould it be? With no defined criteria for UNSCmembership any African state could stake aclaim. There are however three or four seriouscontenders. South Africa, Nigeria and Egypt havedeclared themselves contenders and are leadersof their sub regions. [1] Ethiopia is also asimilarly sized state and if thinking about thefuture DR Congo has immense potential if itsconflicts are ever resolved. How would thesecountries resolve their competing interests withonly one position on offer? [1] Spies, YolandaK., ‘The multilateral maze and (South) Africa’sQuest for Permanent United Nations SecurityCouncil representation’, University of Pretoria, ,p.106", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Proportionality When looking at contributions tothe UN, in 2010 no African countries are in theTop 27. [1] Those who fund an organisationdeserve to lead it and have their opinion countthe most. Of course, there is the need for ademocratic council such as the UNGA, where allthe countries, regardless of contribution deservea right to vote, but when it comes to the UNSC,the veto power is just a privilege the Africancountries have not earned yet. Imagine creatinga union to which a few states provide contributethe most resources, but are prevented fromacting by another member who activelycontributes nothing. This sort of power isunjustified. Peacekeeping and other activitiesthe UN undertakes in Africa require money. NoAfrican state would want these operations to bediminished as Africa would be the region that hasmost to lose. But in return the continent has toaccept the funders will get more say over theUN. [1] Browne, Marjorie, and Blanchfield,Luisa, ‘United Nations Regular Budget", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "More vetoes mean less action The reason thereare only a few states with veto power is toprevent most states from being able to blockessential security action that is in theinternational interest. More members increasethe chances of vetoes and deadlock. There havebeen 263 vetoes since the founding of the UNwith vetoes having been used by everypermanent member. The veto is used to protectnational interests not for the good of theinternational community. [1] States provide vetocover for censure against those they considerallies or even trading partners. Thus the mostcommon veto in the last couple of decades hasbeen by the USA to prevent censure of Israel.China and Russia on the other hand haveprevented action against Syria and Sudandespite crises in these countries. [2] Give morecountries vetoes and it will be used more often.Even worse an African country would have verydifferent interests so would be vetoing differentproposals. Thus for example in the past the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con04b", "title": "", "text": "A dispute over who which African state obtainsmembership is a sideshow. What matters is theprinciple that an African state should havepermanent membership.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwrpusvpa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "That there should be competition for a seat atthe highest international table is no surprise.However this is not a reason against reform. Norshould Germany and Japan be consideredstronger contenders than an African country;why should Europe get a third and Asia a secondpermanent member before Africa has one?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Additional crimes in the remit of an AfricanCriminal Court could cause more problems thanthey solve. Drug trafficking was rejected fromthe remit of the ICC [1] because it wouldoverburden the court, which is intended to dealwith international crimes. While the idea ofprosecuting coups sounds good, in practice itwould raise the same persecution complexesamongst leaders as the ICC does. An AU courtwill also be subject to more local fractious politicsand power struggles, rather than the bulk of themembership being from outside the region. [1]See , Kiefer, Heather, “Just Say No: The Caseagainst Expanding the International CriminalCourt’s Jurisdiction to Include Drug Trafficking”,Loyola of Los Angeles International andComparative Law Review, 2009, at p164", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "An African Criminal Court would bebetter Instead of the ICC structure, the AfricanUnion has proposed an African Criminal Court.An ACC could not only bring justice home toAfrica, by creating a court which will not appearto African nations as being imposed by outsiders,but also be able to have additional remits toaddress other issues in Africa that the ICC doesnot have powers to deal with, such as coups,corruption and drug trafficking [1] . An AfricanCriminal Court may also have a chance of beingseen as more legitimate than the ICC, which hadonly 39% support in Kenya in July 2013 [2] . [1]IRIN, “Analysis: How Close is an African CriminalCourt?”, IRIN (Integrated Regional InformationNetworks), 13 June 2012, [2] Ipsos Synovate,“The ICC Issue and Raila’s Political Future”, IpsosSynovate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The principle of complementarity means that theICC is only a backstop court – it only takes on acase when a state is unwilling or unable to haveit dealt with in its own national courts [1] . Ifthe ICC were a tool for external interference, it issolicited by the states in that most situationsfollow on from referrals by the domesticgovernments. Referrals by the UN SecurityCouncil can happen irrespective of if a state is aparty (hence the Libya and Sudan situations) –just like the ad hoc tribunals for Yugoslavia andRwanda were created in 1994. Regardless thiswill only happen with the assent of Russia andChina so ensuring that referrals are not followinga ‘western imperialist’ agenda. [1] RomeStatute, Article 17", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC has an anti-African bias Every personindicted by the ICC so far has been an African,for events which occurred in Africa, all bar onecase, the Libya situation (in which no trials havestarted and seem a long way off), are insub-Saharan Africa. The ICC has not broughtactions against anyone involved in conflict inColombia, or for the conflict in Sri Lanka or forhuman rights abuses around the world. The ICCis simply selectively prosecuting.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Almost all the cases involve self-reference – theonly ones that did not are UN Security Councilreferences, done in the same way as theInternational Criminal Tribunal for the formerYugoslavia and the International CriminalTribunal for Rwanda were set up. The other case,Kenya, was set up when the ICC prosecutor usedits power in the Rome Statute. This onlyoccurred after the Kenyan parliament failed toimplement the recommendations of the WakiCommission, which it set up. While horribleevents occurred in Sri Lanka, the ICC does nothave the ability to prosecute unless the case isreferred to the court by the UN Security Council,or the Sri Lankan government, which is unlikely– it is not a kangaroo court that can make upjurisdiction to hear a case for political reasons[1] . Colombia is still being investigated [2] . [1]Rome Statute, Article 22 [2] Office of theProsecutor, Report in to Preliminary ExaminationActivities, 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Justice is more than just a road to peace; it is agoal of its own. [1] For most African states thisshould not be a cause to leave the ICC as theyare unaffected by ICC indictments affecting apeace process. Even for those whom it doesaffect it is only transitory until a solution isreached. Such concerns moreover could bebetter dealt with by ensuring that the ICC puts inplace a mechanism that recognises that in someinstances peace can come first. [1] HumanRights Watch, “Perceptions and realities: Kenyaand the International Criminal Court”, hrw.org,14 November 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Tool for external interference. The ICC creates away that foreigners, and in particular the westwith its tendency towards intervention, canremove and imprison African leaders [1] . UhuruKenyatta, the President of Kenya, who has beenindicted by the court, has referred to it as a “toyof declining imperialist powers” [2] . The court islargely funded by Western countries, with theEuropean Union providing over half the cost. Soit should not be surprising if the west has a lot ofpower over the court. Moreover the west isdominant in the United Nations Security Councilso potentially controls both the methods ofreferring a country to the ICC without itspermission. [1] Monbiot, George “Imperialismdidn’t end. These day’s it’s known asinternational law”, The Guardian, 30 April2012, [2] Kenyatta, Uhuru, “Uhuru: ICC is atoy of declining imperial powers”, CapitalFMBlogs, 12 October 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Detriment to peace process The ICC has notbeen particularly effective in dealing with thesituation in Uganda, the ICC prosecutions havingbeen a distraction to local communityreconciliation and leading to further violence [1]. Similarly, the situation in Darfur has not beenhelped by ICC involvement, with massdestruction of villages by people already indictedby the International Criminal Court [2] . Due tohis indictment, a diplomatic solution has becomeharder as Rome Statute signatories are under alegal duty to arrest Sudanese leader Omaral-Bashir, although many have just ignored this.[3] [1] Sinclair, Jessical, “The InternationalCriminal Court in Uganda”, UndergraduateTransitional Justice Review, 2010, [2] HumanRights Watch, “Sudan: Satellite images confirmvillages destroyed”, hrw.org, June 18 2013, [3]Cooper, Belinda, “The ICC: The Politics ofCriticism”, World Policy Journal, 4 December2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Independent nations are capable of trying warcrimes themselves. The ICC is an unnecessaryintrusion on national sovereignty. It should be upto each state to determine its own legal systemas to how criminal matters should beprosecuted. The principle of complementarity isno guarantee as it is up to the ICC itself todetermine if the state is unable or unwilling,meaning it could take over a case for its ownends.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Impunity has occurred in some cases, due to theICC system not leading to prosecutions, such asin Sri Lanka. At any rate, the ICC is not needed– African courts can deal with individuals, not aforeign one.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ICC is cheaper Africa bears little of the cost ofthe ICC – by far its largest contributions comefrom the European Union, and its memberstates. This, coupled with the fact that the ICCis cheaper than the ad hoc tribunals due toeconomies of scale, means that justice can bedelivered to war criminals and those who commitcrimes against humanity in an affordable manner– saving resources for helping the victims.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ICC necessary to provide fair trials Domesticlegal systems will often suffer from a lack ofjudicial independence and potentially politicisedprosecutions, and are also open to allegations ofvictors’ justice, or whitewashes by a judiciarybiased towards the winners of the conflict. TheICC, as an effective court and with anindependent judiciary, provides a suitable andunbiased climate for these cases to be heard in.While it is difficult to give any former head ofstate a fair trial, it is even more so in casesinvolving states divided along ethnic and politicalfault lines where any conviction could be seen asone based on continuing hatreds rather thanevidence and criminal procedure. In addition,the principle of complementarity means Africanstates can prosecute on their own if they wish.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "No impunity The ICC means an end to impunity.It has meant that warlords such as GermainKatanga have been able to be prosecuted forthings like using child soldiers, which areuniversally reviled. What the African Unionleaders are simply advocating by withdrawalfrom the ICC is impunity for themselves. Theysee one of their own – Uhuru Kenyatta, who hasto face very serious allegations over his part inthe mayhem after the 2007 elections which killedover a thousand people – being prosecuted andthen claim it is selective. The only selection goingon is that those who do not have a case toanswer are not being prosecuted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbassw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Is justice something to be subjected to simplefinancial parameters? Even so, what is the ICCcheaper than? It may be cheaper than individualcriminal tribunals like the ICTY and ICTR, butthat assumes that such tribunals are desirable. Itshould be left up to individual states to bringaction.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Moral responsibility is not about comparisons if itwere then what about those European countriesthat have not been open armed like in Hungarythey have made it illegal to help Syrian refugees[1] . Riot police in Hungary have used teargasand water cannon to send them off. [2] SaudiArabia has been doing enough to account for itsmoral responsibility; it has given residency to100,000 Syrians. [3] [1] Frayer, Lauren,‘Risking Arrest, Thousands of Hungarians offerhelp to refugees’, NPR, 29 September 2015, [2]Weaver, Matthew, and Siddique, Haroon,‘Refugee crisis: Hungary uses teargas and watercannon at Serbia border – as it happened’,theguardian.com, 16 September 2015, www.theguardian.com/world/live/2015/sep/16/first-refugees-head-for-croatia-after-hungarys-border-crackdown-live-updates [3] The Guardian, ‘SaudiArabia says criticism of Syria refugee response‘false and misleading’, 12 September 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The Gulf states have a moral responsibility totake in Syrian refugees It is a moralresponsibility for gulf states to take in Syrianrefugees both in terms of common humanity andas they all belong to the same culture andregional organisations (i.e. The Arab League).The numbers taken by the gulf states lookparticularly irresponsible looking it as acomparison to the number that Europeancountries have taken in. Amnesty Internationalhas accused the gulf states of offering zeroresettlement places. [1] [1] AmnestyInternational, ‘Facts & Figures: Syriarefugee crisis & international resettlement’,5 December 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Taking in refugees is not the only thing thatcountries can contribute in combating the Syriarefugee crisis. Gulf countries are known to havedonated a total of around £589m in addition toother aid they have delivered. This is vital tomake the camps that have sprung up alongSyria’s borders liveable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The Gulf states are a convenient place to settleSyrian refugees With language being the basisof communication, and most of the gulf state’spopulation speaking in Arabic, which is thelanguage widely spoken by Syrians the Gulfstates are a natural choice to take in refugees.Syria and the Gulf states also have similarcultures. Both of these make it easier forrefugees to interact with natives, build up asocial network, and find work. Studies from theUS have implied that it is best to send migrants(refugees) to places where there is such anetwork they can quickly plug into whichimproves the prospects of the migrants gettingjobs. [1] [1] Beaman, Lori A., ‘Social Networksand the Dynamics of Labour Market Outcomes:Evidence from Refugees Resettled in the U.S.’,Berkeley University, 15 November 2006, , P.31", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The affinity as a result of joint linguistic andcultural ties between Syrians and the gulf maybe of little use if the refugees are heavilyrestricted in where they live or can do. If theyare put into camps with little contact with theoutside world the refugees could simply be cutoff from this social network. Syria’s neighbourshave generally been unwilling to integraterefugee populations; Jordan has had Palestinianrefugees for almost half a century yet nearly370,000 are still in refugee camps. [1] [1]‘Where we work; Jordan’ United Nations Reliefand Works Agency, 1 July 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Unfortunately the refugee crisis is not happeningat a good time economically for the Gulf. Oilprices have slumped. As a result there is aturbulent economy with many losing their jobs.[1] There is high levels of competition for thosejobs that do exist and in the gulf people often gettheir jobs through influence (Wasta, as it isknown in gulf countries) ofacquaintances/friends, which would serve to shutrefugees out of the jobs market. [1] Reuters,‘FGB announces 100 job cuts in UAE’, Gulf News,24 November 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "European countries have taken in a huge numberof refugees while gulf states have takennone There were 1,294,000 claims for asylum inEurope in 2015 with more than a fifth of thesecoming originally from Syria. [1] Although manyArab states have shouldered their share of theburden, particularly neighbouring Jordan andLebanon, the Gulf at the same time have takenin almost nil refugees. The Gulf states are richcountries, particularly by comparison to theirneighbours that are taking up the burden. Percapita income in Jordan is $5,160 compared to$25,140 in Saudi Arabia and $44,600 in UAE assuch they can afford to do much more. [2] [1]BBC News, ‘Migrant crisis: Migration to Europeexplained in seven charts’, 18 February2016, [2] World Bank, data.worldbank.org,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Gulf countries could benefit from refugees Justlike Gulf countries have greatly benefitted fromexpat immigration, the U.A.E being a greatexample of such growth where the expatpopulation is estimated to be 84% of the UAEpopulation [1] , Gulf countries in the same waycan make use of Syrian refugees immigrating.Syrian refugees can provide cheap labour on theGulf states ambitious construction projects aswell as helping to provide an educated workforcethat can help diversify the gulf states economiesaway from oil. [1] Al Qassemi, Sultan Sooud,‘Give expats and opportunity to earn UAEcitizenship’, Gulf News, 22 September 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The effort to fund and arm the rebels has notshown any result, it’s been over 4 years and yetnothing has solved the problem. Rather thesituation has got steadily worse with moderateopposition first losing out to Daesh, and then toAssad since Russian air support tipped thebalance. Arming rebel groups simply helps toperpetuate the civil war and ensure that refugeescannot return home.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Refugees can’t be choosers in a situation wheretheir country has been destroyed. A surveyconducted among refugees arriving in Germanyshowed that around 68% of the people fled justto save themselves from the imminent threat.[1] The Gulf States may not be a model ofdemocracy and human rights but migrants wouldbe considerably safer than in Syria. [1] VonMartin, ‘Survey amongst Syrian refugees inGermany – Backgrounds’, adopt a revolution, 7October 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ISIS could infiltrate to Gulf States The 2015terrorist attacks in Paris show that ISIS has theability to infiltrate countries through refugees.Although the participants in these attacks hadbeen living in France and Brussels some had alsobeen to fight in Syria and at least one,Abdelhamid Abaaoud, returned along themigrant route. [1] This shows that influxes ofrefugees could pose great threat to gulf countriesand Daesh has already claimed terrorist attacksin Kuwait. [2] Even before the rise of ISIS gulfstates were concerned about the security risksposed by migrant workers with Bahrain’s Ministerof Labour Majid Al-Alawi stating migrant workersare a strategic threat. [3] [1] Holehouse,Matthew, and Samuel, Henry, ‘Terroristringleader got into EU as ‘refugee’’, TheTelegraph, 20 November 2015, [2] Cafiero,Giorgio, ‘The ‘Islamic State’ Attacks Kuwait’,Huffington Post, 1 July 2015, [3] Rahman,Anisur, ‘Migration and Human Rights in the Gulf’,Middle East Institute, 2 February 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The Gulf states want to solve the root of therefugee crisis; getting rid of Assad Gulfcountries have been trying to fix the problempolitically rather than taking in a few refugees,which would be beneficial to most of the Syrians?The vast majority of Syrians would prefer to gohome to a Syria with the civil war over andpreferably with Assad gone. The gulf starts, arethe main powers working to see this happen.While the US has helped arm some rebel groupsthe funding for this was provided by Saudi Arabiaand the Gulf states have gone further than thewest in terms of providing arms. [1] [1]Mazzetti, Mark and Apuzzo, Matt, ‘U.S. ReliesHeavily on Saudi Money to Support SyrianRebels’, The New York Times, 23 January 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The Gulf states are themselves not bastions offreedom Syrians are leaving Syria as a result ofa civil war born out of the Arab Spring, it was anattempt to gain more freedom within adictatorship. [1] Such a population is unlikely towish to move to a country where freedoms areoften restricted. All the countries of the Gulf aremonarchies, often with only the barest touch ofdemocracy electing rubber stamp parliaments.Organisations such as Human Rights Watch havehighlighted the violence which many migrantssuffer and large numbers are exploited. [2] [1]Ali, Jasim, ‘Gulf states need to aim higher onfreedom parameter’, Gulf News, 4 September2015, [2] Begum, Rothna, ‘Gulf States Fail toProtect Domestic Workers From SeriousViolence’, hrw.org, 16 October 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mesimhbgs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The incidents that occurred in Europe wereinvolving native Europeans themselves, althoughthey did travel to and back from Syria. Just likeEurope could have home grown terrorists, thesame likeliness applies to the gulf states. In factstatistics even show that one of the highestnumber of recruits for Daesh has been thosefrom Saudi Arabia. [1] [1] The Economist, ‘Itain’t half hot here, mum’, 28 August 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This infrastructure still costs money, whateverevent it is around: a state could launch aninfrastructure drive without a footballtournament that would be much more focused onthe real needs of the people. Foreign investmentcan have significant costs, such as preferentialaccess to natural resources. The work can oftenwind up being done by foreign contractors sothat it creates no local jobs, as happened whenAngola hosted the tournament [1] . In the caseof the Stade de l’Amitié-Sino-Gabonaise Chinadoes not just get the benefit of the name; thefinance provided was a loan, and theconstruction was done by the ShanghaiConstruction Group meaning much of the benefitwent to China. [2] [1] Capstick, Alex, “Angolauses football to showcase economy”, BBC News,2010, [2] Ndenguino-Mpira, Hermanno, “TheAfrican Cup of Nations 2012 – China’s goals”,Centre for Chinese Studies, 23 January 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Legacy of infrastructure The benefits of hostingthese events for African nations include theability to concentrate on infrastructure for theevent. In addition to sporting infrastructure,which could last well in excess of 50 years,homes, hospitals, roads and schools have beenconstructed in Gabon’s host cities [1] . TheChinese government assisted funding of some ofthis; [2] it co-financed and helped construct theStade de l’Amitié-Sino-Gabonaise, the biggeststadium. [1] Yilmaz, Cetin, “Gabon works hardfor 2012 Cup of Nations”, Hurriyet DailyNews, [2] Murphy, Chris, “African ambition:tiny nations host football feast”, CNN, 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There were only two host cities in each country,however. This is understandable: the African Cupof Nations does not use as large a number ofvenues as other tournaments. The 2013 editionin South Africa used a larger, fifth, venue forthree matches only, and the 2015 event willrevert to four venues.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The ACN in Gabon shows what can be done bysmaller African nations A key reason for hostingany big sporting event is that it puts the host in ashop window. Unless the event is a disaster (as,arguably, Angola’s tournament was due to thegun attack on the Togo team), which it was not,it creates an opportunity for the nation to showitself as being an advanced society, capable ofbig events, “getting things done” and as a placeto do business. All of this is positive for theeconomies of Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. TheAfrican Development Bank notes that Economicgrowth was 7% in 2011 and 5.7% in Gabon inpart because of “massive investmentsundertaken for football’s Africa Cup of Nations2012”. [1] [1] African Economic Outlook, ‘GabonEconomic Outlook’, African Development BankGroup, accessed 28/1/2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Aside from the cost issues, the event isshort-lived, a few weeks. An event such as theAfrican Cup of Nations will only be rememberedfor a while, and then it will just be a footnote inhistory, fading from the memory quicker than anevent like a World Cup. The ACN is focusedlargely within Africa, when all the PR benefits arebest focused towards Europe and higher incomecountries. The economic effects are not alwaysbeneficial and are only temporary; even themassive building projects have failed to solve theproblem with unemployment which is at 27%.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The African Cup of Nations brings very fewtourists with it; Ghana vs Guinea had only 4,000fans while the Zambia vs Sudan Quarter finalonly had a few hundred spectators. [1] Numberslike this are clearly not going to boost local shopsand bars much. Even the investment does notboost local small businesses; the contracts wentto big foreign firms. Those firms then makecontracts with companies they already know notlocal ones and often employ foreign workers; theconstruction of the Stade del’Amitié-Sino-Gabonaise employed a thousandworkers, but only a quarter were Gabonese.[2] [1] Reuters, ‘Fans go it alone at Africa Cupof Nations’, AlJazeera, 6 February 2012, [2]Ballong, Stéphane, ‘Gabon’s 2012 CAN effect’,theafricareport, 7 December 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Benefits spread across the country The benefitsof these events, unlike hosting an event such asan Olympic Games (which would be outside thereach of Gabon or Equatorial Guinea, especiallywith the increasing trend of the IOC to selectmajor world cities in medium or high incomecountries), is that more than one site in acountry can host different parts of thetournament. This provides a platform for a focuson broad based development across the entirenation, rather than one-sideded developmentfocused on one city. In Gabon’s case there wasboth construction of the Stade del’Amitié-Sino-Gabonaise in the Capital and arebuild of a stadium in Franceville for €76.2million [1] . [1] Ballong, Stéphane, ‘Gabon’s2012 CAN effect’, theafricareport, 7 December2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Helps small businesses There is a big benefit forsmall businesses in hosting the large sportingevents. The hosting of the tournament in 2012has been credited by African Economic Outlookwith playing a role in the “robust” economicgrowth in the country in that year turning thecountry around from negative growth in 2009 [1]. The 2013 Africa Cup of Nations was creditedwith 10,000 jobs and helping the tourist sectorsof the South African economy, [2] Gabon wouldhave received a similar boost. [1] NN, “Gabon”,African Economic Outlook, no date, [2] NN,“Africa Cup of Nations 2013 to boost SMEs inSouth Africa”, MSME News Network, 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Few countries in Africa meet with approval onthe part of Freedom House. At any rate, sportand politics are supposed to be separate. Also,human rights concerns could be advanced byplacing these countries under the spotlight,rather than the usual position of them beingignored", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There are always other things that any sum ofmoney could be spent on. Every nation, evenones with large economies and high developmentstandards have other things to spend moneyon. The reason why many nations desire to hostprestigious sporting events, giving them varyinglevel of government support, at local or nationalgovernment levels, is to change perceptions ofthe nation or region by advertising it. It alsoleads to regeneration and infrastructureinvestment in the host areas – all things withgood long term benefits that can be applied tothe entire nation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Empty seats Organizers in Gabon had to handout free tickets to fill stadia [1] . This not onlymakes the tournament appear unpopular to TVviewers, it reduces the revenues of the event. Itwould be better for the sport if the Africa Cup ofNations was held in countries that are likely tosell out more of the matches; this meanscountries with bigger populations than Gabonand Equatorial Guinea that can pull in a domesticaudience. [1] Sport24, “Empty seats plagueAFCON”, Sport 24, 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Showcasing countries with poor human rightsrecords Allowing a country to host a majorsporting event gives them a big boost ininternational prestige. Repressive regimes to notdeserve this. Equatorial Guinea, a dictatorshiprun by Teoodoro Obiang, is one of the world’sworst human rights offenders, with the worstpossible scores for civil liberties and politicalrights according to Freedom House [1] . Gabon,while rated by Freedom House as better thanEquatorial Guinea, also has a bad human rightsrecord, with “harsh prison conditions, lengthypretrial detention, ritual killings, police use ofexcessive force, … widespread governmentcorruption … and forced child labor [sic]” [2]. [1] Freedom House, “Equatorial Guinea”,Freedom House [2] US State Department,Gabon 2012 Human Rights Report,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Cost could be spent on other things Gabon’sgovernment invested €370 million in the games.[1] Even though it is one of the more stable WestAfrican countries, there are still many peopleliving in grinding poverty – nearly 20% of thepopulation, according to the World Bank [2] .While infrastructure development is welcome, itis a better use of money to lift people out ofpoverty rather than for three weeks offootball. It can also have other negative effectson the day to day lives of individuals, forexample in South Africa when it hosted the worldcup tolls were increase [3] . [1]Ndenguino-Mpira, Hermanno, “The African Cupof Nations 2012 – China’s goals”, Centre forChinese Studies, 23 January 2012, [2] WorldBank, “World Development Indicators”, WorldBank Databank, [3] Sands, Darren, “In SouthAfrica, the African Cup of Nations is bigbusiness”, Black Enterprise, 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-astshbghacn-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Ticket sales, while good for revenue, are notcrucial. The African Cup of Nations has neverbeen an event with large scale sellout crowds forevery match like a World Cup. Disposableincomes are lower in Africa compared to the restof the world. This coupled with the vast size ofthe area covered by the confederation meanslower numbers of travelling fans. Expectationsshould be managed: the higher demand is formatches with the host team involved. In thetournament the following year (held earlier dueto CAF changing the years in which thetournament is held to odd years, to avoid clasheswith World Cups and Olympics) in South Africa,the bronze medal match got 6,000 spectators [1]. Even the Olympics, when held in London, didnot sell out every ticket for every football match,meaning some sections of seating were coveredover [2] . [1] ESPN, “2013 African Nations CupFixtures and Results”, ESPN, 2013, [2] Magnay,Jacquelin, “”London 2012 Olympics: 500,000football tickets removed to ensure full stadiums", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "While membership in the European Union mightcontribute to peace, economic cooperation andgood diplomatic relations being a member isneither the cause such stability nor is it sufficienton its own. There are countries outside theEuropean Union that are stable states – such asNorway and there are countries within the EUwhere membership is no longer creating stabilityand possibly even undermining it such as inGreece where being dictated to by other memberstates is one cause behind the anti-governmentriots in the country. Once both the EU isready/willing to expand and the countries havefulfilled the criteria for joining, membership canbe extended, but it should not be considered tobe a quick fix to create international stability.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "EU expansion is good for current memberspolitically. Expansion means extending a projectwhich has ensured unprecedented levels ofpeace and cooperation among former enemies inwestern Europe for nearly half a century. Thiswas the original purpose of the European project.The European Union started out as the EuropeanCoal and Steel Community which shared theseimportant strategic resources that werenecessary to fight a war. It was argued that thisintegration is the only way to keep France andGermany, enemies that had fought three wars inthe previous eighty years, from attacking eachother. Entrenching peace, democracy andeconomic integration throughout the continent isto the benefit of all European nations, the mostrecent two wars; World War I and World War IIexpanded to include the whole of Europe andmuch of the rest of the world. The EuropeanUnion also means that there is no concern thatthere will be conflict. This both allows membersof the European Union to spend less on defence", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "That there were immense trade increases duringthe period when the new member states werejoining does not necessarily show causality orthat these same increases would not have beencreated without EU membership. Developmentand economic integration is something that willoccur regardless of whether applicant countriesjoin the European Union or not. There wouldlikely have been a similar growth in trade if thesestates had joined the network of free tradeagreements such as the European Economic Areainstead of full membership of the EuropeanUnion. The 0.3% of GDP figure for the financialtransfers from the old to new member states theproposition gives may be accurate but 0.3% ofGDP per year is not insignificant. Germanypaying 0.3% of its GDP would still be almost 7.5billion Euros. It is also questionable whetherfurther expansion would be as beneficial as themost recent expansions as the new memberswould be getting progressively poorer and poorercompared to current members. Macedonia’s GDP", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "EU expansion is right. It is right to extend theeconomic and political benefits enjoyed byexisting EU members to the rest of Europe.States in eastern Europe are still recovering fromthe “dead hand” of communist rule imposed afterdeals between the USSR and the USA and Britainat the end of World War II. Many within theboundaries of the former Soviet Union such asBelarus and increasingly Ukraine have revertedto more authoritarian governments. These statesshould not be abandoned by their westernneighbours. Europe has just as muchresponsibility to those states within Europe thathave so far been left out the European Union’senlargement as it did to those countries ofCentral and Eastern Europe that were acceptedin the most recent enlargements.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "European Union expansion is not a moralprocess. No one in Europe is trying to claim somekind of ‘civilising mission’. The remainingcountries that are outside the European Unioncannot be said to be countries that the membersof the European Union had abandoned to Russianrule in the same way that could be said of Polandfrom 1945. Instead these were either withinYugoslavia which largely escaped Soviet controlor were already within the borders of the USSRbefore World War II. The sheer fact that acountry is on the European Continent is notenough for a country to be admitted. Neither is ittrue that EU countries have a duty to givemembership in order to help. The EU is alreadyinvolved in aid, reconstruction and developmentprograms all over Europe and should not havefurther obligations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "While an argument for cooperation (includinglogistic and financial support) between the EUand neighbouring states, it is not an argumentfor granting full EU membership to these states.While the prospect of membership may motivatecountries to introduce reforms, prematureaccession can cause this progress to grind to ahalt, as seen with the corruption in Bulgaria stillaffecting government and there being very littlechance of prosecution. [1] This is because once astate joins the European Union the EU no longerhas much influence over that state. Once a stateis a member the methods of punishing that stateare constrained. This is because wherepreviously their path to membership could beslowed of halted once they join this is no longerpossible. It is no longer possible to imposeeffective economic sanctions against thesestates. For this reason some kind of associationoutside of the European Union itself would bemore effective at encouraging states that areoutside the European Union to become fully", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "EU expansion is good for current memberseconomically. The current economic crisis withinEurope masks its immense success in turningnew member states into prosperous economieswhile also benefiting those who were alreadymembers. Between 1999 and 2007 tradebetween the new and old member states grewfrom 175 billion Euros to 500 billion, thisoutweighs the cost of EU financial assistance tothe new members which only amounts tobetween 0.2-0.3% of EU GDP. [1] For exampleBritish exports to the 12 new member stateswere worth £11.6billion in 2009 compared to£4.5billion in 1999 whereas the Dutchgovernment estimates that the benefits ofenlargement to each of its inhabitants was 650Euros. [2] Admitting new members is alsonecessary over the long term in order to counterthe aging that is occurring in Europe. Everymember of the European Union has an agingpopulation and a fertility rate below thereplacement rate of 2.1. Encouraging economic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Expansion furthers EU ideals. The prospect ofjoining the EU has been an impetus for reform inmany ex-communist countries, driving changes(e.g. legal reforms, privatizations, human rights)that are desirable in their own right. Theprogress made in a few years by the first wave ofeastern European states to join the EuropeanUnion was impressive and membership was theirdeserved reward. Conversely, if the prospect ofEU membership was now denied to those statesthat are still hoping to join in the future, thesestates are likely to be unwilling to implement theunpopular reforms that the European unionwould like. Even in countries that are not on anyEU lists of applicant or potential members thedoor to enlargement has a positive influence.The prospect of joining the European Union hastempted even those who might naturally beinclined to look the other way. ViktorYanukovych was the Pro-Russian candidate inUkraine yet he has continued on the pathtowards EU membership since taking office for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "According to the principle of free movement ofpeople, citizens of EU may work and studyanywhere in the EU. This is a very importantchance for every individual and should beembraced. By spending part of their education ortraining in another EU country, they acquire aninsight into other work environments and gainskills that are invaluable in later life. Closercooperation and sharing experience with otherEuropean countries will bring democratictraditions and modern way of living to thesociety of new member states. Indeed therehave been suggestions that far from their beinga brain drain in the long run such migrationresults in a brain gain. The possibility ofmigrating to a richer nation means thatindividuals are much more likely to increase theireducation or learn skills with the intention ofmigrating. This decision to increase their humancapital is a decision that would not have beenmade if the possibility of migration was notpresent. Of course in the short term much of this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Conflicts of interest between member states areinevitable. Britain has consistently been one ofthe outlier states even though it has been amember since 1974 and has many interests incommon with the other old members of the EU.It has remained outside the Eurozone and theSchengen agreement and disagrees on policiessuch as a tax on financial transactions. Newmembers in the Balkans for example are unlikelyto be less cooperative than the UK. Moreoverthese conflicts of interest are most acute inforeign policy, such as the conflicts of interestover policy towards Russia, where so far the EUdoes not demand a common position frommembers so this should not be a concern.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The European Union is no longer in a financialposition to be taking in new members. Thefinancial crisis and European Union memberstates’ having to bail each other out means thatthere will be less money available for any newmembers. The bailouts have cost the EU morethan $500 billion plus financing the EuropeanStability Mechanism with $650 billion. [1] Hencecurrent prospective entrants will not have suchauspicious conditions for adoption as there werefor all previous entrants into the EU. This meansthat all the benefits will have to come from theextension of Free Trade, something which couldhappen without full membership. Joining the EUas full members would at the same time workagainst these poorer countries’ competitiveadvantages. European labor regulations willmake many workers in these countries lesscompetitive and stringent environmentalregulations will impose a cost that countries attheir level of development cannot afford. Forexample Croatia will require an extra 10.5 billion", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Expansion would be unpopular. As expansionmoves outward to places that are further andfurther away from the western Europeancountries and into countries that are culturallyless ‘European’ there is bound to be lessenthusiasm for allowing them to join. Turkey isthe country most likely to be a victim of publicopinion against membership. Polling in 2010showed 52% against membership and only 41%backing it if voting in a referendum. The mainreason for being against was Turkey being “aMuslim country… not compatible with thecommon Christian roots” of Europe. [1] Thetrend has been for a decline in support forfurther enlargement falling from a high of 49% in2004 to 41% two years later in 2006. [2] [1] EUBusiness, ‘Europeans split over Turkey EUmembership: poll’, 24 January 2010, [2]Antonia M. Ruiz-Jiménez, José I. Torreblanca, ‘Isthere a trade-off between deepening andwidening? What do Europeans think?’, EuropeanPolicy Institutes Network, Working Paper No.17", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There will be an even greater brain drain frompoorer countries to richer. As the EU expandsallows poorer and poorer countries to join thereare likely to be increasing problems with internalmigration creating a brain drain. The EU will notin the future be able to be nearly as generous interms of funds to develop new members’economies. If any new members are allowedfreedom of movement their will almost certainlybe even greater migration flows than there wereas a result of the 2004 enlargement. Poland forexample despite being the only Europeancountry to avoid recession has still had a net lossof 1.4million people who have stayed abroadmore than a year. [1] If the talented and skilledfrom a country that is experiencing rapideconomic growth are staying abroad when therest of Europe is in the middle of a downturn howmany more would move from the poorerpotential members such as Macedonia? [1]Marcin Sobczyk, ‘Poland Loses 1.4 Million Peopleto Brain Drain’, Wall Street Journal, 24", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Expansion will create conflicts of interestbetween members. Continuing expansion willmean a dilution of common national interestsbetween the member states. National interestsare to a large extent based upon geography andthe economy. The EU-15 could be said to haveboth a unity of purpose; preventing another warbetween France and Germany as well as similarcultures, similar levels of wealth, and even asimilarity in social policy. This has meant that theEU-15 member states had a lot of commoninterests so could agree to continuingintegration. Newer member states have verydifferent post World War II national experiences,shaped in particular by communist occupation.This makes many new EU members less willingto share sovereignty or contemplate the Uniondeepening. Moreover as the European Union getsbigger and more geographically diverse otherinterests diverge. For example some countriessuch as Germany are already inclined toconciliate Russia while others have been much", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Previous enlargements were unpopular as wellwith support in the low 40s percentage points in2001 however this rapidly increased to above50% as enlargement approached before fallingback, possibly as a result of media attentiontowards the possible negative consequencessuch as immigration. [1] Therefore basing policyon public opinion years, possibly decades beforea country would actually be joining the EU is nothelpful as opinion is fickle and could easilychange in the intervening period. Moreoverpublic opinion is likely to be based uponprejudices, for example with Turkey opposition isbased on it being a Muslim country but thisignores that Turkey is in fact secular with anIslamic culture in a similar way to France being asecular state with a Christian culture. [1]Antonia M. Ruiz-Jiménez, José I. Torreblanca, ‘Isthere a trade-off between deepening andwidening? What do Europeans think?’, EuropeanPolicy Institutes Network, Working Paper No.17April 2008, p.3", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbesefe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "First of all while many members of the EU areexperiencing low or even negative growth thebailouts don’t actually make Europe poorer asthey have so far been loans that will have to bepaid out. Even if current members are unwillingor unable to give large subsidies to any membersthat may join the European Union in the futurethere will still be large economic benefits tojoining. The principles of European integration,such as free competition or free movement ofgoods and capital, will foster the transition froma post-socialist economy to a free marketeconomy in any new member states. Theremoval of custom barriers will enable producersto cut production costs, which will result inexport increases. In addition, integration into theEU will encourage foreign investment. It willcreate new jobs and will bring new technologiesand experience into East-central Europeanindustry and trade. New member statesinevitably engage in a catch up phase wheregrow rapidly. The ten new members who joined", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdhwenmga-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Further expansion is not in NATO’s interests. Thealliance is based on the principle that thesecurity of one is the security of all, so that allmembers will go to war if any one member isattacked. This is a very serious commitment andshould not lightly be extended to new nations.The irresponsible manner in which Georgiaprovoked a conflict with Russia, ignoring USwarnings, shows the danger of being sucked intoquarrels in which most NATO members have nostrategic interest. It was obvious from thisconflict that Georgia could not defend itself sothe burden would fall on NATO. [1] Like thebreakaway regions of Georgia, Ukraine alsocontains many Russian-speakers who look toMoscow for protection, especially in the Crimeawhich hosts Russia’s Black Sea fleet. [2] IfUkraine had been a member of NATO whenRussia moved troops into Crimea then NATOwould be a dangerous confrontation withRussia. [1] Tayler, Jeffrey, ‘Russia: Back to theFuture’, the Atlantic, September 2008, [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdhwenmga-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Expansion is in the interests of NATO Expansionto include Georgia and Ukraine is in the interestsof NATO. After more than a decade without aclear role, the alliance now once again stands forthe principle of solidarity between western liberaldemocracies. The hopes of the 1990s for a newworld order in which a democratic andliberalising Russia would see partnership withNATO and other western clubs as strongly in itsown interest died during the Presidency ofVladimir Putin. Russia once again poses a threatto Europe and needs to be contained or at leastshown that NATO has not forgotten about it. Thisis shown by President Putin’s continuing lashingout at foreign countries for funding NGOs andplans to boost defense spending. [1] ExtendingNATO up to Russia’s southern border will signalthe West’s strength and determination and forceRussia to respect the alliance and itsmembers. [1] Cullison, Alan, ‘Putin Warms Weston Interference’, The Wall Street Journal, 28November 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdhwenmga-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "In retrospect, the decision to welcome theformer Soviet states in the Baltic into NATOappears foolish. They continue to have a pricklyrelationship with Russia, which has somelegitimate concerns about the treatment of largeRussian minorities in Latvia and Estonia, andabout the siting of US nuclear defences. Theirentry into NATO was forced upon Russia, whichnaturally saw it as an aggressive move designedto humiliate it, and marked the point when itspro-western policy shifted to a more nationalistand confrontational approach. [1] It alsoweakened the unity of NATO as there are quitelegitimate doubts as to whether all the alliance’smembers would really go to war with Russia overthe integrity of, say, Estonia. Given this history,it would be madness to compound the problemby extending NATO membership to Georgia andUkraine. [1] Fraser, Malcolm, ‘Ukraine: there’sno way out unless the west understands its pastmistakes’, theguardian.com, 3 March 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdhwenmga-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The people of Ukraine and Georgia want tojoin Many people in both Ukraine and Georgiawish to join NATO, and that is the best reason forwelcoming them into the alliance. NATO is analliance of democratic states and should respondpositively to the request of a sovereign nation. InGeorgia a non-binding referendum on whether tojoin NATO showed 77% of voters in favor ofjoining. [1] Polls show that some 50% ofUkrainians in 2002 said that would supportUkraine’s membership in NATO if a referendumon this issue were held. [2] Both states are atrisk of being pushed around by Russia, partlybecause their desire to adopt “western”democratic values is at odds with the moreautocratic values of Russia’s leadership. Theyalso fear that Russia has designs on theirterritory and sovereignty, knowing that many inthe Russian elite have never fully accepted thecollapse of the old Soviet Union. These fearshave been realised with Russian forces in SouthOssetia, Abkhazia, and Crimea. Joining NATO", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdhwenmga-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is far from the settled will of the Georgian andUkrainian peoples that they wish to join NATO.Georgia’s President Saakashvili did wish to join,but after his disastrous attempt to regain controlof South Ossetia was unable to bring his countrywith him. Saakashvilli was defeated inparliamentary elections and ran up against histerm limit at the end of 2013 [1] opening theway towards better relations with Russia. Publicopposition to NATO membership in Ukraine sincethe US-led war in Iraq 2003 outweighed supportfor joining the alliance. [2] Ukraine is split overNATO membership, with most of theRussian-speaking East of the country firmlyopposed to the idea, and only about 30%support overall. [3] The crisis of Ukraine’spro-western coalition over how to respond to theconflict in Georgia showed how divisive thequestion is; the President firmly supportedGeorgia while the PM kept quiet. [4] In any case,NATO membership should not automatically beextended to every nation which wishes it, but", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdhwenmga-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "There is a strong precedent for expansion Thereis a strong precedent for letting Ukraine andGeorgia join NATO. Latvia, Lithuania and Estoniaare also former Soviet states, and Russiaobjected to their entry into NATO quite as muchas it objects today about its Black Seaneighbours. [1] Yet Russia was not allowed aveto over their futures, and it soon got over itsannoyance, continuing to participate in jointforums with NATO and to cooperate with the USAover Afghanistan, North Korea and nuclearnon-proliferation. So NATO is already committedto the defence of states in Russia’s near-abroad,and should not fear further expansion. [1]Black, Stephen J., ‘NATO Enlargement and theBaltic States: What Can the Great Powers Do’,Strategic Studies Institute, November 1997,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdhwenmga-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Dramatic and depressing as events in Georgia in2008 were, the loss of Abkhazia and SouthOssetia actually make Georgia better suited toNATO membership than before. There wouldhave been a clear danger of allowing Georgiainto NATO if the status of these breakawayregions was unsettled, with the obvious potentialfor conflict with their Russian patron. OnceGeorgia can be brought to accept the permanentloss of these territories to Russia, then itbecomes a much more united country, withoutany other obvious grounds for Russia’s futureinterference. This is similarly the case withCrimea; The Russian Black Sea Fleet based in aNATO member would have clearly been a risk.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdhwenmga-con01b", "title": "", "text": "We do not need to buy Russia cooperation bysacrificing Georgian and Ukrainian sovereignty.The West would like Russian cooperation in awhole range of areas, but this isn’t a zero sumgame where if one side wins the other must loseout. Russia should also worry about issues suchas terrorism, nuclear proliferation, climatechange, and the threat posed by failed states, soit is in its own interests to work with internationalpartners to find global solutions. It also wantsWorld Trade Organisation membership tocontinue its economic growth, especially if oiland gas prices should fall. For these reasonsRussia will not make its whole foreign policydependent on the expansion of NATO, but can berelied upon to continue existing partnershipsbecause they are of mutual benefit.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdhwenmga-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The West is reliant on Russia’s Gasreserves NATO’s European members have anadditional reason not to offend Russia bycontinuing to expand the alliance in defiance ofMoscow. Much of Europe depends on imports ofRussian gas for their energy needs, Russiacurrently supplies 25% of European gas and thismay rise to as high as 55% by 2020. [1]Unfortunately the Kremlin has made clear overthe past three years that it is prepared to use itscontrol of energy as a political weapon. It hasalready limited the flow of energy to states (e.g.Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia) who have annoyed iton several occasions, and may well be preparedto turn lights, heating and factories off acrossEurope in retaliation for interference in its nearabroad. [2] Russia’s energy riches in a time ofhigh oil prices also mean that it is far richer andself-confident than at any time since the fall ofcommunism. The profits of its energy wealthhave also enabled its military to bestrengthened. This means that even if Moscow", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdhwenmga-con03a", "title": "", "text": "NATO is divided on how to deal with Georgia Theconflict in Georgia showed how NATO is alreadybadly divided over how to respond to Russia. OldEuropean states such as Germany and Italy aremuch readier to accommodate Russian intereststhan America, [1] which is supported by newerNATO members such as Poland and the CzechRepublic. The same fault has been seen inrelation to the response to Russian moves inCrimea; Germany has been much more cautious.[2] The United States faces a danger that if itpushes for NATO expansion in the face ofRussian objections, it will split the alliancecompletely. [1] Traynor, Ian, ‘Nato allies dividedover Ukraine and Georgia’, guardian.co.uk, 2December 2008, [2] Dempsey, Judy, ‘Europe IsCompletely Divided Over How to Respond toRussia’, Carnegie Europe, 4 March 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdhwenmga-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The West needs to deal with Russia Westerncountries should seek to compromise withRussia, as they need its cooperation in a wholerange of areas. Global efforts against terrorism,nuclear proliferation, climate change, energysecurity and organised crime will all fail withoutRussian participation. Russia’s veto power on theUnited Nations Security Council also means thatalienating Moscow could frustrate internationalefforts to bring security and freedom to statessuch as Sudan, Myanmar, Zimbabwe and Iraq. Inparticular the west needs Russian help in Syria;the UNSC has only been able to get humanitarianresolutions on the country when Russia has beencooperative. [1] And NATO depends on Russiangoodwill to allow supplies into Afghanistan viathe safer northern route, [2] cooperation that islikely to be withdrawn if Georgia and Ukraineremain candidates for membership. [1] BBCNews, ‘Syria crisis: UN Security Council agreesaid resolution’, 23 February 2014, [2] Cullison,Alan, ‘Russia Considers Blocking NATO Supply", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdhwenmga-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Russian strength is illusory – the country’swealth is highly dependent on the energy exportsand its economy is very vulnerable to a fall in oiland gas prices. Russia needs to sell its oil at$115 per barrel for the budget to balance. [1]Despite recent hostility to foreign oil firmsattempting to operate in Russia, in the long termthe country also needs western investment andtechnology if it is to maintain its energy outputby opening and exploiting new fields. Indeed,Europe cannot be held hostage to Russianenergy policy – who else could Russia sell its oiland gas to? Russia’s apparent military strength isalso deceptive – its army and air force actuallyperformed badly in Georgia and are no match forthe modern forces available to NATO. [1]Nikishenkov, Oleg, ‘Oil muddles Russia’s budgetdebate’, themoscownews, 16 May 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Both countries are among the most prosperouseconomies in the entire world and have nothingto gain from EU membership. Through their EEAand EFTA memberships, as well as bilateral dealswith Brussels, both Norway and Switzerland haveaccess to the Single Market and are fullyintegrated into the European economy. While itmay be true that the European Union is generousto Norway and Switzerland it is also in the EU’sinterest to add Norway and Switzerland to theEuropean Common Market even if not as fullmembers. The chances of the European Unioncancelling such agreements are remote asinternational agreements and trade rely on trustbetween partners so other partners of the EUwould worry that their treaties might also becancelled.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Benefits of joining the European Union BothNorway and Switzerland already gain from theireconomic association with the European Union,but they would realise much greater benefits ifthey formally joined the organisation. Beingimperfectly integrated into the Europeaneconomy means that consumers pay higherprices for goods and services than citizens of EUcountries. Businesses are sheltered from fullcompetition, which can lead to complacency anda loss of global competitiveness. And the natureof their relationships with Brussels means thattheir economies are inherently fragile – bilateralagreements could be cancelled by either side atany time. This would have little impact on thewider EU-economy, but would devastate muchsmaller Norway or Switzerland. The risks thisinvolves were brought home in 2008 when Swissvoters had to approve an extension of thefreedom of movement under the Schengenagreement to new EU-members Romania andBulgaria; if the referendum had been rejected,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "While it is true that trading freely with the EUrequires acceptance of many of its rules, neithercountry has given up control over those areasthey consider key policy areas. These are theareas that Norway and Switzerland mostimportant such as agriculture, fishing (highlyimportant for Norway) and foreign affairs. TheSwiss in particular have done well out of bilateraldeals with the EU – would their concerns in areassuch as banking and farming be listened to ascarefully once they were inside the club? Howmuch are the concerns of smaller states takenseriously in the EU today?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "It would be easy to assimilate into the EU BothSwitzerland and Norway would be warmlywelcomed within the EU family and guaranteed aspeedy entry into the Union. As advancedeconomies with strong legal and politicalinstitutions, they would be easy for the EU toassimilate, especially given their closeinvolvement in the Single Market already. Bothwould be net contributors to the EU budget, andwould strengthen the EU at a time when it is stillcoping with poorer new members and would-bemembers in Eastern Europe. And by contributingfinancially to the EU in this way, Switzerland andNorway will benefit from increasing trade asEastern and Central European states rapidly gainin prosperity with support from EU regionaltransfers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "There is little room for small states in aglobalizing world Both countries would benefitfrom pooling sovereignty in an increasinglyglobalised world. For relatively small states trueindependence is no longer possible, withcountries like Switzerland and Norway at themercy of bigger economic forces. ThusSwitzerland for example had to bail out itsbiggest bank UBS with $5.23 billion In 2008 aswell as taking on $50 billion of toxic assets. [1]UBS and Credit Suisse the banks that werebailed out held assets worth 680% of GDP soSwitzerland could have faced a similar crash asIceland did. [2] [1] Gow, David, ‘Switzerlandunveils bank bail-out plan’, 2008 [2] Theil,Stefan, ‘What the Swiss Did Right’, 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Being small may well be the best way of avoidingthe effects of globalization. Globilization is notonly transferring power up from the state level toa more globalized level but also down to the locallevel. This works to the advantage of smallstates and as a very decentralized state this isparticularly likely to benefit Switzerland. It isnotable that most the world’s wealthiest states inper capita terms are small states despiteglobalization supposedly meaning that countriesneed to create immense markets to survive. [1]In practice small states are able to rapidlychange to the changing economic environment.Iceland itself is a good example, despite thecrash it experienced it is recovering and isturning against the idea of EU membership as itsfinance minister Steingrimur Sigfusson says \"Youare quicker turning a small boat around than abig ship. And that is, I think, what is beingproven: that the small, vibrant Icelandiceconomy, including having our own currency,makes adapting quicker.\" [2] [1] Alesina,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "It is clear why the EU would like to welcome therich Swiss and Norwegians within its embrace,but why would either country want to sign up fora project which would involve their citizens’ taxesbeing given away to other countries? EU wasteand fraud are legendary, so it is easy tounderstand why voters have consistentlyrejected giving up their taxes to Brussels. Aslatecomers they are not in a strong position tobargain over entry terms, and can expect tobecome major net contributors, especially astheir farmers are unlikely to gain much from theCommon Agricultural Policy. Estimates of thecost of membership for Switzerland were setbetween SFr3 billion and SFr8 billion in 2004 –more than its entire defense budget.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There is no moral obligation upon either state tojoin the EU. Both can continue to play a full partin promoting peace and stability outside theorganization. As a NATO member with a firmlyinternationalist outlook, Norway already makes abig contribution to peacekeeping around theworld. Indeed its valuable role as an arbiter inbitter disputes such as the Israel-Palestine andSri Lanka-Tamil conflicts might be lost if it wasmerely a small part of a big power bloc.Switzerland too already contributes to buildingstability in the Balkans, in partnership with EUcountries. But its long tradition of neutralitywould be clearly compromised by EUmembership, especially as a Common Foreignand Security Policy, voiced from Brussels by aHigh Representative on behalf of all memberstates, is rapidly becoming a reality.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Norway and Switzerland already implementmany EU policies Both Norway [1] andSwitzerland [2] have agreements with the EUallow them the access to its enormous marketthat they need to survive economically, but atthe same time they have to abide by EU rulesthat they have no influence over making. Norwayin particular, as an EEA member must accept allEU single-market, employment, environment andcompetition rules. Switzerland meanwhile isunder pressure as the European Union wantschanges to EU law to be adopted automaticallyby the Swiss. [3] Both contribute to the EUbudget as European Free Trade Area memberscontribute to operational and administrativeexpenditure. [4] Norway contributes 340millionEuros per year. [5] If they joined the EU, theywould at least be given a say in the regulationsthey have to implement, and as their presencewould strengthen the relatively morefree-market camp led by the UK, Ireland andDenmark, they are likely to be happier with the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The EU shares the same values as Norway andSwitzerland The European project has been agreat political success in first ensuring, and thenextending democracy and stability within theEuropean continent. As strong democraciesSwitzerland and Norway surely belong within theEU family, and should play their part inadvancing stability and European values in thefuture, for example in the Western Balkans.Swiss fears about compromising their neutralityshould not be an issue – EU states like Irelandand Austria prize their neutrality too. And for theEU, the entry of both Norway and Switzerland atthe same time would help to maintain presentbalance between NATO members and neutralstates.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Replacing their currencies with the Euro wouldalso benefit both Switzerland and Norway. Overthe past ten years the Euro has gained instrength and credibility, and is now clearly theworld’s second currency after the dollar. Thehigh volatility of sterling shows the danger oftrying to maintain your own currency as anational virility symbol, while Iceland shows therisk small countries face when financial troublestrikes. For Switzerland, switching to the Eurowould allow it to capitalize on its bankingexpertise by becoming a true rival to London asEurope’s financial center. For Norway, the Eurowould help the country avoid “Dutch disease” –where a strong oil and gas industry pushes upthe currency to the point where other businessesare severely hurt.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Many other countries in the European Union areproud of their sovereignty, Britain for examplewas also initially reluctant to join the EU and hasworried about losing sovereignty ever since. Allthe Eastern European states have beendominated by outside powers much morerecently than Norway has and yet welcome theEU. Many commentators believe that the EU ismoving towards being much more based uponregions and small states, something which wouldfit closely with Swiss and Norwegianmembership. [1] [1] Alesina, Alberto, ‘The Sizeof Countries: Does it matter?’, 2003, p.313", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-con02a", "title": "", "text": "CAP and Fisheries policies would damagetraditional industr By remaining outside the EUitself, neither has to sacrifice key elements of itsdomestic economy to Brussels in a way countrieslike the UK do. For cultural and environmentalreasons both countries protect and subsidisetheir small family farms, which would not bepossible inside the EU’s Common AgriculturalPolicy. Norway’s fishing industry also occupies animportant place within the national psyche, andNorwegians are proud that good fisheriesmanagement within their 200 mile exclusionzone has left their fish stocks much healthierthan those of EU neighbours who have fallenvictim to the Common Fisheries Policy. AndSwiss banking continues a proud tradition ofindependent financial expertise that might belost to London if the country was just anotherpart of the EU.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Requirement to join the Euro Even if EUmembership were in the interests of Switzerlandand Norway, the requirement that all newmembers join the Euro provides a strongargument against joining the Union itself. Atpresent, both countries have strong currencies,with the Swiss Franc a major internationalreserve currency in its own right. Through theKrone and Franc they can control their ownmonetary policy to suit economic conditions. Bycontrast, small EU states are at the mercy of theEuropean Central Bank, having to endureinterest rates that may be right for Germany orFrance, but which are too tight or too loose forIreland or Belgium. This explains why EUcountries such as Denmark and the UK have sofar refused to join the Euro. Norway andSwitzerland may also wonder whether they wantto yoke themselves to profligate debtor countrieslike Italy, Greece, whose falling credit ratings areplacing monetary union under strain at present.And neither Norway or Switzerland has the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbsansaje-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Strong traditions of Sovereignty Both Norwayand Switzerland greatly value their sovereigntyand do not want to give it up to Brussels. TheSwiss have a tradition of proud independencestretching back to the middle ages, while theNorwegians still remember what it was like to bepolitically dominated by Denmark and Sweden.In both, voters have consistently shown thatthey have no wish to compromise theirsovereignty by joining the European Union. TheSwiss particularly fear their tradition of moredirect democracy would be threatened with EUmembership, as laws from Brussels could not beoverturned by referendum as at present. This isalready having an effect on EU-Swiss relationswith Switzerland unwilling to have automaticallyadopt evolving EU law. The Swiss would beequally worried about the role of the EuropeanCourt of Justice which decides if countriesinfringe European law. [1] [1 ] Pop, Valentina,‘EU looking to reset relations with Switzerland’,2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Just as a high degree of reliance upon freeeconomic markets was instrumental to thegrowing prosperity in the modern era of the FirstWorld nations, so too a free economic market atthe international level would tend to enhance thegrowth and development of a strong worldeconomy. As for national governmentanti-cyclical policy, although it is clearly justifiedin crisis conditions of deep depression orhyperinflation, too often in the past it has beenapplied injudiciously, so that it aggravates ratherthan ameliorates cyclical swings. Owing to thevarious lags in policy determination andimplementation described by the famouseconomist Milton Friedman, often expansionarypolicy takes full effect in boom periods, whilecontractionary policy takes full effect in recessionperiods. This problem might well hold at theglobal level if there were a world government inexistence attempting to apply world anticyclicalpolicy. To the extent that the world governmentventures beyond anticyclical policy into the realm", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Economic globalization suggests the need forpolitical globalization Economic interactionamong the nations of the world, in the form oftrade, investment and migration, has reachedsuch a point today that it is meaningful to thinkof “the world economy.” Economic globalizationsuggests the need for political globalization inthe form of a world government. Following theseminal work of John Maynard Keynes during theGreat Depression of the 1930s, it has becomewidely accepted within the economics professionthat a certain amount of interventionist nationalgovernment policy is essential to maintaining aproper balance between the twin economic evilsof unemployment and inflation. Just as judiciousnational anticyclical policy is beneficial tonational economies, so too a judicious worldanticyclical policy, as implemented by afunctioning world government, would bebeneficial to the world economy. A worldgovernment would also improve the overallfunctioning of the global economy by means of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Although the problems of resource depletion andenvironmental deterioration are indeed seriousglobal problems, it is unreasonably optimisticand idealistic to believe that a worldgovernment, in and of itself, would be aneffective instrument toward the reduction ofthese problems. The world government wouldlikely promulgate resource use andenvironmental protection policies that would beacceptable to some countries, but totallyunacceptable to other countries. Anotherconsideration is that in a fundamental sense,resource depletion and environmentaldeterioration are caused by rapid populationgrowth. A world government might try to controlpopulation growth by such draconic means asthe notorious “one child” policy in the People’sRepublic of China. This would be totallyunacceptable to a very large majority of thecontemporary human population.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "There are successful precedents forsupra-national bodies The history of theEuropean Union (EU) in the post-World War IIera provides an encouraging example of whatmight be done at the global level through afunctioning world government. It is widelyagreed among economists that the relativelyhigh degree of prosperity and security enjoyedtoday by the people of the Western Europeannations is in no small measure the result of thegradual evolution from the originallimited-purpose, six-member European Coal andSteel Community (ECSC) to the general-purpose,27-member EU of today. In the early 1940s,many of the EU nations of today were locked indevastating warfare. The fact that these samenations are today harmonious components of aquasi-state polity demonstrates the capability ofpeople to change their customary modes ofthought and behavior when there exists asufficient incentive to do so.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A world government would reduce the probabilityof a catastrophic nuclear world war Ever sincethe destruction of the Japanese cities ofHiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 during theclosing days of World War II, the threat of globaldevastation through nuclear world war has hungover human civilization like a Damocles’ sword.The threat of global nuclear destruction peakedduring the most perilous years of the Cold Warduring the 1950s through the 1970s, and itgradually subsided thereafter. With the collapseof the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, manypeople came to believe that the threat hasentirely disappeared. But this is falsecomplacency. Although national arsenals ofnuclear-tipped ICBMs have declined in the twodecades since the end of the Cold War, they stillexist at levels that would cause unimaginabledeath and destruction were they unleashed in aworld war. The history of human civilizationthroughout the ages demonstrates the strongpropensity among human beings toward", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "A world government is not needed to preventnuclear world war, because such a war would beso catastrophic that the common sense ofhumanity will prevent it from ever happening.From the earliest days of the nuclear arms race,and especially after intercontinental ballisticmissiles were perfected in the 1960s as theprincipal means of delivery of nuclear bombs, adelivery system for which no plausible defensecould be devised, it was recognized that all-outworld war was no longer a viable option in thecontemporary world, simply because such a warwould almost inevitably entail Mutual AssuredDestruction (MAD). Not only would theimmediate death and destruction beoverwhelming, but the long-term effects fromradiation and possible nuclear winter could beeven worse. In the MAD world, the populations ofall nations, especially those of the major powers,are held hostage in a sort of perpetual “Mexicanstandoff.” As paradoxical as it may seem, thedevelopment of nuclear weapons and ballistic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The basic flaw in this argument is thatthroughout modern history. Western Europe hasalways been far more homogeneous, in terms ofeconomics and culture, than the world as awhole is at the present time. The immensehuman and material losses of World War I andWorld War II created a far more intensemotivation in the post-war era toward changethan exists at the present time over all thenations of the world, since most nations todayhave not experienced the horrors of war at firsthand for a very long time. Moreover, in theaftermath of World War II, the WesternEuropean nations were motivated to a higherlevel of harmony and mutual cooperation owingto the fear that if they did not cooperate, theywould become mere pawns in the strategic andpotentially deadly game being played betweenthe United States and the Soviet Union.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "International relations specialists have longconcluded that for a successful politicalamalgamation to take place, the people of thevarious regional components of thatamalgamation must have a great deal incommon. The history of nation-statesdemonstrates, for example, that a commonlanguage is a strong unifying force. But theremust be other strong commonalities aside fromlanguage. There cannot be extreme differencesin economic conditions among the regions, orextreme differences in political beliefs andideologies, or extreme differences in culturalattitudes and social mores. When we look at theworld of nations today, we cannot avoidacknowledging the existence of extremedifferences in all of these areas. Aside fromeconomics and political ideologies, the mostobvious factors are the multiplicity of languagesand religions. We are forced to conclude that asuccessful political amalgamation among such awide assortment of dramatically diverse nations", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "A world government would enhance theprobability of mitigating global environmentalproblems A world government would enhancethe probability that effective means will bedeveloped and implemented toward amelioratingthe global problems of resource depletion andenvironmental decay. In a world divided into ahost of jealously independent andself-righteously sovereign nations, nationalleaders tend to point the finger of blame forthese problems at other nations, and to resistinternational efforts toward resourceconservation and environmental preservation. Asthe mutual accusations and recriminations go onand on, the problems are left to fester. If a worldgovernment existed, it might muster sufficientrespect and possess sufficient authority to enablethe nations to arrive at a workable consensus onhow to share equitably the short-term costs andinconveniences necessary to securing long-termsustainability of resources and preservation ofenvironmental quality.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "A world government would foster a constructivecosmopolitanism A world government wouldgive people a higher focus for their politicalloyalties than their respective nation-states, andthus facilitate the development of a higherdegree of cosmopolitanism than is possible underthe sovereign nation-state system. This wouldbenefit the practical operations and effectivenessof the world government. The greater the senseof community among the citizens of a polity, thehigher the effectiveness of the polity’sgovernment, and the higher the effectiveness ofthe polity’s government, the greater the sense ofcommunity among its citizens. This suggests aninteractive, snowballing relationship over timebetween the sense of community of the citizensof the world federation, and the efficiency andeffectiveness of its practical operations. Fromrelatively low sense of community and loweffectiveness in its early stages, over many yearsof gradual evolution, the world federation wouldeventually achieve a very high level of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Although it is a popular form of entertainment tomalign generic bureaucracies, professionalsociologists define a bureaucracy in neutralterms as any large-scale, hierarchicalorganization that practices specialization anddivision of labor in its operations. According tothis definition, such organizations as armies,navies, business corporations, the InternationalRed Cross, and numerous others, are classifiedas bureaucracies no less than national taxcollection agencies—the archetypical target of“bureaucracy haters.” It is important tounderstand that bureaucracies do not arise fromnowhere, but are a tangible consequence ofperceived needs and shared purposes. With thatin mind, it can further be argued that a worldgovernment would not necessarily increase thetotal bureaucratic burden on the humanpopulation of the world. Some functionscurrently handled by separate nationalgovernment bureaucracies might more costeffectively be handled by an analogous world", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Although post-World War II world governmentproposals were mostly for an unlimited worldgovernment descriptively designated the“omnipotent world state,” there has beenconsiderable evolution in world federalist thoughtsince the immediate post-war period. Morerecent proposals envision a limited federal worldgovernment subject to significant restraints thatwould effectively eliminate the danger of globaltyranny. Among these are proposals thatdiscontented member nations may withdrawpeacefully, at their unilateral discretion, from thefederation, and that member nations are allowedto retain independent control over armed forces.In addition to these provisions, a sensible votingscheme in the world legislature would precludethe poor countries enforcing their preferences onthe rich countries, and vice versa. In any case,excessive emphasis on the heterogeneity ofnations tends to obscure the fact that inreality—despite the obvious differences inlanguage, race, religion and culture—a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "A world government would be ineffective inpractice From the early 1990s, at about the timeof the collapse and dissolution of the SovietUnion, there has developed an immenseliterature on global governance in the post-ColdWar era. It is agreed by many if not mostinternational relations authorities that theexisting institutions of global governance,comprising the United Nations and severalothers, are achieving as much as can reasonablybe expected given the extreme diversity of thecontemporary global human population, itswidely differing perceptions, viewpoints, andpolicy preferences. If this diversity is hamperingefforts to improve the global human prospect,this is unfortunate, but there is no reason toexpect that a formal world government wouldnot be similarly hampered. Furthermore,significant improvements can be made, such asthe proposed Global Parliamentary Assembly(GPA) that would convert or replace the UNGeneral Assembly with a directly elected", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-con05a", "title": "", "text": "There is no feasible transition path to a worldgovernment model Some eminent internationalrelations authorities have argued that no feasibletransition path of a benign nature exists from thepresent situation of national sovereignty, to aworld government. A nuclear world war mightchange this situation: such a war might so shockand horrify the global human population that itwill turn to world government in desperation.This outcome is possible, of course, but it isequally possible that after a nuclear Armageddonhad occurred, the scattered and demoralizedsurvivors would be neither capable of norinterested in world government. Quite likely thesurface of the world would become sub-dividedinto a host of autonomous principalities presidedover by dictatorial war lords. It would seem thatin a post-nuclear war world, there would be justas much chance of severe political fragmentationtaking place as there is of further politicalconsolidation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The forces of nationalism are too strong topermit the loosening of state sovereignty anyfurther The force of nationalism is so strong inthe contemporary world that no nationalpopulation will be willing to turn over anysubstantial part of its national sovereignty andautonomy to a world government. There is toomuch apprehension among the great majority ofpeople around the world that a worldgovernment would promulgate and enforcepolicies that would disadvantage their specificnational interests. Most opinion leaders andnational government officials believe that theyhave a vested interest in the status quo. Oneevidence that interest in world government hasdeclined to a vestigial level is that the WorldFederalist Association (WFA), which was quiteactive throughout the Cold War, was recentlyabsorbed by Citizens for Global Solutions (CGS),an organization principally devoted to preservingand supporting the United Nations, and whichstudiously avoids any mention of world", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "A world government would add another,laborious level of bureaucracy A worldgovernment would add another layer ofbureaucracy to a world which is already laboringunder a heavy burden of bureaucracy. Were aworld government bureaucracy to be added towhat already exists at the national, regional andlocal levels, it would be accurate to describe thesituation as “bureaucratic suffocation” or“bureaucratic strangulation.” Of their nature,bureaucracies stifle creative thought andinnovation. A world government would besubject to so many conflicting viewpoints andattitudes that its bureaucracy would necessarilyhave to impose an overwhelming deluge ofrequirements, restrictions, forms and reports onthe citizens. The citizens would be effectivelyhamstrung, and be (figuratively speaking) moreor less trussed up in straitjackets. So even if—bysome remote chance—the world state did notimmediately degenerate into a brutal policestate, its massive bureaucracy would in some", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-con05b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that some international relationsauthorities do not have the imagination requiredto perceive a feasible transition path to worldgovernment is not necessarily strong evidencethat such a path does not exist. The principalreason why the idea of world government is notbeing pursued vigorously at the present time isthat it is assumed by the large majority thatworld government could only be realized in theform of the omnipotent world state. But if asufficient amount (a “critical mass,” so to speak)of awareness of the limited world governmentoption is achieved, the situation could changedramatically within a short period of time. Ifthere was sufficiently widespread and strongsupport for world government, it could beestablished by the same sort of internationalconference that established the United Nations.As for world government coming about throughnuclear world war, no sane and sensible worldfederalist gives this any credence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There is no popular support for such abody There is too much economic, political andcultural heterogeneity in the contemporary worldto permit the establishment of a democraticallyorganized, authoritative and effective—yetbenign—world government. This was especiallythe case during the Cold War era with its virulentopposition between communist andnon-communist economic, political and socialideologies. But it is still the case. For example, ifa democratic world government wereestablished, it would likely want to create aglobal welfare state, but this would beunacceptable to citizens of the rich countriesbecause of the excessive taxation necessary toprovide welfare benefits to the citizens of thepoor nations. Another possibility is that the worldgovernment would be effectively controlled bythe rich nations (despite appearances ofdemocracy), and thus it would implementpolicies of uncontrolled trade and investment.These would be unacceptable to the poor nations", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-con04b", "title": "", "text": "While it cannot be denied that interest in worldgovernment is currently at a low ebb, amongboth the general public and internationalrelations professionals, it is arguable that aprincipal reason for this is relatively lowfamiliarity with alternatives to the “omnipotentworld state” concept developed in the immediateaftermath of World War II. In time, as greaterfamiliarity develops with the more recentproposals for a limited federal world governmentbeing developed by the younger generation ofworld federalists, the situation might change.The more recent proposals envision a worldgovernment that would exercise far less powerand authority relative to the member nationsthan would the omnipotent world government ofearlier, “old-fashioned” world federalist thought.There would be far less likelihood of these newerblueprints leading to unmanageable conflictsbetween national interests and global interests.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbwg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is no doubt that the processes of globalgovernance have improved since the decline ofthe Cold War in the early 1990s as a result of thecollapse and dissolution of the Soviet Union. Butit is unduly naïve to suggest, as do some globalgovernance enthusiasts, that the United Nationsand other international institutions amount to avirtual global government that is as effective asan actual world government would be. Closeexamination of actual events at the internationallevel shows that national interests tend to trumpglobal interests again and again. As for “babystep” proposals such as the Global ParliamentaryAssembly, these are uninspired and uninspiring.So long as the UN General Assembly (or itsequivalent) remains a purely consultative bodyconfined to issuing resolutions with no power ofenforcement, then it makes very little differencewhether its members are elected by the nationalpopulations, or appointed by the nationalgovernments. A full-fledged world government,as an institutional reality with legislative,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eptcphbg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Officially talks are ongoing so an agreement isstill possible. Moreover a failure to reach anagreement does not mean that Germany shouldact unilaterally. Restraint will in the long termmean Germany is much more likely to negotiatean agreement with the United States as they willbe more willing to listen to an ally who has nottried to prosecute US intelligence officials.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eptcphbg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "No chance of an agreement with the USA TheGerman government has been working towards a‘no-spy agreement’ with the United States. Ithowever looks unlikely that such a deal will everybecome a reality with officials saying “we won'tget anything” and “the Americans lied to us”about the chances of an agreement. [1] Germanofficials have also been disparaging of Obama’snew announcements on restrictions of the NSA;Roettgen, a member of Merkel’s party says “Thefundamental question is, should security servicesbe able to do everything they’re technically ableto do, Obama essentially said ‘yes’”. [2] IfGermany can’t get an agreement then it has nochoice but to act unilaterally. [1] Medick, Veit,and Meiritz, Annett, ‘’The Americans Lied’:Trans-Atlantic ‘No-Spy’ Deal on the Rocks’,Spiegel Online, 15 January 2014, [2] Donahue,Patrick, ‘Germany Says Obama’s Spying PledgesFail to Address Concerns’, Bloomberg, 20January 2014’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eptcphbg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Politics is about action. The German governmenthas to take some action on the issue of NSAsurveillance and German privacy or it will lookweak. Interior Minister Hans-Peter Friedrich wentto Washington in July but was accused of“returning empty-handed” and having “notmoved a single step forward on any of the keypoints”. [1] The stonewalling by the UnitedStates provides an opportunity for opponents toDamage Merkel’s new government as well aspotentially to show gaps between the SDP andCSU. Merkel has been invited to visit Washingtonat some point in 2014 by President Obama, [2]Merkel can’t afford for her own diplomacy tohave as little result as Friedrich’s. [1] DeutscheWelle, ‘SPF, Greens slam Interior MinisterFriedrich after US surveillance talks inWashington’, dw.de, 13 July 2013, [2] Reuters,‘Obama invites Merkel to visit during call abouttrade, NATO’, 8 January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eptcphbg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Illegal under German law Monitoringcommunications in Germany’s capital – includingthe communications of government leaders likeMerkel would be illegal under German law.Numerous politicians, such as then interiorminister Hans-Peter Friedrich have stated thatthose “responsible must be held accountable”.[1] There are even those, such as Gregor Gysifrom the far left Left Party who say “The fact thatthe German government and the FederalProsecutor isn't acting shows that their fear ofthe US government is greater than their respectfor our legal system.” [2] When an act is illegalthe state has a moral responsibility to prosecutethat act. It should not be OK for another state tobreak the law simply because it is an ally andthere is a desire to keep relations cordial. [1]McGuinness, Damien, ‘US bugged Merkel's phonefrom 2002 until 2013, report claims’, BBC News,27 October 2013, [2] Spiegel Staff, ‘ProbingAmerica: Top German Prosecutor Considers NSAInvestigation’, Spiegel Online, 20 January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eptcphbg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Of course spying on another country is illegal,but everyone does it. Le Monde in July had areport on The Direction Générale de la SecuritéExtérieure (DGSC) having systematicallycollected “the electromagnetic signalstransmitted by computers and phones in France,as well as the digital streams goingback-and-forth between the French and abroad.All communications are being spied on: emails,SMS messages, phone records, Facebook andTwitter updates, which are all then stored foryears”. [1] [1] Follorou, Jaques, and Johannès,Franck, ‘Exclusive: French Intelligence Has ItsOwn Version Of PRISM’, Worldcrunch, 4 July2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eptcphbg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Doing nothing makes Merkel and Germany lookweak Politics is about action. The Germangovernment has to take some action on the issueof NSA surveillance and German privacy or it willlook weak. Interior Minister Hans-Peter Friedrichwent to Washington in July but was accused of“returning empty-handed” and having “notmoved a single step forward on any of the keypoints”. [1] The stonewalling by the UnitedStates provides an opportunity for opponents toDamage Merkel’s new government as well aspotentially to show gaps between the SDP andCSU. Merkel has been invited to visit Washingtonat some point in 2014 by President Obama, [2]Merkel can’t afford for her own diplomacy tohave as little result as Friedrich’s. [1] DeutscheWelle, ‘SPF, Greens slam Interior MinisterFriedrich after US surveillance talks inWashington’, dw.de, 13 July 2013, [2] Reuters,‘Obama invites Merkel to visit during call abouttrade, NATO’, 8 January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eptcphbg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "If countries will not act on narrow issuesinvolving privacy freedoms and internetsurveillance even when their head of governmentis on the receiving end then what hope is therefor the broader picture? There is no point inproclaiming everyone should follow the law thenwe would have no crime if there is no mechanismto punish those who commit crime. Germanyshould not let the NSA get away with its actionsor it will surely do the same again in the future.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eptcphbg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "A failure by the United States to agree to a nospy agreement already damages relations. Oneof the leaders of the SPD, Thomas Oppermann,has said “failure of the agreement would beunacceptable” and would “change the politicalcharacter of relations.” [1] If the US is willing todamage relations by stonewalling then shouldthe Germans really be considering US diplomaticfeelings in the matter? The United States gainsfrom its relations with Germany as well as theother way around. Stopping intelligence sharingas a result of a prosecution would be actingagainst US interests in fighting terrorism. [1]Deutsche Welle, ‘Impasse at US-Germany‘no-spying’ talks?’, dw.de, 14 January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eptcphbg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Will the investigation get anywhere; who shouldbe prosecuted? The biggest problem facing aninvestigation by a prosecutor is whether there isany point in the investigation. Who could berelevant witnesses? Would any of themcooperate? [1] Ultimately who do you prosecute?Germany might be able to bring some of the USstaff in Germany who conducted the surveillanceto trial but it seems most unlikely that theywould be able to get anyone higher up the chain.Is the person who authorised the surveillancereally likely to be extradited? It seems unlikely,so why bother? [1] Spiegel Staff, ‘ProbingAmerica: Top German Prosecutor Considers NSAInvestigation’, Spiegel Online, 20 January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eptcphbg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Investigating a sideshow The issue of the UnitedStates bugging Merkel and whether Germany canreach an agreement to prevent spying in thefuture is really a sideshow. The bugging of oneperson no matter how important does notmatter. Much more important is the protection ofthe internet and internet freedom. This GermanInterior Minister de Maiziere [1] says is what ismost important and Germany can work with theUSA on it “There are organized criminals, whoare interested in our transactions. There arebusiness models that aim to sell individuals'profile images, and so on… The protection of theInternet, against whomever, that is our commonpurpose, and not just this fixation on the NSA.”[2] Germany should not be fixing on what theNSA has done but be looking at the broaderpicture. [1] NB the German governmentchanged on 17th December with a resultingreshuffle [2] Deutche Welle, ‘German InteriorMinister de Maiziere warns over NSA 'fixation'’,dw.de, 10 January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eptcphbg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Damages US-German relations An investigationwould have serious repercussions forGerman-American relations which would beseriously against German interests. Germanyneeds the United States as an ally in NATO andboth are currently disengaging from deploymentsin Afghanistan. Much more important might bethe impact on intelligence sharing betweenGermany and the United States. Intelligenceofficials are concerned “They could simply shutoff the faucet,” with the Americans simply nolonger providing intelligence to Germany. Thiswould immediately impact German security bymaking it more likely terrorists could attackGerman interests. [1] Germany should acceptthe Obama’s assurances “As long as I am thePresident of the United States, the GermanChancellor need not worry about that[surveillance of Merkel]”. [2] [1] Spiegel Staff,‘Probing America: Top German ProsecutorConsiders NSA Investigation’, Spiegel Online, 20January 2014, [2] Reuters, ‘Obama Tells", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eptcphbg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is a big difference between justice notbeing done because the United States refuses tocooperate and justice not being done becauseGerman prosecutors could not get the evidenceto bring charges. If the former there is at least achance of a trial, possibly in abstention, where allthe evidence can come out.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsciidfi-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The reality is that antibiotics and similarmedicines are mostly sold to Monopsonisticgovernments and don’t represent the profit baseof big Pharma. Instead they have focussed onproducts such as Prozac that are high-profit bytheir nature, while thirty-year old antibiotics areleft to become ever less effective againstevolving viruses. [i] . [i] Gouge, Deborah, ‘BigPharma Abandons Antibiotics: An Opening ForSmall Biotech’, Seeking Alpha, 13 May 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsciidfi-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ACTA promotes medical research Companiesthat accept huge research costs – such as thepharmaceutical industries – need the surety ofknowing that they will have some payback forthat research. Without that there is little point inthem undertaking the research in the first placeand medical science will suffer. It’s easy to saythat manufacturing a pill only costs two cents –the reality is that a trial alone can cost upwardsof $100m with the whole research anddevelopment per approved drug costing billions.[i] The framework for doing that is one thatrequires a profit for investors and security forresearchers. Allowing for generic medicines toundermine that end point profit discourages thenecessary blue-sky thinking andground-breaking research as they’re risky andmay not see a financial return. As a result, thosemedicines that are proven ‘sellers’ need to makethe profit for the long-term investment that willbe required for cures for cancer, AIDS and otherglobal killers. Stopping pharmaceutical", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsciidfi-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Were proposition’s case true then it would raisethe question of why no consumers groups havebeen involved in the negotiations orrepresentative of cloth and other manufacturersin the developing world – or for that matter theoriginators of design techniques more generally.The only people consulted were the stakeholdersof extremely wealthy brands; mostlyprice-gougers with appalling records in terms ofhow they spend that money as it relates to thepayment of workers or suppliers. This agreementserves purely for the protection of a wealthy fewand against the interests of the overwhelmingmajority in the industries they represent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsciidfi-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Piracy in an Internet age. In an age of such easyglobal communications, the threat of piracy is fargreater for creative industries than it has everbeen before. There is a huge difference betweena few cheap video copies and global downloadsavailable free of charge. With sites makingmovies that cost millions available for free, itposes a real threat to major studios. For exampleThe Institute for Policy Innovation believes theglobal music industry loses $12.5 billion a yeardue to piracy resulting in 71,060 lost jobs.[i] The fact that these sites are so populardemonstrates that music and movies are popularbut that people are unwilling to pay real cost ofproducing that quality of product. The reality isthat creative material is produced not just by ahandful of millionaire actors and producers butby thousands of screen-writers, technicians andbackroom staff; all of whom have to be paid. Todo that studios, music producers and publishersneed some guarantee of a return on their initialinvestment. [i] Siwek, Stephen E., ‘The True", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsciidfi-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "We should be wary of any figures set on losses tothe economy as a result of piracy, mostlybecause the coinsumer who is downloadingpirated materials will simply use his dollarselsewhere. [i] There have also been studies thatshow that these same people who illegallydownload also spend more on legal downloads.[ii] Moreover this should really be seen just as aspur to innovate. Those who benefitted from filmwere happy enough with the impact that cinemahad on theatre, music producers happy enoughwith the impact that musical electrification,global distribution methods and broadcasting hadon the music industry. Objecting that newtechnologies require some new thinking isridiculous and smacks of protectionism fromindustries that, increasingly, seem to have lostthe battle of ideas. ACTA is anti-competitive andaims to protect the interests of outdatedapproaches against new and imaginativethinking. [i] Raustiala, Kal, and Sprigman, Chris,‘How Much Do Music and Movie Piracy Really", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsciidfi-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ACTA is needed to protect brands There is agenuine value to a brand – in part because, forclothing companies for example, it is a mark ofquality as much as it is of origin. However even ifthat were not the case, the brand identity of acompany is part of its legal property and shouldbe protected in the same way and stock or cashagainst theft. The very fact that people are sokeen to buy branded clothing and other products– even when pirated – demonstrates that thereis a value to those brands. ACTA doesn’t seek tocontrol people’s rights to wear any pair of jeansor trainers or other type of product. It simplysays that if someone wants to own Levi jeans orNike trainers they should pay the price set byLevis or Nike. If they don’t want to pay thepremium then they are at liberty to buy differentunbranded products.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsciidfi-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The EU [i] has described this agreement as abalance of the interests of all stakeholders –including customers or other users. Nobody isbanned from freely sharing their own ideas,inventions or research; merely from ripping offthat of other people. The oppositions need notworry about the articles it mentions as they aretargeted not at individuals but at othercommercial outfits. What is described asprivatizing data is in fact increasing functionalityand ensuring interoperability. Ask anyone whouses an Apple device or have becomeaccustomed to using Microsoft Outlook and theywill testify that their products work best whenused together with other similar products. Byallowing other organisations to copy theseservices you are only harming consumers. [i]European Commission, ‘ACTA –Anti-counterfeiting Trade Agreement’, 4 July2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsciidfi-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Government is about taking tough decisionsrather than pandering to majoritarian whims.Legislation such as this protect industries in thecreative, IT, manufacturing and medical sectors.The support it has garnered among trades uniondemonstrates that they, at least, recognise thatit is about protecting jobs. It is no surprise thatmany people prefer to buy products that arecheap – or better, free – but government has aresponsibility to protect the livelihoods of itscitizens with rather more enthusiasm that theright to download free movies. It would beinteresting to see where the democratic deficitgoes when entire industries start collapsingbecause of counterfeiting.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsciidfi-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Creativity will suffer if ACTA is brought in Manywithin the creative industries have developedbusiness models that work with the Internet. Afew giants – frequently not producing the mostartistically acclaimed work – are simply trying todefend their monopolistic profits. The idea thatany of the companies involved in thesenegotiations are serious about protectingcreativity is undermined both by the productsand their response to anything new orthreatening to their corporate interests. Insteadthis is holding up the process of creativedestruction, whereby new better ideas sweepaway the old that will be outcompeted, [i] bystanding in the way of this in the digital worldACTA is stifling both creativity and the economy.The opposition to this legislation has come fromactual creatives – programmers, artists,performers and others as well as researchersacademics and more. It is being promoted by thevery commercial interests that also seek to suckthe life-blood out of genuine art, research and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsciidfi-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ACTA attacks free software and privatisesdata ACTA represents a fundamental attack onthe right to produce or host free software. It iswritten in such a way as would protect the rightsof corporations such as Microsoft to buildsystems that require updating while, at the sametime undermining freeware software such asLinux. Its provisions that can both punish (art12:1) and pass enforcement over to ISPs (art8:1) who therefore have an incentive to restrictfree software. Article 27:6 specifically attackscomputer programs that are providing a freealternative and those that may affect digitalrights management programs. [i] [ii] In doingthis it creates a culture of surveillance andrepresents a fundamental attack on freedom ofexpression and basic principles of democracy asit would commercialise the right to access anddistribute information. The rights to freeexpression are recognised in virtually everycodification of basic human rights – on which thisagreement is mostly silent. It will make", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsciidfi-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ACTA is anti-democratic This has been a secretstich-up between a handful of, mostly Western,governments and massive corporations or theirrepresentative trade organisations. It hasnotably failed to receive democratic support andposes a genuine threat to freedom and equalityoffered by the Internet. So far it has been signedby fewer than 40 nations and has failed toreceive democratic approval [i] in any of them; itis the child of national and business elites buthas failed at every hurdle where the public waswatching hence it has not been ratified by anylegislatures and in some cases such as in Mexicobeen thrown out almost unanimously. [ii] [iii]Where it has been signed, it has mostly beenmet with protests from politicians and publicalike. If the proponents of this measure are sosure of its virtues, the obvious solution wouldseem apparent; put it to a vote. It proposes thecreation of an international body with nodemocratic accountability [iv] at all as it just hasrepresentatives from each party to the treaty but", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsciidfi-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The major corporations, which seem to exercisethe opposition so greatly, are also majoremployers and major investors. In addition towhich counterfeiting is a much greater threat tosmall corporations that are dependent on onegood idea and lack the financial muscle toprotect that idea, for example Ifttt, an internetstartup was cloned by a Chinese company,Linggan, while it was still in beta. [i] The peoplethat have something to fear from this agreementare those with no ideas seeking to skim a profitoff the energy and effort of others [ii]. Importantly protecting intellectual propertyrights can also encourage innovation, byensuring that start-ups keep creating new ideasand are sure they can profit from them. We needto ensure that there are sufficient incentives forentrepreneurs, of which intellectual property isone important component. [i] Sam, ‘SpeedyChinese Clone Copies Startup Still in Beta’,TechinAsia, 23 August 2011. [ii] A list ofsupporters", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbwiww-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There is little evidence that the Ba’ath Partywould have tolerated a handover of power toSaddam’s sons. Even in North Korea, the issue ofKim Il Sung’s succession became fraught, andhotly contested amongst the North Koreanpolitical elite.. However, the issue of who shouldrun Iraq was and should remain a matter for theIraqi people. The current puppet regime has littlepower outside Baghdad and, frankly, not thatmuch inside, this lack of central control is asdamaging as too much would be as is shown bythe failure of Somalia and resulting civil war andpiratical attacks. [i] In many ways the war hasencouraged the world’s rogue states to pursuenuclear weapons as, in an era of ‘pre-emptivedefense, they are the only surety againstinvasion and overthrow [ii] . Iran is continuing topersue nuclear weapons even without the threatof Iraq on its borders, instead it is worried aboutIsrael and the United States. One morethreatening state would therefore have madelittle difference. [iii] If the aim of the war was to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbwiww-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Although there has been a huge cost in humanlife the alternatives may well have been worseSaddam had made quite clear his intention tohand over power to his sons Withoutintervention there is little doubt that Saddam orone of his still more murderous sons would berunning Iraq. Even though there were no WMDs,it seems reasonable to assume that neitherSaddam nor his sons would have ignored Iran’sattempts to secure fissile material and develop abomb. Iraq had attempted to build a nuclearreactor in the 1970’s but it was destroyed byIsrael in 1981 [i] and Iraq and Iran had fought afar for most of the 1980s for political dominancein the Gulf and the Shi’ite, Sunni religious divide.[ii] So we would now be watching an arms racein the Middle East between the two with Israel ona hair trigger. This wasn’t just about removingone tyrant; the regime had dynastic ambitions,and a failure to act would have created theequivalent of North Korea. However, thisparticular hermit kingdom would have been", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbwiww-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "By empowering the Shi’a majority, the outcomeof the war has provided an obvious link to Iran,an equally obvious threat to Israel and hasimplication for nations “from Lebanon toPakistan. [i] ” The weakness of this governmentrepresents a far greater threat to security andregional stability than any dictator, howeverbloodthirsty. Iraq looks set to join the otherlawless regions of Asia such as the PashtunValley as an obvious place for terrorists andCriminals to base themselves. [i] Vali Nasr.“Regional Implications of Shi’a Revival in Iraq”.The Washington Quarterly • 27:3 pp. 7–24. TheCentre for International and Strategic Studiesand the Massachusetts Institute for Technology.Summer 2004.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbwiww-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Saddam Hussein is gone and Iraq is nowfunctioning as one of very few democracies inthe Middle East It's important to be clear thatthis debate is looking at the results of the Iraqwar and, by any definition Iraq is in a much morestable and secure position than it was in 2003when American, British and other internationaltroops arrived in the country. Whatever onethinks of the initial justifications for the war thereis no doubt that the country, the region and theworld are better and safer places withoutSaddam Hussein [i] . It is easy to criticize theallies but it is worth bearing in mind that thealternative was leaving in power a man who hadcommitted genocide was a vicious and brutaldictator under whose regime extra-judicialexecution and detention, mass-murder andtorture were commonplace [ii] . [i] RichardMiniter. “Was the Iraq War Worth It?”. HudsonNew York. 2 September 2010. [ii] Interview withDonald Rumsfeld. Inside Politics. NPR. 14February 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbwiww-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "In the unlikely event that something resemblinga democratic government survives in Iraq afterthe international troops leave then that would, ofcourse, be welcome. However, some context isrequired to establish whether the price wasworth paying. Over a trillion dollars, 4,000American dead, tens of thousands of Iraqis, USreputation destroyed in the region to establish apuppet government whose only real chance ofsurvival is a continued American presence in thecountry. The alternatives are all unpleasant – atheocratic regime allied to a nuclear Iran, asimple meltdown of the state or the emergenceof a new strongman along the lines of Saddam'sregime. Assuming the US can't sign up inperpetuity then one of these outcomes seemslikely and those lives and resources will havebeen squandered for no reason whatsoever [i]. [i] Francis Fukuyama. “Iraq May Be Stable, ButThe War Was Still A Mistake”. Wall StreetJournal. 15 August 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbwiww-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "His removal provides stability and security notonly for Iraq but for the Middle East as aregion The Middle East is a tinder box at thebest of times. Having an unpredictablemegalomaniac sitting in the middle of it wasdangerous, not only for Iraqis but for otherpeoples in the region. Hussain was a danger tothe Middle East as he had proved many times,through his invasion of Iran [i] which wasfollowed only a couple of years later in 1990 byan invasion of Kuwait which sparked the GulfWar [ii] and his use of scud missiles on Israelwhich was otherwise uninvolved in the conflict.[iii] It was better to remove this threat than riskbeing drawn into a multi-player conflict when henext attacked a neighbor. [i] Pipes, Daniel, ‘ABorder Adrift: Origins of the Iraq-Iran War’, TheIraq-Iran War: Old Conflict, New Weapons,1983 [ii] BBC on this day, ‘1990: Iraq invadesKuwait’. [iii] CBC Digital Archives, ‘Scud vs.Patriot missiles’, 19 January 1991", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbwiww-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The sands of Iraq are as soaked in blood as theyare in oil. For once the Iraqis have actually gotsomething out of their mineral wealth, which hasotherwise served as a curse for over acentury. There has been a functioningcivilization around the Tigis-Euphrates Valleys forat least ten thousand years it was only with thediscovery of oil and the importation of theIndustrial Age that this began to function as acurse. For once their oil wealth has worked totheir advantage, leading to the removal of adictator rather than the imposition of one. As thetroops step back it seems likely that Iraq has theopportunity to become that rarest of things; aMiddle Eastern, oil producing state that isdemocratic and stable. As a result they cannegotiate with oil consuming nations on an evenfooting.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbwiww-con02a", "title": "", "text": "An entire generation has been turned against theWest and fundamentalist clerics have gainedenormously in influence The aftermath of thewar has been to create an entire people with noreason to love the West and more than100,000reasons to hate it as a result of an estimated105-115000 dead. [i] The country is teetering onthe brink of civil war, with the leader of the sunniblock having said Iraq is heading towards a“sectarian autocracy that carries with it thethreat of devastating civil war” [ii]unemployment is rife and the reputation of the‘liberators’ lies in tatters [iii] . It is not hard tosee how this combination is likely to lead tochaos in Iraq and insecurity for the West. Millionsof young people with a perfectly justifiablegrudge, little education, no job and a desire to dosomething to make things right. [iv] It isdifficult to imagine a situation more likely toproduce violence, terrorism and instability. [i]Iraq Body Count [ii] Loney, Jim, ‘Iraq on thebrink of ‘devastating civil war’: Former PM", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbwiww-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Even if the outcome is a stable democratic Iraq,the war was still a costly, illegal,ideologically-driven mistake The cost of the Iraqwar has been astonishing both in the lives andtreasure spent and the resentment and chaosstored up for the future. Even if the result hadbeen Switzerland on Sinai, it would still not havebeen worth it. There have been more than100,000 Iraqi deaths [i] . It has been the mostexpensive US war other than WWII in constant2011 dollars, costing more than $400 billionmore than Vietnam, [ii] and what is left is afailed state in the making. The war was poorlyconceived, recklessly enacted and devastatinglybadly concluded. The secretary of defenseDonald Rumsfeld wanted the war fought “on thecheap” using a much smaller force than thepentagon or independent analysts thought wasnecessary. [iii] With the allies now withdrawingfrom Iraq the world’s best hope is that the USand its allies will be sufficiently cowed by publicopinion as to never try such folly again. That,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbwiww-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The war was illegal and the removal of Saddamshould have been left to the Iraqis Yet anotherpuppet regime is not what the Middle Eastneeds Events from the Arab Spring havedemonstrated, more graphically than anythingelse could have done, that Arab peoples aremore than capable of dealing with their owndictators and do not need to be patronized byfading imperial powers. Imagine what thesituation in Iraq would be now following agenuinely democratic uprising rather than theimposition of yet another puppet regime by theWest. Since the creation of the state of Iraq as amodern state by the British in 1932, a successionof rulers, of various stripes of dictatorialruthlessness, have been brought in to ensurethat the oil wealth continues to flow toWashington, London and other foreigncapitals. The allies were never interested in Iraqifreedom, this was yet another grab for oil andthe results look set to be the same round ofmisery and tyranny for the people of Iraq.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbwiww-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Iraq now has a professionally trained army andpolice force accountable to a democraticallyelected government and, through them, to thepeople. Unusually among Arab nations thesecurity forces should now act as upholders ofthe law rather than the personal armies of localand national strong men used to settle grudgesand silence dissent. The torture chambers areclosed and the courts are functioning. There is,of course, work still to be done in terms ofcreating jobs but at least those jobs will go topeople on the basis of ability rather than politicalloyalty. Iraq still faces problems but is betterequipped to deal with them than it has been in acentury and more.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A U.S. dovetailing of interests in Central Asia isunlikely to last. September 11th moved CentralAsia from being an area of peripheral importanceto being a central US interest. [1] There isnothing to say that it will not sink back to beingperipheral in the future. The Taliban were bothsheltering extremists such as al Qaeda andexporting disorder to surrounding states. [2] AsGeorge Bush put it “make no mistake about it,the new war is not only against the evildoers,themselves; the new war is against those whoharbor them and finance them and feed them.”[3] But with al Qaeda diversifying, terrorism nolonger so high up the agenda and the UnitedStates drawing down in Afghanistan US andRussian interests are set to diverge. [1] BorisRumer, The Powers in Central Asia, Survival, vol.44, no.3, (Autumn, 2002), pp.57-68,pp.63-64. [2] Rajan Menon, ‘The New GreatGame in Central Asia’, Survival, vol.45, no.2,(Summer, 2003), pp.187-204, p.188. [3] AtO'Hare, President Says \"Get On Board\", Office of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Desire to stabilize Central Asia September 11thbrought a change in how the United States dealtwith the autocratic rulers of Central Asia,bringing policy more into line with Moscow’sinterests. The US changed from promotingdemocracy in the region to trying to keep theregion stable by supporting the incumbentregimes. For example Uzbekistan was given USpolitical, military and economic support despitehuman rights violations. [1] There were alsosecondary US interests that were not related toterrorism such as attempting to limit theproduction of drugs and the corruption thiscauses. President Putin recognised that“Terrorism and drugs are absolutely kindredphenomena.” With Russia’s immense drugproblems “We have a conspicuous growth of theshare of highly concentrated drugs, and in thefirst place Afghan heroin” [2] The promotion of“peace and stability to Afghanistan” and thepromised aid to “rebuild Afghanistan and theregion economically,” were also recognised by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Even if both agree that fighting terrorism is inboth their interests this is not a reason forcooperation when views about how to tackle theproblem divide. While both have used militaryforce in their attempts to defeat terrorism bothhave criticised the other’s force as beingexcessive. The United States continued to becritical of the situation in Chechnya where 45000civilians were killed and 200000 made refugees.[1] September 11th was a gift to Putin as ittransformed perceptions of the situation inChechnya. [2] Chechnya was effectivelylegitimised by September 11th as it was similarto what the United States would fight inAfghanistan. [3] However the western mediacontinued to be sceptical about terrorism inRussia for example that Chechen militants werethe bombers of the apartment blocks, ratherthan it being rogue elements of the Russiansecurity services, or even originated from theKremlin. [4] Moreover the two diverged over theneed to invade Iraq to fight terrorism; Russia", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Russian and the US have many areas where theycan cooperate. In 2009 President Obama stated“I believe that on the fundamental issues thatwill shape this century, Americans and Russiansshare common interests that form a basis forcooperation.” [1] This makes the real question‘how to cooperate’ rather that whether thereshould be cooperation. Military transparency,particularly on nuclear weapons is necessary.“Russia and the United States matter to oneanother, and how well or how poorly we manageour interactions matters to the rest of the world.The two of us control more than 90% of theworld’s nuclear weapons, and our leadership cando more than anyone else’s to help securenuclear material globally and prevent the spreadof nuclear weapons.” [2] This continuedcooperation on nuclear issues in particular hasbeen demonstrated with the signing of the ‘NewSTART’ treaty on 8th April 2010. There aremany other areas where cooperation betweenthe America and Russia is vital as well. As is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Even assuming that US-Russian there are manyareas where the US and Russia could cooperatethis does not mean that it will happen.Cooperation between the United States andRussia would have been even more vital to theworld at the end of World War two when bothwere superpowers and both had commoninterests in keeping Germany and Japan downyet this did not lay the ground for cooperationbetween the two. Instead there was a forty yearcold war. Now whole Burns may consider thechallenges in Europe, Asia and the Middle East tobe common interests Russia may instead chooseto cooperate with others such as China andconsider US interests to be counter to its own", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Although the United States would like to get itshands on Russia’s vast economic resources it isnot a good place to do business. Russia wasaccused of being a ‘virtual mafia state’ by USdiplomats in a wikileaked cable. [1] According tothen US Ambassador to Russia Russia needs to“support the “sanctity” of commercial contractsand agreements; create a “transparent, stableand enforceable” tax and license regime;improve and enforce intellectual property rightsprotection; act decisively on “pervasivebureaucratic red tape and over-regulation”; bringcorruption under control; reverse the “worryingtrend” in Russia towards control over the massmedia” [2] before it becomes a place that the UScan really do lots of business with. The economymay therefore be more of a source of conflictthan cooperation as The United States tries topush Russia into being more open and lesscorrupt against the wishes of the Russianelites. [1] Luke Harding, WikiLeaks cablescondemn Russia as ‘mafia state’, guardian.co.uk", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Shared experience of terrorism A sharedexperience of terrorism means both have longterm reasons to cooperate against it. Russiaalready had experience with terrorism with astring of bombings in the summer of 1999 whichthe Russian government blamed on theChechans. [1] As a result of this on-goingChechen terrorism the Russian government waskeen to cooperate in any counter terrorist effortthere may be. Russian officials such as SergeyOrdzhonikidze spoke of the grief they sharedwith the American people “The hearts ofRussians who know first-hand what terrorism islike are also filled with grief for all those who fellvictim to terrorism in other parts of the planet.”[2] President Putin himself agreed with thisimmediately after the 9/11 attacks “[Russia is]deeply shocked by the reports of the tragicevents that occurred today in the United States.The barbaric terrorist attacks against innocentpeople evoked the anger and indignation of theRussian people.” [3] Both the terrorists who had", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Economically compatible There is a hugepotential for economic cooperation between twoof the biggest states in the world. Russiadesperately needs investment and technology tomodernize its economy. The USA can offer thisand more. It has helped Russia to get into theWorld Trade Organization, [1] to integrate it intothe global economy, put pressure on Russiancompanies to drop their corrupt ways and adoptmodern modes of operation. Russia also hasplenty of chips to bring to the table. Pumpingseven million barrels a day, Russia is second onlyto the Saudis in oil production. The Bush teamsaw Russia as a source for crude oil should U.S.relations with Saudi Arabia deteriorate, this iswhy at the Moscow summit in May, 2002, Bushand Putin launched “an energy dialogue tostrengthen the overall relationship between ourcountries, and to enhance global energy security,international strategic stability, and regionalcooperation.” [2] The United States has investedwhenever it could in Russian oil and gas despite", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-con03b", "title": "", "text": "\"Kupchan: Russian Opposition to KosovoIndependence ‘Perplexing’\". (Charles A.Kupchan, CFR Senior Fellow for Europe Studies).US Council on Foreign Relations. December 18,2007 - \"But on the question of Kosovo, directRussian interests are difficult to discern, andtherefore it appears that Russia’s backing ofSerbia is part of a more muscular Russian policy,and a desire to stand up to the United States andthe EU across the board. The problem withRussia’s position is that it has the potential tolead to bloodshed. The Russian support forSerbia’s unwillingness to sign off on Kosovo’sindependence makes it more likely that Serbsstill in Kosovo will not accept a declaration ofindependence. It makes it likely that thenorthern part of Kosovo might secede from anindependent Kosovo. It makes it more likely thatparamilitaries in Serbia might resort to violenceif this process moves forward. In that sense, theRussian position is quite problematic. And itremains to be seen whether the Russians follow", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This is a problem with perception, not with thefundamentals on the ground. The United Statescan reassure Russia that missile defence and theexpansion of NATO is not directed at Russia.NATO has accommodated Russia by notexpanding into the Former Soviet Union(excluding the Baltic states) so there is littlereason for Russia to feel encircled. On Missiledefence President Obama has also listened toRussian concerns and has scaled it back.Interceptors will be on warships rather than informer Warsaw bloc countries Poland and CzechRepublic this helps to show Russia that the focusof missile defence really is on defending againstIran and North Korea rather than Russia. [1] [1]Sanger, David E., and Broad, William J., ‘NewMissile Shield Strategy Scales Back Reagan’sVision’, The New York Times, 17 September2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Russian and US strategic interestsconflict Contradictions between Russian andU.S. interests will always exist. The UnitedStates is not Russia's ally, and it can beconfidently predicted that it never will be. Whilepolitically the two countries sometimestemporarily need each other to face globalchallenges, as long as it does not harm thempolitically or economically, militarily they willremain positioned as strategic enemies. NATO isa good example of this. While the United Statesbelieves NATO brings peace and stability Russiafeels directly threatened by NATO expansion intostates that were once a part of the Soviet Unionsuch as the Baltic states or the possibility ofexpansion to Ukraine or Georgia. [1] There haveeven been suggestions that Russia’s 2008conflict with Georgia was to prevent Georgiaproceeding down the path to NATO membershipwith US encouragement. A view partiallysubstantiated by President Putin himself “it hasbecome absolutely clear that the desire of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Russian and US economic interests conflict Goodeconomic relations are possible only as long aslong as The USA believes that Russia is genuinelytrying hard to bring its economy into line withthe Western world. Both Putin and Medvedevhave emphasised that the country’s economicinterests will always determine Russian foreignpolicy. Most particularly foreign policy has beendriven by oil and natural gas. This has involved aconflict with the United States over theconstruction of pipelines. TheBaku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) oil and theBaku-Tbilisi-Erzurum (BTE) gas pipelines arespecifically built to diversify European energysupplies away from dependence on Russia butwere only built due to unequivocal US support.[1] Building these pipelines is directly againstRussian interests. Russian economic interestsinclude, amongst other things, close trade linkswith autocratic regimes, particularly in theformer USSR, and exporting weapons andnuclear technology to China and Iran. In the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Russia’s near abroad Russia and the US have afundamental divergence over the notion ofspheres of interest. Russia only accepts anyother country playing a role in its near abroadvery grudgingly and will attempt to get othergreat powers out whenever possible. In theaftermath of 9/11 Russia could not preventAmerican intervention in Central Asia therefore itwas sensible to make sure it was co-opted toserve Russia’s own interests, namely to beagainst international terrorism, rather than beingdirected against Russia herself. By doing soRussia could preserve her influence in the region.As America was willing to take on the costs ofmaintaining the security of the region Russiacould retrench and cut costs. [1] Yet Russiabegan to force the US out as soon as waspossible, for example forcing the closure of aU.S. airbase in Kyrgyzstan. [2] Russia hassometimes seemed to purposefully take theopposite side to the US in Eastern Europe. Anexample of this occurring was over the possibility", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-con05b", "title": "", "text": "No countries economic interests exactly matchyet that does not lead to conflict. The EuropeanUnion and United States have had several tradewars, for example over the EU giving preferentialtreatment for Caribbean producers of Bananas,[1] but are still close partners in NATO. The resetis having an effect in bringing Russia and the UScloser together economically, Vice PresidentBiden argues that trade between the twocountries has a long way to grow and economicinterests will get closer. “One way to realize thepotential of that relationship is to bring Russiamore fully into the international trading system.That is why we strongly support Russia’s effort tojoin the World Trade Organization.” [2] Thiswould reduce and help manage any economicconflicts between both powers meaning that theywill not get in the way of good relations. [1]Business:The Economy WTO approves bananasanctions, BBC News, 19/4/99, accessed6/5/11 [2] Joseph R. Biden Jr., ‘The Next Stepsin the U.S.-Russia Reset’, The New York Times,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Missile defence shows Russia is still suspicious ofU.S. motives. Russia has been suspicious ofmost US actions fearing they are directed againstRussia. This suspicion is in part born out of thecold war, Russia is much weaker than the USSRwas and is worried about any US expansionism.The expansion of NATO to include former Sovietstates such as Lithuania has resulted in oneRussian news organisation declaring\"Generations of Russians feel betrayed byNATO's expansion.\" [1] The United States’missile defence proposals have been a continuingsore in relations. In 2007 then President Putincompared the proposed siting of anti-ballisticmissile systems in Eastern Europe with theCuban Missile Crisis, “The situation is quitesimilar technologically for us. We havewithdrawn the remains of bases from Vietnamand Cuba, but such threats are being creatednear our borders.” [2] It is clear from this thatRussia will not be able to cooperate with manythings that the United States considered to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aeghbltcbra-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The strategic interests of Russia and the west willnot always conflict. In the post-Cold War,post-September 11 world, the politicalpresumptions that require a substantial relianceon nuclear forces do not exist, and, in fact,cannot exist. 9/11 showed that national interestscan change. The terrorist attacks instantlymoved terrorism to the top of the US securityagenda involving recognition of it as a global andmilitary problem. [1] Russia and the UnitedStates now must jointly face a host of widerproblems, from environmental degradation tothe growth of ethnic violence, and the challengesto nation-states posed by globalization. Globalproblems are not decreasing, but, quite theopposite, there are new ones looming on thehorizon; this will forge a long-term closeeconomic, scientific and political relationshipbetween Russia and the United States. TheNational Security Strategy of September 2002recognised that closer relations are built oncommon national interests; They [Russian policy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmetpssbru-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "International negotiations take place with manyorganisations that are not states in their ownright. When the leaders of nations meet withtrades union or corporations, pressure groups ornetworks it does not endow those bodies withstatehood. Likewise, regional governments andauthorities routinely meet with national andinternational representatives without requiringrepresentation at the UN. If Palestine were to begiven voting rights at the General Assembly thenone might as well give them to the InternationalOlympic Committee, which already enjoyspermanent observer status [i] . Put simply,having global recognition does not make anentity a state. [i] “UN General AssemblyApproves Olympic truce for London Games2012”. 17 October 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmetpssbru-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Palestine is a legal entity and deserves to haveits voice heard on an equal footing withIsrael Nobody can dispute that Palestinefunctions as a nation, its citizens are governedwithin the jurisdiction of a government that isone of the closest observed in the world. Abbashas as much right to speak for the Palestinianpeople as any other world leader does for theirsand that reality is reflected in the fact that heand other members of his administrationnegotiate with other nation states andinternational bodies. Palestine is for example amember of numerous International Organisationsthe most recent of which is joining UNESCO inNovember 2011. [i] If Palestine can be treatedas a state for the purposes of signinginternational treaties and negotiating with theIsraeli [ii] and other governments then it is onlysensible that it should be awarded the benefitsand status that come with statehood, of whichrecognition by the UN is one. [i] UNESCO,‘Palestine’, unesco.org, 2011, [ii] Jewish Virtual", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmetpssbru-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "In law this point was settled with the creation ofthe state of Israel. The map of the Middle East,as with much of the rest of the world, wasredrawn at the end of the second world war. Theresulting nations, many of them newly createdfollowing the collapse of the European empires,formed the constituent members of the UN. Thevery fact that the Palestinians have successfullymounted their case to the internationalcommunity in a way that, for example, Kurds orAustralian Aboriginals have not, would suggestthat they have no need of a seat at the UN to beheard.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmetpssbru-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Palestine has its own infrastructure andgovernment and is, in all meaningful ways astate In any meaningful way Palestine is a state.It may well be one at war with a neighbour andin dispute over its boundaries but the onlyreason it has yet to be recognised is that it wouldbe politically inconvenient for the US, Israel andtheir allies. There are plenty of nations that donot function in line with European and NorthAmerican concepts of statehood, Afghanistan forexample, however they take their seat at the UNand add their voice to the choir of nations [i] .There are even other member states that are notrecognised by every other member state, Israelis not recognised by 33 UN members [ii] and thePeople’s Republic of China is not recognised by23 UN members. [iii] [i] John Quigley.“Statehood for Palestine: International law in theMiddle East Conflict”. Cambridge UniversityPress, 2010. [ii] Bureau of East Asian and PacificAffairs, ‘Background Note: Israel’, U.S.Department of State, 10 December 2010, [iii]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmetpssbru-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Regardless of what people may wish, Palestine isnot a state. It is probably the most recognisedissue in twentieth century politics that thestatehood of Palestine is a matter of dispute. TheUnited Nations is the forum for those states thatrecognise each other’s existence to debatematters of mutual concern, it is not anopportunity from grandstanding andpoint-scoring over matters that are still underdispute. Absolutely any group can design a flag,appoint a president, elect a congress, printstamps and undertake all sorts of similaractivities, that does not make them a state.When squatters in a London road in1977anounced that they were declaring aunilateral declaration of independence from theUK [i] they were not recognised as a state justbecause they wanted to be. Although the stakesare much higher in the case of Palestine, theprinciple is the same. [i] Wikipedia. Frestonia.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmetpssbru-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The issue of Israel/Palestine has been a majorone for the UN for sixty years, it is simply unfairthat one of the parties represented and the otherone is not The territory claimed by both thestate of Israel and the state of Palestine iscontested. These matters should be settled bythe UN but this is not possible when one of theparties is represented but the other is not. It issimply against the principles of natural justice –let alone the precepts of international law – foronly one party in any dispute to be fullyrepresented where the other is not. Essentially,this is a fraud that has been perpetrated for oversixty years, in the interests of politics, justice hasbeen ignored; Israel has been given recognitionwhen Palestine has not, which body has the rightto speak for the populace of that disputedterritory should not be a matter imposed fromoutside but for the inhabitants of the land itself.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmetpssbru-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Palestine is a unique case; the UN removed itsstatehood during the creation of Israel. They are,perhaps ironically, Ishmael and Isaac to the UN’sAbraham. One recognised and the othershunned. The issue of statehood for Palestinewas a misstep created at the inception of the UNas fallout of the decline of the British Empire andthe emergence of American hegemony. If thiswere an entirely new issue of the world scenethen many of the caveats raised by oppositionwould by justifiable but the reality is that this issimply a case of clearing up an old injustice.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmetpssbru-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Exactly the same point could be made of anynumber of member states. It is highlyquestionable as to whether the authority of thecentral governments of Afghanistan or Pakistanextends into much of their territory, it certainlydoesn’t in Iraq or many of the nations in centralAfrica. Much of Latin America is under thecontrol of warlords and drug barons but nobodywould suggest that they should be representedat the United Nations. Effective political control isceded to devolved authorities in many nationsbut they are not recognised as states. Politicalconfusion is no reason no ignore the existence ofa state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmetpssbru-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Palestinian cause has no shortage ofadvocates in the UN this would add nothing tothe discussion The entire Arab League is alreadyperfectly capable of speaking for the Palestiniancause in the United Nations. There areestablished nations whose leaders have notaddressed a full meeting of the GeneralAssembly as frequently as leaders of thePalestinian cause, even the leader of the PLO,Mahmoud Abbas has addressed the GeneralAssembly as he did in September 2011. [i] It isthe only geo-political issue that routinely impactsupon the conduct of the elections of othernations, the plight of the Palestinian issue is thestuff of newspaper headlines around the worldwhile other, arguably more serious, concerns gounvoiced. It is difficult to see how admittingPalestine as a member state would bring anymore focus to the issue in practical terms. [i]‘Full transcript of Abbas speech at UN GeneralAssembly’, Haaretz.com, 23 September 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmetpssbru-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The UN has historically recognised statehoodwhen nations achieve it, not when they ask for itor wish it Establishing statehood is a matter forinternational law and, as things stand, Palestineis not a state. Since 1990, 34 new countries havebeen created – mostly as a result of the collapseof the former USSR [i] . Palestine is not amongthem and does not look set to be any time soon.There have been many separatist movements incountries all over the world from the Basqueregion to Aceh. These often have similarlylegitimate grievances as the Palestinians but theUN does not recognise them. Any one of thosenations, or at least movements within them mayhave wished for recognition by the UN but theydid not receive it because the UN is bound torecognise what is, not what might be. [i] MattRosenburg. “New Countries of the world”. 10 July2011. About.com", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmetpssbru-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The Gaza Strip and West Bank cannot agree on agovernment so who should the UN recognise,Hamas or Fatah? If the Palestinian peoplecannot agree on who speaks for them then whatis the rest of the world to make of the situation?One of the defining attributes of statehood is asingle, stable government that can, in somemeaningful way, be said to have control over thelands within that designated territory. This wasset out in article 1 of the Montevideo conventionthat a state should possess “a ) a permanentpopulation; b ) a defined territory; c )government; and d) capacity to enter intorelations with the other states.” [i] Only thepermanent population criteria is unequivocallymet by Palestine. The Palestinian Authority canbarely be said to speak for itself let alone thepeople it claims to represent. By recognizing onefaction over another, the UN would be takingsides in an internal, domestic affair. Abbas is notasking the UN to recognize Palestine, he’s askingit to recognize him rather than Hamas. [i]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmetpssbru-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The United Nations fulfills a number of roles butperhaps its foremost function is to act as anarbiter in international disputes. To do thateffectively it needs to reflect the opinions of theinternational community and deal in realpolitik.As things stand that would make it impossible forthe organisation to take what would be seen as apartisan stance. Recognising the existence of astate which could at best be described asaspirational, and at worst as a fantasy, would putan intolerable burden on the UN’s ability to act asan impartial agent in negotiations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The United States has far too often relied on theuse of force and coercion. For much of the ColdWar and thereafter, America covertly and openlyhelped overthrow and wage war on governmentsthat it perceived to be hostile to its nationalinterests. From Latin America to Southeast Asiaand the Middle East, coercion and war has oftenbeen America’s primary foreign policy tool.Moreover, this continues to the present time. Notonly has Iraq highlighted America’s propensity touse force, but even the more internationallybacked “war on terror” has featured unilateralismand controversial military practices such as“drone attacks,” which many say arecounterproductive and undermine theimportance of a law-based rather than militaristicapproach to tackling terrorism.[6] Even innominally ‘multilateral’ bodies such as the WTOand the UN, the US has often gotten its waythrough bribes, backdoor deals and coercivemeasures.[7] [6] Howard, Michael (2002),‘What’s in a name? How to Fight Terrorism’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The US had led the world through consent ratherthan coercion. An important part of the liberalinternational order the US maintains is thatpower is diffused and is based on negotiation,strategic bargaining and the exercise of powerthrough mutually-agreed rules and institutions.Globalization and the liberalization of the globaleconomy has been actively supported by manynations in the world, some of whom—such asChina, Japan, and Germany—have even used itto compete economically with the United States.Other states have also enjoyed significantdecision-making powers in internationalinstitutions. For example, the World TradeOrganization (WTO) decisions are made on thebasis of a ‘one country, one vote’ system.[4] Thisconsensus-based exercise of power has providedthe US with a relatively large degree oflegitimacy in world opinion, often outstrippingthe global approval ratings of other majorpowers.[5] [4] Ikenberry, G. John. “Illusions ofEmpire: Defining the New American Order”,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Rather than promoting a progressive globalagenda, the United States has often underminedeffective cooperation and coordination betweencountries as a result of unilateralist andself-interested policies. Thus, it has oftenregarded the United Nations as an ineffectualrival to its national interests – leading thecountry to disasters such as the Iraq war andundemocratically vetoing internationally-backedinitiatives in the UN Security Council, such asthose critical of Israel’s occupation of the WestBank. Rather than showing leadership, the UShas also obstructed international efforts to tackleclimate change, as seen by George W. Bush’srefusal to sign the Kyoto Protocol and PresidentObama’s signing of the deeply flawedCopenhagen Accord.[8]. Many instances havealso shown America’s willingness to pursue itsown commercial interests at the expense of vitalinternational issues. One example of this wasGeorge W. Bush’s protectionism in protecting the“intellectual property rights” and the high price", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The US has used its power to promotedemocracy, human rights and internationallaw The collapse of the Soviet Union and thevictory of liberal democracy over communismhave provided the US with more impetus toactively promote democracy, human rights andinternational norms and law. Under PresidentClinton, the Leahy Amendment to the DefenseAppropriations Act of 1998 and the ReligiousPersecution Act of the same year demonstratedthis change in priorities. Democracy promotionalso became a core element of George W. Bush’sNational Security Strategy of 2002, and has beena key motivating factor in President Obama’sresponse to the Arab Spring, where the US hassupported democratic forces against dictatorssuch as Hosni Mubarak of Egypt and ColonelGaddafi of Libya. The US under Obama has alsoprovided leadership in the UN Human RightsCouncil[12], and holds governments to accountthrough The Bureau of Democracy, HumanRights and Labour (DRL), which also forges and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The US used its power to establish a set of openglobal institutions which have been broadlybeneficial. As Robert Cox argues, Americanhegemony has been successful because the UShas been able to maintain its dominance througha high level of global consensus by establishing abroadly accepted rules-based liberal internationaleconomic order, and has been able to shapeother states’ preferences in a manner that hasawarded sufficient benefits to these states whileensuring the dominance of the US.[1] This hasbeen what John Ikenberry terms America’s“liberal grand strategy,”* which has enabled theUS to construct a relatively benign and highlyinstitutionalized multilateral system based onopen markets, free trade, and the provision of‘public goods’, such as collective security and anopen international trading regime.[2] This hasallowed other countries to prosper economicallyand also in terms of their security; the rebuildingand success of Japan and Germany providesimportant examples of this. [1] Cox, Robert.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While the liberal order the US has constructedhas benefited its allied economies in WesternEurope and Japan, for much of the developingworld the benefits have been few and farbetween. For example, many African and Asiannations have suffered tremendously from thespread of free market capitalism and the“structural adjustment programmes” imposed onthem by the American-dominated InternationalMonetary Fund (IMF). Rather than helping poorernations, the West (led by America) has oftenpracticed selective freed trade, whereby themarkets of the developing world were opened upto foreign companies as the United States and itsWestern allies subsidized and provided unfairadvantages to sectors of their own economiesthat were not as globally competitive, such asfarming. This crippled the agricultural industriesof many developing countries and made themdependent on importing food, directlycontributing to many recent food crises. What ismore, the US and its allies have manipulatively", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "On closer inspection, it is evident that whilemany of these interventions espousedhumanitarian principles, they were primarilydesigned to advance US strategic andgeopolitical interests. Critics have been right toargue that the Iraq war was fought to gainstrategic control of Middle Eastern oil and todismantle the state-dominated economicstructures of the region. No Weapons of MassDestruction (WMD) were found in Iraq, andoverthrowing a dictatorship could not have beena primary consideration, given America’s supportfor authoritarian regimes and dictatorshipsacross the world (such as Uzbekistan and SaudiArabia). These contradictions can be seen in therecent Libya conflict, where the US suddenlyendorsed regime change despite years ofsupporting Colonel Gaddafi. Other ‘humanitarianinterventions’ have similarly been motivated inlarge part by self-interested strategic andgeopolitical considerations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The US has provided global leadership in tacklingimportant issues such as terrorism. America’shegemonic power has enabled it to provideglobal leadership on important internationalconcerns. Because the US is affected by thesame problems as many other countries in anincreasingly inter-connected world (for exampleclimate change, terrorism, epidemics, oil crises,economic recessions, the illegal drugs trade, andnuclear proliferation) it is in its interests topromote policies that are broadly globallybeneficial. The US is able to utilize itsconsiderable economic and diplomatic clout toconvince its allies to back important multilateralinternational initiatives. One example of this wasGeorge W. Bush’s initiative on HIV/AIDS in thedeveloping world. The United States has alsoused its power to unify the global effort againstterrorism and provide collective security andconsiderable aid to various nations, as well asleading the international effort to prevent failedor weak states (such as Somalia and Yemen)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Where the US has used military force, it haslargely done it to uphold human rights andinternational peace, security andprosperity. Examining the use of Americanmilitary power following the end of the Cold Warshows us that the United States has pursued anagenda of tackling serious threats tointernational peace, security andprosperity—whether they emanate from roguestates and sponsors of terrorism, oppressivedictators, or war criminals. Humanitarianinterventions in Yugoslavia, Iraq, Afghanistanand most recently Libya highlight the importanceof these considerations to America’s militarystrategy, and the willingness of the US to putaside narrow geopolitical interests in order topursue humanitarian goals, to the benefit ofmuch of the world.[10] America’s militarydominance and ‘command of the commons’ (sea,space and air) has also allowed it to provideglobal collective goods and to maintain an openinternational order, which is vital to international", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This argument misleadingly presents the natureof US influence as essentially coercive. In fact, itis America’s “soft power”—or the ability to getwhat it wants through the attractiveness of itsculture and political institutions—that has beeninstrumental in spreading American values.[25]People across the globe—from Singapore, SouthKorea, and Japan to Saudi Arabia andKuwait—are fascinated by and have emulatedwhat John Agnew terms America’s “Market-Placesociety,” defined by mass consumerism, theinflux of American cultural products and thedisplacement of traditional social standards.[26]In this context, arguments of “culturalimperialism” exaggerate the level of control theUS has over the process, as well as the extent towhich conflicts arise.[27] The desirability ofAmerican culture and institutions in the eyes ofmany of the world’s people ensures that soft,and not hard, power has universalized Americanvalues. [25] Nye, Joseph (2004), “Soft Powerand American Foreign Policy”, Political Science", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-con01b", "title": "", "text": "US support for democracy has been at besthugely inconsistent, and at worst criminallyapathetic. During the Cold War, the USoverthrew various democratic governments (forexample Iran and Guatemala in the 1950s) andsupported dictatorial regimes. This has continuedinto the post-Cold War era, as the US support forthe coup attempt against President Hugo Chavezof Venezuela in 2002 demonstrated. While theUS professes support for democratic forces in theArab world, it has also continued to give vitalassistance to the strategically-importantdictatorships of the Gulf, primarily Saudi Arabiaand Bahrain, which have been responsible forgrave human rights abuses in response to recentpeaceful protests[14].The US also continues tosupport states such as Israel which violateinternational law, and also routinely floutsinternational law itself—as seen by wars such asIraq, the treatment of terrorist suspects andbreaches of the Geneva convention [15], theundermining of the International Criminal Court", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The US has used its power to undermine thesovereignty of other nations, often throughcoercion and violence. As Samuel P. Huntingtonhas written, the US suffers from “benignhegemon syndrome.”[19] Its self-perception asan exceptional, virtuous superpower is at oddswith the violent history of its foreign policy. Sincethe end of World War II, it has sought tooverthrow over forty governments, and todestroy numerous populist-nationalistmovements.[20] Its interventions in othercountries have substantially increased followingthe end of the Cold War and the absence of arival power balancing against it; one study hasshown a 60% increase with an average of twointerventions per year.[21] In addition, the USoften interferes in the internal affairs of othercountries; including through perverting elections,applying sanctions to change behaviour orinfluence domestic politics, propping upopposition forces, and even trying to assassinateforeign leaders (for example, Fidel Castro and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The US has established an unjust system ofunequal relationships in order to exploitdeveloping countries. While Western Europe andJapan may have been awarded a privilegedposition in the international order the USconstructed following the end of World War II,developing countries were incorporated as“subordinate elements in the global capitalistsystem.”[32] The global South has in effect beencontrolled and exploited through nominallymultilateral institutions such as the IMF, theWorld Bank and WTO, which are designed in away that provides wealthy countries with defacto control. The United States has also set up a“hub and spoke” system to deal with subordinatestates, which is built around bilateralism, clientstates, ‘special relationships’, andpatronage-oriented foreign policy, which servesto translate America’s power advantage intoconcessions from other states.[33] Whensubordinate states have failed to comply, theyhave often faced US intervention—from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The US eschews multilateralism and prefersunilateralism. Rather than working throughinternational institutions and gaining the consentof the international community as a ‘benign’hegemon would be expected to do, the UnitedStates far too often undermines multilateralismand exercises its power unilaterally. PresidentClinton’s military interventions during the 1990s,George W. Bush’s unilateral launching of the IraqWar, and President Obama’s use of covert droneattacks illustrate this propensity to shunmultilateralism in favour of the “imperial logic” ofunilateralism.[28] Indeed, since the end of theCold War the United Nations has frequently beenignored or devalued as an institution by America.Most American policymakers are what RobertKagan refers to as “instrumentalmultilateralists.” They engage with multilateralinstitutions for pragmatic reasons, but actunilaterally when it serves the interests of theUnited States. This is in contrast to manyEuropean leaders, who Kagan describes as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The US has arrogantly (and dangerously) soughtto reshape the world in its own image. Acommitment to American ‘exceptionalism’ hasled US policymakers to view the United States asthe political and cultural centre of the world.Consequently, they expect others to follow theirown standards on political, economic and culturalissues, with free and open markets, liberaldemocratic structures, and individualistic culturalnorms serving as models for other countries tofollow. This is not simply propaganda; the UShas used considerable resources to influenceother nations in this respect, including militaryinterventions, coercive austerity measuresthrough the IMF/World Bank/WTO, economicsanctions, and the categorization of certaincountries as “rogue states” for not followingAmerican standards.[23] American corporationshave also been responsible for a form of culturalimperialism by exporting consumerist andmaterialistic ways of life around the world, oftenthreatening indigenous cultures. In some", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-con05b", "title": "", "text": "It is a hyperbole to suggest that American-ledglobalization and the spread of free and openmarkets has been “imposed” on developingcountries; globalisation has been a far moreimpersonal and voluntary process. Moreover,rather than being exploited, the spread of freetrade and open markets has benefiteddeveloping countries; one only needs to see thesuccess of China, and India after 1991 when itembraced neoliberal reforms to find evidence ofthis. More generally too, World Bank reportshave suggested that poorer countries that are“more globalized” have grown faster than evendeveloped countries, while those that are “lessglobalized” have seen their GDPs drop.[34] Thepurportedly “hub and spoke” system the US hasemployed has also benefited many countries,which have received security guarantees fromAmerica, and can often count on the US to helptackle regional threats and ensure stability.Middle Eastern states that cooperate with the USto tackle terrorism and a resurgent and nuclear", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The US is not a hegemon at all, but animperialist power-an empire. While the US maynot have formal colonies like the empires of thepast, it is still able to pursue imperialism throughits massive military juggernaut and control of theworld’s financial institutions. America possesseswhat Chalmers Johnson called an “empire ofmilitary bases,” which are located in dozens ofcountries across the world and provide the USwith, as Jonathan Freedland puts it, ‘the sameglobal muscle it would enjoy if it ruled thosecountries directly.’[16] This coupled with itsentrenched military-industrial complex allows theUS to contain rivals, maintain strategic control ofresources (particularly oil), and to militarilyintervene in countries that threaten its imperial“interests.” The US has also shaped andstructured the international political economy ina way that has given it effective control of theglobal institutions which ensure it remains thepre-eminent power. This is not indicative of a‘benign’ hegemon, but a modern", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is true that the US sometimes resorts tounilateral action to advance its national securityinterests. However, its commitment tomultilateralism is more than just instrumentaland cynically selective. Even George W. Bush’sunilateralism—criticized as imperialist by evenmainstream analysts—was restricted to certainissues, such as arms control, nonproliferation,and the use of force against certain threateningstates. Unilateral military action was only usedagainst Iraq, and even other “rogue” states(specifically Iran and North Korea) were dealtwith through diplomatic and multilateralchannels.[30] As John Ikenberry argues, the“foundational” multilateralism—as seen in theliberal, open international order the US builtfollowing World War II—is still a core part of USforeign policy.[31] Moreover, George Bush Sr.’spainstaking coalition building for the first GulfWar and more recently President Obama’scommitment to working through the UN SecurityCouncil for the intervention in Libya", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghbusbh-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While the US does have a long history ofintervening in various countries across the globe,this has mostly been in response to genuinethreats to national security, international peace,and basic human rights in line with the UNCharter. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, anew global discourse has emerged where statesovereignty is no longer regarded as absolute ininstances where states endanger internationalpeace and commit human rights abuses.[22]Post-Cold War US interventions (Haiti, Somalia,Yugoslavia, Iraq, Afghanistan, Libya) havelargely followed this discourse. Thus, rather thanmalignly intervening in other countries, the UShas relatively benignly sought to apply pressureon violent and dictatorial regimes, withinternational law and the will of the internationalcommunity being central to many of the actionstaken. The carefully undertaken Libyanintervention demonstrates this. [22] Annan, Kofi(1999), ‘Two concepts of sovereignty’, TheEconomist, 18th September 1999. , Accessed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-seighweo-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The educational policies of developing statesshould not be tailored to the needs of businessesin the developing world. Arguably, cross bordertrade in commodities and products is asimportant for nations in the developing world aspartnerships with wealthy companies in Europeand the USA. Cross border trade of this typerequires skills distinct from those required byestablished forms of economic production(farming, heavy industry, resource extraction)and those required by the serviceindustry. Development theory encouragespoorer states to increase both their workforce’sskill base and the adaptability of theireconomies. The more flexible an economy, themore resistant it will be to shocks and changes inindividual markets. Side proposition’s argumentwould lead to developing economies exchangingdependence on agricultural and manufacturingactivity for a dependence on outsourcing. Allforms of economic activity are vulnerable tocrises and market failure. Side proposition can", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-seighweo-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Offshore outsourcing accelerates thedevelopment of poorer states citizens. Offshoreoutsourcing incentivises wider engagement witheducation in developing states, for longer periodsof time. While- even more so than in the wealthyworld- education is seen by citizens ofdeveloping nations as offering a path out ofpoverty or subsistence-level economic activity,worries about property rights, the breakdown offamilies and communities and the acquisition ofessential skills may lead to schooling becoming alower priority for older children and youngadults. The connection between education, skillsacquisition and improvements in income andliving standards are not immediate. There is littleimpetus for workers and parents to pay for formsof education that are not directly linked to thesorts of economic activity that are predominantin their communities. In developing states thatlack a growing service sector, the value of aqualification in science, accounting or computingcannot be immediately realised. This situation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-seighweo-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Side proposition’s description of the economicprocesses underlying off shore outsourcing isoverly optimistic, and makes claims abouteducational and industrial development in thefirst world that are highly contestable. Byshifting production and support services to thedeveloping world, western businesses are, ineffect, circumventing protections built into firstworld employment laws designed to ensure thatthe demands of the market do not abrogateindividual liberty or basic standards of welfare.Limitations imposed on market freedom, such asthe minimum wage, are justified by the risk ofincentivising businesses to cut wages to such alevel that employees are forced into lives ofsubsistence, with restrictions on their spendingpower and mobility effectively tethering them toa particular employer or trade. Offshoringpresents a direct challenge to the creation ofliberal democratic ideas, norms and institutionswithin developing states. Offshoring favoursstates that provide a consistent supply of cheap,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-seighweo-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Offshore outsourcing is consistent with existinglabour distribution patterns. Offshoreoutsourcing lowers the cost of goods andservices. There is no real need for all of thegoods and services that are consumed within ahighly developed economy to be produced in thateconomy. The sale price of a particular form ofgood or service is determined by a wide range offactors, including the pay demands made by theworkers assembling the good or providing theservice. Seeking out a labour force willing toaccept lower wages and work longer hoursenables a business to reduce the price andincrease the overall supply of the products itoffers [i] . As more expensive and elaborategoods become available to more people- due toreductions in price- living standards throughoutan economy will rise. Concurrently, increaseddemand for goods produced abroad will lead toincreased business for offshore firms that takeon outsourced work, leading to more moneyflowing into developing economies. Standards of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-seighweo-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Failures and defects in outsourced labour andproducts take longer to detect and are moreexpensive to remedy. Whilst customer feedbackor angry employees may indicate flaws inoutsourced support or payroll services, acompany may only realise that a componentmanufactured by an offshore partner is faultywhen they take delivery of it. The process ofreturning the component to its place of originadds further expense to the costs caused by thedelayed completion of a client firm’sproduct. Offshore outsourcing reduces theamount of control that a client firm can exerciseover component manufacturing even further. Theexpense of sending supervisors to contractor’sfactories will increase. In addition, an offshorecontractor may engage in outsourcing itself,entering into relationships with dozens ofsub-contractors. This practise further limits theclient firm’s ability to control the practices usedto produce the materials it has ordered. A clientmay not be provided with complete information", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-seighweo-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Offshore outsourcing accelerates thedevelopment of poorer states’infrastructure. Offshoring spurs thedevelopment of poorer states. Offshoring relieson the existence of a basic industrial base andcertain essential forms of state infrastructure,including an education system. These facilitiesare likely to be partially or wholly absent in adeveloping economy. The readily availablecapital that is located in the developed world,along with the example provided by otherdeveloping states that have successfully engagedin offshoring projects incentivises investment inservice infrastructure and high qualityeducation. Many contemporary developmentstrategies focus on developing a state’s industrialand agricultural sectors before its serviceeconomy. Expansion of developing statesagricultural sectors is already proving to be apolitically contentious issue, thanks to thegenerous and entrenched subsidies that farmersin the developed world are provided with.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-seighweo-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It must be remembered that the offshoremanufacturing and service sectors are relativelyyoung. Workers have not yet had the opportunityto develop coherent collective bargainingstrategies. It takes time for those involved in anindustry to learn how to act as advocates fortheir own and their colleagues’ interests. Oncethese skills have become commonplacethroughout the offshoring industry, workers willbe better equipped to form unions and to holdtheir own governments to account over thelacunae and lax policy making identified by sideopposition. Side opposition have adopted asomewhat orientalist line of argument bysuggesting that developing economies areinherently weak and easy to subvert. Injurisdictions such as India quite the opposition istrue; governments eager to control the effect ofglobalisation on domestic markets have adoptedpolicies that inhibit the involvement of foreignfirms in their economies. Businesses andpoliticians- both local and foreign- expend a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-seighweo-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Side opposition have created an argument forincreasing the quality and affordability ofeducation within developing states. Thanks toTrade Union’s intensive involvement in thedecisions taken by large western businesses,companies that engage in offshoring are oftencompelled to invest a portion of the savings thatthey make from offshoring their operations intoretraining schemes for staff at risk ofredundancy. In 2005, the large IT servicescompany CSC reached an agreement with theUnion Amicus that required it to share a portionof the savings that it made through expanding itsuse of outsourcing with its staff [i] . Rather thandeclaring any redundancies, CSC gave its staffthe opportunity to retrain by devoting almost£5000 for each of its English employees toeducation and development schemes. It isconceded that the offshoring relationshipsformed between America and India and Chinaduring the nineteen nineties formed the basis ofthe industrial booms that both of those states", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-seighweo-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Outsourcing reduces businesses’ control overtheir supply chains. Offshoring firms are difficultto manage and cannot easily be held to accountfor failings and errors. Companies that rely ondirectly hiring new employees to cover theirback-office, estates and maintenance needs willnot run the risk that the cost efficiency of thoseservices might suffer as a result of union actionor state regulation of pay. Companies that relyon outsourced offshored labour to fill back-officeand administrative roles expose themselves tothe risk that those relationships will beundermined, damaged or abused by legaldisputes or negotiation failures. When a disputedevelops between a business and a worker thatit employs directly, the consequences of thatdispute- in terms of lost productivity and lostprofits- will usually be limited by the nature ofthe role that the employee occupies. It will berelatively cheap for a multinational firm to settlea dispute with a sacked cleaner. In addition, theloss of a single cleaner from a large facilities", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-seighweo-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Offshoring exploits both individual workers andunder developed states. Investment in offshoreoutsourcing can easily develop into a form ofeconomic and cultural imperialism. Offshoringencourages first-world governments andbusinesses to perceive underdeveloped countriesas little more than cheap sources of labour andsupport for developed economies. The discoursethat outsourcing creates does not focus ondevelopment strategies or the strengthening ofweak economies, but on exploitation of the flawsand gaps inherent in the labour markets ofdeveloping nations [i] . Moreover, wide-scaleexporting of roles dependent on specific forms oflinguistic and cultural knowledge forces workersto adopt alien and over-simplified culturalpractises – directly echoing the relationshipsbetween colonial-era employers and nativeservice providers. [i] “The new masters ofmanagement.” The Economist, 15 April 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-seighweo-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Offshore outsourcing reduces living standardsand limits social mobility. Reliance on offshoringand offshore outsourcing is likely to lead toincreases in inequality and reductions in socialmobility within developed western liberaldemocracies. Trade with developing economiestypically results in a price premium becomingattached to specialised, skilled labourers andservice providers in western economies. Poorercountries- even rapidly growing states such asIndia- produce smaller quantities of highlyeducated, highly skilled workers, such as vehicledesigners, microchip fabricators and architects.In view of this, developing states concentrate oncreating semi-skilled jobs that can be assigned toworkers lacking- for example- universitydegrees. A larger proportion of Indian citizensare educated to a lower standard, so the creationof jobs accessible to them will generally be seenas politically astute. Opportunities foremployment as a call centre operative or a payroll clerk will rise in a developing state in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-seighweo-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Greater risk will simply oblige companies to bemore diligent in screening and selecting theoutsourcing firms that they choose to dobusiness with. While examples such as theconstruction of the Boeing Dreamliner serve todemonstrate how outsourcing can go wrong,they do not undermine the value of the ideaitself. Indeed, an increased emphasis on closelysupervised and responsible outsourcing will onlyserve to bolster the business of firms offeringlegal and auditing services (some of which areoff-shore operations themselves)– and a slightincrease in transaction costs is not likely to deterthe majority of companies who have alreadyobserved the benefits of outsourcing reflected intheir annual accounts. It should also be pointedout that all sensibly run businesses shouldattempt to guard against the risks inherent inadopting new practices or forming newrelationships by taking out insurance. Manyinsurers and underwriters are gearing up toassess and cover the costs of a collapse in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Although titles may initiate slum upgrading thequality and time-scale of services providedremains questionable. Services can be ofpoor-quality as states rush to meet demands,and the area whereby women are given titlesmay remain unsafe and unhealthy spaces. Titlingtherefore does not fundamentally improve, orprovide, services and infrastructure. Further,women are given the burden (time and physical)of building decent homes. The provision of landtitling transfers responsibility from the state towomen. In many cases across Africa land is notowned by the state, but rather private actors andinternational organisations. Such realities haveimplications in whether women are able to investin, and build, homes as land titles need to berespected, and recognised, by multiple actors notonly the state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Land titles mean single women can build decenthomes. Due to a lack of access to formal titlingwomen have been pushed into acquiring, andliving in, slums [1] . Land titling programmesbenefit slum dwellers and inhabitants living ininformal housing across African cities. Titles forwomen mean a sense of security to inhabit spaceis provided; and women will be encouraged toinvest in their land. Titling provision has resultedin slum upgrading, investing in changing thestructure of urban Africa. Second, beingrecognised as title holders means women areable to demand new services - such as access towater, sanitation, and lights. Such demand willensure improved health for women. Women areable to use the law to interact with the state andchange their future by demanding crucialservices. [1] Slums are officially defined as agroup of individuals living in a household whichlacks safe housing, sufficient living space, accessto water, adequate sanitation, and/or security oftenure (UN-Habitat, 2003).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Are women really able to access credit andfinance, and should they be able to enter suchmarkets if there is an inability to returnpayments or get equal profits? Accessing creditwith a high interest rate may put women aregreater risk. We need to think about the creditlenders, what they charge, and if it can be paidback. Women may be less willing to use theirprimary asset to gain credit due to the potentialrisk of loss. Studies in Madagascar [1] haveshown limited differences in the degree of plotinvestment on land whereby titles were held, ornot. The provision of a title has minimal impactin the case of rural Madagascar, suggestingwomen will be no more ‘entrepreneurial’ thaninitially believed [2] . Land speculation maybecome more of a concern with the provision oftitles, as land is believed to be of value and thusoccupied, but with minimal investmentsmade. [1] Jacoby and Minten, 2007. [2] Seefurther readings: Fenske, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Land titles for women today will provideinter-generational equalities for thefuture. Giving women the right to land willprovide the path for gender equality in thepresent and future. Girls will be granted equalaccess rights to family land and inheritance inthe future, and decisions around marriage dowrycan be changed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Land titles provide a voice in the legalsystem. Land titles mean women will berecognised as citizens, with rights. Women willbe included in the system of justice and theirrights to occupy, build, and use, land,recognised. Titles will provide bottom-upempowerment. A physical and psychologicalsense of security will be provided; and a sense ofsocial belonging, and place, is enabled. Legalsecurity has benefits for health (mental andphysical) and reduces risk. For example, accessto titles will reduce the vulnerability of women to‘property grabbing’. In the case of Ethiopia, theintroduction of joint land-titling and householdregistration in 2003 [1] has been shown to havechanged women’s perception of tenure security.Previously, the prevalence of polygamousrelationships meant only the first wife wasgranted legal rights and recognition, leavingother wives and households without rights toland. The provision of land titles ensures womenequal security within a legal framework. Women", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Land titles mean women will be recognised ascitizens, with rights. Women will be included inthe system of justice and their rights to occupy,build, and use, land, recognised. Titles willprovide bottom-up empowerment. A physicaland psychological sense of security will beprovided; and a sense of social belonging, andplace, is enabled. Legal security has benefits forhealth (mental and physical) and reduces risk.For example, access to titles will reduce thevulnerability of women to ‘property grabbing’. Inthe case of Ethiopia, the introduction of jointland-titling and household registration in 2003[1] has been shown to have changed women’sperception of tenure security. Previously, theprevalence of polygamous relationships meantonly the first wife was granted legal rights andrecognition, leaving other wives and householdswithout rights to land. The provision of land titlesensures women equal security within a legalframework. Women are entitled to rights; andtitles provide the security to use the legal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Having rights does not ensure there will be anawareness of how to use rights and education onwhat such rights do. To ensure land titlescontribute to promoting gender equalitieswomen, and girls, need to be made aware of themeaning of rights and how to use them. Landtitles are not the means of providinginter-generational equality, but rather one pieceof the puzzle. To ensure equality education andawareness is required.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The case of Kenya is not representative ofevidence across all African nations. In Rwanda,where post-conflict recovery has put genderequality as a fundamental objective, underlyingtensions are emerging. Land titles have beendistributed to women however male counterpartsare beginning to raise doubts over the extent ofgender 'equality', arguing policies reflect agender bias in favour of women. [1] In societieswhere women live in a ‘man’s world’ land titlesare not the means of safety and security. Rape,harassment, and abuse occur in public spacesacross cities, due to fear, police relations, andsocial acceptance. [1] Bikorimana, 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Land titles will develop entrepreneurialwomen. Access to titles is a means of povertyalleviation for female-headed households andwomen. Having recognised land rights meansfirst, their land becomes exchangeable andprofits can be gained through differentstrategies. Second, women are able to accesscredit and finance with the granting of a formalland title. Women are able to becomeentrepreneurs establishing businesses,agricultural cultivation, and the ability to sellproperty and land. Such investments havepositive benefits for the whole economy. Forexample by encouraging crop cultivation tosmall-scale farmers food security can beprovided, and the agrarian market revitalised.[1] In the case of Ethiopia, the economyremains highly dependent on agriculturalproduction. The security land titles provides hasencouraged agricultural cultivation to womennationwide. Women are able to build a new foodmarket and earn an income to sustain their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Land titles will help end violence againstwomen. One of the main forms of gender-basedviolence includes violent acts carried out byhusbands or partners [1] . Evidence shows theprovision of land titles reduce risks to femalehealth and vulnerabilities to violence. Womenbecome accepted as, and confident, decisionmakers within their homes as titling redistributespower within households. Furthermorepossessing a land title enables safer sexualrelations by offering legal protection. Research inKenya has shown titles will reduce the risk ofspreading HIV/AIDS and rape [2] . Due togender norms widows are forced into traditional‘cleansing’ rituals, rape and forced marriage, inorder to hold onto physical assets and inherittheir rightful land from in-laws. Land titles aretherefore a means of tackling genderdiscrimination and providing freedom of choiceon how women can act. Women are less likely tobe forced into unsafe sex, following the death oftheir husband or divorce, to occupy the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Female-headed households are not the poorestof the poor, and taxation is required. Taxation isvital resource to enable the government tomobilise key services and as a redistributive tool.By developing an effective functioning taxationsystem, social policies can be put on the agendain Africa - providing social support and securityto those in need. Having access to titles willreduce poverty by encouragingentrepreneurialism, productive use of land,security, better health, and opportunity to enterproperty markets.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The possession of a formally recognisedentitlement to land presents a win-win scenario -being an indicator of good governance andenabling the promotion of good governance.Land titles represent an effective economicinstitution in society, of which enablesdemocratic, political institutions, such as anaccountable state. Land titles mean corruptionand rent-seeking behaviour can be monitored.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Land titles are not affordable to poorwomen The cost of obtaining land titles is higherthan the benefits sought. Research has shownthat although there is a desire, by women, toobtain land titles the reality is land titles remainunaffordable. To empower land titles need to bemore affordable to include a diverse range ofwomen able to obtain titles and rights [1] .Having expensive titles limits empowerment tothe comparatively wealthy. To make mattersworse the provision of titles increases the burdenon women - introducing additional costs, timecommitments, and worries on top of normalactivities. Cheaper, and more effective,alternatives are available to provide rights andsecurity of tenure for women. For exampleToulmin (2009) emphasises the potential role ofusing local institutions to register rights.Community organisations, for saving (etc) as inSouth Africa which prevent the need to go toloan sharks, are a positive alternative toempower women. [2] For real empowerment", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Land titles are being granted in high-riskareas. Land title provision for women acrossAfrica is occurring in informal settlements andslums - therefore the question is whether titlesprovide an ability to relocate through theproperty market. First, land titles in the case ofSouth Africa have left inhabitants stuck on thelower-end of the property market [1] . Lemanski(2010) shows homeownership, in Cape Town,does not bring the hoped for financial return.Low-income households are unable to trade theirasset (land or home) due to low returns,preventing movement into upgraded houses andareas. Second, dangers emerge as to the degreeof future sustainability when considering climatechange and the hazardous nature ofenvironments. In Mathare slum, Kenya,landslides are a frequent occurrence. Theprovision of titles in such areas does not havesustainable. [1] Lemanski, 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Land titles do not solve the main issue forwomen - rental markets. About 50% of the pooracross Africa, including women, used rentalaccommodation [1] , many are landless.Although it remains debatable as to whetherwomen enter the rental market by choice or not,renting has been noted to provide a greaterdegree of flexibility. Renting provides flexibilityto relocate and manage finances effectively overa short-term. Land titles may therefore increaseimmobility to those using the rental markets;and enable landlords to raise prices of renting.Titles don’t help those who rent. [1] Edwards,1990, p.255", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Land titling will increase female poverty. Titlesprovide a path for the state to gain, andmobilise, resources - such as taxation. Thereforethe provision of land titles to women will meanthey are forced to pay taxes (including land taxand additional government taxes). Such a realityhas major consequences for singlefemale-headed households who represent adisproportionate number of the poor [1] .Increased expenses will impact multipledimensions of their livelihoods. [1] For debateson Female-Headed Households in Africa as the‘poorest of the poor’ see further readings: Chant,2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-con05b", "title": "", "text": "Real empowerment needs to enable strategic,and practical, gender needs (Moser, 1989). Landtitling for women enables women to change theirposition in society and thus how they are viewedby the state and communities. Having a land titlemeans women in high-risk areas can demandchanges to be made by the state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Land titles, and markets, in Africa remaincorrupt. On the one hand, land titles do notprovide increased tenure security for women andwill legitimise gentrification. In urban areas, ifwomen are granted rights over a desired plot ofland holding titles may be more of a curse. Poorwomen may be forced, and enticed, to sell theirhomes at prices under their market value. Titlesoften results in urban gentrification, as thespaces become legally mapped and propertymarkets work for the elite. On another hand,land titles in African states are based on badgovernance, rent-seeking, and corrupt desires.The idea land titles will provide empowerment,security and poverty reduction is based on aWestern model of the state. However, theboundary between what is legal and illegal inAfrican states remains less clear-cut. The case ofZimbabwe’s ‘Operation Murambatsvina’ (‘RestoreOrder’) in 2005 is a case in point. Mass evictionsoccurred despite the homes being classified as‘legal’ and titles being held. Livelihoods were", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Renting holds fewer benefits for women thanownership. For empowerment more women needto become home, and landowners. The provisionof land titles to women means they have a senseof stability. In the case of Johannesburg, SouthAfrica, a majority of young, female rentersengage in different forms of transactional sexdue to the expense of renting [1] . Equality inland titling will ensure women are able to saveand seek safer livelihood options. [1] Seefurther readings: Action Aid, 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipiasgfih-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Programmes implemented have taken action toreduce costs. The recent government program inEthiopia has been government-sponsored andused a participatory model to ensure affordabilityacross a large-scale.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "If there were similar crises without the EUexisting as a balm and place where all countriescan talk regularly and confront problemstogether then the security situation would bemuch worse. In the past it has only taken smallincidents to spark a war – usually exemplified bythe assassination of archduke Franz Ferdinandstarting off world war I, but there have also beenwars started by trade such as the ‘War of JenkinsEar’ which became part of the war of AustrianSuccession. Today the EU provides a place tonegotiate disputes between members makingwar between member states unthinkable. Ofcourse war would still be a very unlikelyresponse to a dispute, but leaving the EU wouldmean getting rid of one of the organisations thatreduces that possibility by mitigating crises.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The EU causes instability According to BorisJohnson the European Union is “a force forinstability and alienation” [1] that increasinglycauses security problems such as the migrationcrisis. The EUs inability to solve its crises such asthe economic difficulties of peripheral countrieslike Greece and Portugal are causing resentmentand warnings that one may fall out of the Euroblock. It is the EU that is creating these problemsby not dealing with its crises but leaving them tofester and grow. In Greece for example only athird of Greeks have a positive view of the EUand only 17% believe integration has been goodfor Greece. [2] [1] ‘EU referendum: Cameronwarns UK exit could put peace at risk’, BBCNews, 9th May 2016, [2] Stokes, Bruce, andGoo, Sara Kehaulani, ‘5 facts about Greece andthe EU’, PewResearchCenter, 7 July 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Control of borders is important. However it isalso not relevant to the debate as the UK notbeing a party to the Schengen agreementalready has control over its borders; the UKchecks passports and visas at the border just aswould happen if the country were to leave theEU. Leaving would make no difference to UKborder security.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A nation state can only rely on itself forsecurity In the security sphere it is nationalinterests that are most important and no statecan expect other states to have exactly the sameinterests. Everyone therefore needs to look aftertheir own. In the case of the EU Britain cannotexpect France or Germany to have the samesecurity interests as the UK with its differentsituation – being an island rather than part of thecontinent. Germany is much more concernedwith Eastern Europe than the UK, France muchmore with Northern Africa. Freedom from the EUmeans greater freedom for the UK to focus on itsown national interests on security; terrorism,maritime defence, and building up NATO ratherthan any competing European force.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While keeping sight of the UKs national interestsis important almost all of them can be carried outas well with the European Union as outside it. Inparticular the whole of Europe is interested inpreventing terrorism. In other areas such asmaritime security it makes sense for the UK tospecialise in it while other countries specialise inother areas such as having larger armies.Moreover it should be noted that the UK is in oneof the safest areas of the world with no hostilestates in any direction. In this sense the EU is abuffer between the UK and less stable areas suchas North Africa, the Middle East, or Russia so itmakes sense to work with them as part of thesame organisations including the EU.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "In a letter to the Telegraph five formerSecretary-Generals of NATO stated “TheEuropean Union… is a key partner for NATO” andthat “Brexit would undoubtedly lead to a loss ofBritish influence, undermine NATO and givesuccour to the West’s enemies just when weneed to stand shoulder-to-shoulder across theEuro-Atlantic community against commonthreats”. They give sanctions imposed by the EUon Iran and Russia as examples of where the EUhas lead on enhancing regional security. [1]Moreover if the EU is to create an EU force thiswill happen regardless of Brexit. Britain stands amuch greater chance of stopping it when it has avoice in the EU with which to object. [1] LordCarrington, Javier Solana, Lord Robertson, JaapDe Hoop Scheffer, Anders Fogh Rasmussen,‘Letters: At a time of global instability, Britainneeds to stand united with its EU allies’, TheTelegraph, 10 May 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Strong control of borders is needed to keep thecountry secure Terrorism is often considered thebiggest security threat to the UK. Ian DuncanSmith has argued that being in the EU “exposesUK to terror risk” because an “open border doesnot allow us to check and control people”. [1]The Schengen agreement on the free movementof people makes it easier for terrorists to moveabout in Europe as shown by the terrorist attackson Paris which were planned in Brussels. [1]‘Staying in EU 'exposes UK to terror risk', saysIain Duncan Smith’, BBC News, 21 February2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "British security is dependent upon NATO not theEU NATO is “the most successful defensivealliance in history”, it saw off the USSR andWarsaw pact without a fight and has created asingle security regime throughout most ofEurope. [1] With its’ record NATO is clearly mostimportant for security in Europe; it is still neededto deter Russia. The creation of an EU army onthe other hand will undermine NATO and issomething that will be pushed through after thereferendum. [2] Britain could likely opt out, butwith cooperation taking place under EU ratherthan NATO auspices the alliance that has keptthe peace would be badly damaged. [1] LondonDeclaration quoted by Reeve, Richard, ‘We needto talk about NATO’, OxfordResearchGroup, 17September 2015, [2] Kemp, Richard, ‘It is anEU army that could bring about war’, TheTelegraph, 9 May 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Since the end of World War II Germany andnational rivalries in Western Europe not been themain threat to Europe. Instead that threat hasemanated from outside the EU; largely fromRussia, and then from more nebulous threatssuch as terrorism. In both these cases it hasbeen military alliances such as NATO and nucleardeterrence that have kept the peace.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The EU simply adds to an alphabet soup oforganisations that work on security in Europe.The two which matter, NATO and EUROPOL, bothhave little to do with the EU and would work justas well with the UK out.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Leaving will mean less communication with othersecurity services Leaving the EU may damagerelationships with key security partners such asFrance and Germany. Both countries would havemuch less reason to cooperate on security issuedwhen not in the same organisation. There wouldcertainly still be some cooperation but the formerheads of Mi5 and Mi6, Lord Evans and Sir JohnSawers have stated that the UK would lose outthrough not being able “to take part in thedecisions that frame the sharing of data, which isa crucial part of counter-terrorism andcounter-cyber work”. Sawers points out that datasharing in the EU allowed France to transfer DNAand fingerprints of one of the Brussels bomberswithin months – previous to EU data sharing itwould have taken months slowing down criticalinvestigations. [1] [1] ‘Row as ex-intelligencechiefs say EU membership protects UK security’,BBC News, 8 May 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The EU brings together former enemies The EUhas created peace among states that formerlyfought each other. Most notably Germany andFrance had fought each other three times inseventy-five years prior to the formation of theEU. The EU has helped make such a conflictunthinkable now. The EU as a structure restrainsold rivalries through giving a joint project andgoal. It ensures cooperation particularly in placeswhere there are competing interests likeGibraltar where continued cross border access isguaranteed by being a member of the EU.[1] [1] Hague, William, ‘Leaving the EU wouldbe disastrous for the Falklands, Gibraltar andUlster’, The Telegraph, 9 May 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Security is better shared Security is not a zerosum game – our security does not get better ifour neighbours is worse. On the contrary goodFrench, Irish, Belgian and Norwegian securityhelps ensure good British security. Being in theEU provides an opportunity for cooperationbetween member states by creating interactionon all levels. Some integration ensures acommon and cooperative response tointernational threats. The EU is the most obviousplace to develop a coordinated response toterrorism and other, particularly non-military,security concerns throughout the region. [1] [1]Galbreath, David, ‘Professor David Galbreath on:Security in, secure out: Brexit’s impact onsecurity and defence policy’, University of BathIPR Blog, 24 March 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdtwhblew-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There would still be data sharing between Britainand its neighbours even if the UK left the EU. Nointelligence agency would sit on information thatcould save lives in another country simplybecause that country is no longer in the sameorganisation. Moreover the UK could stillnegotiate data sharing agreements with relevantintelligence agencies to ensure that informationsharing remains fast and comprehensive.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbcbiapts-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The two-state solution would have Israelrelinquish the West Bank, known to the Israelisas “Judea and Samaria”. Yet, these are historicregions to the Jews. Israel would similarly haveto undermine its identity to give up these tworegions, and so any two-state solutionacceptable to Israel would have to mean theretention of Judea and Samaria. Because of thelarge Palestinian population in the West Bank,even a two-state solution would mean Israelcould not be both Jewish and democratic.(3)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbcbiapts-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A one-state solution mean Israel would cease tobe either democratic or Jewish As described inthe above quote by Peres, the vast majority ofIsraelis desire to live in a Jewish homeland inwhich they can define their own institutions andculture in light of their Jewish heritage. Aone-state solution, however, would undermineIsrael's legitimacy and internationally recognizedright to exist as a sovereign Jewish state in theland of the Jewish forefathers. From Israel'sperspective, it is not possible for the Jewishpeople to accept an arrangement that signifiesthe end of the existence of a Jewish state, whichwould be the result of a one-state solution, asthe state could not be considered a Jewish one ifit housed a very large Palestinian population,possibly even a Palestinian majority.(1) For thisreason it is unlikely that any one-state solutionwould be truly democratic, and rather would be asituation of an Israeli minority ruling over aPalestinian majority, who would be largelyexcluded from the running of the country and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbcbiapts-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Palestinian support for two-state solutiondeclined around 2008, and is waning evenamong the 'moderate' Palestinian camp, as wellas among additional Arab elements.(8) It is alsonaïve to think that a two-state solution wouldgain the favour or even support of Iran. Iranwants to be the dominant power in the MiddleEast, and it wants nuclear weapons so that it canthreaten not only Israel but other states in theregion.(9) To this end, Iran has an incentive tokeep the Israeli-Palestinian conflict big andbloody so as to distract the West from its ownregional agenda. Furthermore, an independentPalestinian state would probably be perceived asa security threat to some of its neighbours,particularly Jordan, and thus might actuallyprompt further tensions.(9)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbcbiapts-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A two-state solution is best forpeace Palestinians and Israelis will not be ableto live together in peace in the same state anytime in the foreseeable future. The idea thatPalestinians and Israelis can live in peace andharmony in one state, with tolerance for eachother and in keeping with democratic principlesof inclusion, is simply naive. This idea has beenmade impossible by nearly a century of directconflict between these people. While this mightchange in coming centuries, it is unacceptable toadopt a one-state policy now based on thesenaive ideas. Israeli President Shimon Peres hasargued: “Establishing a single multinationalcountry is a tenuous path that does not bode wellfor peace but, rather, enforces the conflict'sperpetuation. Lebanon, ravaged by bloodshedand instability, represents only one of manyexamples of an undesirable quagmire of thisnature.”(1) This stance has been endorsed byleaders and officials from around the world: USspecial envoy George Mitchell has stated “In the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbcbiapts-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Simply because past conflict has existed is noreason to believe that peace and understandingcannot be established through co-operation,shared institutions and interaction. This isexactly what a one-state solution would foster inthe long term, but which a two-state solutionprevents by separating the two communities.Even if they each have a state of their own,unless the Israelis and Palestinians learn to livein proximity to each other in co-operation, therewill be no peace.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbcbiapts-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Only a two-state solution can satisfy bothsides A two-state solution can offer sufficientterritory for both Israelis and Palestinians. ForIsrael this would mean keeping the vast majorityof areas inhabited by Israeli citizens within thestate of Israel. The two-state solution wouldalso, however, offer sufficient land to thePalestinians. While cynics might question thesize of the West Bank and Gaza, optimists shouldlook no further than Singapore for reassurance.The area of the West Bank and Gaza is ninetimes as large as Singapore's, yet the combinedpopulation of Palestinians in both regions issmaller than that of Singapore. Singapore enjoysone of the highest standards of living in theworld. The Palestinians are capable of achievingsimilar success, through instituting a moderneconomy based on science, technology and thebenefits of peace.(1) Moreover, throughout theyears polls have consistently showed respectableIsraeli and Palestinian majorities in favour of anegotiated two-state settlement.(6) Even the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbcbiapts-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The most just outcome is that which best securespeace. Both sides will be compelled to makecertain concessions, and some inequalities anddiscrepancies between the two new states areunavoidable. However, on balance the benefits ofpeace and security for both peoples will outweighthe harms of any concessions or inequalities, solong as both peoples receive a state of their ownin which they can control their own destinies,which is the only way to ensure peace.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbcbiapts-con01b", "title": "", "text": "These arguments about 'sympatheticcooperation' ignore the realities on the ground oftwo people who are and seem certain to remainviolently opposed to each other as long as theystruggle over control over a single state ratherthan each having a state of their own.Furthermore, offering the Palestinians asovereign state of their own, free from Israelicontrol, would likely go a long way to satisfyingthe vast majority of Palestinians, and thusactually make a war against Israel far less likely.As Peres argues: “Indeed, six miles will be toonarrow to guarantee full security, which onlyreinforces our belief that Israel's safety is notembedded only in territorial defence but inpeace. Peace provides breadth of wings, evenwhen the waist is narrow.”(1)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbcbiapts-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Israelis and Palestinians are too intermingled fora two-state solution A million Palestinians livethroughout Israel even without the West Bankand Gaza strip, and when the Israeli settlementsin the West Bank are considered also, it becomesclear that dividing these two populations issimply unfeasible. By comparison, the feasibilityof a bi-national state, with the two peoples livingin a kind of federation, seems workable. Giventhis 'reality' on the ground, the most practicalsolution seems to be a united democratic stateoffering equal citizenship for all: One Person,One Vote.(12) The ever-expanding Israelisettlements in the West Bank particularlyrepresent a barrier to the separation of the twopeoples into two states. In 1993, when IsraeliPrime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PalestineLiberation Organization leader Yasser Arafatfamously shook hands on the White House lawn,there were 109,000 Israelis living in settlementsacross the West Bank (not including Jerusalem).Today there are 275,000, in more than 230", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbcbiapts-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Only a one-state solution can guarantee equalrights for all A one-state solution is the mostjust because a two-state solution wouldinherently result in a worse situation for thePalestinians than the Israelis, whereas aone-state solution would guarantee equal rightsfor all. The July 2007 Madrid meeting in favour ofa one-state solution put firth that: “A two-statesolution is predicated on the unjust premise thatpeace can be achieved by granting limitednational rights to Palestinians living in the areasoccupied in 1967, while denying the rights ofPalestinians inside the 1948 borders and in theDiaspora.” Thus, the two-state solutioncondemns Palestinian citizens of Israel topermanent second-class status within theirhomeland, in a racist state that denies theirrights by enacting laws that privilege Jewsconstitutionally, legally, politically, socially andculturally. Moreover, the two-state solutiondenies Palestinian refugees their internationallyrecognized right of return.”(14) A two-state", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbcbiapts-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Only a one-state solution can end the conflict Itwas no less a man than Albert Einstein whobelieved in 'sympathetic cooperation' between'the two great Semitic peoples' and who insistedthat 'no problem can be solved from the samelevel of consciousness that created it.' A relativehandful of Israelis and Palestinians are beginningto survey the proverbial new ground, consideringwhat Einstein's theories would mean in practice.They might take heart from Einstein's friendMartin Buber, the great philosopher whoadvocated a bi-national state of 'jointsovereignty,' with 'complete equality of rightsbetween the two partners,' based on 'the love oftheir homeland that the two peoples share.'(10)This position has been adopted by somePalestinian leaders: In October 2005, Nusseibeh,then president of al-Quds University inJerusalem, and several other liberal Palestinianpolitical activists and intellectuals held a pressconference in Jerusalem, stating: “We arepressing now for equal political and legal rights", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbcbiapts-con02b", "title": "", "text": "A two-state solution could succeed in partitioningthe land and the two peoples by including thelargest Israeli settlements within Israel, possiblyby allowing for non-contiguous “islands” ofIsraeli territory around the larger settlementssurrounded by the new Palestinian state.(13) Inany case, a two-state solution can find practicalsolutions to these problems, while having theadvantage of solving the inherent and insolvableproblems of having two opposed nations andidentities in perpetual conflict within a singlestate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There have been continued protests and violencesince the military coup. The post-Morsileadership and the Egyptian army have thereforedone little to bring the Egyptian crisis undercontrol. The most notable incident was on 14thAugust 2013, over a month since the militarycoup removed Morsi, when over one thousandpeople were killed in a day’s fighting betweensecurity forces and protestors. Human RightsWatch declared that this was ‘the most seriousincident of mass unlawful killings in modernEgyptian history’. [1] Even after the ban onun-notified protesting there have been continueddemonstrations of civil disobedience. Due to thehandling of these demonstrations the USA hasthreatened to cut some of its $1.3 billion militaryaid to Egypt [2] . This inability to gain control ofthe situation echoes the reasoning for removingMorsi. [1] Loveluck, 2013 [2] Sciutto &Labott, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Failed to gain control of the Egyptian crisis Theofficial line of argument for the Egyptian army’sintervention was that Morsi’s administration wasfailing to grasp control of a worsening situation[1] . The response to Morsi’s judicial immunityhad been largely negative, with tens ofthousands taking to the streets to protest. Soonafter, pro-Morsi protestors began their ownprotests. Muslim Brotherhood supporters werecalled to defend the palace and the resultingclashes left ten dead [2] . On the 1st July 2013millions of protestors gathered in Tahrir Square,as well as in Alexandria, Port Said and Suez [3]and the Egyptian army stated it would interveneif the government did not ‘meet the demands ofthe people’ by restructuring the government toappease protestors [4] . The protestors did notdisperse, and there were several ministers whoresigned from government. With no clear policychange in sight, Morsi had evidently failed totake control of the situation. General el-Sisi,leader of the coup, claimed that they ‘could not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The Morsi government arguably did not haveenough time to deal with Egypt’s economicconditions. Tourism and investment had alreadybeen in decline prior to Morsi assuming power[1] . The global perception of Egypt as unstablewas unavoidable following the revolution whichhad deposed Mubarak. The ex-dictator had beena symbol of security and stability prior to theArab Spring. Tourism dropped from 14.7 millionpeople to 9.8 million in the first yearpost-Mubarak, which led to a loss of revenue [2]. Unemployment had been on the rise prior tothe Arab Spring, as was the cost of living. Morsi’sestablishment had only been given one year toresolve the economic crisis which was insufficienttime to put any economic recovery plan in to fulleffect. [1] The World Bank, accessed 2013 [2]Bakr, 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Morsi Undermined DemocraticPrinciples Separation of powers is a keydemocratic principle which Morsi underminedwith the November 2012 declaration. Theunderlying idea of the separation of powers isthat one branch of government should not haveundue power over any other. That is why thereare a number of checks and balances set outwhich allows each branch to constrain the actionsof the others to prevent them acting illegally [1]. Morsi’s declaration that he would remove thechecks and balances which the judiciary heldover the presidency violated this principle. Thisled many to fear that Morsi was returning thecountry to a dictatorship where he could forcethrough the Muslim Brotherhood’s agenda [2] ,undoing the work of the Arab Spring [3] . Thearmy’s intercession was welcomed by many asmaintaining democracy [4] . [1] Wikipedia [2]CNN Staff, 2013 [3] Spencer, 2012 [4] Reuters,2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The post-Morsi leadership, with the assistance ofthe military, have arguably continued the trendof undemocratic governing. These actions havegiven the impression that they are actinghypocritically by removing Morsi. In November2013 a new law was enacted which bannedpeaceful protest without prior notification to thepolice. Believed to be aimed at Morsi’ssupporters and the Muslim Brotherhood, this lawsought to curb protests being conducted againstthe Egyptian army’s leadership [1] . As protest isa political right, many human rights groups havehad a negative response to this legislation.Defiance of these laws has led to the use ofteargas and violence to disperse crowds [2] . Thenew constitution also places the defence ministryfirmly in the hands of the military, giving policycontrol to an unelected official [3] . The claims ofthe military backed authorities beinganti-democratic illustrate the hypocrisy ofremoving Morsi. [1] G uerin, 2013 [2] el-Deen,2013 [3] Aswat Masr iya, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Morsi maintained relatively moderate rhetoricand did not declare any intention to imposesharia law. When questioned about Islamicsociety and non-Muslims he stated that hebelieved Coptic Christians had inherent rightsand stated that Islam and sharia law ‘cannot beimposed on the people and it cannot be donefrom the top’ [1] . Morsi’s comments on therespect owed to everyone’s rights and beliefsseem to contradict any notion that he planned onenforcing a strict interpretation of sharialaw. [1] El Amrani, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Morsi’s economic and social policies had beenineffective and unpopular Morsi’s inability totackle the main issues which faced Egypt wasanother issue which caused the large-scaleprotests leading to his removal. One of the majorreasons for Egypt’s Lotus Revolution was the lackof economic reform. Rising living costs,unemployment and wage levels were causes ofgrievance for the majority of Egyptians. TheEgyptian population hoped that, once thecorruption of the Mubarak regime was replacedby a democratic system, their economiccondition would improve. This was not to be thecase. The Morsi government planned to reduceits fuel subsidies to entitle the country to a $4.8billion loan from the International Monetary Fund[1] , raising the living costs of the averagecitizens. In conjunction with the subsidy cuts, thegovernment failed to tackle unemployment. Atthe time of Morsi’s ouster from government therewere 3.6 million unemployed, an increase of onemillion since 2010 [2] . Analysts linked the lack", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Morsi was going to implement Islamic policies ona secular country Another major concern of theanti-Morsi protestors on whose behalf theEgyptian army intervened was the Islamistnature of Morsi [1] . While many supported theIslamic nature of the Muslim brotherhood, therewere equally many liberals and Coptic Christianswho were afraid of Egypt transforming in to anIslamic state. Mubarak had managed to securepopularity within these groups by exploiting thisfear that, should his regime be overthrown,extreme Islamists such as the MuslimBrotherhood would take control and deprivethem of their rights. The Morsi government’sconstitution was thus perceived as a threat tominority and secular rights, and thus a securityissue. Even if this was not the case, Morsi shouldhave done more to calm the population’s fearrather than allowing discord to materialise. [1]Khalil, 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The army should not have a position of influencein democratic, civilian politics. It is generallyaccepted that the military’s responsibility is tothe state [1] . This means that they cannotbecome involved in the governing of said state,as this is a breach of the civil-militaryrelationship. According to Huntington, ‘Politics isbeyond the scope of military competence, andthe participation of military officers in politicsundermines their professionalism’ [2] . It isimportant, therefore, that civilian supremacy ismaintained and that the military is subservient tothe civilian government. In modern democraciesit is expected that the government is held toaccount at the polls, as long as they act legally,rather than military whims. There is also atendency for military figures to feel more inclinedtowards intervention in civil society after theirinitial attempt, as demonstrated by the mostrecent military coup as the military hadpreviously taken charge between the fall ofMubarak and Morsi’s election. For this reason,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "While just over half of respondents to the pollthought that deposing Morsi was wrong, 46% ofEgyptians felt it was the correct move [1] . Thisshows that there was still a large amount ofsupport for the Egyptian army’s actions. 51% ofthe population is not an overwhelming figure. Inaddition to this, the poll which produced theseresults only interviewed 1,405 people. With apopulation of over 84 million, it is possible thatmajority of the population actually supported theArmy. [1] Smith, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Mohamed Morsi had been democraticallyelected It was wrong to depose Morsi as he hadbeen chosen to serve as the first democraticallyelected president in Egypt. Morsi was elected aspresident with 51.7% of the vote. Having wonthe 2011-2 elections, Morsi and the Freedom andJustice party had a democratic mandate whichthey should have been able to fulfil. The militarycoup which removed them from power wastherefore a violation of the democracy whichEgypt had fought to establish.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The army has no place in a moderndemocracy The army should not have a positionof influence in democratic, civilian politics. It isgenerally accepted that the military’sresponsibility is to the state [1] . This means thatthey cannot become involved in the governing ofsaid state, as this is a breach of the civil-militaryrelationship. According to Huntington, ‘Politics isbeyond the scope of military competence, andthe participation of military officers in politicsundermines their professionalism’ [2] . It isimportant, therefore, that civilian supremacy ismaintained and that the military is subservient tothe civilian government. In modern democraciesit is expected that the government is held toaccount at the polls, as long as they act legally,rather than military whims. There is also atendency for military figures to feel more inclinedtowards intervention in civil society after theirinitial attempt, as demonstrated by the mostrecent military coup as the military hadpreviously taken charge between the fall of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Most Egyptians still supported Morsi A pollconducted in November 2013 illustrated that themajority of Egyptians still supported Morsi. TheEgyptian army’s claim that they were acting inthe name of the people is therefore invalid. Thepoll, conducted by Zogby Research Services LLC,found that 51% of Egyptians believed that it waswrong to depose Morsi [1] . The fact that thearmy were acting to the contrary of the wishes ofa sizeable proportion of the population thereforeexemplifies that the army were not acting ‘forthe people’ as a whole. [1] Smith, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amepdlvhb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The Morsi government had acted to monopolisetheir power within the government, henceundermining their democratic position. To beginwith, Morsi’s cabinet had consisted of about 25%candidates from his own party, with the restbelonging to the opposition parties. This by 2013this had dropped to roughly 1/3 Morsisupporters. This, in combination with Morsi’sextra judicial powers implied that the presidentwas attempting to extend his political power.Many liberals feared that this would be done toenforce the Muslim Brotherhood’s agenda inEgypt [1] . To preserve the democratic integrityof the Egyptian government, the army had tointervene. [1] CNN Staff, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The proposed right of family reunification is toomuch of a burden on receiving countries, makingit an obstacle to a migrant rights treaty. Indeed,states have levelled as an argument against theMigrant Workers Convention, and against otherpossible international migrant treaties, concernsabout a robust right of family reunification to allmigrant workers present in migrant-receivingcountries. This could offer family members aright to migrate into the state in question,resulting in large increases in population size.And, there is no doubt that the text of theMigrant Workers Convention aims to create a\"right\" to family reunification. Even if it providesflexibility on how a nation attempts to facilitatereunification, it still requires that states reunitefamilies in some way. Under this treaty,therefore, any migrant could sue the state fornot allowing his family (and perhaps extendedfamily) to immigrate as well. In overpopulatedand strained migrant-receiving countries,particularly in Western Europe, such a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Migrants ought to have a right to familyreunification. The right to family is widelyrecognized as an essential human right. Article16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rightssays that the family is the fundamental unit ofsociety. Within the right to family is the right tofamily reunification for migrants who areseparated from their loved ones. The HumanRights Education Associates argue, “states areobliged to facilitate contacts and deal withrequests to enter or leave a state party for thepurpose of reunification in a humane andexpeditious manner.” [1] This right is especiallyimportant for refugees, who have often beentorn from their families by force, and althoughthey have not been separated by force economicmigrants are also separated from their familiesand at the very least should be able to visit theirfamilies, and it is not granted by manycountries. [1] Asmita Naik, “The Right toFamily,” Human Rights Education Associates,”Accessed June 30, 2011, .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The receiving countries would not accept aregulatory body. The current internationalregulatory bodies such as the WTO and WorldBank are essentially run by the rich countries forthe benefit of the rich countries and so theyaccept it. Any body regulating migrants’ rightswould, however, be doing the opposite--benefiting the poorest -- meaning the richcountries would try to prevent the creation ofsuch an organisation. In the unlikely event thatthe regulatory body could be created it wouldface a gargantuan task. How could globalmigration be monitored and regulated by aninternational body when even national bodies inrich countries are not able to keep track of allmigrants in their nations? Yet the internationalbody would also have to monitor the conditionsof migrants in many much poorer countrieswhere the infrastructure currently does not exist.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Economic and social protections prevent theexploitation of migrants. Migrants face a numberof challenges when they reach their destination,such as finding housing and in integrating intothe workforce, and the opportunities to exploitthem can be dangerous. According to DrTasneem Siddiqui, \"In 1929, the InternationalLabour Organisation (ILO) identified the migrantworkers as the most vulnerable group in theworld. Seventy years have elapsed since then,but they still belong to that group.\" [1] This issomething that the U.N. Convention attempts toaddress creating specific changes in manycountries that would make migrants lessvulnerable. For example, in all of the Gulf States,migrants are prohibited or at least restrictedfrom “participation in independent trade unionactivities.” [2] Protecting the right to unionize, asthe U.N. Convention does with Article 40(1),allows migrants to fight for their own rights inthe workplace, allowing migrants to fight andensure their own rights is the best way to ensure", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Further protections are required to grantmigrants full human rights. Unless migrantsreceive equal social and economic rights, theywill never be seen as equal in a human sense.According to Article 13 of the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights, everyone has theright to leave or enter a country, as well as tomove within it (internal migration). This freedomof movement is often not granted under currentlaws. Human rights also include fair treatmentunder the welfare state, and increased economicprotections for migrants is necessary in manystates for them to receive such treatment.Without this equal treatment, common mythsabout migrants will continue to be widelybelieved. These myths claim that immigrants arecriminals and that they steal jobs from natives.The organization Migrant Rights says, “All thesemyths rob migrant workers and refugees of theirhumanity, and are aimed at portraying them asless deserving of our sympathy and help.” [1] Itis a violation of migrants’ human rights to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Migrant rights are already protected underhuman rights law. If a nation violates existinginternational human rights law against amigrant, perhaps with exploitative workingconditions, wrongful imprisonment, seizure ofproperty, discrimination, or violence, existinginternational law already adequately protectsthem. There is no need to expand human rightslaw to create a separate category and separateprotections for migrants. Even if the internationalcommunity decided it wanted to better protectthe human rights of migrants, an internationaltreaty will not necessarily advance that cause, asinternational law has proven to be very difficultto enforce. This will continue to be a probleminto the foreseeable future.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "In most democratic, developed countries—whichare those that receive the mostimmigrants—people share equal rights in theworkplace, as long as they immigrated legally.People who broke the law to come to the countrydo not deserve these rights. Because theyusually come to work, the workplace is even theideal place to discover illegal immigrants. Notonly are they not allowed to unionize, but theyare not allowed to get paid. Workplace rights donot need to be strengthened for legal migrants,and they should not be for illegal migrants.Similarly it is impossible for the conditions forillegal migrants to be improved; if they are foundthey will be deported and so there is no need toimprove their conditions, although of course theyshould be well treated while in the process ofdeportation. Moreover improving minimumconditions would be counterproductive as theywould attract more migrants to immigrateillegally knowing that they will get minimumliving conditions that may well be considerably", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Migration puts too heavy a burden on receivingcountries, and it essentially means giving up onsource countries. It is not a mechanism of themarket, but rather an unfair system of takingmoney from taxpayers in certain countries andgiving it to people other countries, this money isthen sent abroad and spend abroad resulting in anet loss to the economy. Not all migration is bad,but legislation that would protect the right ofimmigrants to send money home would solidifythis unfair system. Remittances are a short-termfix. If migrants are not allowed to send homeremittances, it is possible that the most skilledworkers would stay in their home country andwork to rebuild the economy for thelong-term. The supposed intangible benefit toreceiving countries of “innovation and invention”is much less important than the real cost thatthese countries feel as a result from theunemployment and increased cost of health,education, and welfare systems that migrantscause.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "An international regulatory body should exist forglobal migration. With an internationalregulatory body, states would be heldaccountable for protecting migrant rights, andmigrant policies and protections would be bettercoordinated. The international community hascreated a number of regulatory bodies that havehelped the global economy adapt to risingglobalization, such as the World TradeOrganization, the World Bank, and theInternational Monetary Fund. Migration is anessential part of globalization, but there is nointernational body regulating the flow of workersaround the world. Jason Deparle of the New YorkTimes writes, “The most personal and perilousform of movement is the most unregulated.States make (and often ignore) their own rules,deciding who can come, how long they stay, andwhat rights they enjoy.\" [1] Because migrantrights are a growing problem and an essentialpart of globalization, an international regulatorybody would be an effective way of improving", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Protections would benefit the economies ofreceiving as well as source countries. Economicprotections are not only good for the migrantsthemselves, but they benefit all countriesinvolved. Migrants move from countries thathave a lot of workers but not a lot workavailable, to countries with a lot of workavailable, but not enough workers. Migration is amarket mechanism, and it is perhaps the mostimportant aspect of globalization. The growth ofthe world’s great economies has reliedthroughout history on the innovation andinvention of immigrants. This is particularly thecase in the United States, which is famously anation of immigrants, where the architect of theApollo program Wernher von Braun immigratedfrom Germany and Alexander Graham Bell theinventor of the telephone was born in Scotland.More recently immigration has been instrumentalin the success of Silicon Valley co-founder ofGoogle Sergey Brin is Russian born while theco-founder of Yahoo Jerry Yang came from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The receiving countries to which most migrantsmove are the richest countries in the world soare able to afford increased protection. Whilemigrants may sometimes cost these countriesmoney in services like healthcare they are incountries that can afford to pay this cost. Itshould also not be assumed that migrants justtake from the public purse. As most migrants arelegal they also pay taxes. Even those who areillegal will still pay some taxes such as VAT orduties on cigarettes and alcohol. The UKgovernment estimates that “in 1999/2000, firstgeneration migrants in the UK contributed £31.2billion in taxes and consumed £28.8 billion inbenefits and public services – a net fiscalcontribution of £2.5 billion”. [1] This willobviously vary from country to country butstories that immigrants are costing hugeamounts and putting nothing into the collectivepot are plain wrong. [1] Home Office, TheEconomic and Fiscal Impact of Immigration, ACross-Departmental Submission to the House of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is plenty of international law on the books,and it is legitimate when it protects rights thatought to be universal for the individual, nomatter what country you are in. The right tohave a family is not a Chilean right, or a Germanright, or a Malaysian right; it is a human right. Asis the right to work without being harassed. Thehuge increase in migration over the past twodecades shows that individual well-being hasdeveloped into a more important concern in theworld today than state sovereignty. Migrantprotections are moral because they reflect thischange.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Migration policy should be crafted on astate-by-state basis, allowing countries toprotect their national identities. Every state hasdifferent issues and problems related tomigration. There is no monolithic economic andsocial crisis facing migrants around the globe. Itis inappropriate, therefore, to call for all nationsto improve their protections in some standardmanner. Instead, immigration policy and evenrights need to be approached on a case-by-case,nation-by-nation basis. This approach wouldallow each state to pass a law that fits its needs,particularly those of protecting its nationalidentity, which is a concern international lawcannot approach. Maintaining an original ethnicand cultural structure is important to manystates, especially those that are populated byone ethnic group. Is Israel, for example, wrongto term itself a \"Jewish state\"? There is nothinginherently wrong with its efforts to maintain thisidentity, even if that effort constrains theexpansion of migrant rights.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Protection of migrants causes “brain drain,”which further damages the economies of sourcecountries. The countries from which workersemigrate often struggle from failing economies,and through migration they can lose their mostskilled workers, who are needed at home to turntheir economy around. Strengthened protectionsof migrants would further incentivize migration,and so brain drain would become more of aproblem. India for example has seen more than300,000 people migrate to the United States andmore than 75% of these migrants had a tertiaryeducation [1] meaning the vast majority of thesemigrants were among the most educated from acountry where only 7% of the population is ableto goes to university. [2] [1] Carrington, WilliamJ., and Detragiache, Enrica, ‘How Extensive isthe Brain Drain?’, Finance and Development,Volume 36, No. 2, June 1999, [2] ‘When MoreIs Worse’, Newsweek, 8 August 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Protections of migrants will hurt the economiesof receiving countries by overcrowding them andtaking away jobs from citizens. Increasingprotections of migrant rights has the generaleffect of increasing migration. Indeed, one policygoal of many migrant rights activists is for openborders and free and unrestricted migrationacross them. A right to family reunification wouldalso increase migration. This can be problematicin many countries. It may worsen overpopulationproblems, increase tensions between ethnicand/or religious groups, and raise unemploymentrates. The economies of many receivingcountries are barely managing to fightunemployment in the status quo. If migrantsreceive further protection, they will take morejobs, making it harder for citizens to findemployment. Everybody should have theopportunity to work in his home country, but theeconomic protection of migrants overcrowdsreceiving countries, driving up unemployment. InAmerica, for example, between 40 and 50", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Receiving countries should not and cannot affordto further protect migrants because they oftenfree ride on health, education, and welfaresystems. Because immigrants are frequentlyless well off financially, and they sometimescome to a new country illegally, they cost a lotfor receiving countries, and so they should notbe further protected. Immigrants make heavyuse of social welfare, and often overload publiceducation systems, while frequently not pullingtheir weight in taxes. Illegal immigrants alonehave already cost the United States “billions oftaxpayer-funded dollars for medical services.Dozens of hospitals in Texas, New Mexico,Arizona, and California, have been forced toclose” because they are required by law toprovide free emergency room services to illegalimmigrants. In addition, half a billion dollarseach year are spent to keep illegal immigrantcriminals in American prisons. [1] The moneyspent to build and maintain schools forimmigrant children, and to teach them, takes", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-con05b", "title": "", "text": "Those who are being ‘drained’ from the sourcecountries are those who are more highly skilledand so in less need of protections in the firstplace as these people are leaving to find muchmore highly skilled and therefore highly paidjobs. The ‘brain drain’ may not be a drain at all,either on the source countries or the receivingcountry. In fact the ‘brain drain’ might be betterconsidered as a ‘brain gain’. This is because thelure of migration means that individuals aremuch more likely to increase their education orlearn skills with the intention of migrating. Thisdecision to increase their human capital is adecision that would not have been made if thepossibility of migration was not present. Ofcourse in the short term much of this gain willmigrate abroad as intended some will not andothers will return home later. The result istherefore that both the source country and thereceiving country have more highly skilledworkforces. [1] [1] Stark, Oded, ‘The NewEconomics of the Brain Drain’, World Economics,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Universal migrant “protections” are an affront tostate sovereignty. International law, like theU.N. Migrant Rights Convention, and anyinternational regulatory body that requires thenations of the world to increase protections formigrants would be a violation of statesovereignty. Not all international law isnecessarily bad, but these protections go too far,because they force a huge burden on certainnations, and not others. It is fair for aninternational body to say that all nations shouldtreat their citizens with equality and respect, butit is not fair to say that certain countries shouldhave to provide for many citizens fromless-well-off ones.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The effect of migration on unemployment isactually positive: it provides cheap labor forreceiving countries, and lowers the supply oflabor in source countries where employers canoften not afford to pay sufficient wages to theirworkers. The claim that immigrants take jobsaway from native citizens is unfounded. In theUnited States, for example, visa applications forskilled foreign workers are extremely difficult toreceive and are limited to a small number ofpeople. Foreign students at U.S. universitieseven need special authorization to work asummer job. Immigrants cannot undercut U.S.workers wages, taking their job away for lessmoney, because foreign workers must be paid aminimum salary, mandated by law. [1] Evenillegal immigrants who do not follow theseregulations tend to take very-low-paying jobsthat are unwanted by U.S. citizens and thatwould not otherwise exist. [1] Farhad Sethna,“Immigrants Don’t Take Away U.S. Jobs!”Immigration Law Blog, July 9, 2009, accessed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gsimhbnws-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While every state may have different issues andproblems, the human rights of individuals mustbe protected by all of them. States may chooseto protect their national identity and traditionthrough museums and festivals and othercultural institutions; it is not necessary that theykeep migrants out, or suppress those who havealready immigrated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A repatriation policy will not effectively targetthis area of illegal immigration. Criminalnetworks will always find ways of smugglingpeople into a country and evading detection. Alla repatriation policy will do is make these gangsmore sophisticated when it comes to hidingillegal immigrants. This not only makes it moredifficult to discover and undermine thesenetworks, but also puts the illegal immigrantsthat are involved in these criminal activities atrisk. If there is a standard repatriation policy forall illegal immigrants, vulnerable groups such astrafficked women are less likely to seek help,because not only is it likely that they will berepatriated, but they also put the lives ofthemselves and their families at risk by goingthrough this procedure, rather than receivinganonymous help. As a result, illegal immigrantsthat are often at the bottom of criminalorganisation will be worse off, while the criminalat the top will get more power over their victims.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Illegal immigration is facilitated by criminalnetworks Repatriating illegal immigrants wouldlead to fewer opportunities for criminal networksto gain entry to the country. Illegal Immigrationis linked to dangerous criminal activity such aspeople and drug trafficking, terrorism and thesex trade. An estimated 270 000 victims ofhuman trafficking live in industrialized countries,of whom 43% are forced into commercial sexualexploitation, mostly women and girls1. This isboth dangerous for those involved in illegalimmigration but also increases the criminalactivity in a country, putting lawful residents atrisk. The state also has a duty to protect itscitizens from the harms associated with illegalimmigration. Illegal immigration fuels dangerousindustries such as prostitution and the drugtrade, repatriating illegal immigrants cuts off avital source of labour for these industries andcould contribute to the eradication of theseindustries. 1 UN.GIFT, \"Human Trafficking: TheFacts\",, accessed 31 August 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is impossible to prove that all illegalimmigrants are a drain on the system and sotheir cost to society cannot be used as ajustification for repatriation policies. Many illegalimmigrants pay taxes in some way and actuallycontribute to the economy of a country. Forinstance, every time an illegal immigrant buyssomething, they pay the same amount of salestax or VAT as any other person. Illegalimmigrants do not always undercut the labourmarket. The illegal workforce is a necessary partof the economy because lawful residents do notwant jobs such as casual labour, agricultural ordomestic jobs. Illegal immigrants often providevital services that would otherwise be tooexpensive or hard to find if regular workers wereemployed e.g. cleaning, childcare and manuallabour. Goods would become too expensive toproduce if, for example, parts of the agricultureindustry had to employ lawfulresidents/migrants.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "States have the sovereign right to control theirown borders. All states have sovereignty– thesupreme authority within a territory 1.Thisincludes the supreme authority to decide whoshould be allowed into and out of the country.Illegal immigrants have breached thatsovereignty by arriving uninvited and attemptingto circumvent checks. These people should bedeported in order to maintain the sovereignty ofthe nation. The United Nations recognises thesovereign rights of members when it says“Nothing contained in the present Charter shallauthorize the United Nations to intervene inmatters which are essentially within the domesticjurisdiction of any state.\"2 Who is allowed to beresident in the state is an internalconsideration. 1. Stanford Encyclopedia ofPhilosophy, 2010, 2. Article 2, UN Charter,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "There needs to be a tough stance to preventillegal immigration. The only way to stop theproblem of illegal immigration is to take ahard-line stance and adopt policies ofrepatriation. This means that illegal immigrants,after it has been proven through a fair hearingthat they have no legitimate reason to stay, willbe granted a period of voluntary repatriation,where they receive counselling and help toreturn to their country. If this does not work, andthe illegal immigrant wants to stay, he or she willforced to repatriate. Repatriation is neededbecause illegal immigrants are residing in acountry which is different from their country oforigin, without fulfilling the legal requirements todo so. They also do not make the samecontributions to the state as other people do,such as paying taxes. This means that illegalimmigrants are actively harming the legalsystem, the citizens of the country and legalimmigrants. At the same time, the number ofillegal immigrants is rising every year, with an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There are many alternatives to a repatriationpolicy that will more effectively target theproblems caused by illegal immigration.Countries can toughen border controls and havebetter systems in place for granting asylum.Voluntary repatriation is unworkable, even ifaccompanied by financial assistance, becausemany illegal immigrants want to stay in thecountry. Involuntary repatriation is inhumaneand harmful because it restricts the freedom ofmovement for people, and separates them fromtheir family and friends, whilst they are forced togo back to potentially harmful situations.Repatriation will not stop the numbers of peoplecoming to the country. Illegal immigration doesnot occur because a country is a 'soft touch':very few, if any, countries have no problems withillegal immigration. The reasons behindimmigration are social, political and economicand have nothing to do with an individualcountry's policy on illegal immigration. Thosewho turn to illegal immigration are often", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The repatriation of all illegal immigrants is animpossible task to start with, so if this policy isadopted and fails in its execution, this will lead toa greater loss of trust in the government. Ifimmigration policies focus more on theintegration of illegal immigrants, this will have amore beneficial effect than criminalizing them.Marking illegal immigrants as criminals that haveto leave the country as soon as possible willactually incite more conflict between migrantsand populists.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Costs of illegal migrants and harm to labourmarket Illegal immigrants cost the state inmoney, time and resources. It is difficult to givean accurate number on the cost of illegalimmigrants for the rest of the population (theFederation for American Immigration Reform(FAIR) has come up with numbers as high as$1,183 per household in the state of California1),but they are likely to put a strain on resources bynot paying taxes whilst demanding socialservices such as healthcare and education. As aresult, they take taxpayer's money away fromthose who are lawfully entitled to use theseservices and put a burden on the state.Moreover, illegal immigrants undercut the labourmarket by accepting low wages and workingunder illegal conditions. This is harmful to lawfulresidents because it takes employmentopportunities away from them and encouragesemployers to seek illegal labour in order to keepcosts down. Removing the illegal workforcewould increase the number of jobs available to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Loss of trust in the government Failing toremove illegal immigrants undermines publicconfidence in the government and its migrationpolicy. In the UK, opposition leader Ed Millibandhas acknowledged that Labour had lost trust inthe south by underestimating the number ofillegal immigrants and the impact they wouldhave on people's wages1. People believe thatallowing those who have no right to remain inthe country to stay on means the wholeimmigration system is broken. Legitimatemigrants such as refugees, students and thosewith visas for work will be lumped together withillegal immigrants, and calls will grow for allforms of migration to be restricted. Populistfeeling may also be inflamed against ethnicminorities, with increased social tensions. 1 BBCNews, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Although it might be true that immigrants mightbe harmed by repatriation in some cases, themajority of illegal immigration takes placebecause of economic reasons, and those peoplecan return safely. The United High Commissionerfor Refugees (UNHCR) sets the conditions forvoluntary repatriation on the grounds of legal(absence of discrimination, free frompersecution), physical (freedom from attack, saferoutes for return) and material (access tolivelihoods) safety1. If this is not the case, thesepeople should be given temporary asylum.Victims of trafficking are usually given specialprotection, as is the case with the EU, which alsoimposes tough rules on criminals involved2. 1Refugee Council Online, \"Definitions of voluntaryreturns\", accessed 31 August 2011 2 EuropeanCommission, \"Addressing irregular immigration\",30 June 2011, , accessed 31 August 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Repatriation is a more direct solution to theproblem, and it is not sure whether thesealternatives would work. Tougher border controlswill only result in immigrants finding better waysto avoid them; improving economical conditionsin poor countries is a slow and insecure progress,and the situation in many developing countries inunlikely to improve anytime soon. Giving illegalimmigrants temporary working visas will not stopsome immigrants from staying in their hostcountry after their visas have expired if theyprefer the living conditions. Even in the casewhere they do decide to go back to their countryof origin, this means the money they haveearned will be spent there, and not in thecountry they have worked. This means the statesloses out on revenue.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Repatriation is expensive and unrealistic Therepatriation of all illegal immigrants is impossibleto realize, and this large-scale project would costlarge sums of money. The Center for AmericanProgress study released in March of 2010concluded that a strategy aimed at deporting theUS population of illegal immigrants would costthe government approximately $285 billion overfive years. (A deportation-only policy wouldamount to $922 in new taxes for \"every man,woman, and child in this country).\"1 In separateresearch released in January, UCLA professorRaúl Hinojosa-Ojeda found that if undocumentedimmigrants were removed from the economy, itwould reduce US GDP by $2.6 trillion over tenyears.1 The impracticality of repatriation lies notonly in the costs of the transportation and thehelp given to immigrants, but also in the timeand effort of finding all illegal immigrants. Arepatriation policy would be never-ending and awaste of time and money. It would be better totarget only those illegal immigrants who pose a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Repatriation is immoral The repatriation ofillegal immigrants, even if it is not completelyunder coercion, is immoral. Even if therepatriation is 'voluntary', immigrants know theyhave no alternatives, and might agree to go backvoluntary because the next step would beinvoluntary repatriation. This means that illegalimmigrants are severely restricted in theirfreedom of movement. In the Western world,people can move around relatively easily, andthis is seen as an inalienable right. To restrictthis for people that do not come from this part ofthe world would be inhumane. Moreover, illegalimmigrants have often built their lives in thecountry they reside in, having a family,sometimes children, work and a social circle.Often, children from illegal immigrants getcitizenship because of their age, whilst theirparents are repatriated. This forceful separationof children from their parents is a violation oftheir human rights, as article 16 of the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights states that the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Repatriation poses a danger for illegalimmigrants The system of repatriating illegalimmigrants can be proven harmful for theseimmigrants on several levels. Some illegalimmigrants, although they might not fall underthe official category of refugees, have fleddangerous situations such as persecution,violation of human rights and severe poverty. In2009, France and the UK sent back severalmigrants that had fled the Taliban to Afghanistanwhen the country was still at war1. To sendthese people back to their country of originwould be a severe attack on their liberty andsecurity. Having a zero-tolerance policy on illegalimmigration will also make it harder for thosewho are trafficked to escape from criminal gangsbecause if they contact the authorities they willbe sent home. This gives the criminals behindpeople-trafficking more power over their victimsand will lead to worse living/working conditionsin illegal industries. 1 The Telegraph, \"Francedeports illegal Afghan migrants on joint", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Alternatives are better There are alternatives tothe repatriation of illegal immigrants that aremuch more attainable. First of all, there has tobe more attention to the root causes ofmigration, rather than attacking the results. Themoney that would be spent on repatriation couldbe used for prevention of immigration byfocusing on border controls and improvingeconomic conditions in countries where migrantscome from. Trade agreements betweendeveloped and developing countries could beimproved, which gives poorer countries moreopportunities to trade. Most illegal immigrantsmigrate to Western countries to earn money, soif there are more opportunities for foreignworkers to operate legally and on a temporarybasis, with the assurance that they can comeback if needed, this will remove the currentincentive for many illegal immigrants to stay intheir host country.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The repatriation of illegal immigrants is notimmoral because they do not have the right tobe in that country in the first place. Laws are putin place to prevent people to live certaincountries without a legitimate reason, and ifthese laws are wilfully breached, people mustface the consequences. It is true that peoplehave the right of freedom of movement, but thisright is restricted to the borders of one's homecountry, and are widened by internationalagreements. But even then the freedom ofmovement can be restricted, even for people inWestern countries. If we take the example of aEuropean or an American that wants to go onholiday to a tropical island, we see that freedomof movements is relative. Legally this person canbe free to go, but if he or she does not havemoney to pay a ticket or refuses to do so, thisright can still be taken away.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrsimhw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It might be true that repatriation is a costlyoption, but so are other alternatives. Illegalimmigrants are already putting a costly burdenon the state by using its resources without givingmuch back. If this situation is left on its own, thelong-term costs of keeping illegal immigrantsmight be higher than the relative short-term costof repatriation. Alternatives, such asnationalisation of immigrants are also very costlyand time-intensive, and would moreoverencourages more potential migrants to come andobtain the country's nationality.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The reason western leaders have not beenindicted is firstly, because their domesticjudiciaries are strong and independent enough tobe able to prosecute abuses when they occur.The ICC has a principle of complementaritywhere the ICC will only prosecute if the statethemselves are unwilling or unable to prosecute.This is not the case in western countries wherethere is no difficulty putting members ofgovernment on trial – in the UK for example theenvironment secretary Chris Huhne was sent toprison for perverting the course of justice. [1]Secondly however, there is no evidence thatthese leaders were involved or responsible foratrocities in the same way the African leaderswere. Western leaders have not authorizedindividual killings of civilians, or massacres,genocides or other crimes that are prosecuted bythe ICC. [1] Mr Justice Sweeney, ‘Chris Huhneand Vicky Price jailed: judge’s sentencingremarks in full’, The Telegraph, 11 March 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ICC treats Africa differently Africa and itsleaders are treated far more contemptuously bythe court. The prospect of prosecuting BarakObama for the killing of civilians by drones whichAmnesty International has suggested amount towar crimes [1] or George W. Bush for war crimesin Iraq and Afghanistan is remote – yet OmarAl-Bashir and Uhuru Kenyatta have both beenindicted as sitting leaders. The ICC will onlyprosecute if those who have committed warcrimes are not going to be prosecuted locally butthis is as much the case for western leaders asAfrican ones. This points clearly to the ICCproselytizing what is ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ toAfricans but not to other leaders – treating theseleaders less respectfully and blatantlyundermining African nations sovereignty in a waythey would not, or would dare not, forothers. [1] ‘USA must be held to account fordrone killings in Pakistan’, AmnestyInternational, 22 October 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The need in most cases for a referral from theUNSC certainly makes it unlikely that thosestates will be investigated but this does notmake the court biased against Africa. Some ofthe cases in Africa have involved countries ortheir judiciaries referring themselves. In the caseof Kenya’s election violence in the five yearsafter the violence occurred very little actionoccurred from the domestic forces; there was acommission lead by Philip Waki thatrecommended a special tribunal to prosecutethose involved. [1] However this never happenedas a result the Waki commission handed theirreport over to the UN and ICC for action [2] .Unsurprisingly the case of Kenyatta has seenaccusations of witness intimidation on largescales, showing that a fair trial would have beenvery difficult to guarantee in Kenya itself [3]. [1] Waki Report, October 2008, (largepdf) [2] Wachira, Muchemi, ‘Annan did notambush Kenya says Justice minister’, DailyNation, 13 July 2009 [3] ‘Perceptions and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Africa is overtly prosecuted All of thetwenty-four people currently indicted are African.Of the fifteen cases currently sitting before thecourt, all are African [1] . This in and of itselfpoints to a large disparity between Africa and therest of the world. It is also not at all true thatAfrica is the only place worthy of investigation –atrocities have occurred in the Middle East,Kosovo, Chechnya, Sri Lanka and North Korea,among others since the inception of the court.This is clearly because these other cases havepowerful backers in the form of permanentSecurity Council members. The only conclusionto be drawn is that the ICC feels morecomfortable targeting Africa then other regionswhere it is likely to run into opposition frompowerful members of the internationalcommunity. [1] ‘Situations and cases’,International Criminal Court, accessed13/2/2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While Africa is the only continent to faceprosecutions, a number of other regions whereatrocities have taken place are being heavilyinvestigated, including Afghanistan, Colombia,Georgia, Honduras and South Korea [1] . Theseare expected to lead to prosecutions occurring.So while Africa has had the focus during theinitial years of the ICC, its focus is expanding notjust focused on African atrocities. It is not evensolely focused on developing countries; acomplaint about British actions in Iraq has beenhanded to the ICC. [2] [1] ‘Situations andcases’, International Criminal Court, accessed13/2/2014 [2] Owen, Jonathan, ‘Exclusive:Devastating dossier on ‘abuse’ by UK forces inIraq goes to International Criminal Court’, TheIndependent, 12 January 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ICC is controlled by the Security Council The ICCcan only investigate situations that are referredto it by either the host country, or the SecurityCouncil [1] . A power also exists for theprosecutor to seek investigation, though this hasas yet only been used twice. As such, mostatrocities that occur across the world areshielded from prosecution because such aprosecution would be against the interests of amember Security Council. Leaders do not seemto be brought for investigation until they offendthe west; Charles Taylor was not prosecuteduntil he had a falling out with the USA, despitetheir soft support for him in overthrowing theDoe regime [2] . Another case in point is Ugandawhere the Lord’s Resistance Army has beencharged, but not the Pro-US government forces,despite evidence existing they have alsocommitted crimes [3] . It is clear then that theICC makes decisions by broad external factors,which biases it against Africa which does nothave any countries on the UNSC or any patrons", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The point isn’t that the ICC has prosecuted inAfrica; it’s that they have focused exclusively onAfrica. This presents the rhetoric that Africa andAfricans are somehow more violent and lessmoral then the rest of the world – or thatAfricans require more intervention than otherplaces. This biases Africa again the rest of theworld and marginalizes them in the internationalcommunity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "While these countries referred themselves, theydid under enormous pressure from the ICC. TheProsecutors chose to ‘follow closely’ African casesto the exclusion of others and then activelyinvited these countries to refer themselves,under threat of seeking prosecutions on theirown if the country did not comply [1] .Self-referral under pressure does not show thatthe ICC is not biased against Africa rather itshows either that the ICC has been moreinterested in Africa than elsewhere, or that it hasput more pressure on African states toself-refer. [1] African Business", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Africa has a strong voice in the ICC The ICC hasgone to great lengths to involve all parts of theworld in all aspects of its operations. FatouBensouda, from Gambia, was recently appointedChief Prosecutor of the ICC. Moreover, Africanshave twice been Vice-President of the court, andhave had a fair representation of judgespresiding over the court, with five of twenty-onecurrent judges on the panel [1] . Moreover, theAfrica Union played a large role in thenegotiations over the Rome statute and thecreation of the ICC, reflected in the largeproportion of countries who are members. [2] Assuch, Africa’s voice is strongly heard in theICC. [1] ‘Judge Sang-Hyun Song re-electedPresident of the International Criminal Court for2012-2015; Judges Sanji Mmasenono Monagengand Cuno Tarfusser elected First and SecondVice-President respectively’, InternationalCriminal Court, 11 March 2012 [2] M urithi, Tim,‘The African Union and the international CriminalCourt: An Embattled Relationship’, IJR Policy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC is pursuing the gravest situations withinits jurisdiction The ICC’s jurisdiction is limited tothose countries that have ratified the Romestatute. This combined with the likelihood ofdeadlock in the UNSC, means that many of theworst conflicts are off limits for the ICC. Usingdata from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program andUNHCR database since the Rome Statute cameinto effect in July 2002 (up to 2011) Ben Shea ofthe UCLA Law School finds that there has beenlittle bias against Africa. Not only have most ofthe gravest conflicts taken place in Africa but thecountries that were not investigated are notparty to the Rome Statute. This eliminatesAlgeria, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Iraq,Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Palestine, Russia,Somalia, Sri Lanka, Syria, Thailand, Togo,Turkey, Yemen and Zimbabwe. Others such asLiberia, and the Philippines only signed up aftertheir conflict had ended. Others such asColumbia, Georgia and Mexico can be eliminateddue to Complementarity (where the states are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "African victims deserve ICC intervention to bringjustice At the most fundamental level, many ofthe world’s atrocities of recent times haveoccurred in Africa, where weak government andmass war are rampant. Taken per head ofpopulation Africa has the most conflicts of anycontinent and unlike Asia its most brutal conflictshave occurred in the last couple of decades. [1]As such, it is not surprising that a focus hasexisted in Africa from the ICC. That the ICC hasnot been as strong in other continents is notevidence of bias against Africa, rather that theyhave work to do in other areas. But the victimsof atrocities in Africa deserve their perpetratorsto be brought to justice. As such, Africa is not a‘victim’ of the ICC, but the greatest beneficiary.Africa had the greatest desire and push forinternational assistance in obtaining justice, andare now receiving that. This simply shows thatAfrica is forging a path that other regions shouldfollow in terms of its acceptance of internationalcriminal law. [1] Straus, Scott, ‘Wars do end!", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Africa has invited ICC intervention Far from theICC being biased against Africa it is Africa’sembrace of the ICC and the opportunity forinternational justice that has led to so manyAfricans being tried at the Hague. The reality isthat the only nations to refer themselves to theICC have been African –the DR Congo, CentralAfrican Republic, Mali and Uganda were allself-referred [1] . Likewise, the Ivory Coastreferred itself to ICC jurisdiction, and referral ofDarfur to the ICC from the Security Council wasdone so with the African Union’s support [2] .The ICC has clearly not as an institution beentargeting Africa, rather it has been investigating,and then engaging in trials on situations thathave been brought to it by the countriesinvolved. Other regions of the world have notembraced the opportunity for justice in the sameway so it is taking longer for investigations intowar crimes in those situations by the ICC. [1]Clark, P. “Law, Politics and Pragmatism: The ICCand case selection in the DRC and Uganda” in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-con04b", "title": "", "text": "That the ICC is investigating the conflicts thatunder some analyses may be the gravest withinits jurisdiction does not mean it is not biased.Complementarity in itself shows bias; it allowscountries that are considered more developed offthe hook ensuring that the ICC will only look atthe least developed. African states have signedup to the ICC but the result of their belief ininternational criminal justice has been that thosewho attempt to avoid international justice by notsigning up to the statute have succeeded whilethose who accept some form of justice havebeen targeted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbibaa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "One of strongest current criticisms of the AfricanUnion is that the ICC is ignoring its opinions. Inparticular, the AU has very strong views on thetreatment of the Kenyan President and hisdeputy by the ICC in the Kenyan investigation,which the ICC has failed to engage with.Tanzanian President, Jakaya Kikwete, said 'TheICC continues to ignore repeated requests andappeals by the African Union' and this 'attitudehas become a major handicap that fails toreconcile the court's secondary andcomplementary role in fighting impunity' [1] .This has led to African Union seriouslyconsidering leaving the union – not evidence ofthem being an important part of the process.Having Africans as a part of the ICC itself doesnot mean it listens to the African states that areparties to it. [1] Dersso, Solomon, ‘Unplannedobsolescence: The ICC and the African Union’,AlJazeera, 11 October 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Britain should not feel sorry for the new EUmembers and give up its rebate out of pity forthem. They chose to enter the EU and acceptedthe terms of membership - including the rebatearrangements. Indeed, it could be argued thatmembership was not necessarily good for theformer communist states - having escaped onebureaucratic and ideological superstate, theyhave now chosen to be ruled by another,exchanging Moscow for Brussels. EU membershipwill impose thousands of unnecessary regulationsupon them and tie them to a “European socialmodel” which is clearly failing in the westernstates - both these things could hold back theireconomic growth and leave them poorer thanthey could have been outside the EU. Even thedevelopment aid they will receive will largely bewasted because it has to be spent in waysBrussels demands rather than in locallyproductive investment. And if Britain did wish tobe nice to the new member states, it could do sowithout giving up the principle of the rebate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "New member states are much poorer than theUK Britain should give up the rebate in solidaritywith the new member states. Most of the tenrecent entrants to the EU are still struggling toovercome the legacy of communist rule and aremuch poorer than the previous 15 memberstates. In 2009 Bulgaria and Romania had lessthan half the average EU GDP per capita whereasthe UK was about 120% EU average. [1] As oneof the richest EU members, Britain has a moralresponsibility to contribute its share of themoney needed to allow the new member statesto make a success of EU membership. It also hasa self-interest in contributing to their economicdevelopment, for as they become richer theircitizens will increasingly buy the services andmedia exports in which Britain specialises.Indeed, because the rebate is paid for by allmember states the new member states will becontributing payments towards Britain’s rebate -clearly something which Britain cannot attemptto defend given the disparity in wealth. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It might be worth giving up the British rebate forserious CAP reform, but it is unnecessary. If theCAP were abolished, Britain’s net payments tothe EU would automatically be much smalleranyway, so the rebate (66% of the differencebetween the UK’s contributions to the EU and itsreceipts from it) would also shrink away toinsignificance. CAP reform is worth doing for itsown sake, and other EU countries will only agreeto it once they realise that fact - offering up therebate will make no difference. In any case, evenif the rebate was a useful bargaining chip to becashed in, there is no chance of individualcountries such as France (or Eire, Spain, Greece,Italy, Belgium, etc.) agreeing to changing theCAP at present and any one country couldprevent it, so Britain should hold on to the rebatecard.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Enlargement could mean a new start Britainshould not alienate its natural allies among thenew member states by insisting on the rebate.Like Britain, the new member states are largelyeconomically liberal, anti-federalist regarding thefuture of the EU, and are pro-American in termsof foreign policy. As a result Britain is much morelikely to be able to work with Poland, CzechRepublic and Hungary on these issues. [1] Theyalso recognise that Britain promoted the cause oftheir membership throughout the 1990s andappreciate its willingness to grant immediate freemovement to their citizens who wish to work inBritain. In all these ways they are closer toBritain than to France or Germany, the two bigstates who have traditionally dominated EUdecision-making. Enlargement presents Britainwith a great opportunity to influence the futuredirection of Europe in partnership with these newstates, but this opportunity will be lost if Britishinsists on the rebate regardless of Central andEastern European opinion. [1] Number 10,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The Rebate is not justified The British rebate isan undeserved anomaly - no other country has asimilar arrangement to pay back part of itscontribution to the EU budget. Germany, theNetherlands, Denmark and Sweden all make abigger net contribution to the EU than Britaindoes (in proportion to the size of theirpopulations), [1] yet they do get specialtreatment. Britain knew how the EU operatedwhen it chose to join more than thirty years ago- if it didn’t like the structure of the budget,whereby rich countries pay more than poor ones,it could have stayed outside. In any case, a fewbillion Euros a year is a small sum to pay foraccess to a huge continent-wide market, thedepartment for Business Innovation & Skillsestimated that GDP in 2006 was 2.2% higherthan it would have been without a single market,[2] in Britain this would be almost$50billion. [1] BBC News, ‘EU Budget’, 2007 [2]BIS, ‘The Benefits and Achievements of EUSingle Market’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While the UK is the only country to have so farreceived a rebate the Commission pointed outthat the Fontainbleu agreement was based onthe principle that ‘….any Member Statesustaining a budgetary burden which is excessivein relation to its relative prosperity may benefitfrom a correction at the appropriate time.’ [1]This could clearly apply to many other countriesapart from Britain, Germany and other countriescould therefore ask for a rebate if they wish.While there is no other compensation mechanismlike the rebate there are lump sum payments tothe Netherlands and Sweden [2] whileNetherlands, Sweden, Germany and Austria allhave reduced rates of the European portion ofVAT, [3] and the same states also pay lesstowards the rebate. [4] [1] Patterson, Ben, ‘TheUK rebate issue’, p.2 (link downloads pdf) [2]Europa, ‘Where does the money come from?’,2010 [3] Notenboom, Harry, ‘Structure andcomposition of the European Union ownresources System’, 2009, p.17 [4] Ibid, p.15", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Britain can be on good terms with the EastEuropean states without dropping the rebate.Tony Blair in his deal on the rebate in 2005 gavea good deal to the new members of the EU whichgave much more in structural funds to thesemembers and at the same time reduced theBritish rebate. [1] [1] White, Michael, and Watt,Nicholas, ‘Blair clinches deal with offer of bigrebate cut’, 2005", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Britain does not want to be at the heart ofEurope - it wants to be in the EU, but not run bythe EU. Even if the rebate went, the UK wouldremain outside any EU “core group” of countries,as it has chosen not to join the Schengenagreement on passport free movement, and tostay outside the Euro. Both these decisions havevery wide political and popular support in the UK,and neither will be changed even if the rebatewas weakly given away. So tensions will continuebetween Britain and its European partners, butat least by defending the rebate they will knowthat the UK is prepared to stand up for itsinterests and respect it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The rebate should go in exchange for CAPreform It is worth giving the rebate up inexchange for serious reform of the EU budget,particularly of the Common Agricultural Policywhich spends 40% of the EU’s budget [1] on 3%of its population. [2] The CAP not only wastestaxpayers’ money, it also raises the cost of foodfor European consumers, ruins the environmentand prevents poor farmers in the developingworld from trading their way out of poverty.Even in its own terms it is a disaster, for mostCAP money goes to a small number of richlandowners running huge agribusiness estates,not to small-scale peasant farmers preservingthe traditional rural way of life. If offering to giveup the British rebate helps to get agreement onreform, then it is a sacrifice well worth making.Britain on the other hand favors using CAP moreto protect the environment rather thanencourage food production. [3] [1] Europa,‘Budget 2011 in figures’, 2011 [2]Eurobarometer, ‘Europeans, Agriculture and the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Giving up the rebate would mean better relationswith the Europe Union It is worth giving up therebate to remove a constant source of tensionand ill-feeling between Britain and its Europeanpartners. Until the rebate is abandoned, Britainwill never be at the heart of Europe. This limitsour ability to promote our other interests inEurope, as every argument always ends up backat the rebate, and weakens our moral authority.Denmark for example is similarly Euro scepticbut is fiercely opposed to the UK rebate and aimsto scrap it during Denmark’s next EU Presidencyin 2012. [1] Because preserving the rebate hasalways been the Prime Minister’s priority, everyother British goal has been given up instead. Thisled to bad deals for Britain over the ERM, atMaastricht, and in 2002 when Tony Blairaccepted a Franco-German agreement to leavethe CAP unreformed until 2013. This is becauseBritain is inevitably on its own in any possiblechange to the rebate whereas on almost anyother issue Britain has allies. So when Britain’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-con03b", "title": "", "text": "When the rebate was agreed over twenty yearsago, Britain was poor after decades of decline. Infact it was the third poorest state in the thenEuropean Economic Community (after Irelandand Greece) [1] , so the size of its netcontribution to the budget was clearly unfair.Now the UK is one of the EU member countriesand the rebate is no longer justifiable in the wayit was originally justified. The sums involved aresmall compared to the overall UK budget - muchless than the margin of error in the Chancellor ofthe Exchequer’s tax and spending plans, in 2003for example Gordon Brown had to borrow £10billion more than expected. [2] It is partly(perhaps largely) because of Margaret Thatcher’sachievements in power that the UK is so strongeconomically, so agreeing that the rebate is nolonger necessary is a tribute to her legacy, not abetrayal. [1] OECD, ‘1984, Gross domesticproduct: Per head, US $, constant prices,constant PPPs, OECD base year’, 2011 [2]Schifferes, Steve, ‘Chancellor to squeeze wages’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-con01b", "title": "", "text": "With the expansion of the European Union it isno longer justified that Britain should not bepaying more towards the European Union, and inparticular the much poorer Eastern Europeanstates which have joined. Britain cannot expectto get as much back from the European Union asit puts in. Britain should accept being one of thebiggest contributors and in return would get abigger influence one the EU, rather than beingconstantly frozen out of decisions by France andGermany.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Rebate makes membership acceptable to theBritish people The EU is a vast wastefulbureaucracy, for example creating a ‘House ofEuropean History’ for €14 million, [1] and isbeyond reform. Anything to limit Britain’scontribution to this monster with pretensions tobecoming a super-state is desirable. Many in theUK, between 35 and 65% of the population, [2]would prefer that we withdrew altogether, but ifwe can’t at least we should “starve the beast” bylimiting the amount of money we give it to doharm with. Even if you think Britain should stayin the EU, you must recognise that the rebate isone of the only things that makes EUmembership acceptable to ordinary people.Giving up the rebate is likely to swing Britishopinion strongly in favour of withdrawal. [1]Banks, Martin, ‘Parliament hits back at claims of‘wasteful’ spending plans’, 2011 [2] Hannan,Daniel, ‘Would Britain vote to leave the EU?’,2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Europe needs to tackle much biggerproblems Those EU leaders who are most criticalof the rebate are ignoring the EU’s real andserious problems by spending large amounts oftime in rows with Britain over the rebate. Europehas immense problems such as persistent 10%unemployment, which has gone up as a result ofthe financial crisis, the rejection of the EUconstitution by voters, the challenge ofglobalisation, the failure to make the singlemarket in services work fairly, corruption andwaste at Brussels, etc. This is even before theimmense difficulties with the Euro which theEurozone is currently suffering from. All theseissues are much more important than the rebatefor the future of the European Union. If Europecan once again become competitive economicallythen the financial gains for Europe will be muchgreater than persuading Britain to drop therebate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The rebate could never be regained MargaretThatcher fought for four years to win the rebatefor Britain, famously wielding her handbag at EUsummits until it was agreed. Giving it up is aclear betrayal of Thatcher’s legacy and shows thepresent government’s unwillingness to stand upfor Britain’s interests in Brussels. With thesituation now different due to there being moremembers there is no chance of any future BritishPrime Minister being able to repeat MrsThatcher’s achievement of 1984, so once therebate is given up, it can never be regained.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Britain should not pay more than othercountries Britain’s rebate is completely justified.Without it Britain would pay far more into the EUthan it ever received back. The UK governmentargues “Without the rebate, the UK's netcontribution as a percentage of national incomewould be twice as big as France's, and 1.5 timesbigger than Germany's.” [1] This is becausemost of the EU’s budget goes to pay for the costsof the Common Agricultural Policy and regionalaid programmes. The UK’s farming sector is avery small part of the economy, and very few ofits regions count as poor in Europe-wide terms,so Britain receives little funding back from theEU. Meanwhile as a result of new membersjoining the EU development funding has beentaken away from poorer areas of Britain, many ofwhich will no longer be eligible, to be redirectedto Eastern and Central European countries whichneed it much more, [2] Britain’s net contributionto the EU budget will go up .The rebaterecognises this and returns two-thirds of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-con04b", "title": "", "text": "There may be bigger problems but the rebate issymptomatic of many of them. The reason formany of Europe’s problems is the determinationfor member states to take from the EU but notgive and to haggle over everything rather thanworking together. The rebate is a prime exampleof one state believing that it deserves a smallamount of money more than others and as suchshould be scrapped in order to help show thatboth big and small problems can be tackledthrough one state being willing to give upsomething important to it in return for othersdoing the same on other issues.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbbsgier-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The rebate is bad for Britain and the EU as itleads to a complacency in the UK about the waythe EU is run. Knowing that two-thirds ofBritain’s net contribution will be returnedanyway, British politicians and civil servantshave not had to be serious about tackling wasteand corruption at Brussels. Giving the rebate upwould focus British minds much more clearlyupon how the EU operates and would lead themto demand higher standards, both of theCommission and of their own electedrepresentatives in the Council of Ministers andthe European Parliament.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhwispo-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This is all supposition; we have no way ofknowing if Syria will test any set red lines, orthat they will use chemical weapons if there is noresponse. Instead it may be the response thatcauses the use of chemical weapons. The SyrianForeign Ministry has said in the past thatchemical and biological weapons “will never beused unless Syria is exposed to externalaggression.” [1] Clearly an intervention aimingto stop the use of chemical weapons wouldconstitute just such external aggression. [1]Associated Press, ‘Syrian regime makes chemicalwarfare threat’, guardian.co.uk, 23 July 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhwispo-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "No reaction will embolden the regime Notresponding to Syrian moves to use chemicalweapons will be enabling the Syrian governmentto use chemical weapons. It has already beenreported that some chemical weapons are beingmade ready for use such as the combining of thetwo chemical precursors, isopropanol andmethylphosphony difluoride, needed toweaponize sarin gas. It means that “Physically,they’ve gotten to the point where the can load itup on a plane and drop it”. [1] If there is noresponse to this then Syria will be more likely touse weapons. If there is no response to thelimited use of chemical weapons, such as the useof Agent 15 in Homs, then there the regime willbe encouraged to think that there will be noresponse to larger uses of chemical weapons.Syria would slowly escalate to see what it canget away with, an escalation that US officialsthink could “lead to a mass-casualty event”without the appropriate response. [2] [1]Shachtman, Noah, and Ackerman, Spencer,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhwispo-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Attacking chemical weapons stores prevents athreat in itself as it runs the risk of blowing upthe weapons and therefore dispersing them intothe air. [1] This risk would potentially be evenhigher with any biological weapons as they wouldnot become harmless through dispersal asChemical weapons would. Quite apart from therisks of setting off the arsenals when attackingthem such attacks would be very unlikely to besuccessful. While Syria’s chemical weapons maybe held in a few large centers this would seem tobe unlikely given the history of attacks onunconventional weapons programs. Syria itselfhas had a nuclear weapons program destroyedas a result of an Israeli air attack in 2007. [2]This would have been a powerful lesson in theneed to disperse these weapons to prevent theirdestruction from the air. [1] ‘Preventing SyrianChemical Weapons Threat From BecomingDeadly Reality’, PBS Newshour, 5 December2012, [2] Harel, Amos, ‘Five years on, newdetails emerge about Israeli strike on Syrian", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhwispo-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Intervention would be legitimate If Syria uses,or looks as if it is about to use, chemicalweapons then this would be a clear escalationthat would require action. Syria has never signedthe Chemical Weapons Convention [1] but itshould be considered to be a part of customaryinternational law so binding even on those whohave not signed. [2] The use of chemicalweapons would also clearly be an attempt tocause huge numbers of casualties and large scalesuffering. In 2005 with the United Nations WorldSummit the nations of the world signed up to “Ifa State is manifestly failing to protect itspopulations, the international community mustbe prepared to take collective action to protectpopulations.” [3] So any intervention would befully justifiable, and indeed should occur as Syriawould be demonstrating that it is “failing toprotect its populations” by using chemicalweapons on them. There is no doubt that theworld has a moral responsibility to preventatrocities in Syria, these atrocities are already", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhwispo-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Intervention would only be legitimate if it wassanctioned by the United Nations SecurityCouncil or another country came directly underattack. What is being suggested while abhorrentdoes not meet either of these conditions. TheSecurity Council is unlikely to agree to anintervention now and Syria would be very foolishto use their chemical weapons on a neighbour soinviting attack. The use of chemical weaponsmay be banned by international law but thatdoes not mean that their use authorizes anintervention against a sovereign nation. [1] [1]Ku, Julian, ‘Would Syria’s Use of ChemicalWeapons Change the Legality of U.S.Intervention?’, Opinio Juris, 7 December 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhwispo-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "No fly zones and bombing could eliminate thethreat of chemical weapons One of the reasonswhy there has not been an intervention in Syriaalready is the difficulty of doing so. Preventing orlimiting the use of chemical weapons howeverdoes represent a defined objective that issmaller, and therefore easier, than bringingpeace to Syria. It however has to be acceptedthat if Assad’s regime is determined to usechemical weapons then some are likely to getthrough and how much is prevented is largelydependent on intelligence. Interdicting chemicalweapons during transport and bombing thestorage facilities to make it much more difficultto move the weapons would be easiest toaccomplish. [1] But if chemical weapons areabout to be used then attacking the deliveryvehicles would be necessary; any interventionwould have overwhelming air superiority sowould prevent the option of aircraft andhelicopters being used to deliver theweapons. More difficult to destroy are ballistic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhwispo-con03b", "title": "", "text": "According to Russia Syria has centralised itschemical weapons into just one or two locationswhich makes it possible to attack and destroy theweapons comparatively easily. [1] This might notdestroy all Syria’s chemical weapons but wouldstill severely restrict their access to theseweapons. [1] ‘Syria ‘secures chemical weaponsstockpile’’, Al Jazeera, 23 December 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhwispo-con01b", "title": "", "text": "All killing is abhorrent and one life is worth asmuch as any other. But while the lives lost arethe same it is not true that the use of chemicalweapons to kill is the same as conventionalweapons; the difference is that one is bannedand the other is not, their use makesintervention possible in a way it is not during aconventional conflict. The threat from chemicalweapons is also of an order of magnitude greaterthan that of conventional weapons. They can killimmense numbers quickly and indiscriminately.The use of chemical weapons is an escalationthat must not be allowed to happen.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhwispo-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The use of weapons may not change thediplomatic situation Russia and China have beenvetoing U.N. action on Syria throughout thecrisis. [1] It is precisely the intervention toprevent a massacre that the Russians andChinese are trying to avoid, for fear that thiswould simply be a pretext for regime change ashappened in Libya. Russian Foreign MinisterSergei Lavrov has explicitly stated “We’ll notallow the Libyan experience to be reproduced inSyria.” [2] When Obama said that chemicalweapons use was a red line Xinhua, China’s statenews agency, responded “Obama's \"red line\"warnings merely aimed to seek new pretext forSyria intervention” urging continued negotiationsinstead. [3] While the use of chemical weaponsis odious and would make Assad even more of apariah than he already is it should beremembered that China supports an equallyodious regime in North Korea, so may not seeChemical weapons as sufficient reason to changeposition. [1] Lynch, Colum, ‘Russia, China veto", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhwispo-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Cannot prevent the use of chemical weapons Nointervention could prevent the use of chemicalweapons of the Assad regime had decided to usethem. No outside force could ever be certain theyknow where all Syria’s weapons are [1] anddestroy them in time if they were distributed foruse; even full scale air strikes might not beenough, the pentagon thinks it would require75,000 troops to secure the arsenal in the eventof Syria’s collapse. [2] The Chairman of the JointChiefs, Martin Dempsey, admits that even ifacting before the use of Chemical weapons bythe Syrian government the United States wouldnot be able to stop their use. \"The act ofpreventing the use of chemical weapons wouldbe almost unachievable... because you wouldhave to have such clarity of intelligence, youknow, persistent surveillance, you'd have toactually see it before it happened, and that's --that's unlikely, to be sure,\" [3] If widespreadchemical weapons use had already occurred thenthe intervention could hardly be to prevent their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhwispo-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Do chemical weapons really make adifference? Chemical and biological weapons areamong the most horrifying weapons ever createdby man; it is with good cause that they arebanned. However if there have already been60,000 [1] people killed by the conflict in Syriathen would the use of chemical weapons, unlessit was on a massive scale, would not make muchdifference in terms of the numbers of people theAssad regime is killing. [2] It is morallyinconsistent to consider chemical weaponssomehow different if they are not changing thescale of the killing. It is human lives that matter,or rather does not matter as has been madeclear by the unwillingness to do anything, not thetype of weapon that kill those people. If Syriakills a few thousand more by using chemicalweapons then what is the difference to killingthousands more using conventionalweapons? [1] ‘Data suggests Syria death tollcould be more than 60,000, says UN humanrights office’, UN News Centre, 2 January", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhwispo-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The use of chemical weapons would change theChinese and Russian positions. Syrian officialshave been reported as saying they would not usechemical weapons because “We would notcommit suicide” as the support from Russia andChina would be lost. [1] While China and Russiado have interests in Syria these interests arenothing like those China has in maintaining theNorth Korean regime. [1] Blair, Charles P., ‘WhyAssad Won’t Use His Chemical Weapons’, ForeignPolicy, 6 December 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eppgglghb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Just because the Scots are less Europhobic thanthe English does not mean they are actuallynatural Europhiles. There is still a fair amount ofeuroscepticism in Scotland [quote=Prof. JohnCurtice] The rise of UKIP is also evident herealbeit at a lower level [1] [/quote]. When Scotswere asked 'Which institution do you think hasmost influence over how Scotland is run?' in2012 9% thought the EU did, when the questionwas changed to 'Which institution do you thinkought to have most influence over how Scotlandis run?' Only 1% said the EU, which certainlyimplies a degree of Euroscepticism. [2] One pollasking the question 'if Scotland wereindependent do you think it should join the EU?'even got a no answer, with 49% saying no and32% saying yes. [3] Indeed Scotland was moreanti-european in the 1975 referendum on Europethan England. 41.6% of Scots voted no to joiningthe European Community compared to 31.3% ofEnglish. [4] Scottish attitudes towards the EC/EUchanged in the 1980s as Thatcher was becoming", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eppgglghb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Scotland is more pro-EU than the rest of theUK According to a February 2013 Ipsos-mori pollScots want an EU referendum but 53% wouldvote to stay in the EU and only 34% would voteto leave. Indeed if Scotland became independentthose who wanted it to be in the EU rose to 61%and the number who wanted out fell to 33%. [1]In England 48% would vote to leave (as ofNovember 2012) and 44% would vote to stay in.[2] The UK Independence Party whose principalpolicy platform is a desire to leave the EU hasperformed considerably worse in Scotland thanin England. In the 2010 general election UKIPreceived 3.1% of the vote [3] whereas in theScottish election the next year they only received0.9% of the vote. [4] Similarly in the 2009European Parliament elections UKIP came secondnationally receiving almost 2.5 million votes,16.5% [5] of all votes cast but in Scotland itcame 6th, beaten by all four main parties andthe Greens receiving only 5.2% of the vote. [6]Scots clearly believe their interests lie with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eppgglghb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "On the vast majority of issues rUK and Scotlandhave the same interests. Scotland wants toretain the UK’s opt outs on issues such as thefree movement of people and the Euro. Scotlandalso has the same interests on the main issue forthe EU; trade. Nicola Sturgeon has highlightedthe benefit to Scotland of the Transatlantic Tradeand Investment Partnership something that theUK is also strongly in favour of. [1] [1]Sturgeon, Nicola, ‘Scotland’s Relationship withEurope’, The Scottish Government, 26 February2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eppgglghb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "An independent Scotland would avoid having areferendum on EU membership The ScottishNational Party (SNP) has said that they wouldnot hold an EU referendum in an independentScotland. Scotland is [quote=Nicola Sturgeon]regardless of the direction of UK policy - Scotlandis strongly committed to continuing within the EUas an independent nation [1] [/quote] A vote forindependence would therefore be a vote for astable relationship with Europe. Interestinglyshould Scotland become independent and accedeto the EU there would have to be a treaty changeto provide for Scottish representation in EUinstitutions. [2] This could well trigger an EUreferendum in the remainder of the UK (rUK)under the 'referendum lock'. [1] Sturgeon,Nicola, ‘Scotland’s Relationship with Europe’, TheScottish Government, 26 February 2013, §9 [2]Avery, Graham, ‘HC 643 The foreign policyimplications of and for a separate Scotland,Foreign Affairs Select Committee, 24 September2012, point 6.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eppgglghb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The SNP's strongest argument, repeatedly made,is that independence would allow Scots to maketheir own decisions. It would therefore be onlyright that Scots whether independent or notshould be allowed their own referendum on EUmembership. The principle of a referendum onEU membership is supported by 58% of Scotswith only 36% opposing a referendum. [1] Avote for independence would therefore seem tobe a vote in favour of the validity of referendumslegitimising the need to have referendums onsimilarly large issues in the future. A vote for anindependent Scotland is not necessarily a votefor a stable relationship with Europe. [1]McLean, Christopher, ‘Scots want EU referendumbut would vote to stay in’, Ipsos MORI, 14February 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eppgglghb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Scotland has different interests to rUK Statesare often seen as having one single unitaryinterest, however this is not the case theinterests of different regions can be verydifferent. It should therefore not be surprisingthat Scotland and rUK have different interestswith relation to the EU. For example on climatechange Scotland has the greatest potential forthe generation of renewable energy in Europewith 25% of Europe’s tidal potential and 10% ofwave potential [1] yet the UK is in favour ofscrapping European targets for the generation ofrenewable energy. [2] UK ministers have alsobeen accused of “working against Scotland” onagriculture being willing to accept reductions infarm support meaning that Scotland receives thelowest level in Europe. [3] Scotland’s owninterests would therefore be better representedby having its own government at the negotiatingtable than a UK government. [1] ‘Energy inScotland: Get the facts’, The ScottishGovernment, 10 July 2013, [2] Harvey, Fiona,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eppgglghb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The Scottish Government claims that anindependent Scotland would be able to join theEU with all the UK's various opt outs intact.Scotland indeed could not be forced to join theEuro because in order to do so it would have todemonstrate currency convergence for at leasttwo years which the newly independent stateobviously would not be in a position to do. [1]Therefore if Scotland retained UK opt outs therewould be only a positive change in relationshipwith Scotland receiving greater representation inEU institutions through having its own seat in theCouncil of Ministers, possibly its ownCommissioner, and also a reallocation ofEuropean Parliamentary constituencies thatwould increase its representation there (andparadoxically increase rUK representation aswell). [2] [1] Noon, Stephen, ‘Euromembership’, 10 November 2011, [2] Engel,Arno, and Parkes, Roderick, ‘Accommodating anindependent Scotland: how a British-styleconstitution for the EU could secure Scotland’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eppgglghb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The SNP argues that the transition from being aconstituent part of the UK inside the EU andbeing an independent state within the EU wouldbe seamless. [1] While 'the Scottish governmentdoes not take the process of EU membership forgranted' they hope to notify the EU of their intentto join the EU before the referendum and thenuse the period between a yes vote andindependence to negotiate their accession. [2]They would have 18 months to sort out thetransition between the referendum onindependence on 21 September 2014 andindependence in March 2016. It should beremembered that an independent Scotlandshould already meet all the criteria formembership as a result of having already been amember so should be able to go throughmembership negotiations quickly. [1] TheScotsman, ‘Scottish independence: Hague EUclaims criticised’, 31 October 2013, [2]Sturgeon, Nicola, ‘Scotland’s Relationship withEurope’, The Scottish Government, 26 February", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eppgglghb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The UK or rUK is not going to leave theEU. Despite the legislative activity an EUreferendum is still not an immediate prospect.Legislation as it stands only calls for areferendum in the event of treaty change, whichwould itself take years to negotiate. The privatemembers bill currently progressing through theCommons is likely to be butchered in the Lordsand David Cameron's promise of a 2017referendum relies on a Conservative victory in2015. Such a victory may not happen, despiteLabour's soft poll lead the natural bias of thecurrent boundaries make an outrightConservative victory a very remote prospect. [1]Even if a referendum does get held the outsupporters would then have to win it. Althoughpolls for a prospective EU membershipreferendum tend to show those who favour theexit leading this cannot be taken as necessarilymeaning that it is likely to happen. Polls change,the AV referendum saw numbers initiallyfavourable to AV swing round to a decisive", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eppgglghb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The Scottish relationship with the EU is likely tochange after independence. The UK's variousopt outs exist because of the strong negotiatingposition that the whole of the UK had at the timeof the signing of the various relevant treaties.Had Scotland been independent then it would nothave been in the same position. It is also arguedthat if Scotland wants to join the EU then itimplicitly wants to join the EU as it is now andcould retain exceptional status only in the veryshort term. [1] The change in relationship wouldprobably change the Scottish attitude to the EU,although it is hard to say whether this would beautomatically in a negative way. The implicationof Jose Manuel Barroso's comments quotedearlier is that Scotland will be unlikely to retainthe UK's opt outs from certain areas of EU policy.Most obviously it is likely that if joining as a newstate Scotland may have no choice but to jointhe Euro at least in the long term when it meetsthe convergence requirements. [2] Several pollsshow Scots less likely to vote for independence if", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eppgglghb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Scottish independence might be a faster routeout of the EU than a referendum. Before 2012the SNP argued that Independence could beachieved and Scotland remain within the EUwhile retaining all UK opt outs with a minimalamount of trouble. However this position hassince changed largely due to Europeancommission pronouncements on the issue. [1]There is no EU precedent to the situation thatScottish independence would bring about. It hasbeen argued that Scotland would notautomatically remain part of the EU and wouldhave to reapply. Commission President JoseManuel Barroso has said [quote=Barroso] Forthe European Union’s purposes, from a legalpoint of view, it is certainly a new state. If acountry becomes independent it is a new stateand then it has to negotiate into the EuropeanUnion [2] [/quote] Certainly if Scotland'sapplication to join the EU were a normal onethen the 18 month timetable betweenreferendum to independence would not give", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eppgglghb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Polls consistently point to a vote to leave the EUin a prospective referendum. [1] Whether thisactually happens is a moot point, such areferendum would still bring about instability inthe relationship with the European Union.Scotland if independent could avoid thisturbulence. At the same time a renegotiationdoes not mean that Scotland’s interests would besafeguarded as a British Prime Minister would benegotiating with an eye to winning anyreferendum. The result is that suchrenegotiations would likely favour Englishinterests over Scottish ones as it is English votesthe Prime Minister would need to win over. [1]UKPollingReport, ‘YouGov/Sunday Times – Con29, Lab 40, LD 9, UKIP 14’, 19 May 2013, andothers on the same site.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The Opposition acknowledges that the USgovernment’s obligation to act in its own nation’sbest interest reflects a flaw in the US’sinternational role. However, this flaw isoutweighed by the benefits of US protection.First, other countries can use soft power toprevent the US from abusing its military power.In 2010, US exports exceeded $1.8 trillion andimports exceeded $2.3 trillion; internationaltrade accounted for 14% of US GDP. [1] The USis vulnerable to economic sanctions.Furthermore, the US enjoys the position it holdsin international relations; were it to lose respectand bargaining power in the internationalcommunity, Americans would strongly questionthe wisdom of government decisions.Furthermore, Americans are strongly attached toan ideal of American morality. This ideal places acheck on the nation’s willingness to engage inforeign combat without any moral justification.Thus there are checks in place to keep the USfrom acting only in self-interest. [1] William", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The US government’s obligation to its ownpeople is mutually exclusive to acting on behalfof the international community. A governmentderives its sovereignty from a social contractwith its citizens. Citizens surrender some of theirfreedoms in exchange for governmentprotection; if a government does not serve itspeople’s best interests, it is not legitimate. Thusin any situation where the interests of theAmerican public are not aligned with those of theglobal population, the US military cannot servethe international community without failing tomeet its obligation to its own citizenry. Becausethe American public has the ability to oust aleader that does not promote their interests, themilitary is much more likely to choose the optionof serving American interests. This may not beunreasonable behavior, but it is indicative of theneed for other entities- either other nations orinternational organizations- to have comparablemilitary power to that of the United States.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The Pro only identifies US military failures; thereare also many occasions of US military success.The Opposition case details examples of militarysuccess in Panama, Kuwait, and Bosnia. Therecent success of Libyan rebel attempts tooverthrow Gaddafi is partially attributable to USmilitary assistance. [1] Furthermore, US militarystrategy is constantly changing and adapting.The rules of international engagement changerelatively quickly; when the rise of the Sovietthreat rendered isolationism impossible, the USadapted its foreign policy to a bipolar world inwhich mutually assured destruction was aneffective means of preventing direct conflict. Thefall of the USSR created a multi-polar world inwhich MAD became a more complex and lessreliable strategy. Today, the US is adjusting tothe increasing threat of Islamic terrorism. Theseconstant changes render perfect implementationof military force impossible- this impossibility isnot unique to the US. But with constantreevaluation and assistance from the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "As long as the United States works unilaterally toquell violent conflict, progress is not being madetowards a better, internationally coordinatedsystem. The United States spendsapproximately $700 trillion annually on itsmilitary; China, the world’s second largestmilitary spender, spends $114 trillion. [1] TheUS outpaces other possible peacekeepers bysuch a large gap that these other powers havelittle incentive to even try to keep up. UnilateralUS intervention undermines international actorssuch as UN troops because it communicates theUS’s refusal to submit to the interests of theinternational community. Thus US militaryintervention becomes a “quick fix” whichprevents genuine long-term stability [1] “SIPRIMilitary Expenditure Database,” StockholmInternational Peace Research Institute, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The United States is not an appropriate agent formonitoring international security because it isonly representative of one nation. The U.S. is anindependent nation, not an international entity.Thus 96% of the world population has no voice inits’ government’s decisions. [1] The USgovernment has authority over its own citizens,and it is justified in engaging in war if its citizensare under direct threat. However, citizens ofother nations have no means of expressing theiropinion in the US government. If the USgovernment abuses its power, these people haveno reliable legal means of recourse.Consequently, the US government has noauthority to intervene in their affairs. [1]“Country Comparison: Population,” The WorldFact Book, Central Intelligence Agency.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "All conflicts are a threat to the entireinternational community. As is discussed in theOpposition’s arguments, conflicts have the abilityto spill over into other regions and to destabilizegovernments. Such conflicts endanger theinternational community because they increasethe risk of irrational/non-state actors attainingweapons of mass destruction. This is problematicbecause irrational actors do not necessarily havea sense of self-preservation, and thus cannot bedeterred by threats of mass retaliation. Thus ifsuch an actor attains nuclear weapons, there islittle that can stop them from using suchweapons. Non-state actors are problematicbecause governments do not know with whomthey are negotiating or where/how to find them.Thus the US is justified in intervening in suchconflicts as a means of self-preservation. ThePro’s argument is based on a theory ofsovereignty that is already violated in most ofthe conflicts in which the US interferes. ThePro’s argument is based on the notion that the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The Pro’s perspective is backwards; as long asother nations do not move towards providingviable alternatives to US military dominance, theUS cannot afford to reduce its own defenses. TheUS should not have to provide an incentive forother nations to improve their defense systems;their own self-preservation should be a sufficientincentive. In June 2011, then-US Secretary ofDefense Robert Gates warned that EuropeanNATO members’ reluctance to fund their share ofNATO operations could be negative impacts forthe alliance’s future. The New York Times relatedGates’ words; “[Gates] warned of a ‘dim if notdismal future’ for the alliance unless its Europeanmembers increased their participation, and hesaid that Washington would not forever pay forEuropean security when the Europeans could dothat for themselves.” [1] The US may be able toalter its role to be less unilateral, but it cannot doso until after other military entities improve theirdefense systems. [1] Erlanger.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There are currently no viable alternatives to USmilitary dominance. All would simply lead tomore strife; dominance by another, probably lesspeaceful power, no dominance at all leading toanarchy or a balance of power, which usuallyleads to war as in the 18th Century. All of theseoptions would create considerably more conflictthan there is at the moment.(See Oppositionargument)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Failure after failure has made it clear that the USmilitary is not an effective actor for maintaininginternational stability. The US military makesproblems worse just as often as it makes thembetter. The US intervened in Vietnam on thegrounds of protecting the free world fromcommunism; over 58,000 American soldiers andapproximately 2 million Vietnamese civilianswere killed while the US failed to subdue theVietcong. The United States provided covertsupport to Augusto Pinochet after his militarycoup d’etat over Chile’s democratically electedgovernment under Salvadore Allende becausethe US feared Allende, a socialist, would promotecommunism. [1] , [2] Today, Pinochet isremembered as a bloody dictator that ruledthrough terror for 17 years. US intervention inSomalia in 1992-94 resulted in little more thanthe loss of American lives. [3] The USexperienced similarly negatively results duringits intervention in Beirut (1982-84), Grenada(1983), Libya (1986), and Haiti (1994). [4] More", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "US unilateral intervention is a form of theWestern imperialism that has caused so much ofthe strife that exists in the modernworld. Western domination is not the answer topolitical conflict; it is the cause of manypredicaments that result in the violation ofhuman rights in countries in Asia, Africa, and theMiddle East today. Former CIA analyst MichaelScheuer, who led the hunt for Osama Bin Laden,wrote in his 2005 book, Imperial Hubris, that“[Bin Laden] could not have his current- andincreasing- level of success if Muslims did notbelieve their faith, brethren, resources, andlands to be under attack by the United Statesand, more generally, the West. Indeed, theUnited States, and its policies and actions, areBin Laden’s only indispensable allies.” [1] TheUnited States’ unwavering support for Israel andits dubious grounds for invading Iraq are furthersource of anger in the Arab world. [2] The USjustifies its military dominance by arguing thatterrorist groups pose a serious threat to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Brute force is not sufficient to maintain globalsecurity. Just as one cannot simply strike a stonerepeatedly and expect to replicate Michelangelo’sDavid, one cannot simply produce more tanksand train more soldiers and expect to resolve thecomplex problems that create modern globalthreats. The US has failed to establish a stableand safe environment in Iraq and Afghanistandespite almost 10 years of occupation. The Pro’sarguments point to failed or misguidedintervention in Vietnam, Chile, Somalia,Lebanon, Grenada, Libya, and Haiti. Theseexamples demonstrate that the US is notreceiving much benefit from the vast resources itputs into its military. The US is only one country,and thus does not have the capability to viewglobal conflicts from an international perspective.The world would be better served by greaterinvestment in international military entities, suchas NATO or UN peacekeepers. An internationalresponse to global conflict has greater perceivedlegitimacy than a unilateral response by one", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The variety of checks upon the US military mayprevent it from total global domination, but thesechecks are not sufficient to make the US agenuinely altruistic actor. The US justifiesintervention on the grounds of promotingdemocracy, but selectively intervenes. The UShas supported non-democratic regimes in Chileand Iran, [1] and Guatemala, and has relativelyclose relations with Saudi Arabia. The US rarelycriticizes the Israeli government for expandingsettlements, while at the same time providingsupport to rebel forces in Libya. The Pro does notcontend that the US is a completely amoralactor. However, ideologically inconsistent foreignpolicy demonstrates that the US is willing toprioritize its own interests over the rights ofother nations’ citizens. Thus the US is not anappropriate entity to protect global human rightsor international stability. [1] James Risen,“Secrets of History: the C.I.A. in Iran,” New YorkTimes, 2000.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The United States is entitled to take measures toprotect its citizens. In a nuclear world, it isimpossible to dismiss another nation’s instabilityas “their problem.” If a government with nuclearweapons collapses, irrational actors (such asideological terrorist groups) may attain control ofsuch weapons. Nuclear war has the potential todestroy all of humanity- even in the case of alimited conflict. Alexis Madrigal of Wired Scienceexplains, “Imagine that the long-simmeringconflict between India and Pakistan broke outinto a war in which each side deployed 50nuclear weapons against the other country’smegacities […] Beyond the local human tragedyof such a situation, a new study looking at theatmospheric chemistry of regional nuclear warfinds that the hot smoke from burning citieswould tear holes in the ozone layer of the Earth.The increased UV radiation resulting from theozone loss could more than double DNA damage,and increase cancer rates across North Americaand Eurasia.” [1] Thus it is impossible for the US", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "There are currently no viable alternatives to USmilitary dominance. The 2011 Libyan revolutiondemonstrates the world’s dependence on USmilitary support. Although NATO unanimouslyagreed to intervene in the revolution, less thanhalf participated, and even fewer actuallyconducted airstrikes. In August 2011, NATOSecretary-General Anders Fogh Rasmussen toldthe Wall Street Journal “The fact is that Europecouldn’t have done this on its own […] the lack ofdefense investment will make it increasinglydifficult for Europe to take on responsibility forinternational crisis management beyond Europe’sborders.” [1] Other prosperous nations criticizethe US on the grounds that it needs to sharemilitary power, but these nations are not actuallywilling to increase their own involvement in orderto share responsibility. The second largestmilitary in the world belongs to China; becauseChina is an emerging power, the internationalcommunity cannot be sure how they will wieldthis power. Until US allies increase their military", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The United States has greater military capacitythan any other entity in the world. The USaccounts for 43% of global expenditures onmilitary. [1] The US has greater capacity toprevent global security threats than any otherentity. Furthermore, the US has used limitedmilitary intervention successfully in the recentpast. In 1989, the US sent 27,000 troops toPanama to protect the lives of 35,000 Americansin Panama and to protect Panama’s own citizens.The invasion led to the removal of the dictatorialleader Manuel Noriega and the implementation ofan elected government. [2] In the Persian GulfWar of 1990-91, the US successfully forced Iraqitroops to retreat from Kuwait. [3] In 1995 theUS used limited military tactics to protectcivilians in Sarajevo from Bosnian Serb forces,leading to a peace agreement between thewarring parties. [4] The Opposition does notcontend that every US military intervention is orwill be successful, or that military intervention isall that is necessary in addressing conflicts. The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The United States has several qualities that allowit to act honorably on behalf of the internationalcommunity. It is essential that there is someagent in the international community that is ableto step into situations that threaten globalsecurity, such as a collapsed government in astate with nuclear capacity. The US is anappropriate agent because its internal checksprevent it from abusing its military capacity.First, the US government contains a system ofchecks and balances that prevent an individualcorrupt leader from going to war. Second, the USis a democracy; few civilians are eager to sendtheir sons off to die in unnecessary wars. Thuspolitical leaders must fear repercussions forengaging in excessive conflict. Third, the US is arelatively open economy; it is notunimpressionable to external influence. TheOpposition does not contend that everything theUS military does is perfect. However, the myriadof checks listed above ensures that excessive useof US military force will not go unchallenged,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "US unilateral intervention is a form of theWestern imperialism that has caused so much ofthe strife that exists in the modern world. Thereare alternatives –while some may contend theywill be worse we do not know that this is thecase. The United States would remain dominantbut it would not need to use its military power inthe overbearing way that it does now but ratherin a much more constructive way that relies ondiplomacy rather than military force. (Seeproposition argument)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agpwhouhmp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The Opposition correctly identifies the threat,which is nuclear war. However, hegemonic USmilitary power is not the solution to this threat.The first nuclear arms race began during theCold War; because neither the US nor the USSRwanted the other to have the upper hand innuclear capacity, each produced enoughweapons to destroy the entire world. In the1970s, Pakistan developed nuclear weapons;Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto argued that“the Christians have the bomb, the Jews havethe bomb, the Hindus have the bomb, why notIslam?” [1] As the US continues to increase itsmilitary strength, other nations that are not surethey can rely on the US as an ally feel compelledto increase their strength in response. This leadsto a perpetual armaments race. Armamentsraces are a waste of resources that would bebetter spent on civil services, and createwidespread paranoia that the other country mayattack at any time. Furthermore, continuouslyincreasing military capacity is not an effective", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Expansion is not the right way to increasetransparency, as the number of informalconsultations of smaller groups (such aspermanent members or only industrialisedpermanent members) in order to try and pushthough resolutions would probably rise. Reformsto enhance transparency and improve workingmethods are already taking place – At a 19 July2007 informal meeting of the Open-endedWorking Group on the Question of EquitableRepresentation on an Increase in Membership ofthe Security Council, some suggested a moreanalytical report that would, among other things,provide rationales for the Council's majordecisions. [1] [1] 'Efforts to Reform CouncilWorking Methods 1993-2007', 18/10/2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The Security council needs to be moredemocratic. At the moment many countries arenot heard in the council and some states maynever gain a chance of being elected to theSecurity Council. This leaves billions of theworld's population without representation in theworld's highest body. How can India with over asixth of the world's population be left out?Security Council expansion would make the UNmuch more democratic as there would be moreparticipants representing more of the people ofthe world present in closed meetings andinformal consultations. Expansion would increasethe transparency and therefore theaccountability of the Council – something thateven countries sometimes considered to beagainst democracy believe is necessary “he(Seyed Mohammad Ali Mottaghi Nejad) said Iranbelieved that the links between the issuescomprised the “basic objective” of acomprehensive reform towards a Council thatwas more democratic, inclusive, equitably", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Non-permanent members are selected torepresent voices of entire regions already.Increasing the size of the Council would onlymake it more unwieldy as it would be extremelydifficult to negotiate in such an expanded forum.The nature of the Council's work requires swiftaction and expansion could negatively impact onits ability to provide quick solutions for worldpeace.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The EU is one of the world's largest trade blocs,has the world's largest GDP, and representsalmost half a billion people. The EU is one of theworld’s largest trade blocs, has the world’slargest GDP, and represents almost half a billionpeople. A permanent seat for the EU wouldreflect those new power dimensions. Thepermanent seats for France and the UK arebased on the fact that they were among thegreat powers and victors of World War II.However, the global balance of powers hasshifted significantly since then: France and theUK have declined and at the same time, the EUhas emerged as a major player in theinternational arena.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The current Security Council doesn't reflect theeconomic reality of the 21st century. Thecurrent Security Council doesn’t reflect theeconomic reality of the 21st century. France andGreat Britain have clearly lost their positionamong the most powerful nations and their rolewas long ago taken over by Germany and Japan.They are the 3rd and 4thworld economies.Furthermore these two countries are the secondand third largest contributors to the UN budgetand deserve a permanent seat in the Council.Moreover, as permanent members pay an extrashare for their seat, Japan and Germany’scontributions would bring considerable amountsto the UN budget – “The three largestcontributors to the United Nations, the US(22.000% of the UN budget), Japan (12.530%)and Germany (8.018%) thus together financesome 43% of the entire UN budget.” [1]Meanwhile Brazil and India have emerged asmajor economies and stable democracies overthe past decade, and deserve recognition for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Giving Germany a permanent seat would hardlybe a step forward in an endeavour for a moreequitable distribution of seats in the Council. TheUK and France hold a veto power over anyamendments and aren’t willing to give up theirseats, so adding Germany would mean that theEU would have three permanent seats in theCouncil. That wouldn’t be a fair geographicaldistribution and wouldn’t, for that matter, be aequitable distribution either. Japan in particularis not as deserving as has been suggested;although it is rich Japan has been strugglingeconomically for a decade while other countries(including the UK and France) have continued togrow. The Japanese economy has been recentlyhit by the 2011 Tohoku earthquake andFukushima nuclear disaster “Before Japan's 2011earthquake, its economy was just starting toemerge from its deepest recession since the1970s(…)Japan's economy is still challenged byrising commodity prices -- the country importsmost of its food and oil -- and a shrinking labor", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "In any case, France and the UK are still amongstthe world's foremost military powers, with theworld's largest nuclear arsenals after the USAand Russia, and the world's highest militaryexpenditure after the USA and China. Bycontrast, the EU has no significant military tospeak of, and is thus unable to project poweracross the globe. Given the mission of the UNSCto maintain international peace and security,eligibility for a permanent seat should be basedon military power, not just economic ordemographic power.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There is a lack of consensus among developingcountries themselves on who should getpermanent seats. Nigeria, Egypt and SouthAfrica all claim their right to an African one. Themost logical candidate for an Asian seat – India –is opposed by Muslim countries, who want apermanent seat for themselves – “Pakistan’sForeign Office spokesman has politely opposedthe endorsement (India’s candidacy in theUNSC), saying it will complicate the process ofexpanding the UN Security Council andincreasing the number of its permanentmembers. He has referred, as has been done onseveral past occasions, to India’s bad record onhuman rights, unsatisfactory relations with itsneighbours etc.” [1] Spanish speakingneighbours oppose Brazil’s candidacy because itspeaks Portuguese. [1] 'A permanent UN SCseat for India?', 9/11/2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "A rise in UN membership should be reflected alsoin an increase in Security Council members. In1945 there were only 51 UN members, so elevenCouncil members were adequately representingall voices. Today the UN membership has risen toalmost four times the number of the original one,yet there are only fifteen voices in the Council.This means that there are many countries whodo not have anyone on the security council thathas similar priorities to them, their views maywell be unrepresented.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "There is a growing imbalance betweendeveloping and developed countriesrepresentation in the Council. There is a growingimbalance between developing and developedcountries representation in the Council. Four outof five permanent members are industrializedand four out of five are “European”. Thefour-fifths of humankind that live in developingcountries have only one spokesman among thepermanent five. Giving Africa, Asia and LatinAmerica a permanent seat is a step forward inNorth-South balance – “Currently, four out offive veto-bearing members are industrializedcountries and the fifth, China, is rapidlyapproaching industrialized status. Many in therest of the world seethe at their exclusion fromthis elite group. Africa, Latin America, and theIslamic world, for example, have no permanentvoice on the council. Without a voice, it isunderstandable why many countries areunwilling to send troops or aid whenever theSecurity Council demands it. This imbalance,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "By including more developing countries in theSecurity Council, more issues of their concernwould get on the Security Council's agenda. Aswe all know the major issues in the status quonowadays occur mainly in developing countries.For example the consequences from globalwarming are worse in the developing regions.There are also the rebels in the Arab countries.There are a lot of concerns and the developedcountries should give the developing ones theopportunity to participate in the process of theirdiscussion and solution.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There should be no differentiation between oldand new permanent members and the new onesshould get the veto power in order to preservethe interests of the regions they represent. Vetopower is not as problematic with potentialpermanent members as it is with the currentones, as all the candidates are known for theirmultilateral approach and cooperation, while thesame cannot be said for the current ones.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "A UNSC reform is very hard to achieve due to themany different interests anddemands. Reforming the UN Security Council isvery difficult as no one can agree which newpowers deserve representation, whether theyshould have a veto, and even whetherpermanent membership should continue to existin any form. Japan and India seem obviouscandidates for permanent status, but theircandidacies are fiercely opposed by a variety ofother Asian countries, while Nigeria and Egyptboth feel they have a good claim to an \"African\"seat. The EU also considers it deserves aseparate place. Furthermore Brazil as a very fastdeveloping country and turning into a worldpower claims it also has a right in the UNSC as apermanent member. All these different demandsopinions make an eventual reform or expansionof the UNSC very hard to achieve.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "In regards to an eventual separate place on theUNSC for the European Union – the EU might bean economic powerhouse and might want tocoordinate foreign relations in regards toexternal economic policy, but at heart it isintended to be an economic union In regards toan eventual separate place on the UNSC for theEuropean Union – the EU might be an economicpowerhouse and might want to coordinateforeign relations in regards to external economicpolicy, but at heart it is intended to be aneconomic union, not a political union. Most of itsfounding treaties and the daily workings of itsinstitutions focus on creating and maintaining asingle market, not on creating a shared foreignand military policy. Giving the EU representationat what is an institution for foreign and militarypolicy is misreading what the EU was intended tobe.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The bulk of operations approved by the SecurityCouncil are financed by industrialisednations. As the bulk of operations approved bythe Security Council are financed byindustrialised nations, both because they are themain contributors to the budget1 and becausethe Security Council members pay more towardspeacekeeping2 they should have the main role indeciding on action. Developing countries alreadyhave a voice in the Council but should not have aveto power over decisions that they do notfinance. Developed countries would not agree topay for something they are not happy with. Inthe contemporary world economy and businessare fundamental and they are the ones who drivethe world. 1 Contributions to the United Nationsbudget 2 United Nations, 'FinancingPeacekeeping',", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "By giving five more countries veto power, theCouncil could come to a stalemate. This couldmean that the council ends up deadlocked moreoften than not as was the case during the Coldwar when the two blocs almost always opposedeach other. Up until 1991 (from the UN foundingin 1946) there were only 700 security councilresolutions due to the deadlocked nature of thecouncil. In the 20 years since there have beenover 1300 resolutions.1 The negotiation processwould also be significantly longer. As a result thepeace and security of the world could beendangered by this step. 1 Wikipedia, UnitedNations Security Council resolution,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The EU might function as an economic union, butits original goal was to prevent war from everhappening again on the European continent.Economic integration is a means to this goal, bymaking member states economically toodependent on each other for them to want todeclare war on each other. Given this history,the EU can contribute a lot of knowledge andexperience on how to use ‘soft power’ in aforeign policy context, and given its goal of (andsuccess in) creating everlasting peace on thecontinent, it should have a seat at the world’sforemost foreign policy institution. Furthermorethe EU is ever closer to a political union –“German finance minister Wolfgang Schaeublehas said his country is willing to discuss greaterharmonisation of eurozone tax policy, addingthat the next decade is likely to see Europe takesignificant steps towards closer political union.”[1] Therefore it is simply a normal step for theEU to have a say in the international affairs. [1]Willis, Andrew. 'Germany predicts EU 'political", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghweunsc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is widely recognised that the current SecurityCouncil set-up lacks legitimacy and requiresreform. Major states such as Japan, and risingpowers such as Brazil, South Africa and Indiadeserve recognition and giving them permanentstatus would provide representation for a muchbroader cross-section of humanity. It maybehard to achieve consensus on what exactly to bethe change in the UNSC, but the newinternational environment requests that. This issupported by a lot of leading politicians andleaders in a global aspect. \"The United States isopen to UN Security Council reform andexpansion, as one element of an overall agendafor UN reform\" 1\"The UN must rationally adaptitself to new world realities. It should alsostrengthen its influence and preserve itsmultinational nature and integrity of the UNCharter provisions. The reform of the UNSecurity Council is an essential component of itsrevitalization.\" 1 (Dmitry Medvedev) 1 \"Thereform of the United Nations Security Council:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "We have seen variations in opinion regardingpolitical and economic issues (e.g. monetaryunion) in the EU. In the far more thorny area ofdefence policy, the EU member-nations’ interestsare even more divergent. For example, theFrench position on Algeria may be different fromthe United Kingdom’s. This difference in prioritieswill ultimately lead to deadlock, as no countrywishes to see its soldiers dying on a battlefieldthat provides no direct strategic interest to itself.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A single army would enhance the politicalintegration of EU members states The EuropeanUnion has significant integration andconvergence of the political and economicspheres. Integration of defence policy and theestablishment of a European Defence Forceshould be the logical next step. The AfricanUnion took this step and has achieved success incombat missions defending the Union [1] . [1]The UN Refugee Agency (31 January, 2008)Comoros: Military invasion of Anjouan imminent,government warns. Accessed September 7, 2011from:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "NATO and the proposed European Defence Forceare designed to address very different concerns.NATO exists to deal with situations of suchmagnitude that the nations of Western Europeare likely to adopt a common defence policy. Incontrast, the EDF is targeted at smallergeopolitical incidents which would otherwise be‘beneath’ the notice of NATO. Unfortunatelysmaller incidents by their nature do not haveuniform effects on all EU member-nations, andare therefore unlikely to generate a consensus ofpolicy among EU nations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Regional instability in certain areas of continentaleurope necessitates the creation of an EUdefence force Constant political instability andwar in and near the Middle East call for a unitedsingle force charged with the defence of EUcountries lying close to the volatile areas..Turkey is a prime candidate for EU membership,and with its location on the border of both Syriaand Iraq, will require support if its refugeeproblem is to remain manageable. Therevolutions in Northern Africa also call for astabilising force in the region, particularly in Italywhere a ‘refugee crisis’ has coincided with theattempts of anti-Gaddafi Libyans to flee thecountry [1] . If the EU is to take its growing roleupon the world stage seriously, it needs adedicated defence force to make an impact in theregion. [1] Day, M. (14 May, 2011) Flood ofNorth African refugees to Italy ends EUpassport-free travel. Accessed September 7,2011 from:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The EU needs a dedicated defence force It isimportant for the EU to have a defence policyindependent of NATO. With its origins in the ColdWar, and its preponderance of Americaninfluence, NATO carries a great deal of historicaland geopolitical baggage. This means that NATOcannot easily intervene in Eastern Europewithout incurring the displeasure of Russia. Thiswas best proven during the 2008 conflictbetween Russia and Georgia, when Georgia’simpending accession to NATO was seen as partof the incentive for Russian support to the‘break-away’ regions in Georgia [1] . TheEuropean Defence Force will allow the EU to dealwith crises in Eastern and Central Europe moreeffectively, as they will not have to tiptoe aroundRussia as much. [1] Parsons, R. (8 August,2008). Georgia pays price for its NATOambitions. Accessed September 7, 2011 from:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "NATO has successfully defended the interests ofWestern Europe for several decades now – whyrock the boat? It is hard to see a problem whichNATO cannot solve, which the European DefenceForce could instead. In any case, we will alwayshave to consider Russia’s sensibilities whenengaging in peacekeeping operations in EasternEurope, and it is far better to have America’sbargaining power and geopolitical clout backingus when we negotiate with Russia. If we create aEuropean Defence Force, we will marginaliseNATO and the United States. This will lead to areduced US engagement in Europe, which may inturn diminish our influence when havingdiscussions with Russia over security issues inEurope and beyond.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Although there is instability in neighbouringregions, most of Europe is in complete and utterpeace. The new force would simply be anotherlayer of defence in a stable continent that simplydoesn’t need it. War in Europe is completelyinconceivable in the 21st century, andconsidering the threat of war should be theprimary reason for holding a standing army, itseems that an EU army has no reasonable casefor existence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Even if we assume that the massive costs of astanding military force can be borne by the EUand its members, the key barriers to establishinga standing defence force are often political.Creating a European Defence Force de novowould require us to decide on several thornyquestions, namely the command structure,whether the role should be merely defensive orinclude peacekeeping, the choice of equipmentand supplier, creating a common defence policy,and choosing a language of communication. Allof these questions involve political considerationsor economic vested interests, all of which arelikely to result in on-going wrangling that willyield a stillborn EDF.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "NATO has established a precedent formultilateral military action NATO has beencrucial to maintaining the balance of powerduring the cold war. Although there have beensome arguments amongst its member states,NATO has shown us that a standing multinationaldefence force is possible and more importantlyworks well overall. The recent NATO deploymentin Libya is an example of its regional influenceand military flexibility [1] . Considering manymembers of NATO are also members of the EU,the proposed European Defence Force couldfollow its example and complement it. [1] BBCNews (26 August, 2011) Libya conflict: Nato jetshit Gaddafi Sirte bunker. Accessed September 7,2011 from:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The economic strength of the EU enables thecreation of a strong military With the growingindustrial and economic maturity of the EuropeanUnion and its members, it is now financiallyfeasible for the EU to have its own standingdefence force [1] . The proposed EDF would alsocreate a great many jobs as European defencecontractors could be recruited into supplyingequipment and weaponry. [1] Amadeo, K.. TheEU has replaced the U.S. as the world’s largesteconomy. Accessed September 7, 2011 fromAbout:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This is mostly speculation. The proposition takesa more optimistic view of US-EU relations afterthe creation of a European Defence Force.America will more than welcome a strong friendin the region, anything to calm the instability inthe near regions of North Africa and the MiddleEast, not to mention the global markets.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The EU has managed to pass similar largeamounts of apparently ‘unconstitutional’legislation through member state legislatures.The Lisbon Treaty, for example, managed to besigned. And so, it seems that archaicconstitutional convention cannot stop EUintegration – the European Project is simplyturning its eyes upon defence: integration hasoccurred in many walks of life, now it is defencepolicy’s turn.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Germany Europe has been torn apart twice inthe 20th century and on both occasions aGerman Army has been the aggressor. If theE.U. ever had a defence force, no doubt Germantroops would be at the heart of it. It is just over60 years ago that German troops invaded manyof the countries that today will be forced to fightalongside them. This, especially for the peoplewho fought against a German Army and are alivetoday, is at best insulting and at worst, politicalprovocation. This is even without mentioning theHolocaust and its ever-present artifacts that littereastern Europe; a constant reminder toEuropeans of the horrors a German Army hadonce committed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-con05a", "title": "", "text": "A large and diverse collective defence for wouldbe impossible to command and develop It doesnot take an in-depth analysis to imagine theissues, on the ground and at HQ, such as armywould face. There would be communicationissues, would the force use French, Spanish orEnglish? There would be accountability questions[1] , who would be in charge and who would payfor resources? Finally, there would be hostilitieswithin the army and potentially inherent racismbetween the nations involved. Such a forcewould not be effective in a combat situation, andvaluable lives and resources would bewasted. [1] Ioannides, I. (4 September, 2002).The European Rapid Reaction Force: Implicationsfor Democratic Accountability. AccessedSeptember 7, 2011 from:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The creation of a standing army would becontrary to the spirit and purpose of the EU Itwas not the aim of the original EuropeanCommunity to integrate defence. The originalpartnership was called the European Coal andSteel Community for a reason [1] , designed as aunion for mutual economic development and thesharing of scarce resources [2] . The accelerationof the EU has therefore gotten out of hand, andit’s high time it came to an end. A defence forcewould be one step to far – it would signal thecreation of some sort of federal super state,something that not many people in Europewant. [1] CVCE (18 April, 1951). Treatyestablishing the European Coal and SteelCommunity. Accessed September 7, 2011from: [2] The Irish Times (26 August, 2011). Athirst for peace. Accessed September 7, 2011from:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The creation of an EU army could harmdiplomatic relations with the USA We arecompletely ignoring the issue of geopolitics andhow the creation of this entity would be a directmove to replace NATO as the primary defenderof Europe. This would of course mean a rejectionof the US, as the heart of NATO. What wouldfollow from this would be an extremelyunpredictable and volatile place to practiceinternational relations. One thing that we canpredict, however, will be the ‘cold shoulder’ theUS would suddenly show the EU. The US wouldfeel as if its ally had used it to gain strength afterWWII (The Marshall Plan), and now that it’s backon its feet again can forget and even challengeAmerica’s supremacy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-con05b", "title": "", "text": "The proposition believes in a more liberal andopen-minded average European soldier. Therewill be no communication issues in the 21stcentury where translators and bilingual officersare easy to come by. There will be noaccountability issues when we create a propercommand structure. And there will be no racismbecause to believe that there would be is toprejudge the whole of Europe and insult theculture-shapers’ attempts to respect and learnfrom Europe’s dark past, not to repeat it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Constitutional obstructions Every EU countrywould have an incredibly hard time making theconstitutional changes necessary for the handingover of a part of defence policy to an EUinstitution. In fact, for many EU countries itwould be unworkable. In the U.K., constitutionalissues might not be as bad as say in France – butthis does not change the fact that it wouldrequire deft political skill and manoeuvring, oftenundemocratic and without any sort ofreferendum, in order to make the constitutionalchanges necessary to create this force [1] . [1]Wagner, W. (May 19, 2007). The DemocraticDeficit in the EU’s Security and Defense Policy –why bother? . Accessed September 7, 2011from:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It might not have been the original aim tointegrate defence. Nevertheless, it doesn't meanthat defence integration should not be done. Theaims are changeable; they should bereconsidered and revised, according torequirements and demands of current situations.Few would have imagined how far Europe wouldcome in other areas such as freedom ofmovement or the creation of a EuropeanCommon Foreign policy from a mere industrialcoalition between few countries. The EDF will bea rationally reasonable step for the EU,considering the advances that the communityhas made in integration in other areas of policy.To protect all its achievements, to connect itsmember states, and to provide its citizens withmore safety the EU needs a dedicated defenceforce.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epdghwcseu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The status of Germany is an irrelevant issue.What has happened in the past should have nobearing on judging the Germany of today. Theirwhole system of government and culture haschanged with a new constitution and thematurity of an open-minded youth born afterWW2. It’s simply an insult to judge thoseGermans who have done everything they can tomake up for the past atrocities of their nation, byonce again digging up the past.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "In other cases, such as in Yugoslavia, thedeterrent effects of international courts havebeen dubious. Prosecutions, far from being onboth sides, may lead to allegations of biasagainst one side or another by the internationalcourt, which could lead to it being seen asmerely another battlefield.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Would prevent further atrocities An internationalmechanism where Sharon would have been ableto be tried would be likely to have been onewhich would have been able to hear casesdealing with the – serious – allegations of crimesagainst humanity and war crimes by variousother groups such as the al-Qassam brigades(the paramilitary group attached toHamas). This would have been able to preventfurther atrocities by acting as a deterrentthrough punitive methods as well as showingthat the law applies to Western nations and theirallies too.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Is an aid for historians really worth all theupheaval and problems a trial wouldcause? Denialism can still continue even thoughthere are established facts, such as denial of theJapanese role in Second World War forcedprostitution [1] . [1] See Honda, Masakazu andTakada, Makoto, “LDP Pressure led to cuts inNHK show”, The Asahi Shimbun, 12 January2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Impunity In addition to events mentioned in theintroduction, Sharon was accused of, along withtroops under his command, execution-stylekillings of 49 Egyptian civilians taken prisoner bythe IDF in the Saini peninsula in 1956 [1] - wilfulkilling of civilians being a war crime as per theFourth Geneva Convention. The purpose ofinternational criminal law is that individuals arebrought to trial to ensure that individuals areheld accountable for war crimes and crimesagainst humanity: if a person isn’t prosecuted,either by a domestic or international court, thecredibility of the limits civilized nations place onwar is eroded. [1] Miller, Marjorie, ‘Israel toProbe Deaths of Egyptian POWs in '56 : Sinai: AtCairo's request, defense officials will investigategeneral's claim that scores were shot.’, LosAngeles Times, 16 August 1995,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is up to sovereign states to deal with their owncriminality, not that of international courts. Israeldecided Sharon had nothing to answer for. Therehave been commissions into some of his actions;the Khan Commission of Inquiry looked into themassacre at Sabra and Shatilla and concludedthat “blunders constitute the non-fulfillment of aduty with which the Defense Minister wascharged.” Sharon was only indirectly responsible.[1] When he became a head of state, head ofstate immunity applied to him – a necessarything to keep the wheels of internationaldiplomacy turning. This has been accepted bythe International Court of Justice in the arrestwarrant case [2] . [1] The Kahan Commission ofInquiry, ‘Report into the Events at the RefugeeCamps in Beirut’, Jewish Virtual Library, 8February 1983, [2] Case Concerning the ArrestWarrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic ofthe Congo v Belgium) 14 February 2002", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "This fails for two reasons. Firstly, prosecutionsare not always a deterrent to future crimes.Secondly that justice is not necessary in all casesto prevent recidivism – justice has not beenneeded in many cases, such as in Haiti after the2004 coup, Haiti’s subsequent problems beingcaused by natural disasters. Even if Sharonwere to be brought to trial before aninternational tribunal, the Israeli state apparatuswould be able to carry on with a new leader,rendering the exercise futile in trying to stop theconflict. A prosecution would not have broughtpeace it would simply entrench the Israeliposition.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Historical record Prosecutions by internationalcriminal courts have a positive side-effect ofcreating a historical record of events. Thiscreates an impartial record of events which takesin to account the evidence provided by allparties. By removing scope for denialism, apeace can be constructed on the foundations ofan impartial truth. Many of the actions of Israelhave been controversial, The Guardian says it isthe issue that is most controversial and comesunder most scrutiny, [1] such an impartialhistorical record would be particularly useful for afull understanding of atrocities committed by allsides. [1] Editorial, ‘Fairness: Israel – Palestine’,guardian.co.uk, accessed 16/1/2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Necessary for an impartial peace. Byprosecuting perpetrators, justice creates adeterrent. The deterrent effect, as accepted incriminal law generally, is likely to make thepeace more long standing and stable in thefuture – it will make those minded to performatrocities think again. If those who committedatrocities ‘get away with it’ they will be muchmore likely to plunge the country back intoviolence. If Sharon was prosecuted for his crimesin the 50s, would he have gone on to have thesame political career? He would likely not havehad the chance to allow the Sabra and Shatiamassacre or Operation Defensive Shield. [1] Thecareer of Laurent Nkunda is a good example ofthis; he fought in the Tutsi group that tookcontrol of Rwanda in 1994 ending the genocideand then was a rebel commander in bothCongolese civil wars in which he was accused ofatrocities before launching his own rebellion,only now after 14 years as an army commanderis he under arrest [2] . Clearly Nkunda being", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Good: impunity is a bad thing. Those who breakthose norms of international law , and commitwar crimes, crimes against humanity and thecrime of aggression should be prosecuted - on allsides. Actions by Hamas and other organizationsthat are reprehensible are matters that should bebrought before impartial courts, too. While thereis no international international definition ofterrorism, there are a number of acts which areprohibited by particular treaties – they can beprosecuted too.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "If both parties are sincere negotiators – which isdoubtful at best – the prospect of prosecutionsmay focus the mind on preventing furtheratrocities, de-escalating the situation entirely.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Was unlikely ever to happen anyway At anyrate, a prosecution was unlikely. In addition tothe general support for Israel amongst thepermanent members of the UN Security Councilsuch as the United States – the US would havebeen likely to use its veto power to stop anyInternational Criminal Tribunal forIsrael-Palestine. Also, many of these actionswere before the renaissance of internationalcriminal law in the early 1990s following thecreation of the ICTY and ICTR by UN SecurityCouncil resolutions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Took a key role in negotiations Sharon was nota genocidal maniac. He led the withdrawal ofsettlers from Gaza, as part of the unilateraldisengagement plan. If he continued in office,perhaps further negotiations would havecontinued with further successes rather than thestalled talks and false hope of more recentevents. [1] Leaks of State department Cablesshow that Sharon had stressed to US senatorsthat he would face down “a left that has nopower, and a right which was totally opposed tohis initiative” in order to negotiate a peace andwas willing to hand over some Arabneighbourhoods in Jerusalem and he said “A finalsettlement might take a few years, but it can beachieved.” [2] [1] Vick, Karl, ‘Ariel Sharon:Israel’s Soldier and Strongman, 1928-2014’,Time, 11 January 2014, [2] Ravid, Barak,‘Sharon was planning diplomatic moves beyondGaza, leaked documents reveal’, Haaretz, 13January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "If Sharon is tried then many others would haveto be as well While many of the actions ofSharon were unacceptable, he is not the onlyperson who committed horrible acts: not justonly in the Israeli-Palestinian conflicts, butacross the world. If he were to be prosecuted,many others would be. Hamas figures wouldhave to be indicted for their actions, too – forexample Mohammed Deif, who mastermindedthe 1996 Jaffa Road bus bombings which killed33 civilians as with many other commanders ofgroups – Hamas, Islamic Jihad, even Fatah - thathave engaged in targeting civilians could be puton trial.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Prosecutions are an impediment to peacenegotiations A prosecution against a prominentmilitary or political figure could jeopardize faithin the international community, which would beharmful to peace negotiations. Prosecuting oneside would effectively allocate blame, damagingIsrael’s position. Sharon may have been the onlyman who could have led the Gaza pullout, [1] hewould not have had the chance or would nothave been able to if he was prosecuted. This isnot a new concern – there were issues followingICTY indictments and the Dayton negotiation,with some parties being unable to attend [2] .Similarly, the Lord’s Resistance Army offered tosurrender but refused due to ICC arrest warrants[3] . [1] Vick, Karl, ‘Ariel Sharon: Israel’sSoldier and Strongman, 1928-2014’, Time, 11January 2014, [2] Goldstone, Richard, “Peaceversus Justice”, Nevada Law Journal, 2006, atp421-p322 [3] Otim, Michael, and Wierda,Marieke, ‘Justice at Juba: InternationalObligations and Local Demands in Northern", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The occupation of the West Bank still continued,including the construction of settlements. Thegeneral role of individuals in the peacenegotiations is beside the point: individuals whocommit atrocities should be responsible forthem.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-melhrilppd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Just because something is difficult does notmean it should not be attempted. Israel itselfwas no stranger to war crimes trials betweenNuremberg and the ICTY: Adolf Eichmann, thelogistical architect of the Holocaust, was triedand put to death by an Israeli court in1962. Sharon has been accused of things afterthe creation of the ICTY came in to force, such asdeaths as a result of Israeli operations in Jenin in2002 [1] . [1] Human Rights Watch, ‘Jenin’, 2May 2002,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The majority of these laws have done little toprevent citizens from seeking a career as amercenary. While they are commendable onprinciple, mercenary specific legislation has nottranslated in to a high number of prosecutionsfor mercenarism in Africa7. Examples such asAngola and Zimbabwe are rare exceptions.Mercenaries generally operate in conflict zones,where government control is weak. This makes itdifficult for the state to enforce such laws,especially as the mercenaries may be working foropposition factions. 7) Fallah,K. ‘Corporateactors: the legal status of mercenaries in armedconflict’, 2006 pg. 610", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Legislation against mercenaries Nation statesand the United Nations have passed laws makingmercenary activity illegal. Legislation againstmercenaries prevent either seeking employmentas a mercenary or hiring one. Western statessuch as Austria and Germany have made it illegalfor citizens to become mercenaries, revokingtheir citizenship if they choose to do so anyway6.South Africa, a major source of hired guns,passed the ‘foreign military assistance act’ in1998 which prohibited citizens from joiningforeign wars with the exception of humanitarianintervention. In international law, the UnitedNations has outlawed mercenaries through theUN Mercenary Convention of 1989 which bansthe use of foreign soldiers from fighting forprofit. Finally, many African states have passedfurther legislation which restricts mercenariesoperating in their countries. The trial of thirteenmercenaries in Angola and the arrests of SimonMann’s unit Zimbabwe in 2004 were both due totheir mercenary status. The increased legal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There are still enough wars and rebelmovements to provide opportunity foremployment. By 2013 there were 23 conflicts inAfrica, with many other small militia groupsactively fighting low-intensity wars. This streamof conflicts has ensured revenue for mercenaries.Reports have surfaced that ex-commander forthe anti-terror unit in Liberia, Benjamin Yeaten,raised a mercenary force to fight against thearmy of the Ivory Coast between 2012 and201311 With the prediction of ‘forever wars’ byGettlemen12, where rebels have no objectexcept banditry, mercenaries could maintaintheir prevalence in Africa for a long time. 11)Heritage ‘Liberia: UN reports- Yeaten remains athreat to peace and security in Liberia’ 2013 12)Gettlement,J. ‘Africa’s Forever Wars’ ForeignPolicy 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Private corporations have replacedmercenaries Private Military Companies (PMCs)are independent, registered, corporate actorswho have risen in prominence and replacedmercenaries in their security function. PMCs aredifferent to mercenaries in the sense thatmercenaries will fight for the highest bidder.PMCs on the other hand will only work forlegitimate governments and intergovernmentalorganisations such as the UN1. Their main rolesinclude; support services, logical support,humanitarian support and the upholding of lawand order and defensive military action2. PMCactivity has seen corporations operating onbehalf of the Somalian government training coastguards to deal with the threat of piracy whichpeaked in 20093. The legal status of PMCs,compared with mercenaries, makes them apreferable choice for the aforementioned tasksreducing the prominence of illegal hired guns. 1)Jefferies,I. ‘Private Military Companies- APositive Role to Play in Today’s International", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "PMCs are just mercenaries under a differentname, demonstrating a continued prevalence ofthe dogs of war in Africa. To escape the name,and the illegal status, of mercenary a PMC mustonly avoid one of the several clauses laid out bythe United Nations Mercenary Convention4 Whilethey are rarely hired for fighting roles,companies such as Military ProfessionalResources Inc. have demonstrated a willingnessto engage in military operations; making themguns for hire5. Executive Outcomes’ operationsin Sierra Leone equated to mercenary work, asthey undertook offensive military operations witha force of foreign soldiers for profitable gain. Inthis sense, mercenaries still maintain theirposition on the continent. 4) Sheimer,M.‘Separating Private Military Companies FromIllegal Mercenaries in International Law’, 2009Pg. 624 5) Milliard,S. ‘Overcoming Post-ColonialMyopia: A Call to Recognise and Regulate PrivateMilitary Companies’, 2003 Pg.16", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "More than half of African countries are ruled bydictatorships. Authoritarian regimes remainnumerous enough, and the opposition stillprominent enough, for there to be adequateinstability for mercenaries to gain employment.During the Libyan revolution, caused by the poorgovernance of Gaddafi’s regime, South Africanmercenaries attempted to extract Gaddafi fromLibya with supposed Tuaregs joining his force asguns for hire14. 14) Hicks,C. ‘Tuareg rebelsmake troubled return from Libya to Mali’ 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Decreased Conflict and the end of the mercenaryage The decline of conflicts and mercenaryfreedom on the African continent has meant lesswork for mercenaries. The Congo conflict of the1960s, is seen as the first mercenary age8. Hiredguns fought on all sides of the conflict andenjoyed the freedom to act at their discretion.The 1976 execution of mercenaries in Angolawas seen as a symbolic ending of this age. Thatsaid, mercenaries were still prevalent into the1990s and early 2000s. Since the peak of the1990s, however, there has been a noticeabledecrease in the number of conflicts in Africa from27 civil wars and 9 interstate wars to 5 majorcivil wars and no interstate wars9,10 . As warsand civil unrest are an obvious source ofemployment for mercenaries; this decrease inconflict leaves them with fewer opportunities.The African Union’s promise to end war on thecontinent by 2020 also puts the future prospectsof mercenaries in to question. 8) Keane,F.‘There will be work for mercenaries in Africa until", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The expansion of democracy The increasedpresence of democracies on the African continenthas led to greater security. Mercenary activity isusually associated with the presence of badgovernance, which is most commonly featured indictatorships. Dictatorships generally lead tocorruption, unrest and economic collapse. Thedispossessed in society then begin to resist, withthe ensuing conflict providing employmentopportunities for mercenaries. A prime exampleof this being Equatorial Guinea, wheremercenary Simon Mann planned to use popularsupport to remove the infamous TeodoroNguema13. Since the first mercenary age,however, the number of democracies hasincreased from 3 to 25 which has reducedinstability on the continent in some regions,reducing opportunities for mercenaries. 13)Keane,F. ‘There will be work for mercenaries inAfrica until democracy replaces dictatorships’2004", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "NGOs are actively discouraged from hiringmercenaries. In 2003, UK Foreign Secretary JackStraw strongly advised against the use ofmercenaries by British companies on the IvoryCoast. In addition to government deterrence,many charities are more likely to depend on theUnited Nations to secure conflict zones beforethey operate. In Darfur, aid agencies relied uponthe United Nations to set up refugee camps inthe region rather than seek protection frommercenaries27. 27) Pham,J. ‘Send in theMercenaries’ 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, the emergence of the African Union (AU)as a peacekeeping force on the continentnegates the need for mercenaries. The AU’s hasbecome increasingly involved in peacekeepingsince 200316. They are more willing to involvethemselves in African affairs than the West, andhave deployed the lion’s share of soldiers inpeacekeeping operations as in the CentralAfrican Republic17. Secondly, the UN hascondemned mercenary use in general and itwould seem hypocritical to begin hiring them.The UN’s weaker states have been reluctant toagree to UN mercenaries for fear they could beused against them18. The UN has activelycriticised humanitarian mercenaries in the pastfor their lack of appreciation of conflictdynamics19, making them unlikely to employdogs of war. 16) Pan,E. ‘African PeacekeepingOperations’ December 2005 17) Felix,B. ‘Militiaattack Muslim neighbourhoods in Central AfricanRepublic’s Capital’ 2013 18) Avant,D.‘Mercenaries’ pg.26 19) Chrisafis,A. ‘UN and aid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Mercenaries still have a presence incoups African Mercenaries have been crucial tothe success of many coups in the 21st Century,and are a ‘ubiquitous factor in the continent’sconflicts over the years, often determining theduration or outcomes of such conflicts’20. The2013 coup in the Central African Republic sawPresident Francois Bozizi ousted from power andwas accomplished with support of mercenariesfrom Chad and the Sudan21. An attempted coupby Simon Mann against Equatorial Guinea failedin 2004 and Bob Dernard’s five coups against theComoros22 demonstrate that mercenaries stillhave a role in the changing of political leaderswithin Africa. 20) Mwagiru,C. ‘Mercenaries: Arethe ‘dogs of war’ still prevalent in Africa?’2012 21) Melly,P. ‘Central African Republic:France and the CAR- Now Comes the Hard Part’2013 22) Mwagiru,C. ‘They Kill Africans, paid byAfricans’ 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Cyber Mercenaries There is a new form ofmercenary appearing on the continent which ishired to use technology, rather than a gun, tofight. Cyber mercenaries are a relatively recentphenomenon. In 2013, British intelligenceservice GCHQ stated that nations were beginningto employ hackers to ‘attack their enemies’28.Kenya experienced attacks by cyber mercenariesin 2013, with 91% of its organisations comingunder attack from these hired hackers29. Thereis potential for this to become a substantial formof mercenary work in the future. 28) The Age‘Hackers turn into cyber-mercenaries as nationsbattle a virtual war’ 2013 29) Murule,R. ‘Kenya:Firms Battle Cyber Crime’ 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Mercenaries are still hired byNGOs Non-Governmental organisations struggleto operate in conflict zones, and still hiremercenaries to protect them. Extractiveindustries also require security for theirinstallations and operations in unstableregions25. The massacre of 74 civilians at aChinese oil field in Ethiopia in 2007 and the 2013Amenas siege demonstrate the continued needfor security, which mercenaries can provide.Charities have employed mercenaries in the pastto ensure better security. In 2002, mercenarieswere hired by the African Rainforest and RiversConservation Organisation to seek out elephantpoachers who they could not pursuethemselves26. 25) Avant,D. ‘Mercenaries’2004,pg.26 26) Astill,J. ‘Charities hire gunmen to stopelephant poachers’ 2002", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Humanitarian mercenaries Mercenaries arefinding a more ethical role in the form ofhumanitarian missions. The idea of humanitarianmercenaries is a concept of hired guns employedby governments and the United Nations toprevent genocide in the place of nation statemilitaries. The major benefit of usingmercenaries would be the absence of a politicalcost should there be mercenary causalities asseen in Iraq15. There will not be waning politicalsupport from the military’s home country. Earlyexamples include the use of mercenaries inSierra Leone. When the Revolutionary UnifiedFront (RUF) was advancing on the capitalExecutive Outcomes and other mercenaries heldback the RUF, preventing a massacre. Theywould later seek out and destroy elements of therebel group. The lack of political cost makesthem ideal for operations where other countrieshave no domestic political will to intervene. 15)Raffin,R. ‘Humanitarian Mercenaries’ 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Hired hackers don’t count as real mercenaries.While it is true that they are not a citizen ofeither state’s military structure and that theyseek to gain profit from their venture, they donot qualify under the UN mercenary convention.To be a mercenary, one must qualify under allthe conditions listed in the convention. Cybermercenaries are not directly involved in acts ofviolence, which disqualifies them under Article 1,sub-section 2.A of the UN mercenaryconvention30. Definitions will have to be updatedin the future if cyber-mercenaries are going to beconsidered anything other than criminals. 30)United Nations ‘United Nations MercenaryConvention’ 1989", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-apdwhbpa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Coups are becoming less frequent and lesssuccessful. The number of coups, which somemercenaries headed personally, has decreasedfrom an average twenty per decade between1960 and 1990 to ten a decade23. Success hasalso been less forthcoming; Simon Mann’sattempted coup in Equatorial Guinea was metwith failure when he was arrested in Zimbabwe,and Bob Denard was eventually arrested byFrench forces for disgracing France’s reputationabroad with his frequent coups24. 23)August,O. ‘Africa Rising: A Hopeful Continent’2013 24) Mwagiru,C. ‘They Kill Africans, paid byAfricans’ 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbi22-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The long-term security of Israel rests in a stablepeace agreement with the Palestinians, not inattempting to bludgeon Hamas into a truce 'onIsrael's terms'. To the extent that Israel's largescale assault on Gaza eliminated the hopes ofsuch an agreement, the attacks worsenedIsrael's long-term security. A crucial steptowards peace is to bring Hamas to thebargaining table. Israel's levelling of Gazaemboldened Hamas' message of resistance, andallowed Gazans to continue to rely on Hamas. Aslong as Israel continues to justify Arab andPalestinian anger through its disproportionateresponse, it is unlikely that enough trust can beestablished to reach a peace deal. Even Israelisrecognize that this assualt has created an evenlarger barrier to peace. “This policy [OperationCast Lead] is not strengthening Israel,” notedSari Bashi, the executive director of Gisha, anIsraeli human rights group that works on Gazaissues. “The trauma that 1.5 million people havebeen undergoing in Gaza is going to have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbi22-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The military operations were necessary for longterm peace: As Michael Oren and Yossi KleinHaleviargue explain, “the Israeli public will notmake territorial concessions on the West Bank orthe Golan Heights if Gaza is allowed to become aneighboring terrorist state that can launchattacks with impunity. Israel had already had abad enough experience letting that happen withHezbollah in Southern Lebanon.”(1) Without theassurance that they will be allowed to protecttheir homes and families following withdrawal,Israelis will rightly perceive a two-state solutionas an existential threat. They will continue toshare the left-wing vision of coexistence with apeaceful Palestinian neighbor in theory, but inreality will heed the right's warnings of Jewishpowerlessness.(4) Meanwhile, the strongerHamas becomes, the more resistance moderatePalestinian President Mahmoud Abbas will face tomaking any concessions to Israel.(1) Thereforedamaging Hamas, via Operation Cast Lead,actually aided the peace process in the long run,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbi22-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Under the same logic, over 1 million residents ofGaza have been under occupation since 1967,facing limited rights of movement, regular airraids, military checkpoints, random searches andseizures, random arrests, the destruction ofsanitation facilities, homes, schools, roads,shops, markets, and health facilities, andtherefore Hamas has the right act in its ownself-defense by whatever means it sees fit. IfPalestinians do not have an army to call to itsdefense, how can the entire population bepunished for the actions of non-state militarygroups? Israel’s right to take positive steps ofsome kind in the interests of its own safety doesnot mean it has the right to do anything it wishesin order to protect itself. It is also evident thatIsrael violated international law and committedwar crimes, was was reported in the GoldstoneReport. Between the time when the shellingfrom Gaza started in 2001 and Operation CastLead, 20 Israeli civilians were killed by rockets ormortars, according to estimates by Israeli human", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbi22-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The military operations were legitimate as Israeliself-defense: The military operations were alegitimate use of the Israeli state’s right todefend itself and its citizens: To quotethen-President-elect Barack Obama - \"Ifsomebody was sending rockets into my housewhere my two daughters sleep at night, I woulddo everything to stop that, and would expectIsrael to do the same thing.\"(1) Prior to Israel's2008-2009 military operations, Hamas hadconsistently violated the terms of the ceasefirebetween Gaza and Israel. It launched a total6,300 rockets during an agreed hiatus in theconfrontation, killing 10 and wounding more than780. Hamas refused to extend the truce past 19December 2008 and subsequently resumedattacks, firing nearly 300 more missiles, rocketsand mortars.(1) Hamas was the first to actuallyescalate the conflict after the ceasefire expired,with a systematic increase in rocket attacks to amagnitude of hundreds of rockets fired daily inlate December.(2) The 250,000 Israelis who", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbi22-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Israel similarly violated the ceasefire prior to2008, and had unlawfully kidnapped andimprisoned hundreds of Palestinians.Furthermore, Israel's attack on Gaza was not anact of last resort. Israel could and should havetried to negotiate a truce with Hamas based onthe following principle: an end to the Israelisiege on Gaza in exchange for an end toHamas-led rocket attacks on Israel. This is thedeal Hamas offered Israel before Operation CastLead was launched. Israel should have acceptedHamas’s offer and assessed whether Hamas’sintention to be bound by its terms was genuinebefore launching a military attack.(6) If an actionisn't truly an act of last resort, it cannot belegitimately termed 'self-defense', and so is notjustified. Hamas were prepared to enter intonegotiations with Israel and it was prepared todiscuss the more intricate details of the deal ithad proposed. Its attempts to avoid conflict werecommitted and consistent enough to suggestthat Gaza’s leaders were not engaged in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbi22-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The military operations were proportionate to thethreat: Operation Cast Lead was justified as itwas proportionate to Hamas' rocket attacksagainst Israel. It should be remembered that250,000 Israelis living in the southern part of thecountry had lived under years of terrorism beforeOperation Cast Lead was launched, often inbomb shelters, and the economy has suffered.The world's media may only have paid attentionwhen Israel responded to Hamas' barrage, butthis does not mean that Israel was not alreadyunder severe attack by this point.(1) Moreover,the Israeli strikes were rightly measured todisable Hamas rocket attacks.(11) Terror groupsfire indiscriminately at innocent Israelis and thencomplain of excessive or disproportionate forcewhen Israel fires back. But according tointernationally accepted laws of war, Israel ispermitted to respond with the force necessary toend the conflict.(2) Israel was legitimate inusing full force to win its war on Hamas; Israelwas under no obligation to restrain itself in what", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbi22-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is indisputable that Hamas has launchedviolent attacks against civilian targets. Israel, onthe other hand, conducts its operationsexercising all due care to limit civilian casualties.Hamas terrorists, however, set up theirheadquarters and store weapons in privatehomes, schools, colleges and mosques. BothPalestinian President Mahmoud Abbas andEgyptian Foreign Minister Aboul Gheit haveblamed Hamas for provoking the Israeli attackon Hamas targets embedded in civilianareas.(28) Israel's air assault has resulted inmore Palestinian casualties, but that is in partbecause Hamas deliberately locates its securityforces in residential neighborhoods. This isintended both to deter Israel from attacking inthe first place as well as to turn world opinionagainst the Jewish state when it does attack. Byall accounts, however, the Israeli strikes hit theirtargets precisely enough to do significantdamage to Hamas forces.(1) Israel actually putits own troops in harm’s way to minimize civilian", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbi22-con01b", "title": "", "text": "None of these arguments change that fact that250,000 Israelis in southern Israel lived underconstant fear of Hamas rocket attacks, whichHamas escalated after a ceasefire which itrefused to extend. It is notable that Syria, animplacable enemy of Israel, actually played asignificant role in triggering he conflict. TheDamascus office of Hamas, which operates underthe aegis of the regime of Bashar al Assad,vetoed the efforts of Hamas leaders in Gaza toextend the cease-fire and insisted on escalatingrocket attacks.(4) The role of foreign powers inproving the conflict through Hamas has beenrecognized outside of Israel was well: Egypt'sForeign Minister, Ahmed Abul Gheit, assailedIsrael's air strikes but also held Hamasresponsible. The Egyptian governmentunderstood that Hamas, like Hezbollah, isincreasingly allied with Iran and its goals forfomenting regional instability.(1) Israel could notpossibly have been expected to thus not takemilitary action to defend itself when coming", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbi22-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Israel's military operations harmed the chancesof peace in the long term: The long-termsecurity of Israel rests with a stable peaceagreement with the Palestinians, not in attemptsto bludgeon Hamas into a truce 'on Israel'sterms'. To the extent that Israel's large scaleassault on Gaza eliminated the hopes of such anagreement, the attacks worsened Israel'slong-term security.(10) Operation Cast Leadignored history, which teaches that there is nomilitary solution to peace with the Palestinians.As a Daily Star Editorial argued, \"For the Israelis,once they have exercised this latest spasm ofgratuitous bloodletting, there will be yet anotheropportunity to accept the oft-proved impossibilityof a military solution. The Palestinian people willnot be battered into submission, no amount ofair strikes will make the core issues in themoribund peace process go away, and all of thesame difficult decisions will still be waiting whenthe dust settles.\"(18) Thus Operation Cast Leadactually undermined future peace by once more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbi22-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Israel's military operations were disproportionateand harmed too many civilians: The killing ofover 1,400 Palestinians, mostly civilians, andmore than 4,500 injuries, accompanied by thedestruction of schools, mosques, houses, UNcompounds and government buildings, whichIsrael has a responsibility to protect under theFourth Geneva Convention, is not commensurateto the deaths caused by Hamas rocket fire. For18 months Israel had imposed an unlawfulblockade on the coastal strip that brought Gazansociety to the brink of collapse. In the threeyears after Israel’s redeployment from Gaza, 11Israelis were killed by rocket fire. And yet in2005-8, according to the UN, the Israeli armykilled about 1,250 Palestinians in Gaza, including222 children. Throughout this time the GazaStrip remained occupied territory underinternational law because Israel maintainedeffective control over it.(15) The targeting ofcivilians, whether by Hamas or by Israel, ispotentially a war crime. Every human life is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbi22-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Israel's military operations were aggression, notself defense: Israel has sought to justify itsmilitary attacks on Gaza by stating that theyamounted to an act of 'self-defense' asrecognized by Article 51, United Nations Charter.This contention should be rejected: the rocketattacks on Israel by Hamas deplorable as theywere, did not, in terms of scale and effectamount to an armed attack entitling Israel torely on self-defense. Under international law,self-defense is an act of last resort and is subjectto the customary rules of proportionality andnecessity. Operation Cast Lead caused thedeaths of over 1,400 Palestinians, over 300 ofwhom were children, injured 4,500 more andresulted in the destruction of schools, mosques,houses, UN facilities and government buildings.If, as Israel has stated, Cast Lead was carriedout in accordance with the terms of internationallaw, and the safeguards incorporated into thecontemporary law of war, then Israeli forces hada duty to protect civilian infrastructure under the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-meptwhbi22-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The most important thing for regional peace inthe long run is not the belief among Israelis thatthere is a 'military solution' to the conflict, butrather the belief of Hamas and its backers inSyria and Iran that Israel can be 'solved'militarily. It is this belief that causes them toconstantly return to using force against Israel, asthey did with the rocket attacks. Therefore toestablish peace in the long run, Israeli deterrentand demonstration that its citizens cannot betargeted with impunity are the most importantfactors, and these are exactly what OperationCast Lead re-established. Moreover, Hamas maypromotes itself as the legitimate power in Gaza,but in reality, Hamas is at its core a terroristorganization that refuses to renounce violence orrecognize Israel's right to exist. Hamas is listedas a terrorist organization by the United Statesand the European Union. Hamas came to powerin Gaza through a violent coup against thePalestinian Authority government. Since Hamasrefuses to live in peace with Israel, the Israeli", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Because of the size of the global community, andease of communication and transport, mostcountries can still attain necessary weapons andtools. As the world has globalized andinformation can be passed, attained, and hidden,with the click of a button, arms embargos aremuch more difficult to maintain. The UN placedan arms embargo on the Sudan due to fears ofethnic cleansing carried out by the Janjaweed,yet it was reported that there were violations ofthe embargo on all sides of the conflict. In fact,there were accusations backed up by pictorialevidence that even after the arms embargo wasput into place, China and Russia, both membersof the UN security council, were selling weaponsto the country1. Arms embargoes often fall shortof their goals. 1 BBC (2007), \"China, Russia denyweapons breach\", [Accessed June 10, 2011]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions can block the weapons that are usedto perpetrate human rights violations. Armsembargos are a type of sanction that specificallytarget types of weapons. If a country is beingparticularly violent towards its people or at riskof civil war, arms embargos can be used todecrease the weapons available to thegovernment or the people. In 1993-1994 anarms embargo was placed on Haiti by the UnitedNations after a military coup by the group FaDH(the Forces ArmArmées d’Haiti). Forces wereestimated to shrink from 6000 to 1000 by thetime the US invaded in 1994 thanks to the armsembargo [1] . Preventing governments fromattaining weapons can be the most effective wayof stopping government violence. If they don’thave weapons to arm their military, civil war andgenocide become more difficult to perpetrate.Arms embargoes have been successful and whenused in conjunction with other policy actions canbe an effective way of addressing fears of civilwar, ethnic cleansing, government violence, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions often hurt the people more than theyhurt the regimes, rendering it difficult to discernwhether the state(s) imposing sanctions trulycare about the citizens involved or their ownself-interests. Inflicting the pain of poverty andstarvation obviously does not show solidarity,but instead can crush any opposition movementin the country. If people are worried aboutfeeding themselves they are less likely to takeaction against their government. Additionally,sanctions are not the only form of supporting thepeople of a country. In the most recent ArabSpring, the US did not support protesters solelythrough sanctions, but instead publicly called forreforms1. Drawing international attention tocertain issues can also be an effective means oftaking action. Sanctions are therefore not anecessary or effective way of showing support. 1Sharp, Jeb (2011), \"President Obama Calls forMiddle East Reform\", PRI's The World, [accessedJune 10, 2011].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions have been an effective long termpolicy tool in the past. If sanctions are effective,their use is justified because they ultimatelyachieve a desired outcome. They cause financialpain to leaders pressuring them to reform. Longterm sanctions on South Africa were an effectivepolicy. They caused the living standards in thecountry to deteriorate, however this ultimatelyled to the right amount of pressure on thegovernment for apartheid to be ended1.Economic restrictions were first placed on SouthAfrica in 1963 and were ultimately lifted after theend of apartheid almost 30 years later. NelsonMandela himself has stated that sanctions playeda role in forcing the South African government toend apartheid2. The success of sanctions in thepast has prevented the international communityfrom taking military action against certain states.Due to prior success in South Africa, sanctionsare an appropriate tool to push countries towardsreform while preventing military escalation. 1Foer, Franklin (1996), \"Economic Sanctions\",", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions have also failed in the long term. Arecent study found that sanctions were used 116times between 1914 and 1990, and after 1973were only effective 24% of the time1. SouthAfrica is not an appropriate example because theUS and EU had a cooperative relationship withthe country prior to sanctions thereforeincreasing the impact the trade restrictions had.Sanctions are now mostly used against isolatedcountries, like North Korea and Myanmar, whodo not have a close relationship withinternational actors, and for whom cutting offtrade is not such a detrimental loss. Since thecountries sanctions are currently being usedagainst do not fit the profile of South Africa,sanctions are ineffective and success in SouthAfrica is irrelevant. 1 Gilboy, George (2008),\"Political and Social Reform in China: Alive andWalking\", Washington Quarterly, [Accessed June10, 2011].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Recent sanctions failures can make sanctions aless viable threat. Seeing that Myanmar, Iranand North Korea have successfully been able todeflect the pain and pressure of sanctions ontotheir people1, the threat of sanctions becomesless powerful because it is less likely to spell theend of a regime2. The failure of sanctions, notthe infrequent use, makes them useless. 1 TheEconomist (2011), \"An aye for sanctions\",[Accessed June 10, 2011]. 2 Noland, Marcus(2009), \"The (Non-) Impact of UN Sanctions onNorth Korea\", The National Bureau of AsianResearch, [Accessed June 10, 2011].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions make clear where a countrystands. Sanctions send a strong message to thepeople of a country that the Western world is ontheir side and will not just remain compliant bydealing with an oppressive regime as if it hasdone nothing wrong. Part of what encouragespeoples to stand up for their civil liberties is afeeling of support against their regime fromoutside actors. True reform needs to come frompressure within and outside of the state as it didin South Africa. The only way to incentivizeinternal pressure is by expressing support forcivilian movements. In the case of the repressivegovernment in Myanmar, the lifting of sanctionswould be viewed as a betrayal by theMyanmarese and would reverse any progressthat sanctions have helped to achieve. Theleader of the opposition movement, Aung SanSuu Kyi, in Myanmar has called for acontinuation of sanctions, and in an act ofsupport the US has complied1. Thereforesanctions can be an important signal of support", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Just the threat of sanctions can be an effectivecoercive tool. Most diplomatic negotiations occurbehind closed doors, and it has beenhypothesized that if sanctions are going to beeffective it is the threat of the sanctions thatforces the country to concede, not the sanctionsthemselves1. That said, if sanctions were neverfollowed through, the threat would bemeaningless. The use of sanctions builds up thefear of sanction. This fear can bend countriestowards the will of the sanctioning nation. Tomaintain the threat of sanctions as a viablenegotiating tool, sanctions need to beimplemented on occasion to prevent sanctionsfrom becoming an empty, meaningless threat. 1Colvin, Jake and Cox, Simon (2007), \"AreEconomic Sanctions Good Foreign Policy?\",Council on Foreign Relations, [Accessed June 10,2011].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Free trade does not guarantee democracy andcauses bargaining countries to lose leverage. Inorder to increase their own wealth mostdictatorial oligarchies welcome free trade. Oncethey have been accepted into the free tradearena the West no longer has any leverage onthem. It is true, for example, that a sanctionsregime against China would be impossible toimplement but that does not mean we shouldconcede entirely. We should reinstate MFN as alever and use it to force China to improve uponits human rights record. To believe that freetrade can lead to democratization is naïve. It isfar too hopeful to suggest that the wealthproduced thereby will be allowed to filter down tothe people. For example, pervasive poverty stillpersists in China [1] . In reality free trade hasacted as a mechanism to worsen the livingstandards of the people in China as profits areconcentrated in the business sector, and peopleare subject to terrible working conditions and lowwages [2] . As this continues, China also", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "A unified front is not impossible, and whenexecuted correctly can have effective results.Sanctions were used in South Africa, and due tograssroots pressures in the US and Europetrading with South Africa became stigmatized1.Even though it is difficult to create effectivesanctions, it is not impossible particularly if thereis pressure internally and externally on thecountry to reform. 1 Foer, Franklin (1996),\"Economic Sanctions\", Slate.com,, [AccessedJune 7, 2011].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions are ineffective because they hurtordinary people more than leadership. Sanctionsoperate under the assumption that they will hurtleaders of a country so much that they will bendto the will of the sanctioning country. Yet thisassumption is false: governments have the toolsto insulate themselves thereby preventingsanctions from imposing necessary pressure. Bykeeping all available resources for themselves,the government ensures that the sanctionsimpact only the people. Governments that canachieve this deflection have a relativelypowerless citizen base that even when they aresuffering have difficulty standing up to thegovernment. Punishing innocent people isimmoral, because they are suffering for a crimethey did not commit. When the US and UK placedsanctions on Saddam Hussein, it lead to thedeath of hundreds of thousands of children inIraq, although the exact number is contested.Considering that US ultimately invaded Iraq,these children died in vain. In North Korea, it is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions are ineffective because they can becounterproductive. Sanctions often cut off acountry from the international community. Thisblocks the flow of outside information into acountry and permits dictators to mercilessly usepropaganda to strengthen their own position. Itis impossible for the people to believe suchpropaganda is false when there are no competingexternal claims1. This propaganda can deflectblame for the economic suffering from thegovernment to the international community. Thisis called the \"rally around the flag effect\"characterized by the banding together ofopposing factions because of the adverse actionsof an outside power2. For example, sanctions inMyanmar will only serve to insulate the SPDC,the ruling party, in power. The SPDC's grip onthe national media means that it is able todisseminate propaganda which demonizes theWest as the enemy of the Myanmarese, andcasts the military junta as their hero. This canmake the people more willing to stand up to the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions are the opposite of free trade andtherefore should not be used because free tradehas greater benefits. Sanctions prevent freetrade, which is ultimately more effective forincentivizing reforms. Three mechanisms can bebroadly identified through which free tradebrings about democratization. Firstly, it permits aflow of information from Western countries.Secondly, it leads to an increase in the wealth ofeverybody and thirdly it facilitates the growth ofa middle class. The middle class is usually theone that calls for political reform, because theyno longer have to worry about living from day today, and are not complacent about theirgovernment's corruption and failure to addresstheir concerns1.These three factors togetherresult in internal pressure and consequentpolitical change; economic freedoms lead topolitical freedoms. This approach was successfulin helping to bring about the downfall ofcommunism in the Warsaw pact and is startingto lead to increased freedoms in China. For", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions are ineffective because it is verydifficult to unify an adequate number of countriesto cripple an economy. Many countries mustemploy sanctions for them to be successful, yetdue to competing political objectives unifyingenough countries is almost impossible. Ifsanctions are only imposed by a few countries,the sanctioned nation can replace lost trade fromthose countries with trade from other allies,deflecting the economic consequences of thesanctions. North Korea is so isolated from theinternational community that sanctions have hadlittle effect, particularly because their mostimportant trade partner, China, has continued todo business with them1. The UK and USsanctions have not been effective in the case ofMyanmar given that the country mainly tradeswith other ASEAN member states, India, Chinaand Japan. The violation of sanctions often hasto do with political motives. In the case ofASEAN, the member countries are concernedthat China may use Myanmar for military and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Not all peoples are so easily manipulated by acorrupt government. It is naïve to suggest thatthe Myanmarese people accept the government’spropaganda without question. After all, many arestill reeling from the tragedy that befell them in1990 when the results of democratic electionswere annulled and scores of opposition partysupporters were arrested and imprisoned withouttrial [1] . The popularity of Aung San Suu Kyi,the main opposition leader, and the NLD remainhigh [2] . Further, social networking sites likeFacebook and Twitter make propaganda lesseffective and help disseminate criticism ofgovernments even in times of extreme mediacensorship [3] . With current internet tools,crushing opposition movements, even withpropaganda, is not so easy therefore counteringthe potential threat of sanctions. [1] BBC(2010), “Burma's leaders annul Suu Kyi's 1990poll win” [2] BBC (2011), \"Burma upholdsdissolution of Suu Kyi's NLD party' [3] Shirky,Clay (2011), “The Political Powers of Social", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbssbupd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Although they do indeed hurt ordinary people, inthe long term this can create appropriatepressure on governments. When people aresuffering enough at the hands of thegovernment, they are likely to take action. InEgypt and Tunisia the leaders were gettingricher, and the people were becoming poorer,leading to the protests for regime change1.Sanctions worked in South Africa and in theformer Rhodesia. It is true that they can lead tothe mass suffering of the very people they aredesigned to help, as they did to the blackpopulation of South Africa2. Yet this sufferingcreates necessary internal pressure for regimechange. By the utilitarian standard, which says itis just to help the most people, the currentsuffering of some due to sanctions is outweighedby the future freedom promised to all citizens.Sanctions are therefore justified and effectiveeven though they hurt the people as well as theleaders of a country. 1 Bajoria, Jayshree andAssaad, Ragui (2011), \"Demographics of Arab", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This is clearly extremely unfair on thosecountries that traditionally have much lowerturnouts. It essentially means that countries withlow turnouts will have less representation thanthey do at the moment. There is little reasonwhy a nation as a whole should be punished byhaving less representation for some of itscitizens not going out to vote.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Get out the vote! In a system where every votecounts the same and where there are not setconstituencies it is much more important to getthe vote out. Political parties in countries withlow turn outs, such as the UK which in 2009 hasa turnout of just 35%, [1] will need to get theirpeople motivated and voting if they want to winmany seats as they currently control. If acountry with a comparably sized electorate wereto get twice the turnout then it would get twicethe representation in the parliament regardlessof the similarities in the populations of thosecountries. What would matter is getting thenational constituency out voting. This will helpshow that individuals really do need to vote inorder to get their voice heard. [1] ‘EuropeanParliament Elections 2009’, House of Commons,Research Paper 09/53, 17 June 2009, p.23", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is not just much more choice but too muchchoice! Do people in Greece really want theopportunity to vote for the UK IndependenceParty? Will anyone really have the information tomake an informed choice between all thepossible parties throughout Europe? TheEuropean People’s party (one of the groupings inthe European parliament) alone has 51 parties asmembers of its grouping is anyone really goingto look up the different party policies to work outwhich best represents their views? [1] [1]‘Member Parties European Union countries’,European People’s Party,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Encourages Europe wide thinking At themoment paradoxically European elections areoften not about Europe. Much of the time theyare about national politics, and since they arealmost always mid-term what they are oftenabout is punishing the national government.Governing parties’ almost always loose voteswhile opposition parties gain, it is notable thatgoverning parties only gain if the election is heldin their ‘honeymoon’ period after they are votedinto power. More generally European electionsare seen as an opportunity to vote for smallparties rather than bigger ones – implying it is achance to follow ones heart over one’s head.Europe however remains a minor element.[1] This change in system is unlikely to meanthat national governing parties gain significantlymore votes but it will raise the profile of theEuropean dimension in the elections. Whenpeople are able to vote for parties that do notcontest their national elections they will have nochoice but to see it as a European election rather", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "One person one vote that will count in exactlythe same way as everyone else’s The EuropeanParliament has a proportional representationsystem meaning that almost everyone’s votecounts but the change to a single constituencywould still improve this. Everyone’s vote shouldcount for the same no matter where they live.This system ensures that there is such equalityin the voting for the European Parliament. Fromthe 2014 elections Germany will have 96 MEPsand Malta 6 [1] since Germany has a populationof 82 million against Malta’s 400,000 [2] it hasone for every 854,000 inhabitants againstMalta’s one MEP per 66,000. Voters in smallerstates have an outsize influence. Changing to asingle constituency would make every Europeancitizen’s vote worth the same. [1] EuropeanParliament, ‘How many MEPs will each countryget after European Parliament elections in2014?’, Europarl.europa.eu, 13 March 2013, [2]‘Member countries of the European Union’,Europa.eu, , accessed 7 May 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While it may be true on an individual level thateveryone’s vote would count for the same inpractice when looked at from a broaderperspective there will not be equality. It willmean inequality among nations as turnouts willdiffer. Moreover democracy is not just aboutequality but also about defending the rights ofthe minority so as to prevent a tyranny of themajority this system however does not protectsmaller states but allows the larger much greaterinfluence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Simply allowing parties from other countries tocompete is not going to encourage Europe widethinking. There is very little to stop parties fromother countries registering elsewhere already,and as the voting is already proportional there isalready a chance that they could win seats. Ithas however not happened.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Far from rationalising the system the EuropeanParliament elections will become more irrationalwith a single constituency. Everyone will find itvery odd that they can potentially vote forparties from the other side of the continent thatthey have never heard of. It may make thesystem the same everywhere but this does notmean it is a sensible system for Europeanelections. The number of parties makes itcomplex, as does the concept of an internationalparliament where all votes go into one centralpool rather than being based on nationality.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Much more choice Having only one constituencyacross the whole of the European Union wouldmean a lot more choice for the voter. They wouldnot be restricted to just their own nationalparties, instead they could vote for parties fromother countries across the EU. One of the mostimportant things in a democracy is making surethat votes actually count – a greater choice helpsimmensely. There will not be any opportunity tosay ‘they are all the same’ when there aredozens of parties to choose from. Everyone willbe able to find a party that represents theirviews. For example a left wing voter in the UKmight want to vote for the left party in Germanyfeeling that the Labour party no longerrepresents them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Rationalises an irrational system The currentsystem for the European Parliament elections isirrational and quirky because it is partially setindividually per nation. The vote is not held onthe same day in every country – the electionstake place from Thursday when the UK andNetherlands votes through to Sunday when mostof the EU votes, [1] some countries dividethemselves into multiple constituencies – such asthe UK which has 12 [2] – while others likeGermany have one constituency for the wholecountry. Perhaps oddest of all Austrians are ableto vote when they reach 16 years old whileeveryone else has to wait until they areeighteen. [3] And all this is before the oddities oflittle countries votes counting for more isincluded. Rationalisation of this system is clearlynecessary and this is what this proposal does.Clearly the main rationalisation is in terms ofmaking the value of votes the same. It wouldalso eliminate differences over constituencies. Itis likely that it would eliminate the age difference", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This assumes that there could never beagreement in the European Council, betweenmember states, to set up such a system.Members have an interest in having arepresentative system that is fair democraticsystem of elections so should welcome thesechanges. The member states have alreadyeffectively agreed that the European Parliamentcan decide for itself what elections for theEuropean Parliament should look like havingagreed in the Treaty on the Functioning of theEuropean Union to accept European Parliamentproposals for elections of parliament members.[1] [1] ‘Consolidated Version of The Treaty onthe Functioning of the European Union’, OfficialJournal of the European Union, , Article 223", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-con01b", "title": "", "text": "No nation in the European Union has a majorityso this is a baseless concern. The biggest countryin the EU is Germany with a population of81.8million against a total of 508million soGermany makes up a mere 16.1% of the EUtotal. [1] This is certainly not enough todominate the continent. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Punishes apathy People have a right not to beengaged by voting, and all the more so for aparliament they see as a gravy train with littlepolitical power. The European Parliament hascomparatively little power, and where it doeshave power it does not affect the issues thatconcern people; taxes, welfare, education, andhealth. [1] This policy however punishes theircountrymen for their desire not to vote becausepolitical apathy means less votes within thatnation – which in turn means that nation’sparties will be less represented in theparliament. [1] Pech, Laurent, ‘EuropeanParliament Elections: The Significance of VoterApathy’, International Law Prof Blog, 3 June2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Some countries may be left withoutrepresentation It is difficult to conceive of how asystem can be fair when some countries will beleft without any representation at all. On averagethere is one seat in the European Parliament forevery 670,000 individuals in the EU howeverMalta (452,000) and Luxembourg (537,000)both have populations that are smaller than this.In effect each of these countries will only havearound two thirds of a MEP. It is very unlikelythat even the most popular Maltese andLuxembourgian parties will secure a seat in afully proportional system with a singleconstituency. Two countries would thereforeeffectively be disenfranchised by this system.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-con04a", "title": "", "text": "This avoids the real questions about theEuropean Parliament The real problems with theEuropean Parliament are not about the votingsystem; most people agree that the system iscurrently pretty fair. Rather the problem is withA, a lack of interest in European policies – only43% are interested in European Affairs in 2013,a fall from 51% in 2012. B, the inability of theEuropean Parliament to address the mainconcerns of the people which are in orderunemployment, social inequalities, public debt,jobs for youth, it is not until the 7th mostimportant challenge, immigration that theEuropean parliament has a significant impact.[1] C, a lack of power, and where it has powerlack of knowledge about the EuropeanParliament. A change in voting system does notmean a change in the Parliament’s powers orperception. [1] Directorate-General forCommunication Public Opinion Monitoring Unit,‘European Parliament Eurobarometer: One yearto go until the 2014 European elections’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Would undermine nationalsovereignty Separating the European Parliamentelections from the individual countries of Europeis clearly a challenge to national sovereignty.Each member state should be able to decide howit conducts its elections (within a certain generalframework), what parties can compete in thoseelections, the rules governing campaigning etc.The basis of the European Union is what isagreed between the member states by themembers of the European Council. In the treatyof Lisbon it was agreed that “Representation ofcitizens shall be degressively proportional, with aminimum threshold of six members per MemberState. No Member State shall be allocated morethan ninety-six seats.” [1] A change to a singleconstituency would break this provision that hasbeen agreed by the nation states. [1] ‘Article 9A’, Official Journal of the European Union, 17December 2007, C306/17", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-con05b", "title": "", "text": "It is not true that they won’t haverepresentation; they may not have a specificallyLuxembourger or Maltese party but there will beso much choice of parties that their viewpointswill be represented. Additionally this systemallows the parties from these small nations tosolve this problem by appealing to a wideraudience beyond their borders. It is simply anadded incentive to Europeanise.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Big countries will dominate This system wouldcreate a tyranny of the majority that the currentsystem guards against. The reason why smallermember states have greater representation is toprevent the possibility of the bigger statesdominating in the parliament. Having smallercountries with a greater share of the seats inparliament ensures that their voice is heard. Achange to a single constituency would changethis to a big advantage for the bigger states.Under the current system in 2014 Germany willhave 96 seats; if it were exactly proportionalGermany would have 120 – a gain of 24 seats(presuming the limit of 750 remains the same).The smaller states will on the other hand looseseats and their voice in the parliament willbecome much more marginal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Discussing electoral systems may seem esotericbut the voting system makes an immensedifference to the composition of a parliament.This in turn affects the balance of power in thatParliament and so what laws are actually passed.So a change in the voting system does notcompletely avoid the question of powers. It mayalso change perceptions because of the ability ofparties to campaign in countries where they havenot done so before. While the lack of powers is aconcern for the European Parliament this issomething that is slowly changing anyway. TheEuropean Parliament was in 2009 madeco-legislator with the council meaning it hasmuch more power to stop European levellegislation rather than simply being consulted.The change in 2014 to having an electedCommission President will also mean thatparliament elections have some influence on theexecutive. Additionally even on those issueswhere the Parliament has little power this doesnot mean it does not take into account citizens’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvepesio-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Part of the reason for such apathy is the beliefthat 62% of European Citizens believe that theirvote “wouldn’t change anything”. [1] Why vote ifit does not matter. However by changing theelectoral system to being completely proportionalas this change does peoples votes really docount, this is no longer a reason for apatheticallynot voting. [1] Merritt, Giles, ‘Europeanparliament: unpopular, uninteresting,indispensable’, theguardian.com, 31 May 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwaucsa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "In many cases, an impartial third party can bemore effective. If we look at peace negotiationsas an analogy and look at, for example, thosebetween FARC guerillas and the Colombiangovernment they began in Oslo, Norway,(1) notin Colombia or any other South Americancountry. This happens as in order for a conflict tobe mediated, you need to have a neutral thirdparty which no party can influence and has nopreference. The same can be equally true ofpeacekeepers. Due to African membership, theAU is unlikely to be considered impartial puttingtroops between them African factions. Of course,those African countries are part of the UN too,but due to the sheer number of countries in theUN, it is clear that the influence is much morediminished. (1) Rueda, Manuel, ‘The UltimateGuide to Colombia’s Peace Negotiations’, Fusion,17 October 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwaucsa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "African forces will be trusted by Africans Theprimary purpose of international organisations isto resolve conflicts between members. In thecase of the AU its first stated objective is“achieve greater unity and solidarity between theAfrican countries”. The main threat to this unityas well as peace in the continent is rebel groupsand internal conflict. Groups for whom the onlygoal is wealth or to get into power in their owncountry.(2) An AU force’s role would thereforebe to defeat these armed groups and to engagein peacekeeping. An AU force is always going tobe better at handling these situations due to itslegitimacy in Africa. In many African countries,the West is perceived as an imperialist power,due to their colonial past and as a result there isa serious lack of trust between the parties. AnAU force will also be better than any local forceas a peacekeeper as it will, like the UN, be seenas being independent while also being African. Itwould also, like the rebels, be able to crossborders. Such a force would therefore be able to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwaucsa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "In a world which has been constantly militarizingfor the past century it is very hard to believe thatAfrica will be capable of building, from scratch,such an army capable of impressing thedeveloped world. Any AU army will be small; theUS has a military budget about 15 times all theAfrican countries combined(1)(2), China’smilitary budget is growing at a double digit rateand many other countries have vasty superiorarmies when compared to the best in Africa. AnAU force is always going to be severely limitedby its low budgets and capabilities. It may winplaudits and influence for its help within Africabut it will have no role beyond the continent as itwill never be a force used to project power.Changing a perception that Africa can do nothingon its own is one thing, it is quite another to gaininfluence outside the continent. (1) Simmins,Charles, “Defense Spending in Africa Increasing”,Clearance Jobs, September 6, 2013 (2) ’Militaryexpenditure’, Stockholm International PeaceResearch Institute, April 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwaucsa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The international community cant be reliedupon It is clear that Africa cannot rely on theinternational community to solve its conflicts. Inorder to be more independent, what the AfricanUnion needs is a standing army, which canintervene whenever there is a crisis. First of all,when looking at statistics, having dipped in the1990s the number of conflicts is growing oncemore, the most recent events of Mali and theAlgeria serving as a perfect example(1).“following a year (2010) that signalled hope for amore peaceful development, the number ofconflicts increased by nearly 20 percent “(4).This has served to demonstrate Africa’s need fora force to engage in peace keeping and peacemaking. Despite the growing need forpeacekeeping forces, there is reason to believethat the help coming from the internationalcommunity will be insufficient. The dysfunctionalstructure of the UNSC, the body which approvesall major international interventions. Russia andChina, two countries which have a non", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwaucsa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "On this point, there are two main reasons whythe AU will actually do a poorer job as far assecurity in concerned. First of all, there are noassurances that African countries have thenecessary expertize or financial capacity ofsupporting a well trained and always preparedmilitary force. Only one country has a topmilitary, Egypt,(1), and this is largely becauseAfrican states cannot support big militaries oftheir own so how would they additionally supportan AU force? On the other side, we have seenthe international community engagingsuccessfully in peacekeeping missions, helpinglocal governments defeat rebel groups. There arecurrently have 15 UN peacekeeping missions(3)in Africa and French troops are helping tostabilise Mali and the CAR(4). Moreover, theinstitutional drawbacks that apply to the UNSCunfortunately apply to AU as well. The AU has 53members and for an intervention to be acceptedthey would need a two-thirds approval rate.These alleged military interventions might get", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwaucsa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Showing Africa can solve its ownproblems Countries desire to have influenceamong the international community. States gainthis influence in all sorts of way; economicwealth, high technology, charismatic leaders, ora military power. Having an AU standing armywould help provide Africa with influence; it wouldshow the unity of the continent and itswillingness to work together. A lot of influence isabout perception and this is something that anAU army can change; Africa will no longer be acontinent that cannot act for itself even on itsown soil but will instead be taking the burden offmore established peacekeeping countries. This isan important gain as influence is gained by beingable to bring something to the table. Having anAU force means the AU will always be able tobring resources and capabilities when there is acrisis in Africa. The default position will no longerbe to look to the UN, or even to France and theUK for peacekeepers when there is a crisis inAfrica but to the AU itself. But an AU army", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwaucsa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "In such a situation, past war experience countsfor little as every conflict is different. First of all,African armies on the other hand are familiarwith the territory, conditions and people. It istrue that Nigeria never sent troops to Iraq, butby battling Boko Haram every single day, it isfair to assume that the strategies and themilitary techniques used by the army areimproving constantly, as they are forced toimprove them by the growing threat. Secondly,The West has been forthcoming when it needs toshare military counter insurgency techniques forexample of training foreign armies. Through theNATO Training Mission – Afghanistan (1)numerous soldiers have been trained and thusthe Afghan security situation dramaticallyimproved. Even if African armies are be underexperienced, by participating in joint militaryexercises with military experts from the westernworld, they could improve their capabilitiesquickly (1) ‘NATO Training Mission –Afghanistan’, International Security Assistance", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwaucsa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It would be only beneficial to Africa to takematters into its own hands and not depend onsome foreign country to save the day when theyare in need. Even though at a diplomatic level,all big western liberal democracies are“committed” to helping Africa, it is clear that thismay not always be the case. The West hasbecome fatigued by the wars in Afghanistan andIraq, as proven by the opposition to a proposedintervention in Syria. Prior to this, the West hasfailed to intervene efficiently, such as in Rwandawhere the response to genocide was too late(1).Moreover the African Union is often muchfaster to respond to crises in Africa and is the‘first resort’ while the UN or foreign troops is alast resort. Thus in the Central African RepublicAU troops were deployed four months prior tothe French intervention. Intervention by westernpowers will only happen when the crisis isserious, and putting a UN force together can takea long time. This is a very big drawback on theside of the international community and it most", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwaucsa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Action would require UN approval The AU’spowers will be at odds with those of the UN.While the United Nations accepts and evenencourages regional organisations engaging in“pacific settlement of local disputes” the point ofan army is to be able to intervene with morethan just negotiations. “But no enforcementaction shall be taken under regionalarrangements or by regional agencies withoutthe authorization of the Security Council” so anypotential intervention of the AU in crisis zoneswill be conditioned by UNSC approval ornot.(1) If it will, it’s very easy to see how thecreation of this standing army will be more orless in vain as it will either be prevented fromintervening or act as a subsidiary to a betterequipped UN force. The AU could choose toignore the UNSC. However this option is alsoproblematic as it would undermine the legitimacyof the operation and encourage the creation ofregional organisations that try to keep the UnitedNations out of the region. (1) United Nations,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwaucsa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "An AU force will be inexperienced An AU forcewon’t just be keeping the peace but it may alsobe involved in defeating rebel forces. One of themost important prerequisites for winning andending such a conflict is experience. When itcomes to fighting insurgencies there are manycountries that have experience fightinginsurgencies; the French in Mail, NATO inAfghanistan, the British in Sierra Leone etc. Ineach of these national armies have gatheredexperience and learned counter insurgencytechniques. This now makes them best able tosolve conflicts. On the other hand, when lookingat the military campaigns of the AU or Africancountries, there has been little success. AMISOM(African Mission in Somalia) has been in placesince 2007, yet Al-Shabaab is still in power inmany regions including the capital city,Mogadishu, and the ending is nowhere near(1). As a result, we should choose the ones withthe most experience to handle such crisis ratherthan a newly created and unprepared AU", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwaucsa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There is no need for an AU force Westerncountries have military systems far moreefficient than their African counterparts, so it isclear that their involvement would be much moreefficient than any AU-lead intervention. UN hasalready embarked on a mission to end conflictthroughout the world and help the continentreach prosperity. Therefore, it would be muchmore effective for Africa to concentrate andinvest in other issues and let the internationalcommunity handle security. France’s recentintervention in Mali is a testimony of the westernworld’s devotion when it comes to Africansecurity. The mission‘s ultimate objective is, inPresident François Hollande’s words, to “restoreMali’s territorial integrity”(1) and an AU armywould be no better at doing this. The first pointis obviously costs. The cost of a large effectivearmy is very high, especially equipping it for anyeventuality. This is very problematic especiallywhen a lot of African countries have pooreconomies, extremely high illiteracy rates, bad", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aghwaucsa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The Security Council will be most unlikely toobstruct a recognised regional securityorganisation from doing its role. Any veto wouldbe extremely costly for the power that did so asthey would incur the ire of most of Africa. Mostof thesituations which the AU will want tointervene in are not of a high enough priority forthe international community to devote significantresources to, but which are still big enough toseriously damage African countries. There will beno reason to veto. Moreover, there will be timeswhen the world will be just too ignorant and tooslow at some urgent matters which needimmediate attention. A well-prepared standingarmy would have been able to stop the Rwandangenocide. As a result, even though this policy isnot perfect it would help the current situation inAfrica improve.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aehbcvrflen-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "That’s what the status is now. If Africa is indeedrising, surely that is a better bet for Cape Verde?Cape Verde is already being integrated intoAfrica; it is a member of the EconomicCommunity of West African States. There is anintention for these regional African communitiesto at some point merge into a market stretchingacross Africa; The African Economic Community.Cape Verde should increase its integration with acommunity it is already a member of. Looking tothe European Union also ignores China, India andother important economise – including millions offellow Portuguese speakers in Brazil, one of themuch touted BRIC economies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aehbcvrflen-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Its the economy, stupid! Cape Verde doesn’tdislike West Africa – it just has no real economicconnection to the region. Cape Verde’s maineconomic partners are in Europe, with over halfof imports coming from Portugal and TheNetherlands, and more than three quarters ofexports going to Spain and Portugal together [1]. If Cape Verde were to join the EU InternalMarket, as discussed [2] , it would give CapeVerdean exports total unfettered access to thewhole market and integrate them in to thesystems of standards. Joining would mean lowertariffs so in turn Cape Verde goods beingexported would be cheaper in their mainEuropean market so boosting exports whileimports would be cheaper for consumers in CapeVerde meaning the residents are able to buymore. [1] Central Intelligence Agency, ‘CaboVerde’, The World Factbook, 11 April 2014, [2]‘Cape Verde could seek EU membership thisyear’, EUbusiness, 7 May 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aehbcvrflen-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Schengen membership is not the same as EUmembership – some non-EU states, such asSwitzerland are part of Schengen, the UK andIreland are EU member states but are not.Joining Schengen would involve the politicallysensitive issue of undocumented migrants, whichcould not only be fatal to Cape Verde joiningSchengen but to integration with Europe itself.Even if it is unlikely, is it that difficult for peopleto show a passport? Besides, tourism is not justfrom Europe to outside – a Euro move wouldonly stop Europeans from needing to changecurrencies. The peg is the best of both worlds inthat it means that the currency is stable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aehbcvrflen-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Cultural links Cape Verde is not a good fit withthe much of the history of Africa. It has beenjoined at the hip with Europe, if other things hadgone other ways this debate would not behappening as the islands could have remained anintegral part of Portugal as with Madeira and theAzores. Not all Cape Verdeans do considerthemselves to be Africans [1] . Cape Verdeculturally and historically has more in commonwith Europe. It has a longer standing relationshipwith a European state than other African nationsthat were colonized; it was first settled by thePortuguese in 1462 and unlike much of Africa itwas uninhabited before Europeans arrived [2] .It history has therefore been one that is linked toEurope not Africa. A future orientated towardsEurope would not have to be culturally exclusive.Cape Verde would not be giving up itsindependence, any more than Ireland gave up itsindependence by becoming part of the EuropeanUnion. Cape Verde would still be free to explorecultural and historical links with Africa. [1] See", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aehbcvrflen-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While Cape Verde may have a history and culturethat is closer to Europe than all other Africanstates this does not mean it does not have anAfrican culture. There are of course many Africanstates all with their own histories, culture andindependence dates – from Ethiopia in timeimmemorial through Namibia in the 1990s to thebirth of South Sudan. Some will have more incommon with European states thanothers. Cape Verde has strong links to Africa;much of its population were originally slavesbrought from Africa. The World Factbook givesits ethnic groups as 71% Creole (mulatto) –mixed race, 28% African, and only 1%European. [1] With its population beingdescended from slavery despite its historyhaving been controlled by Europeans its peoples’historical experience is more in line with otherAfrican countries that were the victims ofslavery. [1] Central Intelligence Agency, ‘CaboVerde’, The World Factbook, 11 April 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aehbcvrflen-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "EU membership is good for tourism Tourism is akey industry for Cape Verde. The archipelago is apopular destination for many from Europe. Whilethe country is resource poor in terms of naturalresources, three quarters of the country’s GDPcomes from services [1] . Integration withEurope could see a number of advantages. TheSchengen agreement allows visa free, andborder control free, travel between its membersso this would mean a potential boom in thetourist industry. Joining the Euro would alsomean a common currency with other Europeannations – the Cape Verde Escudo is alreadypegged to the Euro, and prior to that, it waspegged to the Portuguese Escudo. [1] CentralIntelligence Agency, ‘Cabo Verde’, The WorldFactbook, 11 April 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aehbcvrflen-con03b", "title": "", "text": "EU member states regularly have territories evenfurther abroad than off the coast of West Africa –including even territory on the mainland of SouthAmerica, French Guiana, a French overseasregion. Cyprus is an EU member state too, in theEastern Mediterranean sea sandwiched betweenTurkey and Syria. Cyprus is over 300 miles fromany other EU territory, over water. In an era oftelecommunications and international trade, isthis distance too much of a problem?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aehbcvrflen-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Size is not necessarily a problem; it means it ismuch simpler for the EU to pull Cape Verde up toEuropean standards than it would be with alarger country. It also means there will be fewconcerns about membership; no one is going tobe worried about emigration from a country witha tiny population. The process would also not beimmediate; countries take at a minimum fiveyears and often over a decade to join the EU.There are other potential candidates such asMoldova, with a lower GDP per capita, which hasbeen touted as a potential member by Romania[1] . Cape Verde has a service based economy,like many EU member states. It is already amember of the WTO, and has had good solideconomic growth [2] . Moreover the entireaccession process is built around helpingpotential member states achieve these criteria,and Cape Verde, due to its small size, would notface the biggest challenges to get in. There is noreason why Cape Verde joining the EU issomehow impractical on an economic level. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aehbcvrflen-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Cape Verde should be a beacon for Africa Ratherthan joining the European sphere or even lookingtowards Europe, Cape Verde could act as abeacon for the rest of Africa. Africa has a needfor countries that are setting a good example ingovernance for others to follow. The country isalready at the top of several sections in the MoIbrahim Index, notably those relating to humanrights [1] . Its former President Pedro Pires hasalso won the Mo Ibrahim prize for “transformingCape Verde into a model of democracy, stabilityand increased prosperity”. The prize is onlyawarded when there is a peaceful, democratictransition and is in many years not awarded toanyone, it has not been awarded since Pires in2011. [2] Instead of abandoning it Cape Verdeshould help build up Africa – a rising continent,rather than taking the tempting option ofmoving. [1] ‘Cape Verde 3rd/52’, Mo IbrahimIndex, 2013, [2] ‘President Pedro de VeronaRodrigues Pires, Cape Verde’, Mo IbrahimFoundation, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aehbcvrflen-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Geographical stretch too far Cape Verde is justtoo far from Europe – it is 400 miles off the coastof Senegal compared to almost 1,900 miles fromthe Portuguese mainland. [1] The EuropeanUnion has never had a member from Africa, andneither have other European institutions such asthe Council of Europe. [2] The Canary Islandsand similar archipelagos are not helpful as aprecedent because they are integral parts ofother nations that are themselves clearlypositioned on the European continent. The solecondition for EU membership is that the applicantmust be a European state, something CapeVerde is not. Would the EU really be willing tohave a member so far from it as a full member,when Morocco, just across the strait of Gibraltar,was rejected for that reason? [3] [1] ‘Distancefrom Praia to…’, timeanddate.com, [2] ‘MemberStates’, coe.int, [3] ‘Legal questions ofenlargement’, Briefing No 23,europarl.europa.eu,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aehbcvrflen-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Joining Europe is unrealistic A move towards theEuropean sphere of influence might seem logical,but success is not guaranteed. In terms ofpopulation, Cape Verde would be the secondsmallest EU member state after Malta meaning itwould have little influence over the Union when itjoins. And there is little reason for the EU todesire Cape Verde’s membership as it willprovide no real gains to the Union. Also, itshuman development index is lower than that ofIraq [1] , over fifty places behind that of lowestEU member state Bulgaria – which when itcomes to governance and development is subjectto little more than ridicule in the media of othermember states. Not every European nationwould get in on economic criteria – Moldovajoining is not likely in the near future either. Theonly success from orientating towards Europewould be a burning of continental bridges withAfrica. [1] Central Intelligence Agency, ‘Iraq’,The World Factbook, 11 April 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aehbcvrflen-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Cape Verde should determine its own role in theworld – not be beholden to the interests of acontinental bloc. Paradoxically by movingtowards Europe Cape Verde could be a muchbetter model for the African continent – it wouldshow that African states, even small ones, arecapable of becoming developed countries. AnAfrican country successfully joining Europeaninstitutions would give hope to the rest of thecontinent that there could be closer integrationand cooperation in the future.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Being leader should not allow you blanketimmunity from persecution of crimes. If anagreement was able to be reached for these twomen, surely a similar agreement can reached forothers. Stability might be undermined more ifleaders who are proven to committing warcrimes are allowed to remain in power wherethey may do so again.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Having the president out of the countryundermines stability While Kenyatta and hisdeputy William Ruto have been visiting the ICC,they should have been leading their countries.While the indictment has occurred both haveremained the leaders of their countries, but havebeen absent while major events such as theWestgate shootings occurred. Despite the needto strong leadership in the midst of a potentiallydivisive event, Ruto was only granted one weekaway from trial. [1] Having a clear and stableleadership is important for Kenya to develop,restrict violence and ensure that policydevelopment is able to continue, particularlygiven the cross-ethnic powering sharingarrangement between Kenyatta and Ruto.Absence of leadership during the fear anduncertainty surrounding this event might lead toa fresh round of violence as supporters take tothe streets in protest – this election had putformer enemies Kenyatta and Ruto together,easing ethnic tensions in the region [2] . [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "In the five years since the violence occurred,very little action has occurred from the domesticforces; there have been only two murderconvictions for the 1200 deaths. [1]Furthermore, these forces are working for thepeople they are meant to be investigating. Thecase of Kenyatta has seen accusations of witnessintimidation on large scales, meaning objectivityin local courts is very unlikely to occur [2] . Theresult of the Waki commission was to hand overalleged perpetrators to the ICC directly, showingthat Kenya felt the need to rely on thisinternational framework [3] . [1] ‘Kenya:Prosecute Perpetrators of Post-Election Violence’,Human Rights Watch, 9 December 2011, [2]‘Perceptions and Realities:Kenya and theInternational Criminal Court’, Human RightsWatch, 14 November 2013, [3] Wachira,Muchemi, ‘Annan did not ambush Kenya saysJustice minister’, Daily Nation, 13 July 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC indictment underminesdemocracy Uhuru Kenyatta is a sitting presidentof a democratic nation. This means that he waselected by the people to serve them. By indictinga sitting leader, you undermine their ability torule the country as they will be forced to spendlong periods outside their country focusing onsomething that is irrelevant to the governance oftheir country. The ICC has demanded thatKenyatta and Ruto attend the trial in person. [1]By forcing the President and Deputy President tospend long hours away from the country involvedin a trial the ICC is effectively disenfranchisingthe people who voted from him to be theirleader. Further, Kenyatta is first and foremostaccountable to the Kenyan people, who havechosen him as leader despite these claims. It isclearly unwelcome interference by the ICC forthe court to take the President away from hisduties. [1] Statement by ICC, ‘Kenyatta case:ICC Trial Chamber V(b) reviews decision onpresence of accused at trial’, whereiskenya.com,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It would seem to undermine democracy to allowa president accused of violence during anelection to continue to serve. Elections are onlyone part of a democracy; another is a functioningand respected rule of law. When the presidenthas charges to answer he should stand down, atleast temporarily. It is wrong to assume thatsomeone who is elected as representative shouldhave some form of immunity and that outsideforces should not be able to investigate him; apresident has a lot of power to repressminorities. That repression being supported by ademocratic minority does not make it any lesswrong. Moreover Kenyatta was elected with50.07% of the vote, not an overwhelmingendorsement. [1] [1] Gatehouse, Gabriel,‘Kenya Supreme Court upholds Uhuru Kenyattaelection win’, BBC News, 30 March 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Far from too much interference that the trial ison the point of collapse shows there has notbeen enough. The ICC has found itself unable toprotect witnesses, with the result that there havebeen two withdrawals. Both the defence [1] andthe prosecutor claim there has been witnessintimidation in the trial. [2] [1] ‘Kenyattalawyers demand trial scrapped, say witnessesintimidated’, reuters, 10 October 2013, [2]Sterling, Toby, ‘Kenyatta war crimes trial:Prosecutor asks for delay after witnesseswithdeaw in case against Kenyan President’, TheIndependent, 20 December 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Kenya can prosecute these crimes itself Kenyahas a functioning judiciary and police force. Theyhave successfully prosecuted some individualsfor these crimes and it should be left to Kenya todeliver justice for itself. There have been severalcases brought before the courts. [1] Kenyansoverwhelmingly see the ICC is ‘imperialist’, and61% want the ICC to terminate its case againstKenyatta. [2] If and when Kenya’s leaders shouldbe tried should be left to the domestic judiciaryto decide. [1] Nebehay, Stephanie, ‘UN urgesKenya to probe violence after 2007 elections’,Reuters, 26 July 2012, [2] Wanyama, Henry,‘Kenya: 61 Percent of Kenyans Want ICC CasesDropped – Poll’, allAfrica, 1 February 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "A pointless trial that victimizes Africanleaders While the ICC feels free to interfere withAfrican countries it would never dare to do so ina western country; leaders such as George Bush,Tony Blair, Nicholas Sarkozy and others whohave launched various armed interventions havenot been put on trial. Not only is it victimizationand interference the trial of Kenyatta is alsolikely to be pointless; it is on the point ofcollapse. The prosecutor Fatou Bensouda hasstated “Having carefully considered my evidenceand the impact of the two withdrawals, I havecome to the conclusion that currently the caseagainst Mr. Kenyatta does not satisfy the highevidentiary standards required at trial”. [1] [1]AFP, ‘'Not enough evidence for Kenyatta trial':ICC prosecutor’, Google, 19 December 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The Kenyan Parliament decided against creatinga special tribunal, the court should not have thengone over the elected representatives’ head tohand the case to the ICC. The Parliament hassince shown its displeasure at the ICC’sinterference by voting to leave the ICC entirely.[1] [1] AP, ‘Kenya votes to leave ICC daysbefore deputy president’s Hague trial’, TheGuardian, 5 September 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Justice can still be sought by either local courtsor after Kenyatta’s term ends. Justice should bedone without ICC interference in the domesticaffairs of Kenya. Even so, this does not seem likethe pursuit of justice by the ICC, rather a witchhunt by the ICC for African leaders [1] . [1]‘African Union accuses ICC of ‘hunting’ Africans’,BBC News, 27 May 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Breaks cycles of violence When violence is notpunished, it tends to lead to more violence –such as the lack of prosecutions following theviolence occurring after the 1992 and 1997elections, to which people attribute to the air ofimpunity in the 2007 elections. This is firstlybecause people never heal from the initialviolence – when justice is not seen to be done,they remain angry and partisan. Secondlyhowever, a lack of retribution leads to increasedconfidence to repeat and exacerbate acts.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Kenyans wanted the investigation It cannot beunwelcome interference in Kenya’s internalaffairs when it was Kenyans who invited the ICCin. It was the Kenyan government that set up theWaki commission under Kenyan Court of AppealsJudge Philip Waki into the violence. It was thenthis commission that decided to pass the resultsof its investigation on to the ICC in order to getprosecutions due to the failure to set up a specialtribunal. [1] The Kenyan government may havedisliked the final outcome of its creation of sucha commission but it was undoubtedly asked forby the Kenyan judiciary. Moreover until itbecame clear that the trial could collapseKenyans were largely supportive with more thanhalf the country supporting the trial. [2] [1]Justice Initiative Kenya Monitor [2] Maliti, Tom,‘New opinion poll finds rise in support for ICC;many want Kenyatta to attend trial’, KenyaMonitor, 15 November 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Justice is important Justice is important in itsown right, for the victims of the atrocities and forthe development of Kenya. Victims have a rightunder the Universal Declaration of Human Rights[1] to have access to justice. Being electedshould not be a blanket ban from beingprosecuted for your crimes. In fact, the rule oflaw establishes the principle that leaders aresubject to the same laws as all citizens. Byseeing leaders being prosecuted for crimes,everyone sees the system working, allowingcitizens to trust and buy further into thedemocratic system. As a consequence, thepursuit of justice is the most important factorabove and beyond any claims ofinterference. [1] Article 8, Universal Declarationof Human Rights.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alilhbukiw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Justice for violence is not fundamental to peace,as can be seen by the comparatively peaceful2013 elections. Having now established workingrelationship between ethnic communities, whystoke the fire by prosecuting community leaders?60% of Kenyans say they do not believe that thecase even if it runs to a conclusion will not helpheal Kenya. [1] [1] Wanyama, 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbjsbd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Israel has a better historical, moral anddemographic claim to an undivided Jerusalem asits capitol than the Palestinians have a claim toEast Jerusalem. This is both because Israel'shistorical claim is older, and indeed original, butalso because Israel does govern all Jerusalem,including East Jerusalem, both fairly anddemocratically. Moreover, the idea thatJerusalem could be is not practical. If allJerusalem becomes the capital of both Israel andPalestine, this would create all sorts of potentialproblems. If it was shared for example, would ababy born in a shared Jerusalem’s civicnationality be Israeli or Palestinian? And if an actis committed in Jerusalem which one nation'sgovernment recognises as a crime but the otherdoesn't, who decides what should be done?Different countries sharing a disputed territorybut not dividing it is very illogical, even more soif that territory is the capital of both. Imaginewhat would have happened if the UK, France,and the USA decided to share Berlin with the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbjsbd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Palestine has as valid a claim to Jerusalem asIsrael does: The Palestinians have as valid aclaim to Jerusalem as the capitol of their state asthe Israelis has a claim to Jerusalem as thecapitol of their state. At the end of 2008, thepopulation of East Jerusalem was 57% Muslim(Palestinian) and only 43% Jewish, sowing aclear and workable Palestinian majority in EastJerusalem.(10) Both sides have importantreligious sites in the city. The dome of the Rockis integral to Islam to the prophet Muhammad’snight journey to the temple making it Islam’sthird holiest place after only Mecca and Medina.It is equally important for Jews to have access tothe Western Wall.(1) For the Palestinians Israelhas made its claim over the whole of Jerusalemmore illegitimate by misgoverning the East ofJerusalem. For example, because there are noArab’s on the committee that chooses streetnames in Jerusalem in the telephone book mapsof Arab neighbourhoods are blank, likeunexplored parts of the Amazon in the 19th", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbjsbd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The 1947 Arab invasion invalidated the\"international\" status of Jerusalem. The Arabnon-acceptance of Resolution 181 and invasionof Israel immediately upon its declaration ofstatehood essentially reneged the resolution andthe creation of an Arab state at the time.(15)Furthermore, self-determination is not anabsolute right. Not every territory and region inthe world that seeks independence has the rightto it. This is due in no small part to the fact thatsuch a system would be unworkable. Certaincriteria must be met for a territory and people toobtain a legitimate right to self-determination,including not compromising the fundamentalsecurity or territorial integrity of the originalstate, which a Palestinian East Jerusalem wouldprobably do.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbjsbd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Sharing Jerusalem is necessary for peace Theonly sustainable solution is to divide and thenshare Jerusalem, and the Haram-Temple Mount.No final deal will be possible if one side or theother is not willing to embrace this. SharingJerusalem would involve acknowledging andrespecting each other’s claims which wouldextend to the other problems preventingagreement. (1) Sharing is the only solution thatleads to peace, as the Palestinians in EastJerusalem will not tolerate permanent Israeligovernance. Peace will always be a trade-off;Israel needs security while the Palestinians needterritory and a viable capital city which they havedreamed of having in East Jerusalem fordecades. (9)(5) In any peace deal Israel willhave to accept that their security forces cannotbe in control of Muslim areas. The Palestinianswon’t trust them as a result of decades wherethey have not been fair to Palestinians and havebeen abusive rather than protective.(2) All thismeans that Israeli rule in East Jerusalem can", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbjsbd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Dividing Jerusalem would simply turn the cityinto a war zone, with the battle lines being drawnwherever the dividing lines are drawn, as the twomixed-up and opposing communities fight forcontrol over streets, holy sites andneighbourhoods. Moreover, it is simply not truethat the inhabitants of East Jerusalemnecessarily want to be the inhabitants of thecapitol of a new Palestinian state rather thaninhabitants of Israel. An opinion poll of residentsof all 19 Arab neighborhoods of East Jerusalemconducted in 2011 showed opposition to atransfer of control to the Palestinian Authority.40% said that they would move to Israel if theirneighbourhood was transferred to the PalestinianAuthority, and 39% believed most of theirneighbour’s preferred Israeli citizenship. On theother hand only 29% would move to aPalestinian neighbourhood if theirs remained inIsrael, and 31% estimated that most of theirneighbours preferred Palestinian citizenship.35% prefer Israeli citizenship compared to 30%", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbjsbd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "International law supports dividingJerusalem The Palestinian people since 1967have demonstrated through resistance to Israelioccupation their desire for an independent stateof their own.(7) An undivided Jerusalem forcesthe Palestinians living in East Jerusalem to liveunder the control of a state they do not wish tobe a part of, a violation of their right toself-determination under international law. The1993 Vienna Declaration, which reaffirmed theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights and theUN Charter (and so sets the standard in currentinternational law), unequivocally gives allpeoples the right to self-determination: “Allpeople have the right to self-determination.Owing to this right they freely establish theirpolitical status and freely provide their economic,social and cultural development...WorldConference on Human Rights considers refusal ofthe right to self-determination as a violation ofhuman rights and emphasizes the necessity ofeffective realization of this right”.(12) Because", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbjsbd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Dividing Jerusalem will not alienate Jews fromtheir heritage. Dennis Ross writes in the book\"the Missing Peace\", that it is a myth: \"that all ofJerusalem, including the exclusively Arabneighbourhoods of Jerusalem, must remainIsraeli lest the division of East Jerusalem robIsrael of its link to its Jewish heritage.\"(22)Furthermore, splitting Jerusalem will establishneeded peace for economic growth. Withoutpeace, it is impossible for Jerusalem to thriveeconomically as it should. If splitting Jerusalemis the best way to establish peace, then it is alsothe best way to stimulate economic growth.Finally, even if it would be damaging to Israelisociety or culture to lose East Jerusalem, the factthat Israel illegitimately acquired it in a warmeans that this is a burden the Israelis shouldbear, instead of forcing the harm on thePalestinians.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbjsbd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The Palestinians will accept a peace deal thatgives them East Jerusalem, and so the fears over'Hamas' are misplaced as the conflict will end. InOctober 2010 Senior Palestine LiberationOrganization official Yasser Abed Rabbo said thatthe Palestinians will be willing to recognize theState of Israel in any way that it desires, if theAmericans would only present a map of thefuture Palestinian state that includes all of theterritories captured in 1967, including EastJerusalem. “We want to receive a map of theState of Israel which Israel wants us to accept. Ifthe map will be based on the 1967 borders andwill not include our land, our houses and EastJerusalem, we will be willing to recognize Israelaccording to the formulation of the governmentwithin the hour. ” added Rabbo.(18) Moreover,Jerusalem has been psychologically andreligiously divided since 1967. The walls may beinvisible, but they are high and thick. ManyIsraelis never go to the Arab neighbourhoods orthe Old City, because they know, even though", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbjsbd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Jerusalem belongs to Israel Jerusalem became acity in 1010 B.C.E. when King David defeated theJebusites. King David made that city his seat ofgovernment. In fact, King David loved Jerusalemthat he brought the sacred Ark of the Covenantinto that city and stripped the so-called twelvetribes of Israel of some of their spiritual andadministrative functions. The Torah is the Historyof Israel. Jerusalem historically was created andfounded by an Israeli and therefore remains theheritage of all Israelis forever, as it is irrevocablybound up not only in their history and culture butalso in the Jewish religion.(19) Moreover, Israelhas fought for East Jerusalem and so has noreason it should give it up. Chris Mitchell arguedin 2008: \"Despite any public warnings, theprivate negotiations continue for the Novembersummit...In the midst of these plans, some seean irony of history...This year, Israel celebratedthe 40th anniversary of the re-unification ofJerusalem...The battle 40 years ago during the1967 Six Day War reunited a divided city", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbjsbd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Dividing Jerusalem would harm Israelisociety: Besides the aforementioned securityconcerns, many other harms would also result toIsraeli society if Jerusalem were divided.Jerusalem is simply too important to Israelisociety to be divided. Ben Gurion explain in1937, \"for the Jews, the millions of the Jews whodo not know the difference between the Sharon[or the Jezre'el] and the Valley [or the differencebetween Rehavia and the Old City] the nameJerusalem means everything.\"(20) This remainstrue today: Soviet dissident Natan Sharanskysaid in 2000, \"Above all, Jerusalem is the base ofour identity.\"(21) This is why sharing Jerusalemis forbidden under Israeli law. In 1980, Israel'sparliament, the Knesset, passed the \"Basic Law\".This proclaimed, \"Jerusalem, complete andunited, is the capital of Israel.\" This makes itunlawful, under Israeli law, to now divideJerusalem and share it as a joint capital with aPalestinian state, and shows how deep Israeliattachment to an undivided Jerusalem", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbjsbd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Jerusalem cannot be neatly or peacefullydivided Dividing Jerusalem would simply drawup battle lines through the city. With layers ofneighbourhoods so close, security is a very realconcern. Former Prime Minister BenjaminNetanyahu addressed this issue: \"We've seenwhat happens when we leave. It's not an Arabmajority. It's Hamas. Let's be very clear. It's anIranian base,\" he said. \"If we leave here, Hamascomes here. They start rocketing. They don'thave to rocket. They can use small arms fireright into every one of these neighbourhoods.Look how intertwined it is.\" Finally hecomplained, \"It's hard for me to see how peoplecannot see that instead of being the end ofconflict, it would be the beginning of a conflict wecannot even imagine.\"(16) Nadav Shragai, aforeign affairs analyst, argues: \"The momentthat we re-divide Jerusalem and divide up theOld City of Jerusalem, we're going to createchaos. Look what's happening in Iraq wheremosques are getting blown up and churches are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mehbjsbd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While it is technically true that the first foundersof Jerusalem were Jewish, this in no wayestablished a de facto right to that city. WhileJerusalem may have technically been founded bya Jewish king, the intervening years saw morerule by non-Jewish peoples than not.Furthermore, the communities living there,particularly the Muslim populations, also builttheir own religious monuments and sights there,most notably the Dome of the Rock (the site ofthe Prophet Muhammad's ascension to heaven isIslamic teachings). Arguing this ignores themany years of control that followed the foundingof Jerusalem. It ignores centuries of cultural andreligious heritage that subsequent, and morecontemporary, populations have developed inJerusalem, and it ignores the equally valid claimsthe Palestinians groups have to Jerusalem. Whileit would clearly be unfair to give the capitolentirely to the Palestinians, it must also berecognized that their claim must be recognizedas having equal legitimacy as Israel's. If Israel", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "An apparently strong UN obligation to intervenein order to protect innocents will not necessarilyprovide a positive, deterrent effect. Rather, itcould merely serve as an incentive for dictatorsand generals to commit their atrocities quicker.For example, when the United Nations firstconsidered intervention in Libya, Colonel Qaddafiresponded by strengthening the crackdown onprotestors and preparing for an all-out assault onthe Eastern town of Benghazi [1] . The intent toprotect civilians in this case served only toincrease the will of the leader to harm them.Furthermore, many of the nasty or failingregimes who might be fearful of interventionhave a Security Council patron whom they canrely upon to prevent any action being takenagainst them. If the UN has an obligation to actto prevent atrocities such as genocide, thenvetoes will be used to prevent the SecurityCouncil recognizing that such a situation exists inthe first place. Though it has recently joined UNresolutions on Sudan, China blocked moves to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A strong United Nations commitment to the Rightto Protect will create an effective deterrent tofuture atrocities. Governments and leaders whoare considering attacks on their own people, orwho are wavering in their commitment to defendthem from harm, will be aware that ignoringtheir own obligations could bring swift actionfrom the international community. Only oncetheir ability to hide behind claims to absolutesovereignty has been removed will human rightshave to be taken seriously by dictators andextremist regimes. Thus by adopting a strong UNposition on the Responsibility to Protect, we canhope to make states take their ownresponsibilities more seriously and make theneed for any actual intervention rare. Forexample, Omar Al-Bashir of the Sudan hascommitted horrible atrocities against his ownpeople. He is complicit in committing genocideagainst Darfur populations, yet remains inpower. There is a warrant for his arrest from theInternational Criminal Court, but they have little", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "That creates a slippery slope. When does the UNdraw the line that a government has revoked itssovereignty? How many people have to die? Howcan it be justified that only if x number of peopledie, then we will intervene? Additionally, as soonas the UN gets involved in a civil war ordictatorship and has deemed the government nolonger sovereign, then who is in charge? Is theUN going to set up a new government andcountry in the aftermath? That is a largecommitment that such a large organization maynot be able to execute no matter how ideal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The United Nations has a responsibility toprevent genocide and mass atrocities. Citizensshould be protected by individual governments,however if governments are either partaking inor failing to prevent genocide and massatrocities, then another global actor needs totake action. The United Nations should take onthis responsibility to protect people when theirgovernments are unable or unwilling to do so, inorder to prevent mass killings, genocide andother atrocities [1] . If we believe human rightshave any meaning at all, then they must beuniversal and therefore our obligation to protectcitizens from such horrors must apply regardlessof state boundaries. Moving from a situationwhere the UN placed the rights of states abovethose of their people, to one where individualrights are given the greater priority is surelymorally essential. [1] International Coalition forthe Responsibility to Protect, “Implementing theResponsibility to Protect”,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is a procedural contradiction in theProposition's position. If there is a universalresponsibility to protect, why must this only beexercised through the United Nations, dependentupon Security Council recognition of a crisis andsupport for action? The United States believesthat in some cases it would be right for individualstates, or coalitions of the willing to take actionto protect innocent life elsewhere in the world,even if the Security Council refused to deliver onits promises. Under the proposition, NATO'sintervention in Kosovo in 1998/99 was wrong,and so was Vietnam's in Cambodia against theKhmer Rouge, Tanzania's in Uganda to stop IdiAmin's bloodshed, etc. - none of these hadSecurity Council support.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Not all crises can be dealt with militarily. Oftenan invasion only creates more problems. Furtheris the UN ready to take on the underlyingproblems in cases of genocide and civil war.Those rifts may take decades to heal and is theUN truly invested because simply providing aidand military support will not solve the deepseated tensions in countries like the Sudan andSomalia [1] . Talk of prevention and of usingnon-military means to ensure states protect theirown people properly is little different fromexisting UN commitments. The UN has failed inthe past to head off humanitarian crises andthere is nothing in the new Declarations to makeit more likely to be successful in future. If theresponsibility to protect means anything, it is toweaken the concept of sovereignty and makemilitary intervention more likely. [1] GenocideIntervention, “Sudan”,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Countries and governments have an obligation toprotect human rights and defend their citizensfrom harm We can no longer argue thatsovereignty must be considered absolute.Sovereignty was created as the means by whichstates justified the control of their territory toprevent foreign aggression. Since the creation ofthe United Nations, sovereignty is no longer asnecessary to protect states, as most wars are notabout territorial acquisition. Now it is primarily abarrier to the international communityintervening when the state is abusing its ownpopulation. A better principle is if governmentstoday are unable or unwilling to perform the dutyto protect their people from harm (includingstate-imposed harm), then their claims tosovereignty lose their moral force andintervention becomes justified [1] . For example,Qaddafi of Libya was likening his citizens tocockroaches and rats, threatening to kill themhouse-by-house whilst speaking of his intent toindiscriminately attack the population of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "It is better to save lives than stand idly by. It isimmoral to let people die when something can bedone about it. It inherently values the lives ofvictims of genocide and civil war less than otherlives. The world and the United Nations have fortoo long stood by and watched atrocities unfold.Cambodia, Bosnia, Rwanda and Darfur are allhorrible examples where genocide and otherappalling violations of human rights wereinflicted upon civilian populations while the UNfailed to act [1] . Clearly in all the past caseswhere action might have saved lives anddelivered hundreds of thousands of people fromevil, no action was taken by the Security Council.Therefore those who argue that future challengesshould be considered purely on a case-by-casebasis must accept that this is likely to mean yetmore refusals to act decisively and so moreneedless suffering. We must place an obligationto act on the Security Council so that they arepredisposed to respond seriously and swiftly infuture. If there is a known atrocity going on in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The United Nations does have a problem raisingsufficient money, troops and resources to meetits present needs for peacekeeping andhumanitarian operations. This is preciselybecause all such operations are dealt with on acase-by-case basis - the approach so beloved ofthe opposition for dealing with any challenge.Without a clear global commitment to theResponsibility to Protect, the UN will always bescrabbling scrambling around to meet its needsin dealing with individual crises. Once there isclear agreement on the kind of situation whichwill in future prompt intervention, the UN canbegin to plan ahead to build up resources, createcontingency funds, and seek pledges of militaryunits from member states, to be activated swiftlyas needed. This could most easily be doneregionally through the regional securityorganizations such as NATO and the AfricanUnion that it was originally intended wouldprovide this kind of security. If the memberstates of one organization lacked some", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The UN is the organization best equipped to dealwith these types of interventions. If individualcountries take action there are automaticallythoughts of motive, and they can never be seenas a pure unbiased actor. Further, countriesdon’t want to take action because they do notwant to become tied to the countries that theyhelped, whereas the UN does not have anaversion to commitment [1] . Having a strictframework directing intervention can prevent theUN from becoming the internationalgovernment. [1] Clarke, Walter; Herbst, Jeffrey(1996), “Somalia and the future of humanitarianintervention”, Foreign Affairs Magazine,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Blanket commitment creates a slippery slope ofwhen to intervene. A blanket commitment couldlead the United Nations and the word into greatdangers. It must be considered whetherintervention with force is always practical. Forexample, in the past China's government hascommitted horrific human rights abuses, such asthe Great Leap Forward, the Cultural Revolutionand the Tiananmen Square massacre. Thesesurely show a state unable or unwilling to protectits citizens and would have invited interventionunder this proposal. Or perhaps you feel theseare purely historical examples - but what if theChinese regime in future used horrific force toput down future risings by Uighur or Tibetanethnic minorities? Or what about present Russianbehavior in Chechnya? Would the UN reallydeliver on an intervention in members of thesecurity council? Where do they draw the line?How do they decide which countries haverevoked sovereignty with their actions? Howmany people have to die? One of the concerns", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Actions to intervene in internal situations need tobe determined on a case by case basis. We allhave a moral duty to protect human rights andprevent atrocities, but we do not need to make avague and open-ended commitment. Inparticular there is a big difference between agenocide pursued by a strong, centralized statevictimizing its own people, and the inability of afailing state to protect its civilians in a time ofcivil war or ethnic unrest. For example thegenocide in Sudan is inflicted by thegovernment, yet the situation in Somalia isentirely different since they lack a governmentand violence stems from rebel groups in thecountry [1] [2] . Making decisions on acase-by-case basis recognizes that every crisis isdifferent in character and requires a different andproportionate response be it military orhumanitarian. [1] New York Times (2011),“Somalia”, [2] Genocide Intervention, “Sudan”,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The UN does not have the necessary funds orexpertise. The United Nations struggles to meetits current needs, in terms of funding foremergency relief, development work, healthinitiatives, etc. and also in terms ofpeacekeeping troops, military hardware andtransport, etc. It is in no position to makesweeping promises about future commitmentsthat might involve large-scale militaryinterventions around the globe, perhapssometimes in more than one place at the sametime [1] . At the very best, such an extra burdenwould draw resources and funding away from theUN's vitally important current programs. Atworst, intervention would be undertaken with toofew troops, badly equipped and unable to fulfilltheir mandate. The United States intervention inSomalia failed miserably because it was at besthalf-baked—the UN would be lucky if not everyone of their interventions suffered from the sameproblems [2] . This would only worsen thesituation. Additionally, taking on these conflicts", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The UN would be turned into something that it isnot. From a group of cooperating but sovereignstates, secure from external intervention if theylive peaceably with their neighbors, the UNwould be turned into some sort of globalcongress of humanity, where borders played nopart. This may seem a utopian vision, but thenation state has a good record of deliveringresponsive, accountable government to whichindividual citizens can feel a strong personalcommitment, and which is able to meet theirparticular cultural, religious, environmental andeconomic needs [1] . International institutionsare at best impersonal and remote and at worstan unaccountable and undemocratic imposition.It is right to oppose any language andcommitments which would advance the cause ofthose who would turn the UN into a worldgovernment. [1] The Economist (1999),“Garibaldi and the 1,000”,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Acting on a case-by-case basis does not establishan effective deterrent. If a leader does not knowfor certain that their action is going to lead to anintervention, they can’t be deterred. In order forthem to be deterred, they need to know by whichstandards their actions will be assessed andacted upon. On a case-by-case basis, there is nosuch consistency established. The UN needs toadopt an equal treatment of every country andsituation under a responsibility to protect clauseso that the least powerful in this world do not gounprotected.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glhrilhbunh-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is not difficult to set up basic guidelines as todetermining when a situation has gone too far.Even proponents of Responsibility to protectagree on certain criteria particularly rightauthority, just cause, right intention, last resort,proportional means and reasonable Prospects.[1] The last of these criteria will rule out anyintervention against a great power such as Chinawhere there would not be reasonable prospectsof success unless disproportionate means(something like a preemptive nuclear strike) wasused. Questions like ‘how many have to die?’ aretherefore not asking the right questions becausethe loss of life could be relatively small (it alsoassumes that only killing matters) if all thecriteria are fulfilled. While this would regrettablyconstrain any ‘responsibility to protect’ it wouldat the same time mean that R2P would notbecome an excuse for starting large scalewars. [1] Evans, Gareth et al., TheResponsibility to Protect, InternationalCommission on Intervention and State", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A referendum would not be a legitimate use ofgovernment money, for it would not be practical.Holding a referendum on an issue the countryalready approved in 1975 would be a waste oftime and resources. The expense of referendumsis abhorrent to the UK taxpayer; the AlternativeVote referendum held in 2011 was believed tohave cost £250 million, excessive at the best ofthe times, irresponsible during times of financialausterity.1 Moreover, the practice of holdingnational referendums must be stopped as itundermines parliamentary sovereignty and theparliamentary system. Regarding public will,referendums are not hostage to the demands ofthe public, for dissatisfaction with the status quorarely leads to or justifies a referendum. If 71%would vote ‘no’, but 83% admit they know littleabout the EU, then a referendum on the issuecannot be deemed a legitimate representation ofthe United Kingdom’s views on EUmembership. 1PORTER, ANDREW. February 15,2011. “Voting referendum will cost £250 million", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "An in or out referendum would belegitimate. Parliamentary and logisticprecedents indicate that holding a referendumabout an issue of sovereignty is practical andpracticable. There have been twosuccessfully-held national referendums, one thedirect antecedent of this one (the 1975 EECvote) and one recently (the 2011 AV vote). Thehistory of national referendums thereforeindicates that they are both constitutional andlogistically viable. Furthermore, the referendumis legitimized by public desire. A BBC poll in 2009indicated that 71% would vote 'no' to EUmembership if a referendum was held, a level ofdissatisfaction which indicates the need for apublic discussion and vote.1 1 MORGAN,CHARLES. January 2, 2009. \"No change in Britishpublic opinion on Euro\" Cafebabel", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Referendums are not a right. Parliament haspassed no law governing when referendumsmust be held. Because Parliament has set itselfno guidelines on when to call referendums, thepublic has no right to one even if similarsituations in the past have warranted them.Moreover, a system of representative democracymeans referendums are not necessary -- it isMPs' job to make decisions. The public have theright to vote for leaders and hold those leadersaccountable, not a right to vote on individualissues.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A referendum will create a better politicalclimate. The general public will be appeased:75% of voters want the vote held.1 MPs will fulfiltheir duty to represent constituent interests bycalling the referendum. A contented electoratewill be more supportive of government and feelincluded in political life. Not only individuals butalso parties will be appeased: the far left andright each feel strongly about this issue.Euroskeptic parties like UKIP and the BNP haveagitated for an in-or-out vote for years, anddisguise racism and anti-immigrant sentiment asEuroskepticism in the process. A vote either waywould settle the issue and make it harder forthem to disguise antisocial aspects of theirplatforms. Pro-Europeans like the Lib Dems alsowant the referendum: leader Nick Clegg said that\"nothing will do more damage to thepro-European movement than giving room to thesuspicion that we have something to hide\"2 bynot holding one. Both sides of the politicalspectrum wants this issue definitively settled.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "A good political climate is one where governmentfunctions properly. In a representativedemocracy, decision-making is not intended tobe majoritarian. Elected officials are in place tomake decisions on behalf of constituents, as theycontinue to do with matters relating to the EU.As such, a referendum is a direct rebuke to theirown power. Therefore MPs should not hold one,even if some constituents want it. It is not thejob of government to neutralize radical voices,but to offer better alternatives while preservingfreedom of expression. If parties want to resolvethe Europe question, they should do so throughestablished political channels.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "A vote will make the government look weak. Thegovernment will seem like it's avoiding a difficultissue by shifting responsibility for the Europequestion to the public. Europeans will see theBritish government as an unreliable politicalpartner willing to gamble EU membership at avolatile and dangerous time for the continent'seconomic and political future. To lose the trustand co-operation of Europe by permitting areferendum would be myopic at best, andreplace long-term political co-operation andsecurity with short-term appeasement of thegeneral public.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The public have a right to a referendum. Thepublic deserve to vote in this referendumbecause it regards a constitutional issue –sovereignty. Beyond constitutionality,referendums maintain democratic society whenthe public’s views and MPs’ clearly misalign, asthey do in this case. This vote will also maintainthe established precedent of holdingreferendums on EU issues. If the British peoplehad to be consulted on EEC membership, ashappened in 1975, they must be consulted on EUmembership: the current EU barely resemblesthe EEC that the UK voted to join long ago, buthas greatly magnified stature and power.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The referendum is good PR for the UK. Areferendum, regardless of the result, will provean effective public relations boost for the UnitedKingdom. UK citizens will feel more confident intheir government, as some currently see EUmembership as an illegitimate breach of thesocial contract and others argue that the UK isnot doing enough to co-operate. Europeans alsowill improve their view of the United Kingdom: a\"Yes\" vote will minimize the perception of the UKas a foot-dragging, reluctant participant inEurope; a \"No\" vote will be seen to end ahalf-hearted charade. Either way, a morestraightforward relationship with Europe willminimize UK-Europe mistrust, which will benefiteach politically and economically.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The referendum will be legitimate. Referendumshave become an important part of the UK'spolitical process. They spark public discussion ofimportant issues and lead to a more educatedand engaged public. They also entrench theprinciple that the state is directed in its actionsfundamentally by the wishes of the people.Representative democracy makes the furtherbasic assumption that citizens are capable ofmaking important and informed decisions whenthey vote. To suggest otherwise is elitist andundemocratic.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Referendums are a positive democratic force.The argument that the UK has always been arepresentative democracy does not precludeintegrating elements of direct democracy into thepolitical process. If referendums reinforce thelegitimacy of government, strengthen the socialcontract and keep the citizenry engaged, toreject them because they are relatively new issimply reactionary. Those who decide to call areferendum can be held politically accountable,which means that the volume, expense, andquality of referendums will be held to standards.In addition, there is no reason why referendumuse shouldn't or wouldn't be codified as itcontinues to be incorporated into the Britishpolitical process. If the coalition governmentdeserves to stay in power, it will find ways tocooperate and coexist: if not, the country will bebetter off with a more functional one.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-con02a", "title": "", "text": "EU membership is too important togamble. Membership of the European Union istoo valuable to be cast aside. Prime MinisterDavid Cameron refuses to hold a referendum fora good reason: he knows that leaving the EUwould inflict great harm on theUK.1Economically, the UK is weaker on tradenegotiations, especially with the US,2 as a loneentity. In international society, the country willbe seen as unreliable, and the UK's alreadyfractured relationship with Europe will sustainfurther damage. Keeping strong ties with Europeas well as the US is essential for UK well-being.If the UK left, the EU would be weaker and mightcollapse. The organization is at a crossroadsgiven the collapsing Euro and it must weatherthis difficult time in order to prove itssustainability. If it lost the UK's financial support,the economic fallout in Europe would furtherweaken the continent's economies, which wouldin turn harm the UK, whose economy wouldnecessarily remain tied to its European trading", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The vote will be illegitimate. The public will notbe properly informed: the issue is too complexfor the average citizen to understand, and 83%of British voters know \"little or nothing about theEU.\"1 A referendum cannot be permitted whenthe public simply does not know therepercussions of its decision, for it only fostersmisinformation and subjectivity on the behalf ofcampaigners. Racist far-right parties can easilyexploit European issues by playing on publicfears about immigration. The referendumlead-up would provide a megaphone for theseparties' unacceptable views. The 2011Alternative Vote referendum campaign showedthat the public readily believes misinformationand scare tactics and meaningful discussion ofissues is drowned out. Leaving the decision toelected representatives preserves the rationalityof the debate. 1 LITOBARSKI, JOE. February 18,2011. \"In or out? Labour shouldn't fear areferendum on Europe.\" The Guardian. accessedJune 15, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The referendum is inconsistent with the UK'stradition of representative democracy EUmembersh Referendums are philosophicallyinconsistent with representative democracy. Thepublic don’t have the time or resources to governas effectively as Parliament: MPs have access toexpert advice and are paid to learn about issues:the resources their position affords are a majorjustification for representative democracy. TheUK must reverse its recent referendum trend(which only began in 1973) to avoid undermininggovernment legitimacy and stability. In thestatus quo, referendums are deployedinconsistently, used as a political tool to hedgeon issues, and used by parties to avoid toughinternal conversations. Referendums also harmgovernmental accountability, which is key for afunctional representative democracy because itprotects voters. MPs avoid being heldaccountable by their constituents and fulfillingtheir own role in parliamentary democracy byusing referendums to avoid taking a stance on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epgvhwhrum-con02b", "title": "", "text": "EU membership is expendable. Being a memberof the EU hurts the UK -- taxpayers contribute£8.3 billion a year, much of which goes toprograms that don’t help the UK. 1 If it left theEU, the UK could keep that money to invest in itsown economy. Furthermore, without the threatof the EU overruling, Parliament could pass billsthat have the support of the British populationbut not the approval of the EU, like a ban on therights of prisoners to vote. 2 The country couldalso negotiate better trade deals, as its economyis stronger than the EU average. Freedom fromEU trade rules would also prevent farcicalsituations like EU residents being able to applyfor London 2012 Olympics tickets despite theircountries being allocated a proportion of ticketsalready. 3 1 DAILY MAIL COMMENT. March 14,2011. “Europe and the case for a referendum.”The Daily Mail, accessed June 22, 2011. 2CHAPMAN, JAMES. February 11, 2011. “Day westood up to Europe” The Daily Mail. AccessedJune 27, 2011. 3 Patrick Sawer, “Thousands of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmepwhbuil-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Through the processes of committing to Aidprogrammes and the UN, the US hasincorporated a certain amount ofinternationalism into its legal system. The powergiven to Congress by the War Powers Act mustbe balanced against the fact that the executiveretains control over US foreign policy. Secondly,a UN resolution that allowed the use of air powerby countries to protect civilians.1 This meansthat fears of conflict escalation are unfoundedand given that the UN resolution exists, the warpowers act is not weakened significantly as itwould still mandate a UN resolution to preventconflict escalation. Even if the U.S. governmentsought regime change however, it has morallegitimacy in doing so because of the demand forsuch changes from a large number of membersof the international community.2 Lynch, Colum,‘Security Council passes resolution authorizingmilitary intervention in Libya’, Turtle Bay ForeignPolicy, 17 March 2011, “War Powers Act.”Cornell University Law School.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmepwhbuil-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "US intervention is not consistent with otheraspects of US law Firstly, Libya did not attackUS soldiers and did not harm US citizens. Giventhat this is true, then engagement with Libya tobegin with goes against the spirit of US law.Given that the situation is not an emergency forthe U.S. circumventing congress in order toprosecute the war is incredibly harmful as itundermines one of the core institutions in U.S.democracy. Further, the use of internationalorganisations such as the UN and NATO tocircumvent congress has bad ramifications forthe future as in doing this the U.S. governmenthas significantly lowered the burden required togo to war should it wish to do so in thefuture. This is problematic because the decisionto go to war should never be one that is takenlightly. Should the U.S. wish to go to war againthen it might end up in a situation such asVietnam, the conflict that inspired the creation ofthe war powers act.1 Ackerman, Bruce.“Obama’s Unconstitutional War.”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmepwhbuil-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The US has the authorization of NATO, the UNand has acted in concordance with the mandatesthat these organisations have put up. The USdoes not harm the powers of the US constitutionby helping the UN and NATO in this area becausethe US committed to these organisations withthe knowledge that it might have to compromisesometimes in order to fulfil the responsibilities ithas taken on within these organisations. Libya issimply an example of one of these compromisesand this does not harm the constitution anyfurther than the US initially did by entering intothese agreements and institutions. 1,2 Editorial: “Obama’s illegal war” TheWashington Times. 18/03/2011 Stone, Daniel.“Is the Libya War Legal” The Daily Beast.22/03/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmepwhbuil-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The United States engaged in \"hostilities\" underWar Powers There are multiple argumentsindicating why the U.S. might be engaged inhostilities under the War Powers Act, enough sothat this single argument could make an entiretwo person case. The U.S. has engaged insustained hostilities in Libya which have resultedin regime change within the country. ThePresident himself admits that causing regimechange would be unjustifiable in his speechjustifying the war by pledging that “broadeningour military mission to include regime changewould be a mistake.”2 However, regime changewas the result of the mission and NATO and U.S.played a significant role in facilitating thatchange. Secondly, the War Powers act coversthe U.S. fighting in a supportive role in wars.\"For purposes of this chapter, the term'introduction of United States Armed Forces'includes the assignment of members of sucharmed forces to command, coordinate,participate in the movement of, or accompany", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmepwhbuil-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The president’s office released this statement,justifying the engagement in Libya: \"ThePresident is of the view that the current U.S.military operations in Libya are consistent withthe War Powers Resolution and do not under thatlaw require further congressional authorization,because U.S. military operations are distinctfrom the kind of “hostilities” contemplated by theResolution’s 60 day termination provision. U.S.forces are playing a constrained and supportingrole in a multinational coalition, whoseoperations are both legitimated by and limited tothe terms of a United Nations Security CouncilResolution that authorizes the use of force solelyto protect civilians and civilian populated areasunder attack or threat of attack and to enforce ano-fly zone and an arms embargo. U.S.operations do not involve sustained fighting oractive exchanges of fire with hostile forces, nordo they involve the presence of U.S. groundtroops, U.S. casualties or a serious threatthereof, or any significant chance of escalation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmepwhbuil-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The Libya intervention lacks sufficientinternational authority Firstly, the UNintervention in Libya wrongly rests on NATOauthority. The use of NATO to circumventcongressional approval in this situation violatesthe initial agreement regarding the participationof the U.S. in NATO that was ratified bycongress. As such, even if the U.S. is legitimatein going to war and the circumvention of warpowers can be justified, the circumvention usingNATO cannot. Secondly, the use of UN approvalto circumvent congress means that the UNcharter and the ideals of the UN have beenplaced by the government at a higher level ofvalue than of the US constitution. If this is thecase then the government has undermined thevalidity of the US constitution and through doingthat has undermined all laws within the U.S.which is harmful should the U.S. wish to projectpower in a way that is contrary to the UN’swishes.1 Editorial: “Obama’s illegal war” TheWashington Times. 18/03/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmepwhbuil-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, the Obama regime had plenty of time toget congressional approval. It would have beenfairly easy for a bipartisan bill led by SenatorsJohn Kerry and John McCain to get throughcongress in time for the U.S. to successfullyintervene in the area. The United States througha joint session of congress declared war on Japanwithin two days of the Japanese launching theirattack on Pearl Harbor showing that declarationsof war can be pushed through congress quicklywhen there is the need.1 Secondly, whilst someof congress, the leadership was consultedregarding the actions in Libya, all of congresswas not. This harms the portrayal of congress asan important and representative body whenmore minor members are not consulted for veryimportant decisions made by the state. As such,no discretion can be allowed in this area becauseto do so is to harm the institutions upon whichthe US is founded.2 ‘Joint Address to CongressLeading to a Declaration of War Ackerman,Bruce. “Obama’s Unconstitutional War.”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmepwhbuil-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The intervention in Libya has run contrary to theinterests of the US by giving the presidentstronger powers. When Bill Clinton intervenedwith NATO in Kosovo he had to gain the approvalof congress following the 60th day, with theconflict ending on the 78th. In allowing Obamato do this, a fundamental part of the U.S.democratic system has been undermined andmore powers have been given to the presidency.In the future this could lead to further baddecisions for the united states as presidents arerequired to prove less in order to take strongeraction.1 Greenwald, Glenn. “The illegal war inLibya.” Salon. 19/05/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmepwhbuil-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Congress was appropriately and openlyconsulted Firstly, the Obama administration didnot truly have time to gain congressionalapproval for their actions. Obama’s justificationof the Libyan conflict claims: \"As his troopscontinued pushing toward Benghazi, a city ofnearly 700,000 people, Qadhafi again defied theinternational community, declaring, “We willhave no mercy and no pity.” At that moment, asthe President explained in his speech to thenation on March 28: “We knew that if we waitedone more day, Benghazi could suffer a massacrethat would have reverberated across the regionand stained the conscience of the world.”Stopping a potential humanitarian disasterbecame a question of hours, not days. The costsof inaction would have been profound.Thousands of civilians would very likely havebeen slaughtered, a ruthless dictator would havebeen triumphant precisely at a time when peopleacross the region are challenging decades ofrepression, and key U.S. allies, including Egypt", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmepwhbuil-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Humanitarian reasons prompted swiftintervention The US intervention in Libya wasnecessary because Gadaffi had shown and hasshown before that he is willing to kill and abusecitizens en mass in order to preserve his power.The U.S. intervention was necessary in order toprevent the indiscriminate bombing of towns byGadaffi’s air forces. Such bombing attacks led tosignificant civilian casualties.1 Following thegenocide in Rwanda in 1994 the United Statesplaced on itself a moral mandate that ‘neveragain’ would such massacres be allowed tocontinue without intervention. Had the uprisingbeen put down, reprisals by Gadaffi would havebeen swift and likely resulted in many innocentsbeing killed. 2 The United States had to stepin. Obama Libya Speech Strongly DefendsIntervention (FULL TESXT)’ AP/The HuffingtonPost, 28 March 2011, Obama Administrationletter to Congress justifying Libya engagement,15/06/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmepwhbuil-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The intervention was necessary in order toprotect US interests in the region If it can beproved that the intervention was incrediblyimportant to the US for both its own interests aswell as for its moral imperative then the USbending the War Power Act can be seen as alegitimate exception to constitutional rules thathas to be borne despite the harms such a breachmight cause. Violence and insecurity within theLibyan region would negatively affect USsecurity. Firstly through the fact that poverty andconflict often breed religious radicalism and canoften result in terrorism which directly harms theUS as the most visible world power. Secondly,the US intervening is necessary to showmembers of the Middle East and North Africa thatit is willing to support the region during a time oftaxing transitions from old dictatorships to oftenweak democracies. Further, it shows that the USis compassionate in that it is unwilling to standby and allow regions to descend intohumanitarian crises. The intervention also", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gmepwhbuil-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, the Obama regime had plenty of time toget congressional approval. It would have beenfairly easy for a bipartisan bill led by SenatorsJohn Kerry and John McCain to get throughcongress in time for the U.S. to successfullyintervene in the area. The United States througha joint session of congress declared war on Japanwithin two days of the Japanese launching theirattack on Pearl Harbor showing that declarationsof war can be pushed through congress quicklywhen there is the need.1 Secondly, whilst someof congress, the leadership was consultedregarding the actions in Libya, all of congresswas not. This harms the portrayal of congress asan important and representative body whenmore minor members are not consulted for veryimportant decisions made by the state. As such,no discretion can be allowed in this area becauseto do so is to harm the institutions upon whichthe US is founded.2 ‘Joint Address to CongressLeading to a Declaration of War Against Japan(1941)’, ourdocuments.gov, Ackerman, Bruce.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Through the SIS the Schengen Area has beenable to streamline immigration and asylumpolicy, thus making it easier to manageimmigrants in a consistent manner across Europe[1] . However, countries are not whollydependent on external borders for security andimmigration checks, and so immigrantsapproaching from external countries can still becaught by individual countries within theSchengen area. Police are allowed to conductrandom identity checks throughout the territoryof any particular member state: travel advice forSchengen countries warns that while there areno longer any land border checks, you should notto attempt to cross land borders without a validtravel document because it is likely that randomidentity checks will be made in areas surroundingthe borders [2] . Fears over immigration and theSchengen area seem to be actually more anissue of perception than flows of people; theeconomic crisis has heightened anti-immigrantfeeling across Europe. For example, the actual", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The freedom of movement the Schengen areaallows increases the difficulties of controllingimmigration The borderless nature of theSchengen Area makes it increasingly difficult totrack and detain illegal immigrants. It is ofteneasier for illegal immigrants to enter throughcountries such as Italy or Greece (and, as isfeared when Bulgaria and Romania eventuallyjoin, Eastern European countries) and thencontinue on to countries like France andGermany [1] . For example, Italian PrimeMinister Berlusconi's decision to grant temporaryresidence permits to more than 20,000 Tunisianmigrants fleeing the violent uprisings in April,was made in the knowledge that many of themigrants would end up travelling to France, theformer colonial ruler where many of the migrantshave relatives [2] . France accused Italy ofabusing the Schengen Agreement. [1] Lipics,Laszlo, ‘Focal points on the external borders ofSchengen’, AARMS, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2010pp.229-239, has a map of focal points of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "While the EU is indeed a union, it is also a unionof states with recognized rights to shape theirown security and justice affairs. Unlike thecontinental members of the EU, Britain andIreland have traditionally looked at borders notas sources of conflict but rather as naturalmechanisms of defence, because of their positionas islands. The Schengen agreement has allowedthem to also collaborate within the SIS andEUROPOL, thus complementing the traditionalframework of the Union, of which, ultimately, theSchengen Agreement is a part [1] . This meansthat Britain and Ireland are as included as theywish to be. The split in the Schengen agreementwill not result in any new differences of interestbetween Britain and Ireland and the rest of theEU. [1] Select Committee on European Union,‘Schengen Information System: New Functions’,www.parliament.uk , 9 April 2003,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The Schengen Agreement is an anachronism of asafer age. Since the Schengen Agreement wasfirst designed and implemented the world hasmoved on and become a much more dangerousplace. The war on terror has already broughtbombings to a number of European cities, andthis changed circumstance makes Schengen aluxury the EU can no longer afford. September11th has created a preoccupation with thesecurity of the Union’s external borders. [1] Evenbefore September 11th 2001 the drawbacks ofopen borders in terms of crime were obvious -which is why Paris controversially imposedstricter checks against drugs flowing into Francefrom the more relaxed regime in the Netherlandsusing a broad interpretation of the rules fortemporary issues of public order. [2] Since 9/11there is a pressing need for stricter bordercontrols to catch international terrorists andprevent the movement of dangerous materialswhich could be used in terror attacks. [1] Batt,Judy, ‘The enlarged EU’s external borders – the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "As the Schengen area gets bigger, it becomesmore difficult to police and this increases the riskof rogue elements being able to move freelybetween countries As new members areaccepted and the Schengen area expands, itbecomes more and more difficult to police. Forexample, once terrorists have gained access tothe area, they are free to move within almost theentirety of Europe. The same applies fortraffickers of people, drugs and arms. This wasthe rationale behind the blocking of Romania andBulgaria from entering the zone at the same timeas they entered the EU [1] ; they failed to curborganised crime before their accession and ifthey were join access routes would be opened tothe whole of Europe. This means that allcountries are dependent on the security forces ofcountries monitoring external borders. It is keythat Member States with an external EU frontierhave a responsibility to ensure that properchecks and effective surveillance are carried outat the EU's external frontiers. It is vital that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The expanding Schengen area does not make itmore difficult to police due to the lack of bordercontrols. Anyone attempting to enter theSchengen area will be checked at least once, thisis exactly the same as anyone entering anindividual country. Americans do not considerthemselves less safe because they do not haveborder posts between Maryland and Virginia. Thekey therefore is not to dissolve Schengen but toensure that all countries border police are ofequally high quality and that they shareinformation as is being done through theSchengen Information System (SIS) [1] andEuropol. [1] Schengen Information System,Wikipedia,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Scrapping the Schengen Agreement in the faceof terrorism would be to give in to the terrorists.The Agreement is part of the open, free societywhich the extremists are attacking, with its aimof cooperation between different nationalitiesand the development of a peaceful Europeanidentity. Retreating behind national borderswould only encourage them in their attacks, andwould be ineffective in seeking to prevent futureviolence. Investigation of attacks in Madrid,London and Paris have all revealed that theterrorists were legal residents, free to come andgo regardless of border restrictions. Rather thandissolving Schengen the solution to terrorism liesin better intelligence gathering and cooperationbetween states (not likely to be encouraged by aretreat behind national borders), and byaddressing the problems of alienation andpoverty within our societies which serve asbreeding grounds for extremism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "While having to get a Europe wide visa can be aproblem for the countries that newly border theSchengen there are also benefits. The Schengenagreement often favours those who apply forSchengen visas since once a visa is granted, theycan easily travel throughout all the countries thathave signed the Agreement. This process notonly saves money but it also allows for morefreedom of movement for those who enter theSchengen area under a visa regime. Countriesare free to choose whether they want to becomepart of the Schengen regime or not, and are thusmaking a rational and informed decision onwhether the Schengen agreement serves thembetter than maintaining open borders withtraditional allies that are not part of theSchengen area.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Schengen helps divide Europe as not allmembers take part. The Schengen Area,adopted by some countries in Europe but notothers, will create a difference of interest whichwill irrevocably divide the EU over time. The factthat not all the EU members are part of theSchengen agreement means that the EU isdivided in two areas: one in which the freemovement of people is achieved and one inwhich it is not. This threatens to create twodifferent ways of approaching the questions ofjustice and security within the EU: one that ismanaged through the SIS system and Europol,and one that is managed through the traditionaljustice and home affairs legislation within theUnion framework itself. This could turn out to bea particularly divisive force within a Union that isalready faltering having failed to sign a commonConstitution and settled for a watered downtreaty instead.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Schengen tightens external borders, creating a‘wall’ around Europe. The Schengen agreementhas opened internal borders within Europe, butexternally the opposite is true. Thus, whilecitizens of the belonging countries enjoycomplete freedom of movement, citizens ofnon-member countries find that it is moredifficult to receive entry visas to enter theSchengen area. As the Schengen area continuesto expand, it enforces more and morerestrictions on countries that lie outside itsborders, turning borders that have historicallybeen open into real fortresses and thussignificantly affecting the political and economicrelations between long-term allies. For example,the eastern borders of East European States thatalready enjoy some Schengen privileges arehardening in order to be allowed fully intoSchengen as the existing members need toagree that they are implementing border controlssatisfactorily. [1] The result is that they arecutting their inhabitants off from neighbours", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Pan European crime fighting efforts would haveoccurred anyway. It was the increasingglobalization of crime that has forced combinedcrime fighting efforts not the Schengenagreement. The first moves towards creatingEuropol came in the 1970s with the setting up ofthe Trevi group by the then EuropeanCommunities’ interior and justice ministries. Thiswas long before Schengen was created. [1] [1]Europol, ‘About Europol’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Far from being a unifying force the SchengenArea has already led to disagreements betweenindividual countries. Italy and France wereinvolved in a major political dispute after Italyabused the spirit, if not the terms, of theSchengen Agreement to offload thousands ofNorth African migrants onto France. In April2011, French police even went so far as to stopan Italian train carrying migrants and prevent itfrom crossing the border [1] . France took therare decision to temporarily re-establish bordercontrols, adding more than 300 police to patrolsmonitoring roads and foot trails that lead intoFrench territory, along with inspecting rail traffic[2] . It issued instructions stating that animmigrant who wishes to cross the French bordermust “hold a valid travel document recognisedby France” and a “valid residence document,”“show proof of having sufficient resources—thatis, €31 per day if the person hasaccommodations, and €62 otherwise [3] .France’s unilateral decision to restore border", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Schengen Area eases the free movement ofgoods and people that the EU strives for Thefreedom of movement of goods and people is afundamental aspect of the European Union [1] ,and the Schengen Agreement is a crucial part ofmaking that a reality. This is not just useful interms of cutting the cost of conducting businessacross Europe; it also makes it easier to haveholidays too. The Schengen Agreement pavedthe way for the Schengen visa [2] to come intobeing, which is what actually makes the EU freemovement policy a reality; visitors to the 25countries above now only need one visa to visitall of them. The Schengen visa also givesnon-members of the European Union the abilityto travel unimpeded through all of the countriesthat take part in the program. Obtaining theSchengen visa is the same as any visa process:you apply, send in your passport and thenreceive a stamp in it if you are approved. Thisprocess not only saves money – as you do nothave to pay and apply for a visa for every", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Schengen has allowed cooperation in fightingglobal crime Criminality has become globalized,particularly in areas such as drugs that have longsupply chains. The response to these threats hasto involve large numbers of countries as well andSchengen has provided the impetus for suchcooperation. The Schengen Information System(SIS) has been a very successful tool formanaging and curbing crime and illegalimmigration in the Schengen area [1] . BetweenAugust and November 2008, in the first monthssince the introduction of the SIS database inSwitzerland, Swiss authorities queried it about130,000 times a day [2] . Of an average 30 hitsa day, the SIS has found 25 people wanted byanother European country in connection withserious crimes [3] . About 900 hits have been forpeople who have been denied entry into theSchengen area, while another 500 hits havebeen for missing persons [4] . The databaseproduced about 600 hits for stolen propertywithin its first few months in operation [5] . The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The Schengen Agreement is both a symbol ofand fundamental means of upholding the unity ofthe European Union The Schengen Agreementhas been supported by the majority of EUmembers since its inception in 1985 (it covers allthe continental states of the EU) and has notcaused any of the feared divisions in the 20years of its existence. Indeed, the idea offreedom of movement creates a united Europe.Most EU leaders, together with a majority in theEuropean Parliament, oppose any majorrestrictions to Schengen, which they see as acore value of European integration – both as apotent symbol (ranking close to the euro) and afundamental reality of European solidarity.European Parliament negotiator Carlos Coelhosaid \"Schengen is free movement and, like theeuro, is one of the symbols of Europe\" [1] .There is thus little reason to believe that majordivisions will occur any time in the future. Italyand France’s disagreement actually produced aunified response about how to reform the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilhwdsa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Losing Schengen would have little impact on thegoals of the European Union. The Schengenagreement is not necessary for economic ormonetary union as goods will still be able totravel around the EU. Ireland by not being partof Schengen but very much a member of theEuropean Union and Eurozone has shown thatnot being a part of the passport free area doesnot have any negative effects.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glilhbmai-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The only precedent for this is the disastrous Iraqwar where the reason for the invasion was givenas disarming Saddam of Weapons of MassDestruction he turned out not to have. Mostcountries would therefore be justified in beingskeptical of any country claiming the right todisarm another of WMD. Additionally when this isdone by the major powers the action is likely tobe seen as being hypocritical. In the case ofChemical Weapons the United States does nothave a particularly clean record. The UnitedStates used less deadly chemical weapons, AgentOrange, in Vietnam in order to clear foliage, andin Iraq it used white phosphorus as an incendiaryweapon. The United States has so far failed todecommission its own Chemical Weapons andinstead keeps getting extensions. [1] Similarlyboth Russia and the United States had BiologicalWeapons programs, and although these haveended still maintain large smallpox supplies. [1]Monbiot, George, ‘Obama’s Rogue State’,monbiot.com, 9 September 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glilhbmai-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Disarming illegal weapons A second possiblejustification for intervention is when the statethat is intervening against is itself breakinginternational law such as the Chemical WeaponsConvention or the Nuclear Non-ProliferationTreaty. The intervention would then be to forcecompliance of the treaty; this would meanforcible disarmament of illegal weapons. In thecase of Syria the country could be deemed tohave violated its own legal obligations due to itshaving broken the 1925 Geneva Protocol [1] thatbans the use of chemical weapons. Sincemanufacturing and possession of these weaponsis banned if it is considered that having suchweapons is a ‘gross violation of international law’then a limited use of force to destroy theseweapons could be considered to be legal. [2]This could be considered to be analogous to thepolice stepping in to confiscate a bannedweapon, with no police internationally otherstates have to be the ones to step in. [1] 1925Geneva Protocol, League of Nations, 17 June", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glilhbmai-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Current international law does still matter, eachtime a state takes such action without consentother states object, they are simply not powerfulenough to prevent it but this does prevent anynorm being created by the aggressor. Ifhowever international law does no longer matterthen any war is legal, or rather at least notillegal. This potentially means going back to asituation where any state has a sovereign rightto engage in conflict for almost anything it seesas an infringement of its sovereignty. The bestwe might hope for would be that states couldagree that while war might be legal it has to beunder the conditions of launching a just warunder jus ad bellum. There are sixrequirements: just cause – defence of oneself,allies, or innocents or punishment forwrongdoing right intention – no ulterior motivesbeyond the stated cause Proper authority andpublic declaration – must be open and donepublically Last resort – have expended allpeaceful alternatives Proportionality – must", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glilhbmai-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A moral imperative to intervene When amassacre is about to happen it is legal tointervene to prevent that massacre. The‘Responsibility to Protect’ which was accepted bythe UN in 2005. Resolution 60/1 at the 2005World Summit stated, there was internationalresponsibility “to help to protect populationsfrom genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing andcrimes against humanity. In this context, we areprepared to take collective action in a timely anddecisive manner.” Though this will only happen“should peaceful means be inadequate andnational authorities are manifestly failing toprotect their populations”. [1] This is mostcertainly the case in Syria where the nationalauthorities are the ones doing much of thekilling. It must be proved that the Syrian regimeis responsible for the attacks; the US and UK saythere is such evidence but so far the link is notcrystal clear. Even the UK government acceptsthat there must be “convincing evidence,generally accepted by the international", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glilhbmai-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "In the case of Syria these conditions have notbeen met; the evidence has not yet beenprovided – the weapons inspectors have yet toreport, there have been very few peace talks totry to reach a peaceful solution or attempts atpeaceful coercion such as sanctions. Will theattacks be proportionate? They will simply causemore damage and unless they are very large willnot stand a chance of halting theviolence. Moreover in general terms it is difficultto see whether a responsibility to intervene reallyexists. There does not seem to be muchagreement that humanitarian distress and theneed for urgent relief allows unilateral action ifthe state that is in need of relief does not wantit. There is certainly very little state practice(well not since 19th century imperialism anyway)where it has happened. [1] Even in the lastdecade there have been failures to interveneagainst states killing their own civilians inChechnya, North Korea [2] and Uzbekistan.[3] It is notable that this was very much scaled", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glilhbmai-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Current International law on the use of force nolonger matters The international prohibition onthe use of force has always been honoured inlarge part in the breach leading to the questionof whether it should really be considered to bebinding international law at all. Almost everymajor country has launched an illegal offensiveaction at some point; The USA has been involvedin Kosovo and Iraq, the UK and France inattacking Egypt in 1953, China in attackingVietnam in 1979, and Russia (as the USSR) inattacking Afghanistan also in 1979. In eachinstance of unilateral offensive action there willbe justifications and a ‘smoke screen’ to makethe conflict appear to be legal when in fact it isnot. Major powers should simply admit that theydo not regard the prohibition of the use of forceas binding on them. Even without admitting itbecause international law is based upon statebehaviour the use of force is legal as Michael JGlennon suggests “The consent of United Nationsmember states to the general prohibition against", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glilhbmai-con03b", "title": "", "text": "An international norm is being breached one wayor the other the only question is which one is tobe breached. Those in favour of interventionconsider that lives saved is worthwhile comparedto the problems the breach of a norm againsthumanitarian intervention might create. All ofthese norms are there with the intention ofsaving lives; that is what a norm of preventingany infringement of sovereignty without UNapproval is supposed to prevent – conflict andthe lives lost this causes. But Internal conflictand genocide has since become much more theproblem than aggression between statesrequiring a rebalancing of which norms are kept.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glilhbmai-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The problem with relying on the Security Councilis that it effectively means that the world issaying that five states can decide what is legaland what is not. Should the five countries whoare probably most inclined to interventions, andare usually at loggerheads really be the ones todecide in such situations?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glilhbmai-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Uniting for Peace One interesting possibility thatcould help short circuit the problems on theSecurity Council that prevents action eitherthrough UN Security Council action or throughthe Responsibility to Protect would be to take thecase to the UN General Assembly. There was aresolution in 1950 that “Resolves that if theSecurity Council, because of lack of unanimity ofthe permanent members, fails to exercise itsprimary responsibility for the maintenance ofinternational peace and security in any casewhere there appears to be a threat to peace,breach of the peace or act of aggression, theGeneral Assembly shall consider the matterimmediately with a view to making appropriaterecommendations to members for collectivemeasures, including in the case of a breach ofthe peace or act of aggression the use of armedforce when necessary, to maintain or restoreinternational peace and security.” [1] TheGeneral Assembly is clearly the more legitimatebody, and it also does not have the problem of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glilhbmai-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There is no point in defending some norms at thecosts of breaching others Intervention is almostalways about upholding ‘international norms’.Thus the attack on Syria is to disarm Syria of itsbanned chemical weapons because it “risksmaking a mockery of the global prohibition onthe use of chemical weapons.” [1] With Iraq itwas once again a norm against WMD with TonyBlair arguing “UN weapons inspectors say vastamounts of chemical and biological poisons suchas anthrax, VX nerve agent and mustard gasremain unaccounted for in Iraq.” [2] This meansthat the nation that is going to engage inoffensive action is attempting to prevent thebreach of one international norm against certainweapons by breaching a norm againstunauthorised military action. In Kosovo it waseven more hypocritical; NATO acted to makesure Milsovic “honor his own commitments andstop his repression” with the intent that “ifPresident Milosevic will not make peace, we willlimit his ability to make war.” [3] So we will", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glilhbmai-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Military action is only legal with UN SecurityCouncil approval Traditionally (by this I meansince 1945!) there are only a couple of ways inwhich a war is legal. The first is simple; selfdefence. The UN charter allows “the inherentright of individual or collective self-defence if anarmed attack occurs against a Member of theUnited Nations” [1] but this does not fall intothat category. Assad is attacking his own people,not another state that is entitled to self defence.No state is able to claim the right to provide selfdefence for those who Assad is attacking. Amuch more viable proposition is to go throughthe UN Security Council. The charter allows that“The Security Council shall determine theexistence of any threat to the peace… Should theSecurity Council consider that measures providedfor in Article 41 [sanctions and other non-forcefulmethods of applying pressure] would beinadequate or have proved to be inadequate, itmay take such action by air, sea, or land forcesas may be necessary to maintain or restore", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-glilhbmai-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Uniting for Peace is well over sixty years old andyet has only been used once, to interveneagainst a full scale invasion of South Korea. Thisis hardly a good precedent for using against astate that is not involved in aggression againstanother state. The intent of Uniting for Peace isto restore “international peace” not domesticpeace. It says nothing about intervening ininternal conflicts without approval from theSecurity Council.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Stability could have been ensured without amilitary alliance like NATO. The European Unioncould have managed to create stability on itsown, the EU itself since the Lisbon Treaty hasgained the role of the West European Unionsecurity organisation. Additionally admission toNATO (and incidentally the EU) require socialharmonisation and stability to occur before a newstate can join, to quote the NATO Handbookdirectly; “States which are involved in ethnicdisputes or external territorial disputes, includingirredentist claims, or internal jurisdictionaldisputes, must settle those disputes by peacefulmeans in accordance with OSCE principles,before they can become members.” [1] If thesenations had to sort out their problems first whatwas the point of enlargement, it is notenlargement per se that is meaning that thesedisputes are solved. [1] NATO, The NATOHandbook; The 1995 Study on NATO'sEnlargement, 1995,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "NATO expansion was, and is, necessary forinternational stability Enlargement wasnecessary to prevent Europe “reverting to type”.The rise once again of the ethnic and religiouscauses of war. [1] And this is still a reason forNATO to expand to help stabilise Europe. TheBalkans is only the worst area for Ethnictensions; there are similar cases all over EasternEurope and the former Soviet Union. The historyof Eastern Europe has been one of empires notthe nation state. Stalin had a policy of divide andrule; he made sure each soviet republic includedsubstantial minorities in order to prevent thegrowth of nationalist movements. [2] Stalin onlycontinued a long tradition of ethnic movementswithin empires in Eastern Europe. The Balkanproblem for example is considered an effect ofthe Ottoman empire; hence theChristian/Moslem divides in Bosnia and Kosovo.The Austrian Empire settled people on itsfrontiers in much the same way; the result isthat none of the eastern European states is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Again NATO need not have been the method whywhich these were fulfilled; the EU could equallyprovide collective defence within Europe andcreate the trust between member state’smilitaries. It is also the European Union that hasdone most to turn Robinson’s ‘insecure anduncertain East’ into being part of ‘a prosperous,secure and self-confident West’. While it may beable to unite East and West Europe NATO is itselfa symbol of division to others – particularly toRussia.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "NATO expansion would benefit eastern Europeanand post Soviet states The opportunity of NATOmembership creates the incentive for the newlyindependent republics to achieve internalstability. The criteria for NATO membershipinclude stable democracy; civilian control of thearmed forces; a sufficient military capacity tomake a meaningful contribution to collectivesecurity; and the absence of active disputes onor within the borders of the State. [1] Thisincentivisation is critical given the EuropeanUnion was and still is expanding slower thanNATO – many new NATO members such asAlbania are years away from achieving EUmembership. [2] NATO membership will helpthese fledging States to help themselves. [NATO, ‘NATO enlargement’, North Atlantic TreatyOrganization, 4 May 2011, [2] BBC News,‘Albania applies for EU membership’, 28 April2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The objectives of creating stability in thesefledgling democracies could be better achievedunder the existing ‘Partnership for Peace’ (PFP)programme. The policy received strong supportunder the Clinton administration involves regularconsultations, exercises and opportunities foreducation that seek to professionalize the civilianand military institutions of the republics of theformer Soviet Union. Moreover this wasindividually tailored to each member based ontheir own requirements. [1] This policy ofgenuine aid is preferable to the wish-list ofdemocratic ideals that compose the criteria forNATO membership. Paradoxically, if a countrywas actually able to achieve all the criteriadelineated for membership, the necessity fortheir NATO protection would be marginal.Conversely, were the republics predictablyunable to realize these goals, the protection ofNATO through expansion or PFP would begenuine. Yet, it is in these situations of tenuousstability that States will be denied proper civilian", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "NATO is a fundamental part of the internationalarchitecture used to further peace and prosperityin Europe Peace has many foundations and noone international organisation can create allthese foundations itself. NATO is therefore justas necessary to the peace of Europe as the OSCEor EU and all of these organisations need toexpand to cover the states within Europe topromote peace. NATO therefore in its Messagefrom Turnberry – its response to the end of thecold war - “express our determination to seizethe historic opportunities resulting from theprofound changes in Europe to help build a newpeaceful order in Europe, based on freedom,justice and democracy.” [1] Collective defence isas necessary as economic cooperation in creatingpeace, this is something that in Europe onlyNATO can provide. Peace is also promoted byNATO through the security cooperation that itprovides; building trust between the memberstates. This need for trust and equality betweenthe parts of Europe was also explicitly stated by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It ought to be accepted that the NATO alliance isalready diluted. It should not be perceived as astanding military force, but a holding companywhose individual members can draw upon acollective infrastructure and military support inthe event of intervention in and around Europe.The expansion of NATO should be theopportunity to re-examine the current forcedeployment and strategic capability of thealliance. For example, the US maintainssignificant permanent deployment of infantry,aircraft and armour in Germany that couldpossibly be transferred to a more active role inprotecting the borders of the newly independentrepublics. Similarly, the NATO ‘After-Action’report into ‘Operation Allied Force’ in Kosovohighlighted the dependence of the offensive onthe US capacity for strategic airlift. Theacquisition of the requisite air transport by theWestern European States would allow morecredible guarantees of security throughoutEurope. Forward deployment of NATO troops into", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and theprotracted collapse of the Soviet Union into theCommonwealth of Independent States didremove the overwhelming threat of the USSRagainst Western Europe. However, the threatpersists in a different form. The newlyindependent republics remain vulnerable to thevast political and military influence of Russia. Thenew threat is the destruction of stability of thenew republics, and thus Russian expansion thatis hostile to both the republics and the WesternEuropean states in their proximity – worry thatthis would occur lead to many eastern Europeanstates applying to NATO as soon as they could.[1] The solution is pre-emptive expansion in theother direction. The broadening of NATO toinclude the Eastern republics shall offer abulwark against Russian expansion. NATO shallcontinue to perform the role of a defensivealliance against a putative military threat. [1]Keylor, William R., The Twentieth Century World(Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001) pp.455,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Further expansion of NATO will antagoniseRussia Russia considers NATO expansion to bevery antagonistic towards it. Continued NATOexpansion would only serve to manufacture theexpansionist demon that NATO fears. Theelection of the ultranationalist Duma in 1996, thechoice of the hardliner Yvegeny Primakov asforeign minister, and the failure of the reformistparty ‘Russia’s Choice’ under Yegor Gaidar evento clear the 5% hurdle for Duma membershipwas in whole or in part, due to the Russian senseof isolation from Western Europe. President Putinhas also made a lot out of his opposition to NATOexpansion which he has opposed since he wasfirst elected President. [1] This sense isdramatically emboldened by such provocativeactions as threatening to station NATO troops onits borders. The Russian people are unlikely toconsider that the forward deployment is notdirected against them, as is shown by Russia’sworries about and threats in response to NationalMissile Defense which is not aimed at them, [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The cost of expansion is prohibitive The costs ofNATO expansion are prohibitive at a time whenthe Western European members are scaling backtheir defence budgets and the reducing the sizeof their conventional forces. The Clintonadministration estimated the costs of the initialexpansion to be $27 to $35 to 2010, but this ismostly the costs restructuring and of makingforces interoperable rather than the costs ofprotecting the new members. [1] The cost ofstationing forces in Eastern Europe would beconsiderably higher and if NATO ever had todefend these countries the cost would be higherstill. Given the fragile economies of the newrepublics, the existing NATO States will beobliged to absorb the expense of expansion.Even a decade after expansion the new membershave mostly not succeeded in reaching the 2% ofGDP the alliance targets and their combineddefence budgets are only a third of Russia’s. [2]The proper question is whether the taxpayers ofthe US and Western European States wish to pay", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Expanding NATO will overstretch the resources ofits core members NATO expansion can in thelong term only lead to the overstretching of theorganisation and thus the undermining ofstability for the entirety of Europe. The credibilityof the commitment of article V of the NATOCharter in which every member pledges to cometo the defence of another has already beenundermined by the inclusion of small countriesthat would be unable to defend themselves andare practically indefensible. [1] NATO runs thegrave risk of becoming so large and diverse itresembles a political organisation rather than amilitary alliance. The military contribution of thenew members would be by definition limited.Were these republics already capable ofproviding sufficient security to their borders,there would be no necessity for NATOmembership. At the point where the NATOcommitments become more declaratory thanreal, the security of every State including thenew members is called into question. There are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Russia is no longer a threat Russia no longerpresents a credible threat to Eastern Europe orthe existing NATO States which NATO expansioncould counterbalance. Russia can no longer offerthe conventional military threat of the Cold War.The acceptance of this reality by the US isevidenced by the fact that troop numbers inEurope are much reduced from a peak of277,000 troops and will be reduced further to30,000 in the next few years. [1] This is the keyquestion for a military alliance as defence is thekey purpose. Expansion should therefore bedecided based upon the yardstick of whether theexpansion is necessary for the security of NATOmembers. If there is no credible threat thenthere is no reason to expand the alliance. At thesame time while Russia is no longer aconventional military threat it still has itsimmense nuclear armament. This will remain athreat no matter how many of Russia’sneighbours join NATO but Russia could feelincreasingly obliged to focus on its nuclear", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The expense of NATO expansion is marginalwhen compared to the defence budgets of themajor NATO States. The US defence expenditurealone for the fiscal year 2012 is $553 billion. [1]Further, the correct equation is not between theexpense of stationing troops in these new Statesand the current saving from non-deployment.The balance is between the expense of forwarddeployment or other military investment and theprohibitive cost in dollars and lives from aconflict between NATO and Russia, or aconflagration in any of the Eastern republics.NATO expansion is nothing more than acost-effective insurance policy against a very realrisk. [1] Department of Defence, US budget,gpoaccess,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-agphwen-con02b", "title": "", "text": "NATO expansion is not the cause of nationalismin Russia, rather the Russian leadership stokesnationalism in order to direct attention awayfrom the government. The Russian people areconcerned about hardship and hazard withintheir own borders rather than without. Yes it istrue that the expansion of NATO antagonisesRussia but this should not be a major concern ofNATO, any expansion of a military alliance islikely to worry those countries that are outsidethat alliance. Moreover, failing to expand NATOto countries that are potentially threatened bythe same nationalism and belligerency of Russiawould be implicitly rewarding that belligerency.NATO should not be teaching Russia the lessonthat hostility in Eastern Europe gets results thatlessen the security of all.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Here the argument presented by the propositionis an attempt to deceive the opposition and thehouse. The act that the proposition haspresented has not been passed by the USgovernment and is highly unlikely to happen inthe future as well. The argument is right if theassumption that the deficits are long term. And itis not so. The deficit as a proportion of GDP isstill more than manageable and more spending isneeded. The only current indication of this is longterm interest rates on US treasury bonds andthese have been falling. Secondly from a purelyeconomic viewpoint, the battle between US andTaliban is not entirely negative. Historicallymilitary spending can help boost growth as wasshown by World War II pulling the US out of thegreat depression of the 1930s. What nationsneed when in a recession is more economicactivity and the arms industry and the countlessother industries a war necessitates makes thiswar as good as it gets for the economy. Ofcourse there is a danger of the US budget deficit", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The war is too expensive, so a deal needs to bemade to end it. President Obama himself hassaid, “Ultimately as was true in Iraq, so will betrue in Afghanistan; we will have to have apolitical solution.” At a time when fiscal policyhas become a major concern among westernlegislatures and commentators, the increasingcost of the war is proving to be politicallycontentious. Therefore, a political solution to theconflict is no longer merely desirable, butnecessary. Continuing the war will cost toomuch, both in political and budgetary terms. USAand UK have to make financial considerations inlight of the continuing aftermath of the globalfinancial crisis. One glaring estimate suggeststhat America will spend over 700 billion U.Sdollars on the military in 2010. The conflict inAfghanistan cost approximately $51 billion in2009 and was expected to hit $65 billion in 2010.The purchase of air conditioning systems forAfghani facilities accounts for more than $20billion of this figure. Obama's policy of deploying", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "How can the Taliban be included if theyabsolutely disagree on negotiating, but insteadwant to overthrow the government? So far theTaliban has always insisted that they will refuseto negotiate until all foreign forces are withdrawnfrom Afghanistan. [1] This means that we areactually making the problems worse for thepeople over there instead of better. We reallyneed to have a reliable partner in the region.Nowadays Pakistan is designated as a majornon-NATO ally of the United States with fightingTaliban. In 2007, the National Security Council ofPakistan met to decide the fate of Waziristan andtake up a number of political and administrativeissues in order to control the “Talibanization” ofthe area. The meeting was chaired by PresidentPervez Musharraf and attended by the ChiefMinisters and Governors of all 4 provinces. Theydiscussed the deteriorating law and ordersituation and the threat posed to state security.The restoration of peace in North and SouthWaziristan will be a great challenge. The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "We have successful precedents in Iraq andAfrica, proving that a power-sharing approachworks. African countries and in Iraq have provedthat power-sharing deal works. So, it means thatit is possible to find a solution for Afghanistan.For example, Iraq seems to be no need for us toprove that power-sharing has worked to greatlyimprove conditions in the country. Conditionsthat horrifically grew at an incredible pace duringthe war in Iraq. [1] The Iraqi governmentcomprises of many members of the late Saddamregime who have been granted amnesty for theircrimes. Members of the Taliban can be instatedin governments through power-sharing (notgiving) deal; in the same way. Talks in Kenyaensued during the Bush administration whenfunds for the recuperation of fourth world Africanaffairs were channelled to the region, jointly bythe USA and UK. Both Blair and Bush workedside by side with formerly corrupt and violentAfrican leaders to pick the Countries up. SouthAfrica, which is ranked as an upper-middle", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The campaign is unpopular among the majorityof NATO countries citizens, so we should solvethe Afghan problem in diplomatic way,specifically through a power-sharing deal withthe Taliban. The majority of citizens in the USAand the UK oppose the war in Afghanistan andwant troops to come back home. As was the casein Iraq, a diplomatic solution is required to endthe war as smoothly as possible. As at 12 August2011, a total of 379 British forces personnel orMOD civilians have died while serving inAfghanistan since the start of operations inOctober 2001. [1] About 2000 coalition soldiersin total expired in Afghanistan. [2] More than1340 British soldiers have been wounded inaction. U.S opinion poll proclaims that 62% ofAmericans want troops home as soon as possiblewhile the rest want a timetable for troopwithdrawal. [3] According to Michael Moore,Obama is the new war president. He needs toprove that he is a peacemaker to retrieve thesupport of his people. [4] The media agrees that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The argument here presented by the propositionthat the majority of people in US are fed up withthe war, true. But that is because they were notthe ones facing abuse at the Taliban hands orfighting a civil war which resulted in the killing of100,000, but the minority will be slaughtered ifthis is allowed to happen. [1] This genocide inthe making should not be allowed to happen.This will also lead to a civil war. Though theminorities are exhausted but they broke it andhave a moral imperative to fix it. A lot of peoplehave come out in support of the \"western\"forces, they will face retribution and futureattempts to win hearts and minds will fail whenthe fickleness of our resolve is exposed. This is aslippery slope if we slide down there is no tellinghow far down we will fall. This should be thecentre of the discussion; our opponents want toput popularity before lives and security andwhich is wrong. [1] Dexter Filkins, «Overture toTaliban Jolts Afghan Minorities», The New YorkTimes, published June 26, 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "It should first be pointed out that all conflicts areunique, products of the political and socialsettings in which they arise. Geopolitics andforeign policy are not as dependent on precedentas most debaters would like to think. The mainobjective of the USA and the UK behind thepower sharing deal in Africa is to extract theresources of the African continent. Theproposition is basically trying to deceive us withthis point. The power sharing deals made by theUSA (collaborating with the UK, at times) are allfor their own selfish interests. Be it in Africa orIraq, USA has applied its own vested interest inmost cases. Africa is very rich in resources. TheUS saw all of these and then shared power withthe nation just to earn some benefit in utilizingthe resources. Furthermore, the United Stateswent to war against Iraq because of the MiddleEast country's oil reserves, a greater concern tothe USA than that of searching for weapons ofmass destruction (WMD) [1] and taking SaddamHussein out of power. The power sharing in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "This is the weakest argument by far. It isn'tlogical. As all of us who've read about KarlPopper will attest that a historical trend is not anindication of future courses unless causality canbe proven. Here it can’t. It’s a different waraltogether. Historical parallels make sense incollege classrooms, not when a Taliban fighterfaces a drone attack; Did the soviets havedrones? No, they didn’t. Also «Pakistan andAfghanistan are both pushing for talks includingthe Taliban» is factually incorrect. The Pakistanpresident said that talking with the Taliban is notan option «unless we want to breedterrorism». The current scenario is completelydifferent from the past, not only about the timefactor but also political conditions. Previousbattles were fought against not only the militiabut also its supporting government. This time,the battle is against an independent Taliban forcethat is backing up the Al- Qaeda group.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The threat of Talibanization is too great underthe status quo to continue with current policy. Ifa diplomatic solution is not reached or evenproposed , the security situation in bothAfghanistan and Pakistan will deteriorate and thisis a matter of serious concern since the latter is anuclear power. Violence in the region can only bedisseminated if the Taliban feel they are notbeing attacked but are included; then peace hasa chance of prevailing. If the region were to beleft as is Increasing Taliban activity could furtherdestabilize the border regions of Pakistan, whileattacks mounted against the Afghan interiorwould cause significant damage and endangerthousands of live. [1] An entrenched AfghaniTaliban could support and embolden groups withsimilar ideologies elsewhere in central Asia andthe subcontinent. For instance, groupsideologically identical to the Taliban effectivelysubdued the Pakistani military in the Swat Valleyallowing them to impose their version of sharialaw and institute measures that included closing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Afghan history shows failings of foreign invasion,so this campaign is also doomed to failure. Nostate has ever been able to impose alien politicalinstitutions on the Afghani people, whether byforce or by flattery. The Russians tried and so didthe British, but neither was successful. In fact,the greatest massacre of British soldiershappened in Afghanistan in 1842. The Britishthen awarded these tribesmen with fancy titlesand the Khyber pass was thereafter protected byPakistani and Afghan tribes (the ancestors of theMujahadeen & then the Taliban). Theborder between Pakistan and Afghanistan wasthus never manned by British soldiers. More than16,000 people had set out on the retreat fromKabul, and in the end only one man, Dr. WilliamBrydon, a British Army surgeon made it alive toJalalabad. [1] The Russians threw bombs, tanks,landmines and napalm at the Afghan guerrillaarmy, the Mujahadeen. They killed around half amillion people, injured many more but they stillfaced dismal defeat in the Soviet war in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It was not the fault of the Taliban that therewere several years of drought in Afghanistan,something which would cause great suffering inany peasant economy. And while some Afghanrefugees specifically fled the Taliban’s austereregime, most were displaced during two decadesof warfare that preceded it, or left the countryfor economic reasons. Nor is it surprising thatthe Taliban had difficult relations with therepresentatives of the United Nations, as it is notrecognised by the UN, where the Afghanistanseat in the General Assembly was still held bythe discredited regime the Talibanoverthrew. The opposition seems to think thatnegotiations equal to condoning human right'sviolations and handing over a sort of Carteblanche to the Taliban. Whereas talks pressurizesuch groups effectively to give up their evilways. The point of talks is to give very littlepower on very definite humanitarianconditions/terms. To trade. If there are no talks;then the Taliban will proclaim victory (as they do", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The Taliban were not the only oppressive regimein the world and it was hypocritical to singlethem out, especially when many of theirpractices are shared by friendly, pro-westernstates such as Saudi Arabia. Their views werenot an entirely alien imposition upon Afghansociety, but were rooted in the traditions of thePashtun, one of Afghanistan’s largest ethnicgroups. The war has done nothing to improvethe conditions of women and children in thewar-zone! Women' rights are already beingviolated in both coalition countries and thewar-zone. Rape, murder and theft are soaringthe world over. While petty financial crimes arereduced. [1] Domestic violence especially againstwomen and children is on a steep climb andremains largely under-reported. Only 35% casesare reported in the UK The proposition hashowever provided evidence that the conditions ofAfghan and Pakistani civilians have deterioratedas a consequence of the war: air strikes, droneattacks, physio-psychological trauma and so", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Taliban supports terrorist organizations, sothey are not to be trusted. The Times Squareattack and the Twin Tower attacks are examplesof how the Taliban are actually cultivatingterrorists to carry out international terrorist acts.The Taliban sheltered international terrorists, ofwhom Osama Bin Laden and his Al-Qaidaorganisation were the most prominent. Inaddition to Al-Qaida’s strikes against Americantargets worldwide, fundamentalist terroriststrained in Afghanistan have been active inChechnya, Kosovo, Central Asia, Indian Kashmirand China. This has resulted in thedestabilisation of the region and contributed to agreat deal of human misery. Therefore, the USand UK cannot afford to risk their nation'ssecurity by leaving Taliban to raise, equip andfund terrorists. Even for their own safety, theycannot leave the Taliban in power. The Obamaadministration is working on establishing a stablegovernment - a government that has trainedpolice force, trusted government officials and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The Taliban manipulates the drug tradeaccording to its will, so it should not be includedinto the government. The Taliban areresponsible for flooding the world with heroinproduced from the opium grown there; over 90%of the heroin on the streets of the UK originatedin Afghanistan. In 2000, the Taliban issued adecree banning cultivation. [1] By 2001,production had reportedly been reduced from12,600 acres (51 km2) to only 17 acres (7 ha).Opium production was reportedly cut back by theTaliban not to prevent its use, but to increase itsprice, and thus increase the income of Afghanpoppy farmers and tax revenue. [2] Therefore,the regime relied upon levies on the movementof drugs as one of its principle sources offunding. No other government has ever been socomplicit in a trade that kills and ruins lives allover the world. [1] Afghanistan, Opium and theTaliban, February 15, 2001 8:19 p.m. EST, [2]Benjamin, Daniel, The Age of Sacred Terror byDaniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, New York:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The Taliban failed to provide good governmentfor Afghanistan. The Taliban is more concernedwith religious purity than the physical welfare ofthe people. As a result, millions of Afghans stilllive in refugee camps in Iran and Pakistan, whilemillions of others are desperately short of foodand face starvation. The Taliban made thesituation worse by harassing UN workers and aidagencies, in defiance of the usual diplomaticnorms, imprisoning westerners on religiouscharges and impeding the flow of humanitarianrelief to their own people. During the five-yearhistory of the Islamic Emirate, much of thepopulation experienced restrictions on theirfreedom and violations of their human rights.Women were banned from jobs, girls forbiddento attend schools or universities. Those whoresisted were punished instantly. Communistswere systematically eradicated and thieves werepunished by amputating one of their hands orfeet. Meanwhile, the Taliban managed to nearlyeradicate the majority of the opium production", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The Taliban is a cruel and undemocratic regime,and so it should not be given any power. TheTaliban oppressed their own people, especiallywomen and ethnic or religious minorities. A verystrict, distinctive interpretation of Sunni Islamwas enforced zealously (with public executionsand amputations) as they attempted to build theworld’s purest Islamic state. Television andmusic were banned, women had to be fullycovered up and were forbidden from receiving aneducation or working (despite many familieshaving lost their male members after years ofwarfare, and so rendering many families entirelydependent upon food aid for survival), and theiraccess to healthcare was restricted. Thewell-known story provided by Time Magazine:Aisha who ran away from her husband’s house.Her husband was abusing her physically andmentally. When she was caught by the Taliban«soldiers», she was taken to the Taliban Courtand given a punishment in their law. Thepunishment was, her ears and nose was cut. She", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Intense international demand for opium has ledto poppies becoming a preferred cash cropamong Afghan farmers. Although historicallyknown for its fruit and vegetable production, thehigh prices commanded by opium mean that it isregarded as financially resilient, immune to largeprice fluctuations and still offering decentreturns, even if a large proportion of a crop fails.Although the Taliban profited from levies on theopium trade, so did the warlords they displaced.In fact, in 2000 the Taliban, responding to globalconcern over the heroin trade and its ownreligious impulses, issued orders that opiumshould not be grown. As a result, productiondropped by over 90% with a noticeable impactupon street prices of heroin in Europe. Thissuggests both that engagement with the Talibanwas potentially constructive, and that a collapseof central control would give drug runners a freehand.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-amehbncag-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The Taliban are not the only regime in the worldto have sheltered terrorists – Syria, Iran, Iraq,Cuba and North Korea are all viewed by theUSA’s State Department as state sponsors ofterrorism. Indeed, although the Taliban provideshelter for terrorist groups to train, the otherstates could be seen to go further, by activelyinitiating and funding terrorism. Moreover, giventhat Russia and the Central Asian former sovietstates have been opposed to the Taliban fromthe start, and backed the Northern Allianceagainst it in the Afghan civil war, it is hardlysurprising that the Taliban backed their ownrebel movements. It could also be asked whetherrebels in Chechnya, Kosovo and China should beseen as terrorists or freedom fighters. Theopposition cannot be expecting the proposition todefend the reinstatement of thepseudo-religious-extremist-fundamentalistTaliban regime. We are in fact calling for exactlythe opposite: Please the Taliban by negotiatingwith them on the coalition's terms not theirs and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The example of Kosovo is not similar because ofthe terrible treatment including ethnic cleansing,mass murder and torture that Kosovars sufferedwithin the former Yugoslavia and Serbia. Even ifother examples are more similar, they areregrettable themselves, we should be seeking tobring nations together through means such asthe EU and UN not split them apart. The mainreason for Kosovo's recognition stemmed fromthe fact that it was never really simply part ofSerbia. Until the illegal constitutional changesmade by Milosevic in 1989, Kosovo was a part ofthe Yugoslav federation in its own right, with itsown seat on the Yugoslav presidency. One can'tpossibly claim the same constitutional status forRS, which is quite simply the areas of Bosniawhich the Bosnian Serb forces were able toethnically cleanse and keep after the war endedin 1995. Unlike Kosovo, the RS has no historical,legal or constitutional precident and is to a largedegree the product of ethnic cleansing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "There is legitimate precedent. Kosovo becameformally independent from Serbia in 2008 [1]and Montenegro became independent fromSerbia in 2006 [2] as a result of referenda withinthose territories. If these states and the many,many others which previously achievedindependence have a right to self-determinationwhy doesn’t RS? To deny some groups of peopleaccess to self-determination is hypocritical andunjust. [1] BBC News, ‘Kosovo MPs proclaimindependence’, 17 February 2008, [2] BBCNews, ‘Montenegro declares independence’, 4June 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This is just an argument for reforming statestructures to reduce dysfunction, perhaps bymoving to majority votes instead of each sidehaving a veto. Additionally if the two sides havedifficulty cooperating now, why would thatcooperation become easier when they no longershare a state? This would at the minimum lead totwo neighbouring states without a functionalrelationship and thus limited ability to actcollectively on cross border crime or trade.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Increased sense of identity with the stateincreases social solidarity. Where groups ofpeople do not identify with the state they areless likely to be willing to invest in moregenerous state services since they do feel thatpeoples with whom they have no affinity willbenefit from them. Conversely, where peoplefeel like the state is mostly composed of peoplelike them, they are more willing to invest ineducation, healthcare and a welfare state. Thesethings will ultimately significantly improve thelives of the people in each new state and lead tostronger states than the one that exists now. Forexample the Scandinavian states, Norway,Denmark, Sweden and Finland with their largelyhomogenous societies are also associated withvery high levels of social happiness and generouswelfare provision.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Serbs have a right to Self-Determination. Theright to self-determination is a basic human rightwhich underpins the legitimacy of thenation-state. Where a large group people do notfeel represented or accepted by a state and thusdo not consent to its rule, the states control overthat people becomes illegitimate. The right tonational self-determination is enshrined with theUN charter [1] and formed the basis for theindependence of Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia,Kosovo and Montenegro. [1] United Nations, ‘UNCharter, Chapter I: Purposes and Principles, Art.1, Part 2’. 26 June 1945,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Where does self-determination end? Do cities ortowns have a right to self-determination, whatabout individuals within the state? Allowingfurther secessions will just lead to increasinglysmaller and less viable states without producingbenefits. Nations are invented human constructswith no inherent value. The right toself-determination is limited, the Supreme Courtof Canada determined that there were only threecircumstances in which external selfdetermination to three circumstances (a) thoseunder colonial domination or foreign occupation;(b) peoples subject to \"alien subjugation,domination or exploitation outside a colonialcontext;\" and, possibly, (c) a people \"blockedfrom the meaningful exercise of its right toself-determination internally.\" [1] None of theseapply to RS. In the case of RS there wereBosniaks and Croats who were already in theregion and were expelled in the 1990s who inmany cases formed a majority in manymunicipalities in what is now Republika Srpska.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Some groups of people will always not identifywith the state, for class based, political andcultural reasons. State solidarity has to be basedon a common humanity as that is the onlyfundamentally unifying factor.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Areas of intermixing do exist, such as the capital,Sarajevo. Steps should be taken instead topencourage communities to live together forexample with housing subsidies for mixeddevelopments and with cross communaleducation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The present state structure does not work. Theexisting state structure does not work, because itrequires agreement between the representativesof RS and the FBH, Given the fundamentallydivergent aims and opinions of the two sidescompromise is almost impossible leading toperpetual gridlock on basic issues such aspolicing and education. This gridlock can beshown by the fifteen months it took for Bosniaand Herzegovina to form a government, andeven then a compromise was only reached dueto financial pressure from the IMF and EU.[1] [1] Szpala, Marta, ‘Bosnia and Herzegovina:the financial situation forces politicians to reach acompromise regarding the government’, Centrefor Eastern Studies, 4 January 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The people within the state have no desire to livetogether. The constituents peoples (Serbs,Croats and Bosniaks) live almost entirely inseparate segregated areas with very littlecommunal intermixing. They already essentiallylive in separate states but without the ability toactually direct their own affairs or receiveinternational recognition. [1] It should beremembered that the Bosnian Serbs havealready voted ponce for secession as in areferendum in November 1991 in areas whichwere Serb ethnic 96.4% voted for anindependent State within the then Yugoslavfederation. [2] [1] Wikipedia, ‘Ethnic groups inBosnia and Herzegovina’, [2] Application ofGenocide convention, ‘Dissenting opinion ofJudge Kreca’, International Court of Justice, 11July 1996, p.738,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The region is no longer the powder keg oftension it once was. The independence of Kosovodid not lead to widespread fighting, but only tolocalised rioting for a period of days or weeksand the Montenegrin secession was entirelypeaceful. The awareness of the possibility ofescalation of tension will only to serve to makethe new states and the international communityeven more focused on preventing violence andthey are thus likely to react accordingly withpeacekeepers, international monitors and aid.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Whether or not Nations are imaginary, they areseen as being important and form a key part ofindividual’s identity. Nationalism does not haveto lead to a sense of superiority, nations can beproud of their identity without being disrespectfulof other nation’s culture and history.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Secession will hurt minorities in the newstate This increased nationalism will hurtminority ethnic groups within the new states,both already existing minorities such as Jews,Roma, and foreign immigrants who will no longerbe part of a largely diverse state with stronglegal protections for minority rights, where thereare mechanisms for preventing either sidedominating, [1] but will instead be part of newethnically defined states to which they will beperceived as not belonging. Additionally it willhurt the ‘new’ minorities, the Bosniaks andCroats in RS and the Serbs in the FBH, who willbe physically and mentally cut off from the statewhich at least in some respects formerlyrepresented them. Instead they would be madea minority within a group of people judgedfundamentally different from them and incapableof living with people like them. [1] Szpala,Marta, ‘Bosnia and Herzegovina – an ongoingerosion of the state’, Centre for Eastern Studies,30 March 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Republika Srpska cannot survive economically asan independent state. The RS and FBH havevery little industry and few exports, RS forexample only exports 720million euros worthcompared to imports of 1.25billion euros, [1] theeconomy is largely based on tourism and foreignaid both of which would likely be adverselyaffected by the turmoil of secession. A new RSwould therefore likely quickly becomeeconomically dependent on Serbia and would beunable to make the investments needed toensure a successful new state. The drop off intourism revenue will also reduce the prosperityof the citizens and increase poverty in thearea. [1] Remikovic, Drazen, ‘Devicit of Bosnia’sRepublika Srpska half billion euros’,Balkans.com, 30 August 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Secession will strengthen Nationalism inneighbouring states. The upsurge in Nationalismwould not be limited to just the two parts ofBosnia & Herzegovina, given the ethnickinship between the Croats and Serbs of Bosniaand those of Croatia and Serbia, but would alsoin all likelihood lead to renewed nationalism inSerbia, Croatia and other FYRs as happenedduring the earlier rise of the nationalists beforeand during the Yugoslav wars [1] . This wouldjeopardise the progress made within andbetween these states and damage internationalcooperation. It would also likely set back thedrive towards increased integration, the closecross national feeling and shared culture termed‘the Yugosphere’ and ultimately being joinedtogether again within the EU. [1] Pesic, Vesna,‘Serbian Nationalism and the Origins of theYugoslav Crisis’, Peaceworks No.8, April 1996,United States Institute of Peace, .26", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Secession will lead to renewed conflict. Thecombination of an increased nationalism and theplight of minorities trapped within statesoverwhelmingly composed of the ‘other’ people islikely to lead to low level tension, rioting andeven potentially warfare particularly over areaswhich have large Serbs or Bosniak populationsforming enclaves within the other state as hashappened in many previous secession disputessuch as the Croatian secession from Yugoslavia[1] This would plunge the area and the wholeregion back towards the catastrophic fighting ofthe 1990’s and needlessly cost many lives ashappened in the partition of India [2] . It wouldalso likely lead to waves of refugees anddecreased investment and tourism in the newstates blighting their futures. [1] Reuters,‘Roads Sealed as Yugoslav Unrest Mounts’, TheNew York Times, 19 August 1990, [2] Brass,Paul R., ‘The partition of India and retributivegenocide in the Punjab 1946-47: means,methods, and purposes’, Journal of Genocide", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-con05b", "title": "", "text": "Both Montenegro and Kosovo had similareconomic situations and have subsequentlyprospered after independence. Even if there wereeconomic problems they were also both stillallowed to become independent. Independencecan also lead to an economic boom with newinvestment and diaspora emigrants returning tothe country as happened with the Baltic statesafter independence. [1] [1] Fifka, Matthias S.,‘The Baltics: Continuing boom or burstingbubble? A rocky short-run should not obscure apromising long run’, Business Economics,October 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Secession strengthen Nationalism in the newstates Nations and Peoples are invented humanconstructs that have no intrinsic value. [1]Self-determination merely reinforces the ideathat different groups of people are fundamentallydifferent and not part of a shared humanity.Nationalism leads to a belief that some groups ofpeople are superior to others, which in turn leadsto discrimination against groups of people whoare not seen as part of the nation. [2] [1]Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities,p.48, [2] Ajnadžić, Mirza, and Kamber, Ajdin,‘Bosnia’s “Others” Fight for Their Rights’,Institute for War & Peace Reporting, 746,19 June 1012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The progress in the other former YugoslavRepublics is now largely irreversible as youngpeople grow up without experience of fighting orsignificant ethnic division. The processes ofeducation and increased prosperity that have ledto this phenomena mean that it will likely belargely unaffected by events inBosnia-Herzegovina.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-elilmhwars-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The constitutions of the RS and FBH alreadyenshrine the protection of linguistic and religiousminorities and the new states will be aware ofthe international focus on the ‘new’ minoritygroups and will thus focus resources onprotecting them in order to protect thereputation of the new state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "While it is undoubtedly true that some foreignaid money will flow into the hands of US firms itis wrong to argue that this is beneficial to theeconomy. What needs to be considered is notjust whether some aid money ends up in thehands of Americans but whether that samemoney could be spent in such a way where moreof it would. The answer is undoubtedly yes. Thesame money would benefit the economy muchmore if handed back to the citizen to spendthemselves or directly invested in the UnitedStates. The developing world would then in turnbenefit because more Americans spendingmeans more purchasing of goods made indeveloping countries. The United States exports$2-3billion worth of goods to Africa every monthwhile it imports around $6billion [1] clearly thenAfrica is benefiting from trade with the UnitedStates and more spending in the United Stateswill benefit Africa. [1] ‘Trade in Goods withAfrica’, U.S. Department of Commerce UnitedStates Census Bureau, 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Foreign aid benefits the United States Whileforeign aid is obviously for the benefit of therecipient country that country is not the only onethat benefits; U.S. business is often a majorbeneficiary. It does this in two ways: First theybenefit directly through carrying out thecontracts for supplying aid, for example Cargillwas paid $96million for supplying food aid in2010-11. [1] Secondly there are also indirectbenefits. Through the work of the United StatesAgency for International Development (USAID),the Obama administration hopes to “developpartnerships with countries committed toenabling the private sector investment that is thebasis of sustained economic growth to open newmarkets for American goods, promote tradeoverseas, and create jobs here at home”. [2]Essentially, through foreign aid, both theeconomies of the developing world and theUnited States come out ahead. Even Microsoftfounder and philanthropist Bill Gates has beenquoted as saying that the 1 percent the United", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Everyone is for transparency when it istaxpayers’ money that is being spent howevertransparency does not make it a worthwhileinvestment. Ban Ki-moon, the United NationsSecretary General says that “Last year,corruption prevented 30 per cent of alldevelopment assistance from reaching its finaldestination.” [1] This means huge amounts ofmoney is not helping development as it is meantto. Obama’s transparency initiatives will nodoubt help show what the US is spending andwhere but will it tell us who else benefits?Moreover the administration’s record on aidtransparency is very patchy; some budgets likethe Millennium Challenge Corporation, created bythe Republicans during the Bush Administration,are very transparent while big departments likeState and Treasury are just the opposite. [2] [1]‘At high-level discussion, UN officials highlightcosts of corruption on societies’, UN NewsCentre, 9 July 2012. [2] ‘2011 Pilot AidTransparency Index’, Publish What You Fund,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The aid budget has to increase to meet risingcommitments Despite a large national deficit,the Obama administration has stated over [1]and over [2] again that they have no plans to cutOfficial Development Assistance (ODA), and the2011 budget reflects that by putting the UnitedStates on a path to double foreign assistance by2015. [3] The Obama administration hasrequested $56 billion for international affairs inFiscal Year 2013 that would go towards USAIDfunding and programs. [4] This would go aconsiderable way towards the target, firstpledged in 1970, of rich countries committing0.7% of GNP to Official Development Assistance.[5] This increase is necessary because Obamahas increasing commitments to meet. Theadministration wants to embrace the UnitedNations Millennium Development Goals [6] to cutglobal poverty by 2015 in hopes that foreignassistance can help countries build “healthy andeducated communities, reduce poverty, developmarkets, and generate wealth”. [7] The Obama", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is wrong to be expanding the aid budget at atime of economic crisis when the government isdramatically failing to balance its books. The listof things that the Obama administration wants todo with aid are either things that are best left tothe military and intelligence services such ascombating terrorism and transnational crime, orare areas where the United States has noresponsibility to be providing assistance such asglobal education and health. The reality is thatthere are not rising commitments for foreign aid;far from it. The number of people in absolutepoverty (less than $1.25 per day) has declinedfrom 1.91 billion in 1990 to 1.29 billion in 2008despite a rapidly rising population. [1] Moreoverit is not foreign aid that is bringing about thisdecline but trade and the resulting economicgrowth in developing countries. [2] It istherefore completely the wrong strategy to beincreasing foreign aid to tackle theseproblems. [1] ‘Poverty’, The World Bank, March2012. [2] Chandy, Laurence, and Gertz,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Aid does not benefit national security; there aretwo ways to increase national security. First is toincrease spending on those agencies thatmaintain national security; the Department ofDefense and the intelligence agencies. Second isby expanding the economy which provides thenecessary wealth to maintain national security.Foreign aid clearly does not benefit nationalsecurity because the recipient will spend it howthey want and often this will be in ways that aredetrimental to U.S. security, whether this isthough the aid being spent on products fromChina or being lost to corruption. Aid from theUnited States has often not been beneficial in thepast the U.S. gave Egypt $1.5 billion per year inaid [1] yet is now controlled by the MuslimBrotherhood, Pakistan received $963 million andyet supports the Taliban fighting against the USin Afghanistan. [2] [1] Holan, Angie Drobnic,‘Egypt got more foreign aid than anyone besidesIsrael, says New York Times Columnist RossDouthat’, Tampa Bay Times, 4 February", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The foreign aid budget can be made moreeffective and transparent While a second Obamaadministration is not going to cut back on foreignaid the Obama campaign however, does arguefor pragmatic budgetary approaches to foreignaid, [1] creating transparency measures [2] toensure that “assistance [is] more transparent,accountable and effective”. [3] The Obamaadministration has signed the Busan Partnershipfor Effective Development Co-operation [4]which makes transparency a key pillar ofoverseas development [5] and has succeeded insignificantly increasing transparency; in 2010 theU.S. was ranked 24th [6] in Quality of OfficialDevelopment Assistance rankings ontransparency, by 2012 it had moved up to 9th.[7] It is also clear how beneficial transparency isfor the recipients of aid; Uganda implementedPublic Expenditure Tracking Surveys in 1996.Surveys had shown that only 13% of funds forschools was actually getting to the schools butthe introduction of PETS increased this to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Aid benefits National Security In Obama’s 2012campaign, promoting good governance throughforeign aid makes sense for a range of foreignpolicy and development objectives. Throughcontributions in healthcare, education, povertyalleviation and infrastructure, investing in foreignaid and increasing the foreign aid budget willhelp create a more peaceful and safe globalenvironment. Robert Gates, former US Secretaryof Defense, has stated that “cutting aidjeopardizes US national security. It also createsa greater vacuum in so-called fragile states,which can easily be filled by those who do nothave US interests at heart. There is no doubtthat foreign assistance helps ward off futuremilitary conflicts.” [1] In much the same way asencouraging people to eat healthily will likelyreduce expenditures on healthcare in the futureso some spending on aid with resultingdevelopment and better perceptions of theUnited States can reduce conflicts in the futureso saving money in the long run by preventing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The Obama administration accepts the need tomaintain these global public goods. Secretary ofState Hillary Clinton has written “Strategically,maintaining peace and security across theAsia-Pacific is increasingly crucial to globalprogress, whether through defending freedom ofnavigation in the South China Sea, counteringthe proliferation efforts of North Korea, orensuring transparency in the military activities ofthe region's key players.” [1] However it iswrong to maintain that this should be consideredas a part of foreign aid instead the U.S.maintains the global commons because it gainsmost out of them, the U.S. military is the biggestbeneficiary of freedom of navigation and of themaintenance of space as a global commons asthey allow the military’s global reach to bemaintained. [2] The United States may not belegally obligated to provide foreign aid andinternational development efforts but there aremoral obligations as President Kennedyrecognised when creating USAID: \"There is no", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Foreign aid is a minute part of the US budget asObama has correctly argued “[it is wrong to]suggest that we can somehow close our entiredeficit by eliminating things like foreign aid, eventhough foreign aid makes up about 1% of ourentire budget.” [1] So very little of the moneythe US is borrowing is being spent on foreignaid. It is also wrong to assert that the USgovernment debt is borrowing money from Chinaas most government borrowing comes from theUS private sector. [2] China owns a mere 9.3%of US government debt with the majority beingowed either to US individuals and institutions(41.7%) or to the Social Security Trust Fund(17.1%). [3] [1] Geiger, Jacob, ‘Barak Obamasays foreign aid makes up 1 percent of U.S.budget’, Tampa Bay Times, 13 April 2011. [2]Krugman, Paul, ‘Fear-of-China Syndrome’, TheNew York Times, 30 August 2012. [3] ‘WhoOwns U.S. Debt’, RealClearPolicy, 2 April 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The focus should be on trade not onaid Governor Romney does not prioritizeencouraging good governance and stabilityabroad through foreign aid, and there have beenno mentions of any plans to reduce globalpoverty, improve healthcare and engage insustainable development. While foreign aid is notspecifically mentioned in any campaignmaterials, “Mitt’s Plan” regarding Africa, forinstance, declares, “a Romney administration willencourage and assist African nations to adoptpolicies that create business-friendlyenvironments and combat governmentalcorruption.” Despite wanting to cut economic aidand contributions to the United Nations, WorldBank and IMF, his campaign further argues,“greater market access across the continent forU.S. businesses will bolster job creation in Africaas well as in the United States.” [1] It is notablethat the countries that have been mostsuccessful in reducing poverty have been thosethat have focused on trade to create economic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-con03a", "title": "", "text": "US spending should focus on defence rather thanaid Romney believes that the United Statesshould be focusing more on national security;however this in turn does benefit other nationsso could be considered aid. Governor Romneywas quoted as saying “foreign aid has severalelements. One of those elements is defense, is tomake sure that we are able to have the defenseresources we want in certain places of the world.That probably ought to fall under the Departmentof Defense budget rather than a foreign aidbudget.” [1] When it focuses on its own nationalsecurity the United States is providing publicgoods for the rest of the world. These includereducing the incentives for others to engage inthe use of force – ‘the global policeman’,maintaining open global markets, maintaining avirtual commons in cyberspace, preventingweapons proliferation [2] and maintainingfreedom of navigation just as the United Statesis doing in the South China Sea. [3] All of theseto a greater or lesser extent need US military", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-con01a", "title": "", "text": "We should not be borrowing to fund foreignaid As a fiscal conservative, Governor MittRomney believes that Americans and the UnitedStates economy will be better off cutting foreignaid expenses. In an October 2011 Republicanprimary debate, Romney passionately defendedthe GOP stance of questioning humanitarianassistance and foreign aid. He said, “I happen tothink it doesn’t make a lot of sense for us toborrow money from the Chinese to go give toanother country for humanitarian aid . . . . Weought to get the Chinese to take care of thepeople that are taking that borrowed money.”[1] This was a reference to the size of the deficit;currently Obama’s projected deficit for 2012 is$1.33 trillion [2] and much of that is borrowedfrom other countries and China has most holding$1.164 trillion as of June. [3] Romney’scampaign often compares President BarackObama’s policies to those of Europe. He criticizesthe Obama administration’s foreign assistanceefforts as largely squandered by a fragmented", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgovrsus-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Yes trade can help lift people out of poverty. Butin order to do so there needs to be the rightconditions; there needs to be infrastructure, aneducated and healthy population, and of coursethe country must be able to feed itself. Nocountry is going to be able to trade its way togrowth if its goods cannot reach internationalmarkets. Freer trade has not obviously been adriver of growth; poverty has fallen while theDoha round of trade liberalisation has gotnowhere. [1] Instead the policies that havesucceeded for China have been mercantilistpolicies, China may rely on trade to export itsgoods but it succeeded in creating itsmanufacturing capacity because of currencymanipulation and government subsidies, thingsthat anyone for free trade would be against.[2] [1] Chandy, Laurence, and Gertz, Geoffrey,‘With Little Notice, Globalization ReducedPoverty’, YaleGlobal, 5 July 2011. [2]Prestowitz, Clyde, ‘China’s not breaking therules. It’s playing a different game.’, Foreign", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Distinguishing between the different levels ofelections is not a good thing. It would show thatthe European Union is different from nationalgovernment so demonstrating how far awayfrom the voter it is. Moreover European electionsneed to be held at the same time as, andtherefore associated with, national elections ifanyone is to actually vote in them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "It would help distinguish between levels ofelections The number of different elections canbe confusing; almost everyone has three,European, National, and local, and some haveothers added in such as Mayoral, or regionalelections. As such there is much to be gainedfrom helping to differentiate elections by notbeing concerned about being allowed to vote forthem all at the same age. Having elections forthe European Parliament at the age of 16 wouldclearly distinguish the elections from all the otherelections within the country (with the exceptionof Austria). For the European Union this would bean opportunity to show that it cares for the youthvote and has their issues at heart as it is achance to get teenagers involved in Europebefore they can be involved in their own nationalelections. For the teenagers it provides a chanceto engage with one election, and one electoralsystem, before all the others helping to keepthings simple.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This is in large part because we expect thepeople we vote for to be experienced rather thanstrictly representative of the population, simplylowering the voting age is unlikely to lower theage of the members of the parliament. Loweringvoting age may have some impact on policy butin practice as Europe ages this gain would berapidly eaten up by increase in the numbers ofolder people. It is however wrong to concludethat people vote by demographic or that the oldwill not support policies that benefit the young;loosening the security of permanent workers wasused as an example – why should the elderly beconcerned about this when they are alreadyretired?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Votes by 16-17 year olds would not be protestvotes Throughout the European Union in theParliament elections there is a problem withprotest voting. Indeed studies have found thatalmost 40% of votes in European Parliamentelections are protest votes; [1] this is clearly badfor the European Parliament as these are not theparties that the electorate really want when itcomes to creating policy. It reflects the fact thatvoters don’t believe that their vote for theEuropean Parliament matters. Yet becausevoting at 16 is two years earlier than voting inmost national elections voting for the EuropeanParliament will be 16 and 17 year olds firstexperience of voting; as they did not vote for thegovernment they are much less likely to be usingtheir vote simply as a protest against thenational government. This is because it will beclear that they are not voting on the basis ofnational issues because they can’t vote at thatlevel. This then represents a good chance forparties to get their European policies across to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The voting age should be the same across theUnion It is ridiculous and clearly unfair thatsome sixteen year olds should get to vote in anelection while most are barred fromparticipating. This is the case in EuropeanParliament elections at the moment; youngpeople in Austria are able to vote in elections at16 while everyone else has to wait until they areeighteen. [1] This means that a tiny minority ofthe Youth in the European Union get to votebefore the rest something which is clearlydiscrimination against the majority of theEuropean Union’s 16 and 17 year olds; ‘universalsuffrage’ should be universal for the EuropeanParliament across the whole of the Union. Theage should therefore be lowered to sixteen sothat voting age is universally recognised with noone group receiving the right to vote before theothers. [1] European Parliament, ‘AboutParliament - Members’, europarl.europa.eu, ,accessed 3 May 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "By this argument we really should makeeighteen the voting age for all countries so as tobring Austria into line with the rest of theEuropean Union. It is unclear why the majority ofcountries should have to move their voting ageto fit with the Austrians rather than the otherway around.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "This would not stop teenagers from using theirvotes in the same way as a protest vote. Evenpeople who are 16 and 17 will know the policy oftheir government and will be just as likely tovote on the basis of that policy regardless ofwhether they can influence it in nationalelections. Indeed teenagers tend to be rebelliousagainst authority figures so it would seem muchmore likely that they would simply use their votein protest, as a result they may well even bemore likely to vote for parties that are extremistrather than simply going for the opposition to thegovernment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "While lowering the European Parliament votingage may provide an incentive to link in civic orpolitical studies there is no guarantee that thiswill actually happen. There is also no reason whyit should not happen already; there should notneed to be an election to prompt schools intoteaching students about their democratic rightsand duties. What each democratic body doeswould seem to clearly be information that everystudent should learn as regardless of voting ageit is going to be a civic duty for most of theirlives.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Youth are not represented in politics Youngpeople are not well represented in Europeannational parliaments either in terms of themembership of those parliaments or the policiesthey produce. The average age in the Bundestagis 50 [1] and it is similar in most parliaments.Youth unemployment in Europe for the fourthquarter of 2012 was 23.2%, almost twice theunemployment rate as a whole. [2] This isbecause many countries do not implement youthfriendly policies; northern countries like Germanyare determined to impose austerity whichincreases unemployment, while southerncountries when implementing reforms are notimplementing labour reforms that would loosenthe security of permanent workers in return forreducing unemployment. [3] This may in part bea result of demographics in Europe. Europe isaging; in 1991 19.3% of the EU 27’s populationwas under 14 while 13.9% over 65, by 2011 thishad changed to 15.6% under 14 and 17.5% over65. [4] With an increasing contingent of elderly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "An opportunity for civic studies There would beclear advantages in having elections while youngpeople are still in school as school could helpprepare them for the elections. Schools would beable to teach their students in advance what theballot is like, about the process of voting, andmost importantly about the European Union andthe function of the European Parliament. One ofthe biggest problems with the EuropeanParliament is that voters don’t understand whatit does. To take a couple of basics from aEurobarometer poll in 2011, 42% of Europeancitizens did not know MEPs were directly electedand 57% did not know that they sit in theParliament according to ideology not nationality.[1] This shows how necessary education aboutthe European Parliament is. Having elections at16 provides an ideal opportunity as it means thatmost will participate in a European election whilethey are at school. Teaching about why votingmatters would also help to improve turnout.When Austria reduced its voting age to 16 it was", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This at worst going to make a very marginaldifference. In practice since the number of firsttime voters is the same because we all vote forthe first time once the errors are simply going tobe moved from one election to the electionbefore. Indeed having 16 and 17 year olds haveonly one ballot on their first attempt at votingmay help increase their experience making iteasier when they have numerous ballots to fill inso overall reducing voting error.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Different levels of government carry out differentroles and have different impacts on theelectorate. It therefore makes sense that theyshould have different voting ages to reflect thedifferences in their roles. While the EuropeanUnion may not seem to be the most obviouslyYouth orientated level of government it isparticularly concerned with encouraging ‘Activecitizenship’ for which it makes sense that theEuropean Union actually enable youth to exerciseone of the main rights that active citizenshipinvolves; voting. [1] [1] European Commission,‘The Council adopts new EU youth policyframework’, ec.europa.eu, , accessed 3 May2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-con02a", "title": "", "text": "A slippery slope to forcing all countries to allowthe vote at sixteen for all votes The EuropeanUnion should not be interfering with individualmember’s electoral systems, it is clear that thisis an area where it is up to the members todecide who can vote and when. Even when itcomes to elections for the European Parliament itis up to each member to decide the form of theelection within certain ground rules. [1] In thiscase the interference would not be direct; theEuropean parliament would not be passing anylegislation saying that national and regionalparliaments must allow votes at sixteen becausethey don’t have the power to do that but byallowing voting at sixteen they would be makingnational elections look inconsistent. It wouldquickly be seen as illegitimate to allow sixteenand seventeen year olds the vote in someelections and not others without a goodjustification. As the level of election that is mostdistant from the individual if there were to be adiscrepancy in voting ages it should logically be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-con04a", "title": "", "text": "EU elections would put young people offvoting Let’s be honest; European Unionelections are hardly exciting and certainly not themost obvious elections to start young people offwith. The votes are on very broad issues thatdon’t have a direct impact on the individual suchas trade agreements or broad brushenvironmental legislation such as the carbontrading market. These may be important issuesbut they are also abstract and removed from thelives of voters. As Professor Cees Van der Eijkargues \"the media pays very little attention toEuropean elections. EU actors are generallyinvisible, and the elections are labelled boringeven before they take place\". [1] To makematters worse each individual vote is worthmuch less in European than national electionsmaking it more difficult to explain why theindividual should vote. In Germany there aremore than six times more Bundestag membersthan there are Germany MEPs. [2] By startingyoung people out on ‘boring’ elections that are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Would complicate elections Elections can beconfusing enough already; there are numerouslevels of elections which often all are voted foron the same day so that turnout is high for allthe elections. As a result voters often getnumerous different ballots to fill in; the systemfor voting in each may well be different and areoften complex. Adding that sixteen year olds canvote in one election and not the other simplyadds to this complexity in polling stationsmeaning more mistakes are likely to be made.Lack of knowledge of voting process, increasedcomplexity of voting process, and long ballotsdecrease accuracy in voting. [1] The first, andpossibly also the second are factors that thislowering of the voting age will influence – so thischange would mean increasing the numbers ofspoilt ballots. [1] Bederson, Benjamin B., et al.,‘The not so simple act of voting: An examinationof voter errors with electronic voting’, Universityof Maryland, , p.3", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There should not be different voting ages fordifferent elections There can be no legitimatemoral reason for allowing someone to vote inone election and not another. Most of thearguments involved in when people can voterevolve around when they are mature enough,understand the issues, and are considered adult.All of these arguments make little sense ifsomeone can vote in one election but notanother on the basis of age. Why shouldsomeone be considered mature enough tounderstand the issues for a European electionbut not their own local elections? There are veryfew countries that have different voting ages fordifferent elections – out of those Wikipedia listsonly Germany, Israel, and Italy have differingages for different elections. [1] [1] Wikipedia,‘Voting age’, en.wikipedia.org, , accessed 3 May2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This may be a good opportunity to change thisimpression of the European Parliament beingboring. Having young people voting will in itselfmake the election more interesting to the mediawho will then talk about the issues at the sametime. Europe focusing on broad brush issues mayactually be a good thing as young people tend tobe idealistic they may be more rather than lessinterested in the big issues such as carbontrading. Moreover if this fails then there is littlereason to think that apathy at the Europeanelections will spill over onto other elections", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-epvhwav1ep-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While such a move might embarrass someparliaments into lowering their voting age therewould certainly be no compulsion. And if ithappened this would not necessarily a bad thing.If national parliaments feel embarrassed by theillogic of having differing voting age then it willbe up to them to change it. In practiceparliaments are unlikely to change theirtraditions simply because their peers have doneso; they will look at all the evidence (which thischange would provide more of) and then decidethe best way forward for their democracy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrpsgmhb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Although religions supported the anti-gay law, itis not solely a religious issue; the majority ofUgandans believe that homosexuality is contraryto their traditional values and all the anti-gayprotests were inclusive regardless of religiousdenominations. It is therefore wrong to assertthat the law was passed as a religious initiative.A separation of church and state does not meanthe government should never run policies thatthe religious want simply that the governmentshould not be favouring a particular religion.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrpsgmhb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Policy should not be dictated by religion Article 7of the Ugandan constitution is clear in itsseparation of church and state “Uganda shall nothave a State religion.” The government mustserve all its people equally regardless religiousand cultural orientation. But this bill has beencreated with a religious motive. In his interviewdefending the anti-gay bill, MP David Bahatilamented, that God doesn’t accepthomosexuality quoting a bible verse that thewages of sin is death[1]; as if the Ugandanparliament is filled with righteous souls! Theconstitution allows freedom of religion andprohibits the creation of political parties based onreligion[2]. Laws and policies should thereforenot base on bible verses as not everyone willshare the same belief to such scriptures. [1]Jack Mirkinson, ‘Rachel Maddow Interviews DavidBahati, Author Of Ugandan 'Kill The Gays' Bill’,huffingtonpost.com, [2] U.S. Department ofState, ’Uganda’, state.gov,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrpsgmhb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "In the same chapter, the constitution states thatnothing within the article shall preventParliament from enacting laws that are necessaryfor implementing policies and programmesaimed at redressing social, economic oreducational or other imbalance in society; orproviding for any matter acceptable anddemonstrably justified in a free and democraticsociety[1]. It is on this clause that most officialshave based their support for the anti-gay law.The majority of Ugandans deem homosexualityimmoral and unacceptable. There is therefore ademocratic reason to enact such a law. The lawis justified by democracy. [1] DREDF, ‘TheConstitution Of Uganda; Chapter 4, human rightsand freedoms’, dredf.org,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrpsgmhb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Marginalising the minority Human rights arefundamental and universal. They do not onlyapply to a certain group of people and invalid toanother such as homosexuals. Criminalisinghomosexuality in Uganda considers all in theLGBT minority to be worse than second classcitizens. Making them almost automaticallycriminal renders homosexuals sub humandepriving them of their identity as Ugandans.The government has a responsibility to protectevery citizen but in this case the Ugandangovernment has taken the first step in rejectingand mistreating its own people. The new lawinfringes on fundamental rights to privacy,non-discrimination, equality and freedom fromcruelty and inhumane treatment[1]. Even beforethe bill was introduced the governmentprevented there being room for LGBT activists toexplain their cause showing their lack of freedomof expression. This and rights such as equalityare universal and fundamental rights that thegovernment of Uganda has on numerous", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrpsgmhb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Homosexuality has been illegal in Uganda sincecolonialism. It was signed into law and amendedin Uganda’s constitution but did not change afterindependence. The blame should therefore go tothe British not Ugandan government. If it is aviolation of human rights then it is a violationthat has been occurring for decades. The longterm effect has been that Ugandans now areagreed that LGBT people are not a minority butcriminals who deserve punishment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrpsgmhb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The law is contrary to the constitution Chapter 4of the Ugandan constitution recognisesfundamental rights and freedoms of theindividual as inherent and not granted by theState. The constitution states; All persons areequal before and under the law in all spheres ofpolitical, economic, social and cultural life and inevery other respect and shall enjoy equalprotection of the law; Without prejudice, aperson shall not be discriminated against on theground of sex, race, colour, ethnic origin, tribe,birth, creed or religion, or social or economicstanding, political opinion or disability[1]. Itdefines “discriminate\" as giving differenttreatment to different persons attributable onlyor mainly to their respective descriptions by sex,race, colour, ethnic origin, tribe, birth, creed orreligion, or social or economic standing, politicalopinion or disability. The government has actedcontrary to their own law, with PresidentMuseveni remarking that what homosexuals do isdisgusting, un African and had no place in his", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrpsgmhb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that Ugandan government did not takemeasures to curb insecurities, harassment andthreats towards the LGBT community, showshow reluctant it was in enforcing human rights.Unfortunately things have been even worse afterthe new law was passed with Uganda’s tabloidthe Redpepper exposing homosexuals[1]. Thenew law has given a green light to mockery,attacks and harassment towards the gaycommunity, many have lost their jobs, otherhave quit school and some have left the countrydue to such threats. This all could have beenavoided by the government if it were to acceptLGBT as a minority that has the same rights asother minorities. Such an acceptance would be afirst step towards tolerance in Uganda. [1] Theguardian, ‘Ugandan tabloid prints list of 'top 200homosexuals', thegurdian.com, 25 February2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrpsgmhb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Democracy is not just about enabling a tyrannyof the majority. It is about enabling everyonehave a say in running the country and aboutprotecting the rights of those minorityviewpoints. Simply accepting that the majority isalways right is the path to populist dictatorship;most people can be bought by promises of bettertimes ahead and attempts to put the blame forany problems on minority groups. Human rightsare intrinsic and cannot be determined on whatthe majority or civil society believes. The simplemaxim ‘do unto others what you would havethem do to you’ shows why minorities need to beprotected. Everyone is a minority in somethingwhether it is because they are a particularethnic, sexual, language group or the views theyhold we would not want to be discriminated onthe basis of that aspect of ourselves. Where themajority wants to harm the minority the role ofthe government is to protect the minority. Thebill was introduced to parliament individually byMP David Bahati[1] who spearheaded it through", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrpsgmhb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Traditional and religious beliefs More than 90%of Uganda’s population believe thathomosexuality is not part of their culture andshould never be accepted[1], its seen asindecency, criminality and a taboo in thecommunity. This is something the governmentdid not invent and not something it can simplywash out of society. Shelving the bill would notsuddenly create tolerance from Ugandan societytowards the gay community but instead wouldisolate and impose a threat to the LGBTcommunity. Others would have tried to createlaws anti-gay laws. This ‘kill the Gays bill’ wasoriginally intended to include the death penaltyfor some homosexual acts such as when one ofthe participants is a minor, HIV-positive, disabledor a \"serial offender\".[2] The bill is thereforeconsiderably better than what the alternativecould have been – the government has done itsduty and moderated it. Any wider change to theculture of the country is not the duty of thegovernment. [1] Patience Akumu, ‘It pains me", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrpsgmhb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Not passing the bill would bring a threat to thepublic peace Homophobia in Uganda was notintroduced by this law. Refusing to sign the billinto law would result in increased brutality andcruelty to the LGBT minority from the majority ofcitizens who were angry that president Musevenieven considered vetoing the bill. Shortly afterthe president’s letter to parliament requestingthe shelving of the bill was revealed, thousandsof Ugandans took on to the streets protestingagainst the move complaining thathomosexuality will never be allowed in theirsociety. Known gay Ugandans were forced not tomove while others were attacked in their homes.Long before the bill was passed by parliament,homosexuals and LGBT activists were beaten,harassed and killed by their fellow Ugandans.David Kato a leading figure in demanding equalrights for the gay minority was killed in January2011[1]. The situation may have worsened hadthe bill been shelved as angry Ugandans wouldattack the gay community seeking revenge,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrpsgmhb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Rule of the majority As a democratic country,Uganda favours and runs according to the will ofthe majority. This is also part of the constitutionthat recognises the opinion of the majority whereall policies and rules that govern the countryshould base. With more than 90% of Ugandansagainst homosexuality and speaking in supportof the anti-gay law[1], it was therefore inevitablefor the government to pass such a bill despitepresident Museveni’s letter to parliament toignore the law[2]. It is not the Ugandangovernment that has failed its LGBT citizens butthe Ugandan people. A democratic governmentsimply responds to what its people wants. [1]Patience Akumu, ‘It pains me to live in a country,Uganda, that hates gay people and 'indecent'women’, thegurdian.com, 22 December2013, [2] Warren Throckmorton , ‘Full Text ofLetter From Uganda’s President Museveni toSpeaker of Parliament Kadaga Regarding theAnti-Homosexuality Bill’, patheos.com, 17January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrpsgmhb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The government is an impartial and independentbody which should not be led by tradition butlead tradition instead. Governments don’t justexist to let events flow but to lead, to createpolicy, and shape events. If government nevertakes a lead then it would cease to exist asanother leader would take its place. UnderUganda’s constitution, religions should beregistered and accredited by the government andshould adhere to law and government policies.The constitution recognises equality for all so thegovernment should be encouraging a belief andtradition of such equality[1]. It is thereforewrong to argue that on a particular policy,tradition had to lead. [1] Parliament of Uganda,‘CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UGANDA,1995’, parliament.go.ug,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Not allowing any meetings with the Presidentdoes not mean no negotiations can take place.Groundwork can be done by diplomats,negotiators, third parties, and even high-rankingadministration officials from the statedepartment, like the Secretary of State. Suchtactics can also strengthen moderates. However,a meeting with the President is a powerfulsymbol, and it should only take place if eithersignificant headway has been made, or if theleaders of these regimes are fully committed tonegotiating, which they can prove by agreeing topreconditions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Preconditions are like granting a veto to theextremists. No government is monolithic. Inevery regime there will be moderate forceswilling to use diplomacy and negotiations andextremist elements that do not. By demandingthat preconditions be fulfilled before a meeting,all power is given to the extremists.Israel-Palestine is an example of this. By oftendemanding that violence cease beforenegotiations can take place, the US and Israelgive a veto over negotiations to Hamas, who arethe perpetrators of violence. They get to decide ifand when negotiations take place. Instead, thepresident of the United States should always tryto engage and strengthen moderates withinthese regimes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "That is true. But that is mostly the case withpreconditions that are strategically flawed or anattempt at political gamesmanship, when aleader makes outrageous demands the otherparty cannot possibly meet in order to paintthem as unreasonable and unwilling to negotiate.However, chosen carefully, preconditions can settalks and negotiations on the right course, andgive a strong indication of the sincerity andcommitment of both parties.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The more the US waits, the stronger itsopponents become. Preconditions delayengagement and negotiations. Sometimes it cantake years before the parties even start talkingto each other. In that time, Iran will continue toenrich uranium [1] and North Korea will continueto expand its nuclear arsenal [2] . If the US waitsfor preconditions to be agreed on and met, bythe time president Obama gets to talk andnegotiate directly with the leaders of thesestates, he will have a much bigger crisis to dealwith. It may have even gotten to the point wherediplomacy can no longer be used effectively. [1]Borger, James. “Iran’s acceleration of its nuclearprogramme angers the west.” Guardian. 19 July2011. [2] Neuman, Doug. “North Koreaexpands nuclear relationships with outcaststates.” Examiner. 11 May 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Doing away with ‘US arrogance’. From its earlydays, the Obama administration has strived tochange the tide of US foreign policy, by movingaway from America’s unilateralism anddismissiveness of other nations. [1] Itstreatment of its foes is a product of that sameattitude. The general policy not to meet ornegotiate without preconditions is akin todangling a spot at the table like some sort ofprize that foreign leaders need to work for. Ininternational law, all states are sovereign andequal with no one having a right to interfere withother’s internal affairs. This means that allleaders should treat each other with respect anddeference. [1] Harnden, Toby. “Barack Obama:‘arrogant US has been dismissive’ to allies.” TheTelegraph. 3 April 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While legally all the world’s leaders are equal,morally they are not. For decades, the US hasbeen the standard of what it means to be aliberal democracy and have respect your citizens’rights and liberties. That is not arrogance; it’smoral leadership. This is a vision that the USshould aggressively promote in its foreign policy.The President of the United states should notmeet as equals with tyrants and dictators whooppress their own people, and endanger worldpeace and security. Not unless these people giveany indication they are even vaguely committedto moving toward some common goals.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "If talks don’t take place, that doesn’t mean noactions can be taken against rogue regimes.Diplomatic pressure, third party talks or evensanctions can be effective ways to deal withstates like Iran, Syria, or North Korea. Neither ofthese requires the President himself to sit downwith these leaders.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Meeting with the leader of the United States canequally bolster a leader’s support and strengthenhis or her position. After all, the US will alwaysprefer and support a leader that is seen asreasonable and willing to compromise ratherthan a hard liner. Hosni Mubarak is a primeexample of a dictator whose position wasstrengthened by his good relationship and closeties to the US [1] . Therefore, many of thesedictators may see it in their interest to agree topreconditions, if that will buy them Americanfavours. [1] Murphy, Dan. “Joe Biden saysMubarak no dictators, he shouldn’t step down.”Christian Science Monitor. 27 January 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Preconditions can damage a country’snegotiating position. No country is likely toagree to conditions that will significantly reduceits bargaining power once it gets to the table. Itwould be diplomatically foolish to agree topreconditions that would essentially be thesubject of the negotiations and the reason whythe negotiations were needed in the fist place [1]. If North Korea agreed to freeze development ofits nuclear arsenal, or if Iran agreed to stop itsnuclear enrichment programme, once themeeting between the two leaders took place, theposition from which they started negotiatingwould be significantly weaker than the US’s. [1]Klein, Rick. “Obama’s Evolving Take on Meetingwith Iran.” ABC News. 20 May 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Agreeing to preconditions can damage a leader’sposition at home. If, in order to meet with hiscounterpart, a ‘rogue leader’ needs tocompromise on his and his country’s positioneven before he gets to the table, this would be asignal of weakness to his opponents at home andthose vying for his job. For example, in NorthKorea, which is going through a dynastictransition [1] , the new leader Kim Jong Un is yetto become established and consolidate his statusas dictator. Any concession to the sate’sdesignated mortal enemy, the US, mightjeopardise the succession. Similarly, in Iranwhere Ahmadinejad has fallen from the graces ofthe supreme religious leader, the Ayatollah [2] ,agreeing to preconditions in order to get ameeting with Obama would signal to the IranianPresident’s rivals that it may be a good momentto attempt to force a change of guard. [1]“Profile: Kim Jong un”. BBC. 31 December2011. [2] “Ahmadinejad v Ayatollah: Who willwin Iran dustup?” BBC. 8 July 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions will always be hanging in thebackground. It will also be obvious pretty soonwhether the other party is really interested innegotiating or just stalling. However, diplomacyshould always be tired before sanctions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Agreeing to sit down and talk can equally beseen as a gesture of good faith. The furtherrequirement to prove themselves and theirintentions can put off leaders who are on thefence about engaging the US on theirdifferences. It should be remembered that themistrust is not only one way; ‘rogue’ regimesleaders also mistrust US intentions. As a resultdemanding preconditions frames thenegotiations, from the onset, from a position ofmistrust", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Rogue leaders can exploit such meetings tobolster their legitimacy If no proper groundworkis done before such a meeting, and nopreconditions are laid out, such events can easilybe used by these foreign regimes as propagandaat home to try to bolster their own legitimacy [1]. A meeting with the leader of the free worldwould give an opportunity to Ahmadinejad orChavez to portray themselves as greatstatesmen and leaders, equals to the presidentof the United States. The same is true of NorthKorea, which is a regime that rules almostentirely through the strength of statepropaganda [2] . If they don’t have to agree toany preconditions, there is no cost to theseleaders exploiting a meeting with Obama to theirown advantage, while having no intention toactually engage in genuine negotiations anddiplomacy. [1] “Clinton: Obama is ‘naïve’ onforeign policy.” Associated Press. 24 July2007. [2] Myers, B. R. “The Cleanest Race:How North Koreans See Themselves and Why It", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Meeting with these leaders today mightjeopardize America’s interests tomorrow. TheArab Spring demonstrated just howunpredictable and unstable some of theseregimes could truly be. And the newgovernments coming to power are unlikely toforget America’s role in supporting their formerdictator. For example, Egypt’s transition fromdictatorship has led to a rise in anti-Americansentiment, as the US is perceived to have been asupporter of the Mubarak regime [1] . It may notbe wise for President Obama to associatehimself, and the US, so closely to leaders likeAssad or Ahmadinejad who are susceptible tobeing deposed through the same type of massivedemonstrations that swept through the Arabworld in 2011. Doing so without preconditionswould signal a trust and deference to theseleaders that may be unforgivable to theirsuccessors, and to the people of Syria andIran. [1] Lee, Mathew. “US troubled by risinganti-Americanism in Egypt”. Associated Press. 10", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Rogue regimes can use such meetings as adilatory tactic to stall sanctions againstthem. Nuclear countries like North Korea andIran have been keen to use such a meeting as astalling tactic against the onslaught of sanctionsprompted by its nuclear programme [1] .Negotiations can be continually spun out withvery little result in order to keep the UnitedStates from taking action simply by encouragingthe United States to believe that there will beaction after a meeting. Again, if there is no costto them sitting down to negotiate, thennegotiations are an easy way to deflect pressure,while they continue to pursue their nuclear andWMD programmes. As a result the preconditionsneed to be met before the negotiations toprevent such tactics from being possible. [1]Yeranian, Edward. “Iranian President Offers toMeet President Obama.” Voice of America. 2August 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Preconditions are an essential gesture of goodwill. Preconditions are not about posturing orscoring some easy, early points. They play anessential diplomatic role. By agreeing to makesome concessions before negotiations start inearnest, a ‘rogue state’ would signal its goodfaith in the negotiating process and itswillingness to compromise and work diligentlytoward a common goal and reaching anagreement. Without such proof of commitment,the US should have every reason to doubt thetrue intentions of leaders like Ahmadinejad.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "No president can sit and wait until the dice fallbefore making a move on foreign policy.Presidents have to deal with the here and now. Ifthe situation changes, the US will have toreassess. However, at any given time thePresident has to do what is in the US’s bestnational interest. And at times that may bemeeting with unpopular dictators.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghbowramrlw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The President does not just sit down with aforeign leader without previous groundwork. Nopreconditions does not mean no preparation.Diplomats can be dispatched in advance to gagethe level of interest and the intentions of theother party. Intelligence can be gathered to takethe pulse of the regime and understand what isgoing on in the country, whether the moment isauspicious for change and diplomacy or whetherthe rogue leader is just looking for a popularityboost. The President should always have a verygood idea of what to expect when he or shemeets with a foreign leader. They don’t just findout once they get there.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilphbp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "While distasteful, sometimes cutting deals withperpetrators is necessary to bring a quick end tothe human suffering that conflicts cause [1] . Inadvocating prosecutions, justice can simplyignore victims. Atrocities are more than likely tohave been committed by more than one side in aconflict. As those leaders do not want to beprosecuted, justice can act as a bar to peace.Moreover if people are responsible andaccountable to society then that society shouldbe able to agree to forgo justice in order tocreate peace if it is deemed necessary. [1]Grono, Nick and O’Brien, Adam, “Justice inConflict? The IOCC and Peace Processes”,Courting Conflict? Justice, Peace and the ICC inAfrica, 2008, available at , chapter 2", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilphbp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Accountability It is a fundamental principle ofmorality that individuals should be heldresponsible for their crimes – that is the reasonwhy we, as societies, have criminallaw. Prosecuting people – holding themresponsible for their crimes – is a moralimperative. We all wish to live in a society whereeveryone is equally accountable when theycommit crime as one in which not everyone isheld to account is fundamentally unjust; itcreates one rule for the powerless and anotherfor those who are ‘needed’ to help create peace.This would simply incentivise people to try tomake themselves indispensable strongmen – nota sustainable basis for a peaceful society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilphbp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Holocaust denial does still exists today despitethe Nuremburg trials and immense amounts ofevidence. Also, Japanese denialism over forcedprostitution in the Second World War is part ofmainstream politics [1] . Despite ICTYconvictions, denial of atrocities in the Yugoslavwars continue. [1] See Honda, Masakazu andTakada, Makoto, “LDP Pressure led to cuts inNHK show”, The Asahi Shimbun, 12 January2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilphbp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Justice is needed for a lasting peace Byprosecuting perpetrators, justice creates adeterrent. The deterrent effect, as accepted incriminal law generally, is likely to make thepeace more long standing and stable in thefuture – it will make those minded to performatrocities think again. If those who committedatrocities ‘get away with it’ they will be muchmore likely to plunge the country back intoviolence. The career of Laurent Nkunda is agood example of this; he fought in the Tutsigroup that took control of Rwanda in 1994ending the genocide and then was a rebelcommander in both Congolese civil wars in whichhe was accused of atrocities before launching hisown rebellion, only now after 14 years as anarmy commander is he under arrest. [1] ClearlyNkunda being locked up at some stage wouldhave been better than regularly negotiating withhim to try and create peace. [1] BBC News,“Profile: General Laurent Nkunda”, 23 January2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilphbp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This fails for two reasons. Firstly, prosecutionsare not always a deterrent to future crimes.Secondly that justice is not necessary in all casesto prevent recidivism – justice has not beenneeded in many cases, such as in Haiti after the2004 coup, Haiti’s subsequent problems beingcaused by natural disasters.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilphbp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Justice is needed to help end denialism. Bycreating a historical record through theinvestigations and trial proceedings [1] ,International justice can create a narrative thathelps fight denialism over events in the past. Itcreates an accepted version of events whereboth victim and accused have had theirsay. Denialism can be dangerous because it islikely to create perceptions that are likely tomake conflict more likely again. For example thepost-First World War Dolchstoßlegende (stab inthe back myth) was used by the political right inGermany after WWI implied that the GermanArmy had not lost but Germany had only done sodue to the civilian leadership. This not onlyencouraged a belief that Germany could win inanother war but also as the accusation waslevelled particularly at socialists and Jews helpedpave the way for the holocaust. [2] [1]Goldstone, p422 [2] Holocaust Encyclopedia,‘Antisemitism in history: World War I’, UnitedStates Holocaust Memorial Museum, 10 June", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilphbp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Justice is not easy. However, it needs to be done– for its own ends, and for a lasting peace. Incases where there are a huge number ofperpetrators then the obvious approach is tooffer an amnesty to those who committedsmaller crimes while prosecuting those whoprovoked or ordered the crimes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilphbp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Argentina did not prosecute for a long time afterthe collapse of the junta [1] , a 1986 law,commonly known as the Full Stop Law (alsoknown by its number, Law 23492), prohibitedprosecution of those involved in the dirty warwhich resulted in up to 30,000 deaths. However,Argentina managed to build a lasting peace, andsociety without prosecutions. [1] Kersten, Mark,“The Fallacy of Sequencing Peace and Justice”,Opinio Juris, 29 September 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilphbp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Justice can harm peace. Former ICTR chiefprosecutor, Richard Goldstone, argued that theindictments of Radovan Karadzic and RatkoMladic prevented them from attending theDayton peace talks. The Russian governmenttried to get those indictments suspended, butGoldstone informed them that he did not havethe power to do so. Slobodan Milosevic, therepresentative of Serbia also representedRepublika Srbska. [1] In 2006 thyere was anagreement by the Lord’s Resistance Army to aceasefire but before they would negotiatetowards a final peace the LRA demanded thesuspension of the ICC indictments. [2] Even sixyears on none of the LRA leadership have beencaught – had peace been put first it might haveoccurred then rather than intermittent conflictcontinuing for years. Peace is a valid goal.However, an overzealous pursuit of justice mayimpede negotiations. [1] Goldstone, Richard,“Peace versus Justice”, Nevada Law Journal,2006, at p421-p322 [2] Otim, Michael, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilphbp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Justice can be impossible The Rwandangenocide one of the largest the world has everseen since the Second World War. A largenumber of victims – at least half a million –means a large number of perpetrators. There are100,000 alleged perpetrators in Uganda. Whilean informal Gacaca system has been criticized byhuman rights groups for not being able toprovide fair trials, a full system of fair trialswould be impractical [1] . Rwanda is nowrelatively peaceful, with a functioningeconomy. [1] Hannum, p492", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilphbp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Peace has occurred without justice Argentina didnot prosecute for a long time after the collapse ofthe junta [1] , a 1986 law, commonly known asthe Full Stop Law (also known by its number,Law 23492), prohibited prosecution of thoseinvolved in the dirty war which resulted in up to30,000 deaths. However, Argentina managed tobuild a lasting peace, and society withoutprosecutions. [1] Kersten, Mark, “The Fallacy ofSequencing Peace and Justice”, Opinio Juris, 29September 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilphbp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Dayton worked despite not inviting Karadzic andMladic. Both of those are currently on trial for themost serious crimes imaginable – Karadzic for,amongst other things, his alleged role in orderingthe Srebrenica massacre, and Mladic forSrbrenica and the Siege of Sarajevo. Theseprosecutions have not caused problems for peacein the Balkans and Croatia, one of theparticipants in the conflict, has joined theEuropean Union. Similarly, despite the ICCindictment, coupled with better results obtainedby the Ugandan military, has lead towards theprospect of surrender by the LRA, despite theirleaders such as Joseph Kony being indicted [1]. [1] BBC News, “LRA leader Joseph Kony ‘insurrender talks’ with CAR”, BBC News,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Integration through globalisation is notnecessarily, or purely, positive. Globalisation canhave desirable and undesirable effects. Forexample greater airline links may encourageeducated Kenyans to leave creating a braindrain; the country already exportsnurses.(Lehmann, 2004)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Liberalisation enables national development Theaviation industry is vital for economic growth forbringing Africa into the positive side ofglobalisation. The state-owned Ethiopian AirlinesEnterprise is one example of a success story foran African airline. Ethiopian Airlines has thegreatest amount of traffic as a result of air trafficliberalisation. The returns gained from EthiopianAirlines have been central to promotingEthiopia’s national growth strategy.Governments can only gain from liberalisation inmultiple sectors, including airlines. Liberalisation,and deregulation, of airlines acts createscumulative causation, where one event causesmultiple changes, for tourism, productionnetworks, jobs, and infrastructure development.In Ethiopia, air networks are building industriesand the pushing regions economic development[1] . In Kenya’s case, deregulation of airlinesmay improve the speed and availability of keyglobal commodities, such as tourism, and flowers[2] - booming industries that require rapid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "We need to be critical of what foreign businessand multinational corporations can do for Africa.Earnings from foreign airlines will likely leave thecontinent rather than being used for Africandevelopment. There will be some benefit withsome local workers, particularly in airports, butthe degree of power inequality between foreignairline owners and local people implies benefitswill be unequally spread. On another hand, whatwill incentivise foreign airlines to stay? Marketsare volatile; therefore a long-term vision isrequired. What will ensure foreign investorsbuying airlines are encouraged to stay andactually build a stable, functioning airline marketrather than simply taking advantage of the fewroutes where they can make a quick profit?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A competitive airline industry The introductionof a Pan-African Open Sky agreement will ensurecompetition. A competitive airline industry willhave a cumulative effect on prices and safetystandards. First, prices will be reduced as themarket is no longer monopolised by a fewairlines. Currently national governments are ableto place strict regulations, high fuel andpassenger taxes on airlines. Liberalising theindustry would mean that airlines areincreasingly controlled by the hand of themarket, not the state. Competitive airline priceswill ensure air travel is no longer exclusively anelite luxury. Secondly, introducing newcompetition will force airlines to implementhigher standards - of service and safety. Power isredistributed to the consumer and traveller, whoare able to pick and choose the best service.Therefore the companies need to be on the topof their game. Evidence in Europe has shownthe competitiveness of liberalisation, resulting inthe rise of cheap air travel. Such low-cost", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "To what extent will a competitive industryemerge if direct problems are not resolved? Theissue is not simply a need to introduce moreairlines. Airline prices cannot be reduced unlessfuel prices are lowered. The cost of buying fuelfor airlines remains higher in Africa; suggestingthat it is not just the airline market but also themarket in fuel supplies that requires change.There will be no opportunity for European stylebudget airlines so long as fuel isexpensive. Additionally, can a competitiveairline industry emerge without transparency andgood governance first? The fact good governanceremains debatable in many African states raisesa question of how the market will work. As newbusiness opportunities arise who will be settingup new airlines? It is likely to be governmentcronies or those with support from thegovernment rather than those with the mostinnovative models.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Incorporating foreign airlines Introducing atreaty whereby flights are liberalised acrossAfrica, and foreign airlines incorporated, willprovide benefits for Africa. For example, foreigncompanies will be able to tackle gaps in themarket. Currently there is a lack of direct flightsbetween key destinations. Direct flights meandirect interconnections to desired; and new,places. For example, with new businessopportunities emerging in Nigeria a direct flightconnecting Cape Town and Lagos requiresinvestment. Air traffic in the EU is a positiveexample. As a result of deregulation budgetairlines have expanded throughout the continentEU air traffic and new flight routes introduced.There has been a 120% increase of intra-EUroutes and 320% increase in the number ofroutes provided by at least two companies(ECMT, 2010).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Alliances create an oligopolistic market. Thepromotion of alliances creates two key marketresults – controlling supply and demand. Firstly,choice is restricted. Customers are restricted inwhat prices and services are available. Secondly,the market competitiveness is restricted.Different airlines are not able to compete witheach other, but merely cooperate as the leadingcompany takes the largest proportion of profits.Alliances fail to stimulate a competitive marketor place companies on an equal platform tocompete for profits. Open skies are also seen asa means to ensure safety and reduce the risingaccident rates. The World Bank (2014) noteaccident rates would fall if African states usebilateral sanctions to ensure airlines meet safetystandards; currently Africa’s aircraft hull-lossaccident rate is more than 6 times higher thanAsia and Latin America and 12 times Europe.Open-skies ensure bilateral collaboration andintervention.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Sustainable development does not meanstopping development. The SDGs emphasise howa new perspective is required for futuredevelopment. There is no evidence to suggest anopen-sky agreement would increaseenvironmental degradation, nor is there to saythat if an open-sky agreement is notimplemented we will develop in a moresustainable way. The introduction of open-skieswill mean an introduction of better planes – morefuel-efficient and eco-friendly designs as a resultof competition on quality and safety.Advancements have been made over time toimprove the environmental performance ofaeroplanes. Today’s planes are 75% quieter,with carbon-monoxide levels declining by 50%,and increasingly more fuel-efficient [1] . Anopen-skies agreement enables new ideas anddesigns to be integrated, encouraging theimplementation of sustainablemodels. Sustainable development is about howwe understand, appreciate, and implement", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Terrorism Terror remains a key concern both inand about Africa. A key issue with a potentialopen sky agreement is who will regulate it andhow. Effective control to prevent terrorism isrequired; passengers and nations need to beensured security. Liberalising airlines andmarkets potentially lays the foundation for a newrisk of terror and insecurity. West Africanairports have been particularly criticised for theirlax security which creates an insider threat(Brandt, 2011). More planes, more staff, andmore passengers mean a higher probability ofrisk. Is liberalisation best when we consider thewar on terror, and emerging security risks?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Focusing on national development first An opensky agreement will only act to reinforce the braindrain occurring in Africa. The level ofdevelopment across Africa remains uneven, withdisparities found across the continent based onGDP, PPP, FDI, and social development. An opensky agreement may act as cumulative causationfor out-migration of trained professionals andwhite-collar jobs to more developed countries.One very obvious brain drain as a result of airtravel is that there have been eight hijackings ofEthiopian Airlines by pilots attempting to getasylum in the last 25 years (Nadeau, 2014). Thereality would bring detrimental effects for somecountries, and prosperity for others. The unequalgeography of development in Africa will persist.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Alliances not open skies The success of airlinessuch as Kenya Airways has emerged throughalliances; not an ‘open sky’ agreement. Theairline has created alliances with small airlinecarriers such as Precision Air to ensure morefrequent coverage, competitive prices andprovision of services to new destinations.Increased connectivity across Africa requiresmore alliances between individual airlines, notnecessarily an open sky agreement. Thealliances made ensure universal boundaries,rules, and regulations, are set through corporateethics and responsibility. Alliances mean thecorporate brand is at stake. Alliances are a saferoption when we consider who will set the ruleswith an ‘open sky’ agreement in Africa. Alliancescan ensure safety measures remain central forairlines, and the private actors are heldresponsible. However, the definitions of, anddecisions on, rules become blurred with an ‘opensky’. Who will have the last say? Whose decisionwill hold power? A regulatory board is required,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Environmental Impact Development is shiftingfrom just GDP growth towards promoting asustainable approach to growth. The UN hascreated the Sustainable Development Goals fordevelopment post-2015, which emphasisedevelopmental policy and practice today has tomeet the needs of the present withoutjeopardising future populations. Therefore howcan a new Open Skies agreement be justified onenvironmental or sustainability grounds?Encouraging more air traffic will act to increasethe human burden on the environment. Keyconcerns are noise and atmospheric pollution,deforestation, and the use of space. Flightsproduce around 628,000,000 tonnes of CO2annually adding to climate change (Clean Sky,2014). With numbers rising the pressures willtoo.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Several points require countering. Firstly, thefocus on the brain drain suggests air travel willcontinue to be dominated by an elite class,however, open-skies acts to enable a broadercustomer base. Secondly, migration brings arange of benefits – we cannot promote keepingpeople in their place as a developmentalsolution. Even if national development comesfirst people may still want to move. Finally,people will not be discouraged from moving ifthere is no open-skies agreement. Migration ishistoric in Africa, with multiple transport modesused. Migration will continue to operate with orwithout an open-skies agreement. Therefore itis important to recognise the role open-skies canplay for Pan-Africanism. An open sky will assistin dispersing access and availability todevelopment opportunities. It will create newnetwork hubs within Africa; and create newmarket opportunities by introducing frequentairlines to places previously inaccessible. Theagreement would ensure capital is spread across", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ipeegiahw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "We need to be cautious in falling into the ‘terrordiscourse’. Since 9/11 the cases of hijackinghave not risen substantially. The discourse is akey concern among Western states. Terror is arisk, however Western states have implementedopen-sky agreements – such as between theUS-EU despite such threats. So why should therisk of terror stop Africa implementingopen-skies when the Global North has done so?It returns to the relations of power in theglobal-political economy. The global-politicalsystem is key in constructing a discourse of fearand using this to influence how we act, invest,and work. We need to deconstruct the terrordiscourse first, to understand what really are therisks and whether liberalising air networks willreally make a difference either way. Once thespecific risks have been analysed those that areconcerns can be addressed including anyconcerns about terrorism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ygiadwmhb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Poverty may have something to do withcountries becoming dictatorships but little. Thatit is about the efficiency of government is muchmore credible, this is partially why India, with alarge native civil service at independence is oneof the exceptions. In practice the reason here isthat these nations were subject to beingdowntrodden through colonialism. There waslittle opportunity provided to create nativeinstitutions so any cobbled together rapidly atindependence collapsed. Many of the countriesthat were poor at independence are still poornow, yet the story of Africa is no longer one ofconstant violent dictatorship but increasingly oneof stable democracies with reasonably fairelections. The number of democracies in Africahas increased from three in 1989 to 24 in2008.(1) This transition then benefits theeconomy. An analysis by The Economist findsthat over the ten years to 2010, six of theworld's ten fastest-growing economies were insub-Saharan Africa.(2) The Arab Spring", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ygiadwmhb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Poverty creates a vicious circle Unfortunately,there is a vicious circle, caused by poverty thatmany poor countries find themselves in. A poorcountry also means a poor, ill-fundedgovernment. Such an institution is eitherunhelpful in preventing poverty or a road blockto poverty alleviation. A poor population is alsounfortunately more likely to lead to an autocraticgovernment. This phenomenon can be shown bylooking at decolonisation. Poor countries whendecolonised, even if they initially had democraticaspirations quickly fell to dictatorship. There arevery few exceptions such as India that havemanaged to continually maintain a democraticgovernment while poor. Wealthy countries whendecolonised are much more likely to becomedemocracies and once poor autocracies becomerich the pressure for democratisation usuallybecomes unstoppable so countries like SouthKorea democratised as they became wealthy.There might be considered to be a wealththreshold about which states will become", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ygiadwmhb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Armed forces do not require large amounts offunding to be well disciplined forces that aresubordinate to civilian governance. This wasshown by many communist nations; Vietnam’sarmy was immense, beat both the French andAmericans and was firmly under party control.The importance of armed forces for security isuniversally recognised so foreign powers will helptrain armed forces to ensure these qualities.Thus for example as part of efforts to bringpeace to Sierra Leone Britain provided trainingfor the Sierra Leone Armed Forces helping bringstability to the country and allowing the SierraLeonean army to engage in peace keepingmissions elsewhere in Africa.(1) (1) Clapson,Joe, ‘Sierra Leonean army comes of age underBritish direction’, Ministry of Defence, 6 April2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ygiadwmhb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Poverty means more crime Despite manyproblems that Africa has to face, one of thebiggest is its extreme poverty. Currently morethan 48.5% of the population of Sub-SaharanAfrica lives on less than 1.25 dollars a day (1).As a result of this poverty people’s security isbeing threatened on two main levels. On thefirst level of analysis, poverty can lead to crime.Poverty can create desperation to provide forfamily or yourself. As poverty is widespread inAfrica, there are many people who are willing tosteal, threaten, abduct or kill someone, in orderto have something to eat. At 17.4 per 100,000citizens, more than double the world average,Africa has the highest homicide rate among allregions of the world.(2) The other side of this isthat a poor state can’t provide the level ofpolicing that richer states can, a people inpoverty usually results in a poor government.This in turn means that the police force is small,badly trained and underfunded so not fit forpreventing crime. On the second level of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ygiadwmhb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Does poverty cause crime, or does crime causepoverty? Poverty does not in all cases createcrime. Bhutan is a poor country but the statedepartment reports “There is relatively littlecrime” (1). When there is crime skilled peopleare more likely to emigrate and trustrelationships are destroyed making businessesrisk averse. At the same time outside businesseswon’t invest in the country and neither willindividuals because they fear they won’t get theirmoney back. Finally crime almost invariablymeans corruption which undermines stateinstitutions, trust in the state and ultimatelydemocracy (2). Crime therefore leads to povertymore than the other way around. Neither doespoverty have much to do with armedanti-government movements, terrorists ormilitia. Terrorism is an inherently a politicalstruggle. Almost every major terroristorganization that exists has emerged from aconflict revolving around the subject ofsovereignty and defending of their culture. Al", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ygiadwmhb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Poor states have trouble providing security Poornations find it difficult to sustain efficient andwell-disciplined armies. Good training andregular pay is vital for this, something that isunlikely to be forthcoming with a cash strappedgovernment. Yet such a disciplined army is oneof the vital prerequisites for security and a stablecountry. Discipline is needed to prevent thearmy turning on those it is supposed to protect,and it is need to secure the country from othergroups both internal and external. Povertytherefore enables rebellions, civil wars, and localwarlords by helping ensure that the poor statesinvolved don’t have the resources to control theirterritories. It should come as no surprise that of12 major ongoing conflicts five are on the AfricanContinent (and another one if the conflict in DRCongo were to be included despite it potentiallybeing at an end).(1) In addition to this, a poorlyfunded army is a threat in itself, as the lack oftraining of the soldiers may translate intounprofessional behaviour, such as engaging in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ygiadwmhb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Ethnicity does not always cause tension, and it isnot always difficult to solve. If Africa hasthousands of ethnic groups and multiple religionsthe most noticeable thing has to be that the vastmajority of these groups do coexist peacefully.There are at most a couple of dozen differentconflicts in Africa compared to these thousandsof divisions. Identity might therefore beconsidered to be an overblown cause of conflicthere. Moreover is an ethnic divide alwaysdifficult to solve? No. If it is not a particularlydeep divide then it can be sorted out througheducation and creating a sense of community.There also needs to be a look at the underlyingproblems; in most cases ethnic conflicts are notsimply about attacking the other group becausethey are the ‘other’ instead there is somethingthat group wants. At base then the conflict islikely to be over land, economic resources,discrimination etc. not the simple fact that theyhave a neighbour that is not exactly the same asthem. The solution then is the same as with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ygiadwmhb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "At first glance western countries might seem tobe the opposite of Africa with regards toethnicity. Countries like France are ideal typenation states with ‘national’ borders based uponethnicity. However in practice western stateshave large numbers of minorities whether this isthrough regions with local identities such as theWelsh or immigration. However despite suchintermixing there is not the security threat as inAfrica. The most obvious reasons here is wealth.It is the state of the economy that is the mainroot of violence in Africa and that is thepreserver of peace in Western liberaldemocracies. Rich countries can afford to usetheir wealth to paper over any cracks created bydifferent identities. They can afford impartial civilservices which have little incentive to favour onegroup over another. And when it come to religionthere is a link between education and howreligious someone is; one study has estimatedan extra year of schooling leads to a 4percentage-point increase in the likelihood that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ygiadwmhb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Society cant function when the population isdivided Successful nations are those with astrong unified sense of purpose. They are stateswhere it is allegiance to the state which is putfirst. Having different identities which are putfirst undermines the state. This is exactly whatstrong religious and ethnic identities do. If thesesub state identities are put before the nationalidentity then ethnic groups are likely to “other”anyone who is not a part of their group. If theydo not consider themselves as being a part of thesame polity there is little reason to cooperate, topay taxes, It is the failure to build a unifyingframework and these conflicts of identity thatsplit nations apart not poverty. The Rwandangenocide did not happen because Rwanda is poorbut because it is split between two groups who,at least for that horrific period, looked atthemselves as Hutus or Tutsi’s first andRwandans second. The rebels in Syria show howstrong such divisions can be as rebels fight eachother as well as Assad’s regime.(1) In Ivory", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ygiadwmhb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Identity issues are very difficult to solve Issuesof identity are much more difficult to solve thanissues of poverty. Poverty is primarily an issue ofeconomics and can be solved in numerous ways;through aid, development projects, greaterexploitation of natural resources, and throughpolicies to encourage economic development.However none of this is likely to happen if thereis ethnic conflict. Where the problem is one ofidentity there is no fast solution. Ethnicityremains the same throughout someone’s life.Religion is only rarely changed. Customs andtraditions only slowly evolve. No matter howhard government tries, these artificial barrierscannot be changed or erased easily. The onlysolution then is to attempt to work around theproblem by not eliminating identities but showingcommonalities, itself a slow process. Spain is anexample of how a country can escape povertybut not identity. From the 1980’s Spain enjoyedan economic miracle pulling the country up tobeing a developed nation. And again after the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ygiadwmhb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Ethno-religious divides are a bigger securitythreat Poverty is clearly an immense problemfor Africa but it is not primarily a securityproblem. There are parts of the globe such asSouth Asia and parts of South East Asia thathave comparable poverty but little conflict andviolence. Moreover not every African country isplagued with conflict. We therefore must lookelsewhere for why Africa has high levels ofconflict. Religious and Ethnic divisions are amuch more direct security threat and cause forconflicts. To start with, it is extremely easy toblame people of other ethnicity or religion ofyour own problems. This occurs throughout theworld, no matter if we are talking aboutimmigrants coming into the EU and US, aboutthe Kurdish population in Turkey or about Israeland Palestine. Africa has 3315 ethnic groups, ahuge number (1). Unlike Europe these have notbeen formed into cohesive nations with colonialborders often arbitrarily cutting through ethnicgroups. A conflict is 25 percent longer and has a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ygiadwmhb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Fortunately the solution to this particularproblem is exactly the same as the solution topoverty; fixing the dysfunctional state. Therehave been many multi-ethnic countries that havesuccessfully created a sense of ‘nationhood’ andshared identity among people of differentethnicities and faiths. India, Indonesia, Braziland the United States are all good examples.This needs to be done through education,government having an impartial presence in thepopulation’s lives, infrastructure, and throughensuring that different ethnicities see thatworking together provides benefits for all. Statebuilding is necessary to prevent this internalethnic conflict but having a strong state is also afoundation for creating a dynamic economy thatreduces, and eventually eliminates poverty.Brazil is both a good example of integration oflarge numbers of ethnicities; the ‘rainbow nation’and an example of state intervention reducingpoverty through the bolsa familia, payments forsending children to school which coincidently", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The EAC is not yet ready to fully support itsmissions. The East African Community militarycommand have not helped in prevention ofterrorist attacks in Kenya nor has it been able tostop the prolonged insecurities and conflicts inBurundi, besides it still needs improvement. Theunity between Kenya and Uganda did not stopconflicts arising over ownership of Migingoislands on lake Victoria; membership would notmean that South Sudan and Sudan suddenlyhave similar interests or ameliorate theirconflict. Rwanda and Uganda have been recentlyaccused of supporting insecurity in EasternCongo (1), and the peace keeping missions inSomalia and Darfur are both AU and UNinitiatives not the EAC. In practice the bloc is notyet ready to embark on such wider missions. (1)Louis, Charbonneau, and Michelle, Nicholls‘Rwanda, Uganda arming Congo rebels- UNpanel’, reuters.com, 17/10/2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Conflicts and insecurity in the region will beresolved. Widening the East African Communitywill help provide a strong force and voice againstinsecurities, conflicts and insurgencies that havetorn apart much of the region. The current EACmember states have been at the fore front ofmaintaining peace and security in the region,with Burundi, Kenya and Uganda sending troopsto Somalia and Rwanda sending troops to Darfurand CAR. In March 2012, the USAID assessmenton East Africa regional conflict and instabilityhighlighted that the revival and expansion of theEAC would favour a vision of promoting peace inthe region (1) pointing out the Lamu projectaimed at creating a transport corridor linkingSouth Sudan to northern Kenya and the coast.Widening the bloc will make it easy for memberstates to support their peacekeeping missionsthrough the East Africa community militarycommand and also help reduce interstateinvasions like Sudan and South Sudan or Rwandaand DRC as they will now be united with more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Widening the EAC will affect the emergingeducation systems. Most of the countries withinterest to join the EAC are characterised by pooreducation systems. Bringing Somalia, SouthSudan and DRC, into the community would bringa huge challenge to the existing systems. Theinter university council of education is a newestablished body, policies like harmonising theeducation curricula are still in process ofimplementation and this cannot be rated asuccess at the moment let alone be expanded tomillions more children and youths. Additionally,there are still current member states like Burundiwith crippled education systems (1), why notfirst focus internally and deepen theseinstitutions before expanding? (1) Concernworldwide, Burundi, ‘education’, concernusa.org", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Economic Development will be boosted in theentire region. Widening the East AfricanCommunity, will help enlarge the commonmarket, increase production and improveregional trade as people will be able to freely dobusiness across more than five countries. Priorto Rwanda and Burundi’s membership to the blocin 2004, Kenya’s exports and imports to the EACwere Kshs 64 billion and Kshs 3 billionrespectively this however increased after the twocountries joined creating a single market of133.5 million people. In 2009 Kenya’s exportshad risen to Kshs 90.5 billion and imports toKshs 12.5 billion [1]. Ethiopia, DRC and SouthSudan are all mineral rich countries and are bigpotential markets for East Africa. Welcomingthem to the community is predicted to doublethe production, imports and exports amongmember states [2] due to policies policies likethe EAC trade facilitation, customs union andcompetition policy and law [2]. [1] Mary,Odongo,’Institute of Economic Affairs; Towards", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Widening the bloc will also widen the burden ofsatisfying all member states which will affecteconomic development. The discovery of oil inUganda has prompted concerns about how it willbe extracted as a result of a green light toforeign companies to do the job [1], andRwanda’s natural gas remain untouched due to alack of skilled labour despite the EAC freedom ofmovement policies. Why then bring a biggerburden of un-extracted mineral resources thatcannot be handled by EAC? And the fact thatKenya has been able to profit from suchintegration has not done much to lift Burundifrom extreme poverty Or prevent Tanzania’sslow growth [2]. When all members are lookingto export natural resources there are fewbenefits to the bloc, the members findthemselves competing in export markets. [1] Oilreview, ‘Uganda to sign oil drilling agreementwith international oil firms’, oilreviewafrica.com,15 April 2013, [2] IMF, ‘Truly integrated marketwould bring benefits to East Africa’, imf.org, 15", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Pan-Africanism is more a dream than a reality.Widening the East African Community wouldactually alter and destroy the meaning ofPan-Africanism because of the many challengesthat come with such integration (1). Currentlythere are disputes within the EAC itself withTanzania and Burundi claiming to be sidelinedfrom the other three states. People will never atany moment feel more East Africans thancitizens of a particular country; recentlyRwandans who had lived in Tanzania for yearswere forcibly deported by the government (2)despite the fact that both countries are memberstates of the EAC and signed free movement intolaw. This is enough to explain how things wouldbe a mess if rival countries like DRC, Sudan andSomalia were to join the bloc. (1) UnitedNations Economic Commission for Africa,‘Assessing regional integration in Africa’,uneca.org, Vol.V, (2) Catherine, Byaruhanga,‘Thousands deported from Tanzania to Rwanda’,bbc.co.uk, 2 Sept 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Education standards will be improved across theregion improvement of education amongmember states. It has policies such as theintroduction of the inter University council ofeducation to ensure the quality of Universityeducation, and an ongoing process ofharmonising education curricula in all membercountries (1). However, Africa still remains thecontinent with poorest quality of education andhas the lowest skilled/educated labour. A largenumber of children fail to access basic education(2). Enlarging and deepening the EAC willtherefore enhance education standards on alarge part of the African continent; such policieswill lift weak academic institutions in DRC, SouthSudan and Somalia which are typical of theirpoor education systems. (1) East AfricanCommunity Education, ‘Harmonisation ofeducation and training curricula in East Africa’eac.int, (2) Kevin Watkins, ‘Narrowing Africa’sEducation deficit’, brookings.com, January 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "It will serve an example of Pan-Africanism andencourage many to join themovement. Nkwame Nkurumah, one of thefamous African heroes said “Africa must unite orperish”. This has been taken up by the AfricanUnion which is calling for integration across thecontinent (1). Widening and deepening the EACwill therefore shine a light to the ideology of PanAfricanism. Bringing more African states togetherunder one bloc with the same vision andinstitutions will help people to work togetherregardless of ethnic or cultural differences.Citizens will feel more East Africans rather thancitizens of a particular country as every citizen ofthe EAC member state is allowed to freely travelin the region with no difficulties or discriminationas a result of the East African Community’sfreedom of movement(2). This will thereforeencourage other blocs like the ECOWAS andSADC to actively perform and widen hencecreating a more united Africa. (1) African Union,‘Celebrating Pan –Africanism and African", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The EAC does not have a general rule thatmembership is only reserved for countries in theEastern region of Africa, and the presence of theAfrican Union does not deem other regional blocsuseless. To achieve growth and integration onthe continent, there is great need to uniteregionally[1]. Having members that are alsomembers of other regional organisations simplyhelps bring those organisations together to thebenefit of all. [1] Michael, Rettig, Anne W.Kamau and Augustus, Sammy, Muluv,’ TheAfrican Union can do more to support regionalintegration’, brookings.edu, 17 May 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Initially the EAC comprised of only threecountries but after only 7 years, Rwanda andBurundi joined the bloc [1]. The new membershowever did not hamper the progress of the EACbut instead increased the rate of performanceand improvement. If anything the two newcountries added momentum in the operations ofthe bloc despite the fact that they were botheconomically weak. It is therefore not valid toassume that enlargement would hinderprogress. [1] East African Community, ‘AboutEAC’, eac.int,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The potential entrants are still weak and pose athreat to the growing EAC Most of the countriesshowing interest in joining the EAC are stilleconomically weak, politically unstable, andsocially divided. Somalia is the poorest state inthe world; it is unstable with a high rate ofterrorism [1]. DRC has yet to fully end its civilwar, and has large social divides [2]. And SouthSudan is a newly independent country that hasnot yet finished forming its governing institutionsbut already faces conflicts both internal andexternal. Accepting all these countries to theEast African community now would createinstability; it would clear the way for more Alshabab attacks in both Kenya and Uganda due asthe borders would be open, it would clear a pathfor the FDLR (a rebel group that includes some ofthose responsible for Rwanda’s genocide) fromCongo to Rwanda, a threat that the EAC is notready to manage. [1] Ludger, Schadomsky, ‘Nostability in sight for Somalia’, dw.de, 20 June2013 [2] Jason, Stearns, ‘The Congo; a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The EAC is not different from the AU which aimsat integrating all African states. All countriesthat have shown interest in joining the EAC aremember states of the AU which overseesintegration in African countries; there is noreason then for them to join another bloc thathas the same aim as the African Union unless itis no longer functioning. Countries like DRC andSudan are geographically located in differentregions than East Africa and this would breachthe meaning of the bloc. Additionally, theseindividual countries are members of otherregional organisations like COMESA and SADCwhich puts a challenge of flexibility in adoptingdifferent policies from separate blocs. [1] Forexample how could a customs union operate ifDRC were to be a member of two separatecustoms unions? any external barriers betweenthe two could be bypassed by going through theDRC. [1] Dinka,T,Kennes,W, ‘Africa’s regionalintegration arrangements; history andchallenges’, ecdpm.org, 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The EAC is not yet a strong bloc to bewidened The EAC, though a progressing bloc, ispremature for widening. 48% of its budget isderived from the EU and 22% from other donoragencies and governments. Membershipsubscriptions barely suffice to cover staffremuneration and other administrative costsleaving no funds to support developmentoriented programmes [1]. 71.3% of Congolese[2] and 50.6% of South Sudanese [3] live belowthe poverty line; how would the EAC supportsuch regions with a crippled budget? Creating acommon market would mean bringing togetherpoor countries that have nothing to offer or learnfrom each other unlike the EU which has strongeconomies to support weaker ones and providerole models and expertise fordevelopment. There is a greater need to deepenthe bloc by ensuring that member states are ableto meet the pledged costs towards the budget.The EAC needs to make sure planned initiativeslike the monetary union, customs union, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ahwweac-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Al shabaab attacks have continued to be a hugethreat to both the Ugandan and Kenyangovernments with the recent attack on Westgateshopping center in Nairobi [1] and the Lugogocricket ground in Kampala [2] despite the tightimmigration policies towards Somalis. FDLR hasalso continued to carry out attacks in Rwandaregardless Rwanda’s efforts to prevent them [3].Tighter immigration controls therefore has beenshown not to provide solution to these threats.Instead uniting all these countries would giveground for the East African Military Command tohandle such threats. [1] AFP, ‘Westgate mall,Alshabaab gunmen were suicide commandos’,telegraph.co.uk,12 Nov 2013, [2] BBC worldnews, ‘Somali militants behind Kampala worldcup bombings’, bbc.co.uk, 12 July 2010, [3]Reuters, ‘Rwanda says FDLR cross from Congoattack wardens’, reuters.com, 2 Dec 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-algsfmhbc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "We may agree that an active civil society may begood for the economy. However, there is noneed for African governments to ensure CSOshave a wider participation in the political life ofthe country to do this. As long as thegovernment respects and protects the existenceof such organizations, their positive economicby-products are preserved. Societal actors canwork autonomously and independently of thepolitical system.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-algsfmhbc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Civil society is good for economicdevelopment There is increasing evidence that amore active and involved Civil Society is good foreconomic development [1] . Specifically, CSOsare believed to have a crucial role for Africandevelopment prospects. The Local EconomicDevelopment Network of Africa argues that ‘Inparticular, they often know what are theemployment and income generation needs ofdifferent groups within the population and whatcould stimulate better outcomes for them. It isvery important, therefore, that they are involvedand consulted’ ( LEDNA, 2013). In addition CSOsautonomously implement developmentprogrammes. Only to give an example, in NepalCSOs in the Education for Income Generationprogram have played a crucial role in building upworkers skills resulting in 80% being inemployment many striking out entrepreneuriallyon their own5. It is therefore necessary forAfrican governments to guarantee suchorganizations and grant them a wider", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-algsfmhbc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The idea that CSO’s involvement in political lifeequals good governance is essentially anoversimplification. In extremely corruptsemi-democracies, there is no guarantee thatsocietal actors will not be co-opted within thesystem and become corrupted themselves [1] .This would result in a legitimation of thenon-democratic powers in the public eye, ratherthan a promotion of better practices and goodgovernance. We could say that a wider role forcivil society is desirable only for those countriesthat are well ahead in the path ofdemocratisation. The risk is, otherwise, to triggera counterproductive reaction. [1] Mogalakweand Sebudubudu (2006) ‘Trends in state-civilsociety relations in Botswana’, Journal of AfricanElections, 5:2, pp. 207-224", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-algsfmhbc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Civil society’s involvement in political life isnecessary to strengthen democraticaccountability The involvement of civil society inpolitical life is all the more crucial in Africa,where newborn democracies need to bestrengthened and consolidated. Active CSOsfunction as a watchdog for political power and asalternative channels for citizens’ politicalparticipation, thus strengthening democraticaccountability. Indeed, several scholars highlightthat a ‘prostrate civil society’ is to be identifiedas a fundamental factor in determining theregion’s democratic instability (Scott, 1998, asquoted in Lewis, 2002: 576). ‘Civil society is ahitherto (missing key) to sustained politicalreform, legitimate states and governments,improved governance, viable state-society andstate-economy relations, and prevention of thekind of political decay that undermined newAfrican governments a generationago’(Harberson, 1994: 1-2). The sustainability ofAfrican democracies thus depends on the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-algsfmhbc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is no consensus on the assumption thatCSOs may function as alternative channels ofaccountability. This, in fact, would require CSOsto be democratically accountable themselves.Yet, this is not the case. There is no form ofdirect accountability between Civil SocietyOrganizations and the communities they claim torepresent. In other words, no one ‘elects Oxfam’[1] . Moreover, CSOs are not evenrepresentative of the people they are supposedto give voice to. In fact, wealthy and highlyeducated men are overrepresented in CSOs [2] .It is therefore hard to understand how civilsociety can guarantee or increase democraticaccountability in African countries. [1] TheEconomist, 23rd September 2000, p. 129 [2]Talberg and Uhlin (2011) ‘Civil society and globaldemocracy. An assessment’, in Archibugi, KoenigArchibugi and Marchetti, Global Democracy:Normative and Empirical Perspectives,Cambridge, Cambridge University Press", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-algsfmhbc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The involvement of CSOs promotes goodgovernance practices Former UNSecretary-General Kofi Annan has stated that‘good governance is perhaps the single mostimportant factor in eradicating poverty andpromoting development’ [1] . It is thereforeimpossible to ignore the claim that CSOsinvolvement in political life is crucial to promotegood governance practices. Civil Society is ableto create additional pressure on the governmentto ensure good governance, as well as tocontribute ideas about what good governancepractices should entail in the specific localcontext, and to ‘bridge the gap between the lawand its actual implementation’( Zivanovic, 2007).“Good governance in Africa is ultimately going tocome from civil society in the countriesthemselves”, declared Jendayi Frazer, formerU.S. assistant secretary of state for Africanaffairs [2] . An article in The Guardian showshow CSO’s can help: ‘In the Ileje district ofsouthern Tanzania, expectant mothers about to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-algsfmhbc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Two crucial counterpoints can be opposed to theabove argument. First of all, we may agree thatwestern NGOs organize, support or fund AfricanCSOs. However, this does not mean that Africancivil society is not independent in its action andable to defend its own interests and values.Secondly, even if we accept that western actorsmay interfere with the activity of African CSOs,we must consider if this is the worst of evils.Someone may argue, and we certainly do, that itis still worth ensuring civil society has a voice inAfrican politics, even if this brings the risk ofwestern interference.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-algsfmhbc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Despite the arguments underlining thedifferences between Western and Africancontexts, there is evidence that civil society mayplay in Africa the same crucial and positive role ithad in Western political history. Indeed, the EUcommissioner for development, Andris Piebalgs,has issued a press release specifically analysingthe role civil society may play in African politics[1] . The conclusions highlight that a widerinvolvement of civil society in Africa’s political lifeis crucial for the prospects of democratizationand development in the continent. [1] Piebalgs,Andris, (24 October 2013), ‘Civil SocietyOrganisations, a key role to play in Africa-EUrelations’, Europa.eu", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-algsfmhbc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "An excessively active civil society would increasepolitical instability and paralyse Africanstates CSOs involvement in the political life doeshave positive and relevant consequences, butonly if the state is strong and the political poweris stable. In the African context, several scholarsargue, an excessively active civil society mayinstead increase political instability and paralyzean already weak state. Blair (1997), for example,affirms that CSOs may advance so manydifferent claims and interests that the result is apolitical paralysis. A weaker state, rather than adeeper democracy, results. Similarly, Foley andEdwards (1996), analysing the ‘paradox of civilsociety’, point out that conflicts may arise amonggroups in civil society. ‘These conflicts, in theabsence of specifically political settlements, mayspill over into civil disruption and violence’(1996: 40). The example of India reported aboveis extremely relevant in this regard. In addition,several scholars argue that Trade Unions andCSOs in general have represented an obstacle", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-algsfmhbc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The promotion of civil society is yet another formof the Western imperialism CSOs in Africa areconstituted by western NGOs or funded bywestern actors. It has even been argued that theinvolvement of western actors in African civilsociety cannot be avoided, since western NGOsneed to function as intermediaries betweenfunders and local groups [1] . In addition,western NGOs are easily co-opted by westerngovernments, and tend to promote westerninterests and values rather than local ones [2] .In short, CSOs’ wider involvement in Africanpolitical life would result in an increased westerninfluence on African affairs. Sseremba, Ajournalist from Uganda, even claims that westernNGOs are ‘indoctrinating young African politiciansto serve western interests’ [3] . It is thereforenecessary to find another way to ensure Africancitizens are actively involved in the policy makingprocess. [1] INTRAC, (2012), ‘Supporting civilsociety in Africa’, baringfoundation.org.uk [2]Talberg and Uhlin (2011) ‘Civil society and global", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-algsfmhbc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Western European experiences do notdemonstrate that civil society’s involvement inpolitics would be positive in the Africancontext The idea that CSOs involvement inpolitical life would have positive consequenceshas been generated by a western-centricliterature. However, there is no evidence that thesame results would materialize in a completelydifferent context such as the African one. Maina(1998), for example, claims that relations ofclass and ethnicity are so important in Africa thatit is hard to imagine civil society would work inthe same way it has in the west. CSOs couldform along ethnic or religious lines, thusdamaging the fabric of society and jeopardisingthe stability of divided countries. AshutoshVarshney (2001), for example, analysed howCSOs formed exclusively along ethnic lines incertain areas in India, thus causing an increasein ethnic violence and political instability. Wemust therefore be very careful in applyingwestern paradigms to non-western countries, the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-algsfmhbc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The opposite may actually be the case. Severalauthors in fact claim that an active civil societycan improve political stability. A weak stateconsolidates its power by democratising andacquiring legitimacy. Civil society is crucial in thisregard. ‘Civil society contributes directly tostability by encouraging citizens to address theirconcerns through democratic political processes,including elections. It also challenges abuses ofpower that fuel instability ’, Freedom Housereports [1] . Indeed, the Conference on Security,Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa(CSSDCA) (2000) [2] identified an increasedparticipation of Civil Society in African states asessential to promote stability in the continent. Awider involvement of CSOs in the political lifemust therefore be pursued all the most in theAfrican context, where the political power needsboth consolidation and democratization. [1]Calingaert, Daniel, (11 July 2013), ‘Resisting theGlobal Crackdown on Civil Society’, FreedomHouse [2] OHCHR, ‘Compilation of documents…’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The G8 countries are the world’s most powerfulcountries. As such most of the powers involvedin the G8 have at some point been involved inaggressive foreign interventions. The Iraqinvasion did not lead to calls to throw the US andUK out, neither did the bombing of Libya lead toFrance’s expulsion. Using Russian actions inUkraine as an excuse would be simple hypocrisy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Aggressive acts violate the meaning of theG8 The focus of the G8 is on economic,monetary, financial and globilisation issues.Aggressive actions scare the markets – as shownby the rouble reaching new lows against thedollar and Euro – so run counter to the focus ofthe G8. [1] Russia has in the past also used itsgas supplies as an economic weapon, this andacts of aggression such as in Crimea arerepudiating the idea of globilisation. The G8 isimportant because there is “a goodunderstanding among G8 members” clearly whenone of those members is engaging in conflictualacts that understanding is damaged. [2] The G7members on 2nd March 2014 in a statementresponding to Russia’s aggression in the Crimeastated “Russia’s actions in Ukraine alsocontravene the principles and values on whichthe G-7 and the G-8 operate”. [3] Any memberthat does not follow the principles of anorganisation should be suspended as amember. [1] BBC News, ‘Russian rouble hits", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is wrong to say that Russia is not anindustrialised country, it is considered by theWorld Bank to be a high income country. [1] It isalso a democracy that holds regular elections.President Putin is held in high regard by Russians67.8% of Russians approve of Putin’s jobperformance [2] – far higher than any othermember of the G8. [1] The World Bank,‘Russian Federation’, data.worldbank.org,accessed 7 March 2014 [2] Luhn, Alec, ‘Ukrainecrisis and Olympics boost Vladimir Putin’spopularity in Russia’, The Guardian, 6 March2014 , note however the pollster is state run!", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "There needs to be a response to bad behaviourinternationally The intention of internationalinstitutions is to bind countries together, toensure they speak to each other and resolvedifferences, and to ensure they feel they cannotengage in aggressive actions. However when astate breaks these norms there needs to be areaction. Russia has been willing to engage inaggressive acts time and time again. The recentoccupation of Crimea is very similar to Russia’swar with Georgia in 2008; in both conflictsRussia used the excuse of Russians being indanger, in both cases Russia was there as a‘peacekeeper’, and in both cases the action wasin another sovereign country whose governmentdid not wish Russian troops there. The result isan expansion of Russian influence and someform of annexation. [1] There was no actionafter the Russian conflict with Georgia except amediated peace. [2] There now needs to be aresponse to actions in Crimea; throwing Russiaout of the G8 is the least response. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "If there needs to be a response to Russianactions it does not need to be this response.Much more useful would be economic sanctionsagainst Russia; either targeted freezing of stateassets and the assets of leaders, or morecomprehensive sanctions that would damageRussia’s economy. Such actions would provide areal cost to aggressive action, not simply asymbolic cost. [1] [1] Verhofstadt, Guy, ‘Russiawill bow to economic pressure over Ukraine, sothe EU must impose it’, theguardian.com, 6March 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions by necessity harm both sides.However Russia is a much smaller economy thaneither the EU or US (both of which areseven-eight times bigger). Any economicretaliation and escalation will therefore harmRussia more. The threat to cut off gas supplies isa major threat but Russia can’t simply sell thegas elsewhere because its pipelines mostly go toEurope. In the 2009 ‘gas war’ which involvedsupplies to Europe being restricted (though notcompletely cut off) for 20 days Russia’s state gascompany Gazprom lost $1.1billion in revenues.[1] A more complete cut off would have higherlosses. [1] Pugliaresi, Lucian et al., ‘Is it time forGazprom to hit the reset button?’, Oil&GasJournal, 3 September 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Russia should never have been a member TheG8 has been meant to be a group ofindustrialised democracies. Russia is neitherparticularly industrialised, nor particularlydemocratic. Russia remains reliant on naturalresources for much of its wealth; 30% of its GDPand 70% of exports. [1] Its most recentpresidential election – that voted in Putin for athird term – was not exactly free and fair. TheOSCE election observers concluded “There wasno real competition and abuse of governmentresources ensured that the ultimate winner ofthe election was never in doubt”. [2] Itsqualifications for membership have beenquestioned from the very beginning, whenRussia joined the G7 were able to argue inclusionwould bring it closer to the west. Yet Russiaremains essentially an outsider in the group, itdoes not share western values and goes its ownway. [3] [1] Aron, Leon, ‘The political economyof Russian oil and gas’, American EnterpriseInstitute, 11 April 2013 [2] Eschenbaecher,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The biggest action the west can take withoutsanctions European states, which make up halfof the members of the G8, have been reluctantto take stronger economic steps againstaggressive Russian actions. Russia has warnedthe US “We will encourage everybody to dumpUS Treasury bonds, get rid of dollars as anunreliable currency and leave the US market.”[1] The European countries have more reason tobe concerned because they rely on Russia fortheir gas supplies; 39% of German gas and 9%of total energy consumption is reliant on Russia.[2] If Russia were to retaliate to sanctions itcould seriously damage the European economy.This means that throwing Russia out of the G8 orother institutions is the biggest sanction thatdoes not have any risk of economic retaliationand escalation that damage everyone. [1] RIANovosti, ‘Putin Adviser Urges Dumping US BondsIn Reaction to Sanctions’, 4 March 2013 [2]Ratner, Michael et al., ‘Europe’s Energy Security:Options and Challenges to Natural Gas Supply", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-con03b", "title": "", "text": "But Russia, as with any country – particularlyany powerful country – is interested insymbolism and international prestige. Manyanalysts suggest that Putin’s takeover of Crimeamay be about revenge for having ‘lost’ Ukraine,or out of a desire to set up a new greater Russia.[1] In each of these cases it is about prestige asthe practical gains to Russia are small. Russiawants to be seen as a great power, kicking it outof one of the globe’s top clubs damages thatambition. [1] Speck, Ulrich, ‘Opinion Putinplanning ‘Soviet Union lite’’, CNN, 4 March 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The address by Putin was before Russia’s illegalintervention into Crimea and as such ‘settlingregional conflicts’ almost certainly refers toSyria, not Crimea. Russia’s role in Syria hashardly been constructive, it has until recentlystopped any resolutions on Syria [1] , but not soonerous as to require throwing the country out ofthe G8. With Putin in charge of the summit andso setting the agenda we can be sure thatdiscussion of Crimea will be kept off the agendaso ensuring that any discussion is purelyinformal. Putin is hardly likely to makeconcessions at his own summit. [1] BBC News,‘Syria crisis: UN Security Council agrees aidresolution’, 23 February 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Allows strength in numbers Russia was originallyallowed in to the G8 to encourage it to reform, orrather to provide a place where Russia’s leadercan be backed into reforming. The G8 is awestern institution, a forum in which anaggressive Russia has no natural allies. Thismeans that it is the perfect place for the westerndemocracies to voice their concerns; Russia willfind itself isolated at the table and on the backfoot. While at its own summit it will be evenmore likely to give concessions in the interests ofmaking its own summit a success. At the last G8summit Putin hosted in 2006 Russia made someconcessions to the US in order to try and obtainWTO membership. [1] [1] Rutland, Peter,‘Russia and the WTO: deal, or no deal?’, NationalBureau of Asian Research, Special Report no.12,March 2007. Pp31-36, p.32", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Simply narrows the G8 making it irrelevant TheG8 has been losing its relevance with the rise ofother countries economically. It can no longerclaim to be the top eight economies as Canada isthe world’s eleventh largest economy with India,Brazil and China all bigger. It is even lower(14th) if done by Purchasing Power Parity. [1]Newer more inclusive institutions such as theG20 that include other vital economies like Chinahave been taking over its primacy on theeconomy. The G8 is no longer the best groupingto steer the global economy as was recognisedduring the 2008 financial crisis where the G20took the lead. [2] Throwing out Russia wouldsimply be making the G8 narrower and lessimportant globally so reducing the institution’sinfluence. [1] The World Bank, ‘GDP (currentUS$)’, data.worldbank.org, 2012 figures [2]Cooper, Andrew F., ‘The G20 as an improvisedcrisis committee and/or a contested ‘steeringcommittee’ for the world’, International Affairs,Vol.86, No.3, 2010 pp.741-757", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Will make no difference to Russia ThrowingRussia out of the G8 to punish the country –whether for aggressive acts in its near abroad,for human rights violations, or simply forcorruption and economic crimes – is unlikely tomake any difference to Russia. [1] Being in theG8 provides very little tangible benefit; it is allabout the symbolism of it being the top club.Russia however has created its own top club inthe BRICS conferences that are very similar tothe G8 as a series of informal gatherings ofmajor world leaders. Russia could rightly arguethat despite having fewer members it is broaderand more inclusive as it includes members fromthe Americas (Brazil), from Africa (South Africa),and the important players from of Eurasia(Russia, China, India). Since these powers arethe rising countries why would Russia want to beassociated with the declining west? [1] Judah,Ben, ‘Why Russia No Longer Fears the West’,Politico, 2 March 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There needs to be a place to talk GermanForeign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier arguesthat \"The format of the G8 is actually the onlyone in which we in the West can speak directlywith Russia\". [1] Russia’s proposed priorities forthe G8 summit included “fighting the drugmenace, combating terrorism and extremism,settling regional conflicts, safeguarding people'shealth, and establishing a global managementsystem to address risks associated with naturaland man-made disasters” [2] since Russia isclearly willing to discuss regional conflicts then itmakes sense to use the summit to discussUkraine. Since Russia has not turned up to othersuggested talks, such as a meeting of theBudapest agreement group [3] (UK, US, Ukraine,Russia – the agreement guarantees Ukraine’sterritorial integrity [4] ), it makes sense to go toRussia’s summit which Russia can’t avoid. [1]kms/ccp, ‘Putin agrees to Ukraine 'fact-finding'mission after talk with Merkel’, Deutsche Welle, 2March 2013 [2] Putin, Vladimir, ‘Address by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Getting rid of Russia would not make the G8irrelevant; it would simply return it to its core.The remaining members would me much morelikely to agree and actually come up withmeaningful outcomes to the summits. It mightbe a less effective steering committee for theglobal economy but at the same time it couldensure greater unity between the westernpowers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpglhwtrog-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While strength in numbers may seem to beuseful when there are conflicts between Russiaand the other G8 members this is not what theG8 should be about. Using the G8 in such a waywill simply encourage Russia to dig its heels inand encourage the growth of other rivalinstitutions. An example would be the BRICsummits between Brazil, Russia, India andChina; would these have happened at all if theG8 has been more inclusive and recognised thatthese nations need to be involved in the G8? It isnotable that the very first summit includeddiscussion of the desire by India and Brazil toplay a greater role in world affairs. [1] [1]Presidents of Russia, Brazil, China and PrimeMinister of India, ‘Joint Statement of the BRICCountries’ Leaders’, kremlin.ru, 16 June 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This is claiming exactly the opposite of theprevious point on U.S. demand for drugs; is notMexican demand for guns as much to blame forguns in Mexico as U.S. supply? The US has putconsiderable effort into making sure that theMexicans are able to counter cartels armed withguns with U.S. Army Special Forces soldierstraining Mexican army commandoes. Similarlythe Marine Corps also is working on an exchangeprogram with the Mexican Marine Corps that willinclude sharing experiences on urban warfare.The US also arms the Mexican armed forces toprevent them being outgunned by the gangs.[1] [1] Bowman, Tom, 'CIA And PentagonWonder: Could Mexico Implode?' NPR.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "U.S. supplies the guns used by drugscartels While the US complains about theMexico’s inability to stop drugs flowing north theUSA seems equally unable to stop guns andweapons flowing south into Mexico. As Clintonsays “Our inability to prevent weapons frombeing illegally smuggled across the border to armthese criminals causes the deaths of policeofficers, soldiers and civilians.” Clinton arguesthat one problem is that the bad guys outgun thelaw enforcement officers and so is supplyingMexico with better equipment such as nightvision goggles, [1] however at least in the shortterm the only result can be an arms race andmore violence as shown by the increasingviolence in 2010 and 2011. [2] So long as thecartels are able to easily buy guns then theproblem will not be solved. Here again the UnitedStates is to blame. The United States has 54,000licenced gun dealers while Mexico only has oneheavily guarded compound so the cartelssmuggle their weapons in from the U.S. [3] [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There will always be two ways to solve theproblem of illegal drugs, focusing on demand andfocusing on supply. Focusing on supply is a validstrategy, as the US pushes the price of drugs onUS streets up so it pushes the drugs beyond theability of most people to afford the drugs and willas a result mean less drug addicts in the UnitedStates. This in turn could result in a drop insupply.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "U.S. demand for drugs It is the rich US thatcreates the demand for drugs in the first place.Without this demand the price of drugs would below and the profits of drugs trafficking throughMexico to the USA would disappear. In 2010 anestimated 22.6 million Americans aged 12 orover were illicit drug users. [1] And this immensedrugs market was estimated to provide Mexicancartels with earnings between $13.6 and $48.4billion. [2] Drugs are therefore a problem that isbest dealt with from the perspective of reducingdemand. Hillary Clinton accepted this when shesaid “Our insatiable demand for illegal drugsfuels the drug trade”. However the US' answer tothe drugs problem has so far been the 'war ondrugs' concentrating massive investment ontrying to reduce supply and this includes fundingthe Mexican government in its war as well and atthe same time as making this admission Clintonwas giving $80 million to provide Mexico withBlackhawk helicopters. [3] [1] Substance Abuseand Mental Health Services Administration,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Mexico has its own problems with drugsconsumption so the demand problem can’t all beblamed on the US. Mexico City's former chief ofpolice, Gertz Manero has said there are now 4.5million crimes a year committed in Mexico. \"90%of those are stealing or are related to stealing.And 90% of those are for less than 8,000 pesos(about US$727). Mostly this is for drugs.\"Unemployment due to liberalisation of theeconomy has led to mass drug consumption sodrugs would continue to flow into Mexico andenrich the cartels even if the U.S. drugs marketdried up. [1] [1] Evans, Leslie, 'ElectoralDemocracy Has Yet to Shake Mexico's CorruptBureaucracy', UCLA International Institute, 16March 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "These were alien criminals who should neverhave been in the United States in the first place.The blame for these people being able to createdrugs cartels in Central America should not liewith the United States for deporting these peoplebut with the Central American states for not thenmonitoring and controlling these returnees.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "U.S. anti-drugs policy focuses on the supply ofdrugs not the root problem of demand For thelast two decades the USA has been focused onthe supply side of reducing the drugs trade.Making it a 'war on drugs' forces a fight backfrom the drugs cartels leading to gunfights andinstability in the countries en route. Thishappened in Columbia, in Peru and now inMexico. The focus on supply, or else thecontainment of drugs in Mexico, is shown by theObama's US-Mexico border policy press releasethat devotes a lot more space to extra boardersecurity to catching the drugs as they reach theUS compared with one small paragraph ondemand. [1] The U.S. war on drugs focusing onsupply and transit routes has clearly failed andhas been failing for decades. Back in 1992Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori declared thewar a failure while claiming that between 1980and 1990, when the U.S. was engaging inmilitary efforts to stop production andtransportation, coca production increased", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "U.S. policies have helped create the cartels Achange in US immigration law in 1996 meantthat non-citizens and foreign born citizenssentenced to more than a year in jail aredeported. This moved the problem from theUSA’s cities to cities in Central America creatingnew gangs that were already bound by tiescreated in the US. Effectively gangs created inthe US thrived in central America where theywere able to overwhelm the local governmentand spread north to Mexico and back into theUSA helping create the network of gangs anddrugs traffickers that plague Mexico today. [1]Similarly the problems in Mexico represent thesuccess of the US in cutting of the routesthrough the Caribbean used previously by drugstraffickers. Colombian criminals as a resultsimply switched routes and began smugglingcocaine and heroin through the Central Americanisthmus and Pacific routes. Both smugglingroutes led through Mexico. The successes of thewar on drugs in Columbia has reduced the size of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "As Mexico’s biggest trading partner the UnitedStates always has a major role in the state of theMexican economy. The United States is alsopartially to blame for the Peso crisis. Wall St inparticular played up a ‘Mexican miracle’ helpingto create a bubble, and idea that was alsoboosted by the US government which wasmaking the case for the North American FreeTrade Agreement at the time. [1] We shouldalso not be too quick to blame the economy asthere is always some uncertainty in the figures;using different statistical methods you getdifferent results. A study implies a growth rate ofhousehold income for Mexico of 4½-5½ percentper year in 1984-2006, which is substantiallyhigher than the 2 percent implied by standardmethods. [2] If this was the case then a pooreconomy could not be seen as much of a factorin the increase in violence and drugstrafficking. [1] Edwards, Sebastian, ‘TheMexican Peso Crisis: How much did we know?When did we know it?’ NBER working paper", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Mexico’s government is no weaker than anyother government. The country in CentralAmerica which has the lowest homicide rate isCosta Rica, [1] a country which has no standingarmy. [2] Yet it suffers from many of the samedisadvantages that Mexico has, for example, likeMexico it is on the drugs route to the UnitedStates. This implies that at the very least havinga weak government is not the whole cause ofMexico’s conflict. Yes there is a weakgovernment in Mexico, particularly at the locallevel, but we need to ask ourselves how thegovernment becomes so subverted. The answeris money. There have been allegations thatPresident Vicente Fox allowed the most powerfuldrug lord to escape prison in 2001 in return for$20 million. [3] If the very top of thegovernmental hierarchy can be subverted formoney then the rest is as well. [1] Schwarz,Isabella Cota, ‘Homicide rate drops to lowest inregion’ The Tico Times, 8 June 2012. [2] ‘CostaRica’, The World Factbook, 24 May 2012. [3]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Violence creates a downward spiral ofviolence Just as the United States cannot beblamed for weak governance in Mexico it cannotbe blamed for the spiral of decline that occurs asa result of that weak government. Once thepolice and local government are infiltrated itbecomes very difficult to stop the violence. Thegangs gain enough control and power that theycan no longer be stopped without a massiveinvestment by the central government. Any whodo stand up to the traffickers are killed as, forexample, was Alejandro Domínguez whenappointed to serve as the city police chief ofNuevo Laredo. Domínguez made it clear that hewould not negotiate with the cartels. As he wasleaving his office on June 8 2005, his first day onthe job, he was ambushed and killed by gunmen.[1] A culture of fear exists in Mexico, as in othercountries where the government fails to suppressgang warfare. Fear within the government andpolice force paralyses both into inactionMunicipal and state officials insist that the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Mexico is poor; it is the economic conditions thatdrive conflict not the U.S. Declining real incomedrives social unrest and instability. Real incomesfor workers in Mexico's manufacturing sectordeclined by a cumulative 2.6 percent between1995 and 2005. It is likely that the decline in theinformal economy is larger. The Governmentkeeps a tight control over the minimum wagepreventing it from rising. Although this does notaffect many Mexicans directly a lot more havetheir wages set at a multiple of the minimumwage. At the same time there has been highunemployment and lower benefits. [1] In 1994-5Mexico was hit hard by a financial crisis known asthe ‘peso’ or ‘Tequila’ crisis. The pesodepreciated by 47%, inflation went up to 52%and GDP fell by 6% not reaching its 1993 leveluntil 1997. Unsurprisingly household income fellsubstantially; by 31% between 1994 and 1996,those in poverty rose from 10.4% of thepopulation to 17% [2] Since 1996 althoughMexico has experienced growth not only has it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Weak Mexican government is to blame not theU.S. When there is an internal conflict such asthis it is almost always a weak government thatis to blame for not preventing an escalation ofviolence. The government is to blame as it ismeant to have a monopoly on the use of force,conflicts such as this drugs war occur when thatmonopoly on violence is broken. In Mexico theelection of Vicente Fox as president may havebeen a democratic triumph for ending the 70year one party rule by the P.R.I. but in terms ofthe effectiveness of the central government itwas not a success. The National Action Party hasbeen weak in the lower house and senate sounable to advance a legislative agenda. [1] Aninability to legislate significantly reduces theability of the federal government to respond tothe drugs crisis. This reduces the ability of theFederal government to step in and sort out localproblems. There has been an upsurge of socialunrest of all types, not just drugs violence butprotests, riots and strikes as well. [2] Drugs", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbusr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The United States can be blamed for thedownward spiral. There would not be adownward spiral of fear and violence if theUnited States was not a source of arms for thecartels.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Language politics exist, and this is aconsideration for any politician, not to beignored. States may find it politically wise toencourage multilingualism. For example, NicolasSarkozy wants France to be a bilingual country.This is indeed a tall order, but we must notdismiss and avoid challenges simply because ofthe effort they entail. Sarkozy’s desire to makesuch efforts is commendable and other EUMember States should follow suit by becomingmultilingual.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The status quo is impractical, because we expectMEPs to be multilingual in order to beeffective. It is highly demanding to request allMEPs to be multilingual and translation andinterpreting time takes time out of the meetingswhen vital issues could and should be discussedand addressed and in which problems should besolved. They have been elected on the strengthof their political abilities, not their languageskills. If we require all MEPs to be multilingual,we are actually excluding many politicians whocould be very skilled, but don’t speak enoughlanguages for the EU.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "Working through many languages in theEuropean Union costs money that could be spenton EU’s projects rather than unnecessaryconversation. It is very expensive to employtranslators and interpreters, and to publish alldocuments in French as well as English. IrelandBusiness News reported that the EU’s translation(excluding interpreting) costs were 800 millionEuros in 2006. This money is better spent on theEU’s actual practices.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There are often no direct translations forindispensible EU-specific vocabulary, so MemberStates should refer to it in their native language.The European Union uses in its debates andpractices lots of technical jargon. For suchvocabulary, there is often not a directtranslation. The Member States must be able tospeak about such important issues effectivelyand, while there exists no direct translations formuch EU jargon, the best way to do this isthrough their native languages.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "There already exists a pan-European identityacross all EU Member States, and a singleworking language would help to strengthen thatidentity. There is no need for any prefixed orspecified Europeans anymore. Given that thecontinent of Europe is merging into one singleidentity, there is no need to have more than oneworking EU language in operation; this couldcreate divisions and even tensions within theoverall identity of ‘European’. The Euro coins areno longer specific to each nation, goods arebought and sold between EU nations withoutrestrictions. The seams between the Europeannations are fast disappearing as they merge evercloser together. Therefore, one singe languagefor managing all the EU Member States’communal affairs makes perfect sense.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The EU ought to make English its workinglanguage in order to be a more transparentdemocracy for the rest of the world. If the EUuses the global language of English as itsworking language, other governments,parliaments and Unions will be able tounderstand its activities and methods ofoperation. 27% of the world’s population speakEnglish. In the EU Member States alone, thereare 61, 850,000 native English speakers and168,000,000 non- native speakers of English. [1]It is a medium that could reach so many peopleand through which the EU can influence othergovernments to take similar positive action. Somany of the world’s large problems stem from alack of communication. War is often the result oftwo sides being unable to communicate andmediate, and so violence is resorted to. It isoften described as ‘the only language the enemyunderstands’ because of a failure to work outdifferences in a non-violent way. When fightingbreaks out, it brings with it all manner of other", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "So many of the world’s problems stem from alack of communication. War is often a result oftwo sides unable to mediate, and one side oftenrefers to resorting violence as ‘the only languagethe opponent understands’. This is whatprompted Sir Winston Churchill to say ‘Tojaw-jaw is always better than to war-war’. [1] Hemeant that communication and compromise arealways better than resorting to conflict, not leastof all because it brings with it new problems ofpoverty, mentally scarred people andfamine. However, communication works bothways: what is said and how well it is heard. TheEU cannot simply assume its activities will bewell listened to. Its own issues and actions havelittle in common with the governments in thedeveloping world who truly need help andimproved strategies. For example, the EU dealswith those problems facing a developed world;health, education, governmental services. Bycontrast, those governments in the developingworld are faced with a whole array of problems", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Europe is only an umbrella identity; the diverseelements that form it must not be ignored.European identity is comprised of manyelements, these being the many differentcountries within the continent. These differentcountries assert their individual identitiesthrough culture, people, traditions andlanguages. These must be acknowledged so thatthe EU is aware of the identities of the veryMember States that comprise it. Keepinglanguages alive in the face of language death is avery emotive issue. Such response to one’s ownlanguage is what makes us human. To denypeople affection for their own language is todehumanise them. In the whole, if the EU triedto strengthen its identity by choosing onelanguage, it would harm its true identity, as agroup of diverse states, joined together.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "It is favourable that the EU employs people andone large way it does so is by hiring linguists andtranslators. Unemployment needs to be keptdown and is an issue the EU claims to takeseriously. The EU has the largest translation unitin the world. It employs some 1, 650 permanentonsite linguists and 550 support staff, as well asfreelance translators all over the world. [1] AConnect Euranet debate took place in France inwhich the EU representatives and ministersspoke of the urgent need to address the pressingissues of employment and unemployment. It isunjustifiable for the EU to fight unemploymentand also render a large proportion of its staff-the linguists- out of work. [1] Nitobe Centre forlanguage democracy, ‘FAQ –Translation/interpretation’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Politics touches on emotional issues. Emotionalissues specific to a country are best expressedby that country in their native language. If theEU Member States must communicate through aforeign language, this means there is a barrierbetween a) what is said and the emotioncontained therein and b) the act of actuallycommunicating it. When forced to express one’strue opinions through a foreign tongue, its truemeaning or the level of its importance maybecome diluted, misinterpreted or otherwisecompromised. It is better for EU Member Statesto communicate using their native languages, forthis way there is a much closer emotionalproximity between a) what is said and b) theemotion contained in saying it. Thus, theemotions and desires of the people are morefaithfully expressed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "It is more practical to work through onelanguage that all Member States understand inorder to ensure the effectiveness ofcommunication. Multilingualism could lead toseveral breakdowns in communication, whichonly give rise to further problems. This isespecially likely between French and Englishwhere there are many ‘false friends’. Forexample ‘actuellement’ in French translates intoEnglish as ‘currently’, not ‘actually’. Using onlyone working language will eradicate confusionand reduce the number of errors. This isespecially important in the realm of internationalpolitics, where small errors can breed long-termconsequences.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "One working language understood by all MemberStates is a more practical way of communicatingoften untranslatable yet vital EU-specificvocabulary. The EU does use technical jargonfor which there is often not a direct translation.Therefore, it makes more sense to only have onename for each concept, by which that conceptshall be known, in order to economize effort andto not waste time creating translations forEU-specific jargon. It is not chauvinistic, or evena matter of preference, to use English as aworking language over other languages; it justso happens to be a language that is understoodthroughout the EU Member States. It is betterand more effective to spend the time addressingthe issues rather than deciding by which namesto call these entities that give rise to issueswithin the EU.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Prioritising translation may well have negativeresults. A mistranslation can lead to severeconfusion and when such sensitive information isbeing handled, this is not at all desirable.Further, confusion can result if one entitybecomes known by two different names. Thepractice of translation may only create tensionsand divisions between bodies within the EU.Some may be angered that their literature is notbeing translated, when another organisation’sliterature is, and is thusly getting a higher profileand receiving more attention. Therefore, onesingle WORKING language makes sense.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Press freedom is a separate issue from EUlanguage politics. The press must havereasonable freedoms, and so they are perfectlywithin their rights to express anti-Europeopinions; provoking debate and discussion onpolitical issues is essential to a well-informedreadership. The anti-EU arguments get morecoverage than pro-EU ones, but there are manyarguments in favor of the EU within the Britishpress. Freedom of the British press to expressanti-EU opinion is their right and should notaffect the use of English as the single workinglanguage within the EU at all. It should notimpinge upon improving the strength andeffectiveness of communication within the EU atall.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Translation is an intercultural activity that the EUmust embrace if it continues to hold “United indiversity” as its motto. Ernst-August Guttobserves the use of translation “acrossboundaries”. [1] As a body dedicated to being“United in diversity”, the EU should practicetranslation in order to affect this interculturalactivity. The linguist Laurence Venuti observesthis: “Translation is the ‘trial of the foreign’. Butin a double sense. In the first place, itestablishes a relationship between the Self-Same(propre) and the foreign by aiming to open upthe foreign work to us in its utter foreignness…And this trial, often an exile, can also exhibitthe most singular power of the translating act: toreveal the foreign work’s most original kernel, itsmost deeply-buried, most self-same…mostdistant”. [2] Governmental bodies such as theEU have to mediate and compromise whendiscussing issues and debating. Translation issimply another type of mediation. The linguistLaurence Venuti describes it as “a bilingual", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-con04a", "title": "", "text": "If the EU ‘elects’ a single working language, itwill be deliberately contributing to thenarrow-minded, anglicising of the entire world,despite being a union of diverse cultures with thepower to fight it. A “single working language”implies English, a global language, and alreadyone of the two key EU languages, the other beingthe lesser understood French. That English couldbe the default language worries the Frenchwhere they fear the rise of what the French callanglosnoberrie ; the anglicising of the world atthe expense of other languages includingFrench. The EU would become one moreexample of English dominating the world at theexpense of the many cultures and languages ofEurope. This is indeed an extremely hypocriticalstance to take, when the EU is a body that seeksto strengthen intercultural activity and give allthe cultures within it a voice. This cannot bedone when the overwhelming majority-twenty-six- of the languages, ‘voices’, of theMember States are silenced and only one is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There is no need to translate absolutelyeverything, but prioritising translation isfavourable. EU citizens do not have to translateeverything; to keep the costs of interpreters andtranslators down, we can just interpret andtranslate the most important information. Thispolicy of ‘prioritising translation’ has beenadopted by the Welsh Assembly. The Assemblytranslates into Welsh only the information andliterature that is most relevant and will actuallybe read. Translation IS a realistic solution andshould be considered over the EU workingthrough one single language.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Britain is the country of Euroscepticism, and itsofficial language is English. For English to be themedium, the mouthpiece for the EUcommunications is wholly wrong. English, thelanguage which would likely be selected as thesingle European language, is also the languageof Euroscepticism, as perfectly demonstrated bythe British press. Anderson and Weymouthexplain in Insulting the public?: The British Pressand the European Union, ”Even those aspects ofEuroscepticism which are perceived to befounded on less mythical stuff, such as theeconomic arguments against the single currency,get a better coverage than any arguments infavour.” [1] Right-wing tabloids publish veryanti-Europe articles, scapegoating the GermanParliament, the Bundestag, for what they see asthe depletion of Britain’s say in her own politics,and using vocabulary with WW2 undertones.Even The Times, the UK paper of record, hasvoiced highly anti-Europe sentiments. It isthrough such articles and press coverage as this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-con04b", "title": "", "text": "To work through one single global language thatis understood by all cultures makes perfectsense; it is a medium through which they can allcommunicate within the context of EUoperations. The EU is not asking the MEPs(Members of the European Parliament) toaddress their own people nor their parliament athome through the medium of English. The use ofa single working language is just to ensureeffectiveness when discussing and debating EUmatters between Member States.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ehbeusaswl-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The use of English does not meanAnglo-snobbery; that is a prejudice againstAnglophones. The two EU official languages areEnglish and French. If the EU were to adopt asingle WORKING language, in all likelihood itwould be English, but this is not to be seen asWestminster snobbery. English is not directlysynonymous with Britain. It is also the officiallanguage of the former British colonies such asAmerica, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa andis, to a large extent, a global language. Britainitself is a very Eurosceptic nation, and so the useof its official language cannot logically be takenas British rule over the EU. However, all themore Europhile countries should not feel unfairlytreated in using this language to communicate; ifall these pro-EU countries communicate throughEnglish i.e. a global language that is not theirown, they are less likely to show any extremebias toward their own country and culture.Embracing English, a foreign method ofcommunication, means that in the EU debating", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Vernet sought the permission of the Britishconsulate before establishing his colony – clearlyeven he thought there was ambiguity over thestatus of the islands. Moreover the British andSpanish settlements ended not because ofcommercial failure but because of indirectpressure caused by war. If Argentiniansovereignty survives expulsion through war thenpresumably British sovereignty could survivetemporary abandonment due to war. It is alsodifficult to describe a settlement as permanentwhen it was on the point of collapse when theBritish took it over.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Argentina created a permanentsettlement Argentina formally took posession ofthe islands in 1820 and established permanentsettlements in that decade. Previous settlementsby Spain and Britain had been military in nature(garrisons). Britain did not protest to these actsof sovereignty. The Argentinean settlementswere only ended by illegal military force, the firststrike by an American warship, acting on its owninitiative and encouraged by the British chargede affairs in Buenos Aires, and the second andlast blow by a British taskforce.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "If military costs are excluded, the islands areself-supporting. They are of great value becausethey bring rights to fishing and oil exploration. Ifthe oil that has been detected in the islands’territory can be extracted economically, theislands will be an even greater asset to Britain.[1] Strategically, they provide NATO with anairbase in the south Atlantic. Port Stanley wasused as a supply base for the Royal Navy inWW1, resulting in the Battle of the FalklandIslands. [2] Moreover ‘value’ means more thanproducts and services – the value of theinhabitant’s right to self-determination ispriceless [1] Swint, Brian, ‘Oil Grab in FalklandIsland Seen Tripling U.K. Reserves: Energy’,Bloomberg, 25 January 2012, [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "International relations Returning the islandswould vastly improve Britain’s relationship withArgentina and Latin America as a whole. Thiswould help Britain’s diplomatic and economic tieswith the region. It would also be consistent withBritain’s post-war policy of decolonisation, whichhas seen it withdraw from almost every othercolonial possession since 1945. Not only hasBritain withdrawn from India, Africa, Malaysiaand much of the Caribbean, it has also handedback Hong Kong to China – surely a similar caseto that of the Falkland islands and Argentina.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Argentina inherited Spain’s claim tosovereignty Both Argentina and the islands wereunder Spainish sovereignty. Spain ruled theislands from Argentina – they were thereforepart of the same territory – doing so free ofBritish intervention (or complaints) from 1770until 1811, i.e. 41 years. Upon independencefrom Spain, Argentina rightfully assertedsovereignty over the former Spanish territory, aprinciple that would latter be known underinternational law as uti possidetis juris. Britaindid not claim sovereignty over the islands whenSpain left them in 1811. Nor did Britainimmediately challenge Argentina’s assertion ofsovereignty in 1820, when David Jewett claimedthe islands for Argentina, or in 1825, when thefirst treaty between the new country and Britainwas signed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that Spain never formally renouncedsovereignty is irrelevant – when Britain assertedits territorial claim Spainacquiesced. Additionally if Spain’s claim did notlapse when it evacuated its colony then surelyneither did Britain’s. Nor is it obvious thatArgentina should have inherited the Spanishclaim to the Falklands – they lie 250 miles off thecoast of mainland South America. Britain was ofcourse not going to immediately contest the1816 claim as she did not yet recogniseArgentina so far as Britain was concern theArgentines were not sovereign and did not havesovereignty over any of their territory – at thetime the UK recognised Spanish sovereignty overthe mainland that Argentina claimed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Britain already has a working relationship withArgentina. In 2001, Tony Blair became the firstBritish prime minister to visit Argentina since the1982 conflict. [1] The agreements made with theMenem government show the potential forpeaceful cooperation without returning theislands. In any case, direct relations withArgentina are of little strategic or economicimportance to Britain, except where they affectthe Falkland Islands. Trade policy is handled onboth sides at a supra-national level, through theEU and Mercosur respectively. The FalklandIslands are simply not like other examples ofdecolonisation. Elsewhere Britain has givenindependence to the indigenous peoples of itsformer colonial possessions, responding to theirdesire for self-determination. The Falklands haveno indigenous population – their inhabitantsregard themselves as British in identity and haveno desire to be ruled by Argentina, indeedBritain’s Prime Minister has gone so far as to saythe Argentines are the ones who are sounding", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Proximity is a poor reason to make a claim tosovereignty as the Falklands lie outside the 200mile limit that Argentina claims in the southernAtlantic. [1] The Falkland Islands today haveeffective self-government. They have their ownelected legislature and an independent judiciary.The islands are also economically self-sufficientbut for the cost of the Military Garrison – which isonly necessary because of the Argentinian claim.Moreover with advances in communication thelocation of the settlement being thousands ofmiles away from Britain no longer makes muchdifference when it comes to governing theislands. [1] R. Reginald & J.M. Elliot,'Tempest in a Teapot : The Falkland IslandsWar', The Borgo Press, 1983,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Value The islands are of minimal value toBritain. In an era of satellites and long-rangeships and aircraft, the islands no longer havestrategic value. Maintaining a garrison there isan unnecessary expense. Jorge Luis Borges (anArgentinean writer) likened the 1982 conflict to‘two bald men fighting over a comb’. [1] [1]‘Jorge Luis Borges (1899-1986)’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Distance The Falkland Islands are 8000 milesfrom the UK – in the modern age it is absurd thatone country can claim sovereignty over landhalfway across the globe from it. The needs andwishes of the Falkland islanders would be muchbetter served if the government responsible forthem was local.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Britain sent its soldiers to fight an unjust war.Their sacrifices do not make British occupation ofthe islands legal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The British colony was established only thoughthe expulsion of the Argentinian colony. It doesnot matter how long ago this happened - as thelegal maxim goes ‘title does not pass withtheft’. Colonists do not have a right toself-determination. It would be absurd if a groupof people could invade some land, drive off thepeople living there; and then state that theyhave acquired the right to decide for themselvesto stay there. The natural consequence of thatprinciple would be that anyone could gainproperty through ethnic cleansing and longenough adverse possession.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Moral Hazard Returning the islands would implythat violence and threats are legitimate ways toconduct diplomacy. Britain would be giving in tothe invasion of 1982 and Kirchner’s more recentrhetoric. This would set a dangerous precedentthat Britain will abandon its interests ifthreatened.R", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The islanders are the only ones who candecide. It is the Falkland Islanders themselveswho have to decide whose sovereignty theyshould fall under; British, Argentine or evenpotentially their own. The Falkland Islands are ademocracy with a democratically electedLegislative Assembly and Executive Council(made from members of the LegislativeAssembly). Similarly it has its own courts. Theself-determination of the islanders is prominentin their constitution. [1] The Falklands havetherefore been recognised by the Britishgovernment as a nation just like the Scots,Welsh and Irish. This means that the decision onany change of sovereignty in the future will beup to the islanders alone to make. [2] It is nolonger up to Britain to simply cede the islandseven if they wanted to. [1] The Falkland IslandsConstitution Order 2008, Statutory Instruments,2008 no. 0000, [2] Ivanov, Lyubomir, ‘TheFuture Of The Falkland Islands And Its People’,February 2003,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Length of occupation The primary means ofacquiring title to territory is through the effectiveexercise of the functions of a state within thatterritory. This means that Britain has a right tothe territory under either ‘occupation’ (ifArgentina is not considered to have occupiedpreviously) or ‘prescription’ if it has. [1] The ICJhas stated that the claim must be I, thepossession must be exercised in the character ofa sovereign II, the possession must be peacefuland uninterrupted III, the possession must bepublic IV, the possession must endure for acertain length of time. [2] Britain would nothave difficulty arguing that it has continuouslyexercised sovereignty for over 170 years. It hasalso been peaceful (no attacking native tribes, nounrest etc). It would seem silly to transfersovereignty to Argentina on the basis ofArgentina having only occupied the islands for atmost five years compared to the long period ofBritish occupation both after and before theArgentine colony. [1] Dixon, Martin, Textbook", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Blood has been spilt If Britain returned theislands, it would be a profound insult to thesoldiers who fought and died to liberate them in1982. The campaign was honourably fought indefence of the rights of the people of theFalkland Islands to determine their own future. Itwas fought against a military dictatorship whichused the campaign in a cynical attempt to divertdomestic attention away from its oppressive,corrupt and incompetent rule. One of the positiveconsequences of British victory was that themilitary junta fell from power and Argentinabecame democratic. So Britain, Argentina andthe Falkland islanders all have cause to celebratethe outcome of the 1982-83 war.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-con05b", "title": "", "text": "If Britain did not have legitimate sovereigntyover the Falklands to begin with then it isillegitimate for Britain to hand that sovereigntyover to the islanders.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Popular sovereignty The people of the Falklandsare an established community with a right toself-determination. They are not a transitorypopulation – many of them can trace theirorigins in the Islands back to the early 19thCentury. They are the only successful colonists ofthe Falklands. The Argentinian claim ofsovereignty through inheritance of the Spanishtitle (uti possedetis [1] ) is not accepted as ageneral article of international law, and even if itwas it would have to be subordinate to theIslander’s right of self-determination. It isabsurd that Argentina claims that the Islandersdo not have a right to self-determination becausethey replaced an indigenous Argentinianpopulation 200 years ago when Argentinaconsists largely of Spanish colonists whoreplaced the indigenous Native Americanpopulation in roughly the same time period. [1]That newly independent nations inherit theclaims of the old colonial states along thecolonial boundaries. Dixon, Martin, Textbook on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It would not be possible for the UK to argue thatit has a claim through prescription and the lengthof occupation because the original taking overthe Argentine colony was not legitimate, as theislands were not res nullis. In the Chamizal Case(Mexico vs United States), the ICJ rejected theright to title by prescription invoked by theUnited States because \"the physical possessiontaken by citizens of the United States and thepolitical control exercised by the local andFederal Governments, have been constantlychallenged and questioned by the Republic ofMexico, through its accredited diplomaticagents.\" [1] [1] The Chamizal Case (Mexico,United States), Reports of International ArbitralAwards, 15 June 1911, Vol.XI, pp.309-347", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aglilhwccf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Returning the islands would not be a sign thatviolence and threats are legitimate. It would berecognition of the justice of Argentina’s claimand the illegality of Britain’s occupation of theislands. In fact, it would show that illegal acts ofviolence, like that of 1833, will eventually beoverturned.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Fundamentally, the topics raised by Nollywoodare commercialising accepted views. Theindustry is building a business founded ondistributing images of witchcraft, abuse, anddomestic violence. First, a majority of the filmsare politically incorrect and provide negativeportrayals of women and sexuality. Gender rolesare reinforced as women become sexualisedobjects, male possession, and the source oftrouble - required to be put in their ‘place’. In thecase of LGBT representations, homosexuality hasbeen represented as Satanic in films such as2010’s ‘Men in Love’ [1] . Second, in the case ofwitchcraft, dramas have made society moreaccepting of, and open to, sorcery. The filmsshow how it remains prevalent in society and canprovide a tool to access riches. With theaudience interested in watching stories onwitchcraft the industry is feeding such demands.Witchcraft sells; and continues to remain aprominent theme justifying why people maketheir decisions and action. This is not the kind of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A new perspective, raising topical issues Thefirst film created in Nollywood - ‘Living inBondage’ - raised fundamental issues concerningmarriage, wealth and spirituality. The filmindicates the need to be aware of cults and whatthey can drive individuals to do. Furthermorefilms such ‘Street Girls’ and ‘Mama’s Girls’provide insight into the lives of prostitutes andthe sex industry. ‘Street Girls’ is enablingawareness of why girls are forced intoprostitution and why they may be forced tocommit criminal offences. Poverty is identified asa key driving factor. The range of topics covered- from immigration, women, witchcraft,corruption, terrorism, and infrastructure deficits -counteract historic silences in the public sphere.The films are raising awareness to viewers bypresenting the stories in a new light -understandable, humorous, and relatable; andwill encourage citizens to demandchange. Nollywood is showing the limits ofbelieving in a single perspective, the Western", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Although the industry has encouragedentrepreneurialism we need to recognise it isalso promoting risky businesses. Firstly, theindividuals working in the industry are requiredto produce a quick turnover. The fact that nosecurity and support is provided by thegovernment or state means the risk of failedentrepreneurial strategies falls on the individual.The producers and directors may be forced toborrow money from loan sharks and at highinterest-rates to get capital quickly; and need tobe able to ensure profits are generated rapidly.Such a tenuous industry is clearly not in aposition to change opinions of Africa and mayinstead be creating a negative perception ofrisk-taking and cutthroat capitalism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Development from within Nollywood isshowcasing Nigeria’s capability to sustain, build,and finance its own economy. Recent estimatessuggest around 50 films are produced weekly,selling between 20,000 to 200,000 units, andcreating jobs for around one million individuals(Moudio, 2013). The industry is initiating vitaldevelopment, enabling Nigeria to have capital tochange perceptions. Nollywood is followingprevious cultural industry paths. Hollywooddeveloped from low-budget films, and in 2013the entertainment industry generated around$522bn in revenue, and is continuing to be oneof America’s biggest sources of tourism (Statista,2013). In Nollywood’s case, the industry isalready proving to be of vital importance forregional and domestic tourism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Opportunities for development are limited as theindustry continues to function informally. Theinformal structure means there is no legalinstitution controlling transactions, there is nogoverning body ensuring taxation is paid andrevenues collected, and finally, there is littlesecurity to the workers within the industry.Financial records are limited in the industry,which makes it hard to predict thedevelopmental scope of Nollywood and the realrevenues produced. Informality preventslegitimacy; capability to assist nationaldevelopment; and fundamental capital losses. Italso prevents it becoming a force for changingperceptions of those outside Africa. Formalisationis required for the industry to assistdevelopmental potential [1] . [1] See furtherreadings: McCall, 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "First, the narrative of whether Africa is 'rising'has been debated, and requires reflection.Second, if Africa were rising will Nollywood pushNigeria to rise in the wrong direction? Nollywoodis a private-sector organisation, withconcentrated profits. Inequality in Nigeria hascontinued to rise since 1985 as shown by theGINI coefficient (Aigbokhan, 2008); and withlavish lifestyles being created for famousactresses and directors who hit ‘big money’ willNollywood only act to benefit elites and create anew elite class? Economic growth and revenueproduction cannot solve the issue of povertywithout tackling inequality.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Encouraging film entrepreneurs The Nollywoodindustry is providing solutions to pressing issues- including high rates of unemployment. Thedynamic industry provides an opportunity foryouths to explore interests and invest in theirtalents and creativity. The recognition gained forNollywood has shown how Nigeria's youths caninitiate, and develop, a sustainable industry.Rather than seeing the rising young populationas a potential threat [1] , the rise of Nollywoodshowcases the talent of the young populationand helps overthrow perceptions of Africa justbeing about natural resources. Additionally, thegrowth of Nollywood is continuing to encourageindividuals to enter the creative industry –whether to work in production, acting ordistribution, the rise of Nollywood is creating anentrepreneurial spirit, drive, and motivation tocreate change. Individuals are no longer relyingon the government or international communityto provide funds, support and infrastructure, butmoulding their own futures. [1] See further", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Epitomising rising Africa Nollywood epitomisesAfrica, and life in African spaces. The fast-pacenature of production shows how quickly thingschanges and everything is on the move. Thestructure of production shows the dynamicnature of everyday life, action, and flow of ideas.As Rem Koolhaas’ (2002) film documentary -Lagos - showed the congestion, informality, andbuzz of the city needs to be viewed positivelyand a sign of entrepreneurialism. Thedocumentary suggested African cities weresetting a new trend to be followed by the West,and developing a rising economy. Africa is notsimply in need of assistance, but rather afast-pace environment that needs greaterunderstanding. Africa is rising [1] andNollywood acts to reinforce this reality. Withmore films being produced, bigger revenuesmade, and new investors emerging, Nollywoodshows Africa's economies are changing, growing,and emerging. Interest and collaborativeinvestments being made by the World Bank", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "New funding sources are emerging. The diasporiccommunity for example are playing a central rolein funding the long-term growth of the industry.Recognising potential, and being a majorconsumer base for the films produced, theAfrican diaspora is investing in Nollywood.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The issue of piracy is being tackled. Recognisingthe potential benefits Nollywood can bring toNigeria and the scale of the piracy problem,investments are being made to stop piracy in thegrowing industry. Investments have beenproposed by the World Bank to tackle piracy, andensure profits are not lost. Further, NollywoodUP, the Nollywood Upgrade Project, is providingfunding to control piracy. Nollywood UP isimproving the capacity of the innovative industry- by providing solutions for distribution and vitaltraining in high-quality film making.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Small audience viewings In reality, Nollywood’saudience is constrained - questioning the extentto which stereotypes can be changed. First,language acts as a barrier. 56% of Nollywoodfilms are produced in local languages - such asYoruba, Igbo, and Hausa (UNESCO, 2009).Although English accounts for 44% of filmsproduced, the linguistic diversity may limit whosees which film and what issues are thereforediscussed. Second, a majority of the films aresold in hardcopy - whether on cassette or pirateDVDs. Finally, the industry is characterised byfast and cheap production. Quantity over qualitylimits popularity and audience viewings. Further,the limited attention to quality means Nollywoodremains at the bottom of the global value chainfor film production. It is difficult to changeperceptions with poor quality films.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Short term hype Despite the boom inNollywood’s industry it remains hard to getinvestment. With funding issues prevalent thehype surrounding Nollywood is temporary. Thedifficulties in getting funding, mean filmsproduced are often safe and politically popular -aware that funds can be gained for backing. Forexample, the controversial film – Boko Haram –aimed to provide an alternative perspective intothe Islamist extremist group. The core subjectmatter was to explore terrorism; however,following the controversial story and topic,marketers dropped out, fearing a politicalbacklash. Titles had to be changed and the filmadapted to be more sensitive. The ideas behindthe films, and the stories told, are being altereddue to funding constraints [1] . Perspectives, onand in Africa, cannot be changed if the topicsraised are altered to meet sensitivity regulations.Hegemony will persist. [1] See further readings:Hirsch, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The problem of piracy Pirated copies ofNollywood films are a key issue. Piracy emergesas an issue for two key reasons. First, the lack ofthe lack of legal structure - the lack of formalregulation. Legal systems and strict copyrightcontrols are needed to ensure piracy is stopped.Second, the production system is slow -therefore alternative means of production areused to meet the growing demand for filmsreleased. New methods for distribution arerequired. Calls have been made for thegovernment to take action against piracy.However, with corruption prevalent little actionhas been made. Half of the film profits are lostthrough piracy (CNN, 2009), and piracy acts toreinforce the image of bad governance, andinadequate structures, within African states. Theindustry is being undermined and undervalued,through the piracy market, with high costs to theentrepreneurs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mciahbncb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Nollywood films are viewed globally. Channelsare dedicated to the films - such as SouthAfrica’s MultiChoice and BSkyB’s NollywoodMovies. BSkyB distributes programmes and filmsdirectly to airlines, instantly broadening theaudience. Furthermore, YouTube subscribershave sought to enhance the global viewingpopularity; and recently developed iROKOPartners is ensuring internet users can accessNollywood films. iROKO Partners shows thebiggest markets are based in the US, UK,Canada, Italy and Germany (Kermeliotis,2012). New partnerships are being formed withHollywood and global film festivals [1] , whichshow the future shift of broadcasting Nollywoodfilms in cinemas. A recent film produced by PatNebo - ‘Dead broke’ - is set to be premiered inLagos, Accra, and London. [1] Cannes (2013)recently showcased ‘La Pirogue’; and in thesummer of 2013 France hosted its firstNollywood Week in Paris, showcasing seven ofthe best Nollywood films.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This sounds rather like an ultimatum to the UN –if you don’t like what we give you and complainwe won’t give you anything. The question here isthat the UN really does need more money inorder to give the necessary assistance tocountries, which strive for basic things like food,water, protection - “We are here today on behalfof people the world has all too often forgotten:the weak, the disadvantaged, those suffering theeffects of climate change, violence, disaster anddisease,” Mr. Ban told those gathered in Genevafor the “programme kick-off” for the Appeal.“ [1]The whole concept of the organization is toprovide help; however, of course, this helpcannot come for free it has a certain cost. TheUN general secretary should not constantly askand appeal for funding, this is not his job,although it happens all too frequently. The UNprotects the whole world and the fact that the USgives the most money for this protection shouldnot be considered harmful to the Americanpeople. [1] “Ban Ki-moon urges early funding", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The United Nations needs the United States. TheUnited Nations is a voluntary body and reflectsglobal realities, including the role of the USA asthe dominant superpower. Without the consentof the USA, the UN can achieve nothing, andactive US opposition to the UN could destroy theorganisation along with all its potential for good.It is better for the UN to accept US demands forbudgetary restraint and reform than to provokethe USA by unrealistic demands into withdrawingfrom its councils.This means that the UN shouldreflect the views of the United States as a result\"Policy of the United Nations should be based onthree fundamental questions: Are we advancingthe American interests? Are we upholdingAmerican values? Are we being responsibletowards for the American taxpayer dollars?\"According to Josh Rogin \"Unfortunately, rightnow, the answer to all three questions is no.\"[1] [1] Rogin, Josh. ” House Republicans' nexttarget: the United Nations” 26/01/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "UN money is spent responsiblyOf course theAmerican taxpayers' money should not be spentpromiscuously, but that's not the case. TheUnited Nations spends the money it gets onsolving global problems and helping the needy,both of which are useful to the United States asit is a role the US would otherwise have toperform.Furthermore international organizationssuch as the UN are highly advantageous to theUS and its population. Sarah Margon and JohnNorris argue \"Withholding funds from the UnitedNations would fail to reap significant savings,make it more difficult for our nation to lead, andseriously undermine our highest foreign policyand national security priorities …restricting U.S.support for the United Nations ultimately has amuch higher price tag than it does savings asdoing so substantially decreases our politicallegitimacy while costing America money andjobs.” [1] [1] Margon, Sarah; Norris, John.“Withdrawing from the United Nations: AMisguided Assault” 2/05/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "There has been a serious inequality in thefunding of the UN budget. The phrase “givethem an inch and they’ll take a mile” isappropriate here. It is noteworthy that Russiahas a Security Council veto, but does not evenappear in the top 15 nations contributing to thebudget. The UN has become dependent on theUSA and other industrialized nations to foot anenormous amount of the bill for UN operations.While the proportions of other states’ economiesare markedly smaller, other nations sometimesreap far more of the rewards of UN existencethan they contribute - “The United States is farand away the biggest single contributor to theU.N. system. In 2006, the total U.S.contributions came to at least $2.7 billion — andthat excludes the private sector, which by mostindependent estimates, draws most of its $1.5billion in U.N. contributions from U.S. sources.”[1] Should the US remain a consistent donorand allow itself to be asked for more and moreas the UN budget becomes more bloated, or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While it is true that the United States pays asubstantial portion of the UN’s budget, it does sofor historical and pragmatic reasons. Itseconomy and budget are significantly larger thanother member states. It holds a veto overactions taken in the UN Security Council. Itbenefits from its size and position. As much asthe UN is an influential player, this influence istransferred to the US automatically. ”There isnothing that restrains the United States fromusing the U.N. to defend and promote Americaninterests abroad… As a permanent member ofthe U.N. Security Council , the U.S. holds vetopower over 70% of the U.N. budget. As acountry with citizens in senior U.N. leadershippositions, we work to shape and influence U.N.activities.” [1]. Therefore the US has only to gainfrom its rather big contributions to the UNbudget. Furthermore this allows the US to insiston some UN decisions, which it feels areimportant such as the Palestinian issue – “… TheUnited States has the leverage to prevent this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "No-growth budgets actually undermine fiscalaccountability and discipline. While the USA hasheld the line on growth, it and other nationshave simultaneously asked for the UN to do morein areas such as peacekeeping andnation-building. As the demands on the UN grow,and the budget does not grow with it, UNadministrators are forced to move money aroundthe budget to pay for basic overhead (evenelectric bills) and cover shortfalls in one programor another. Thus the basic goal-setting andaccountability the US strives for is undermined.For example there have been complaints abouttaking money from the peacekeeping fund. TheUnited Kingdom has objected \"Resolution 50/218on the Working Capital Fund did not give theSecretary-General a \"blank cheque to fund thedeficits of major contributors through enforcedborrowing from peace-keeping accounts\".Borrowing from peace-keeping funds to financethe regular budget is unacceptable,and if amemberstate goes so far as to refuse to pay the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The US has a right to expect that its taxpayers'money is spent responsibly. The United Stateshas made a significant investment in theinstitution. Not only was it a founder, but it playshost to the body in New York and makes thelargest contribution of any nation each year.\"The debate over whether the United Nations willcontinue to overcharge American taxpayers isover — and the U.S. wound up on the losing end.In a dramatic turnaround from steady declinessince 2001, the percentage that the U.S. will becharged for U.N. peacekeeping has been sharplyincreased for the next three years, and U.S.taxpayers will end up paying roughly $100million more each year than they would have ifthe 2009 assessment rate had been maintained.”[1] This is not acting responsibly in a time whereAmericans are feeling the pinch from theeconomic downturn. American taxpayersrecognize that their society faces a great manyproblems that could be addressed with thedollars that are annually spent on the UN. While", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "No-growth funding policy results in betteroperation of the finances and will improvefinancial discipline. UN reform has been a majorobjective of the United States, and governmentleaders assert that six years of no-growthbudgets and pressure from the United Stateshave resulted in reforms of the GeneralAssembly, budget preparation procedures, thecreation of sunset provisions for UN programsand improvements in staff security. It is arguedthat these reforms could not have beenaccomplished without the carrot and stickapproach of the no-growth policy. The UN has abudget in the billions of dollars which it canspend more efficiently if it sets goals andpriorities, evaluates outcomes and eliminateswaste and corruption. This has already beenproven in 1996-1997 –\"…Although this budget isnot as lean as my Government originallyproposed, it is perhaps the most austere everadopted by the General Assembly\", the UnitedStates representative said. The budget included", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is not clear who is a debtor to whom. First ofall \"The United Nations' Tax Equalization Fund(TEF) owes the United States nearly $180million\" [1] Furthermore Cliff Kincaid, a journalistwho writes frequently on UN affairs states:\"Claims that the United States owes the UnitedNations more than $1 billion are false. No legaldebt exists or can exist. The UN Charter does notempower the organization to compel paymentfrom any member state. Even the notion that theUnited States owes money in the sense of amoral obligation is fallacious. It ignores themilitary and other assistance that the Clintonadministration has provided the UN and forwhich the United States has not been properlycredited or reimbursed. Over the past five years,that assistance has amounted to at least $11billion, and perhaps as much as $15 billion. Theadministration has been diverting funds fromfederal agencies, especially the Department ofDefence, to the United Nations. \" [2] We cannotclaim the US does not pay enough to do the UN", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "In times of big environmental crises or militaryconflicts it is true that more funding is necessary.However this funding must come on a voluntaryad hoc basis, rather than from the regularbudget of the UN. Because otherwise this wouldmean even a bigger financial burden ondeveloped countries and especially on the US.The UN determines how much more money itneeds in a certain operation in extremeunexpected situations. As the general secretaryBan Ki-moon appealed for more financing totackle Haiti's cholera epidemic – “Mr. Ban told aconference at the UN headquarters in New Yorkthat Haiti was in desperate need of more medicalsupplies and personnel…He appealed for heinternational community to dig deep to help stemthe cholera epidemic in Haiti\" 1. Inflation is aneconomic matter and in most of the cases it istaken into consideration when determining theUN budget. However in hard financial times – asthey are since the financial crises (2008) and thecomplicated problems the US has with its public", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The current global problems constantly requiremore funding. The UN is in a fiscal (budget)crisis that can only be alleviated by regularcontributions from the US. Growth in funding hasnot met the demand for growth inprograms—including demands placed on the UNby the US and its allies. During the Cold War, theUN was a largely impotent institution. With theCold War over, and faith in multilateralismgrowing, the need to recruit and organize vastorganisations to run many new programs hasproven to be far more costly than the UN budgetis able to handle. Today major problems occurin a global level, which cannot be solved withoutextra funding - Somalia famine, reproductivehealth in Africa, Pakistan floods, Myanmarcyclone and many others. Global issues areconstantly expanding and they demand moreattention. Expanded commitments also requireexpanded funding so the UN needs “robustfinancial support from the United States” to carryon its global-security, development, education,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-con04a", "title": "", "text": "US inflexibility diminishes its leadership role inthe world body. The potential exists for theUnited States to appear as a bully to the otherUN member states by demanding the institutionbend to its will or lose support. An appropriateanalogy can be found in a country's taxationpolicy. Individuals cannot simply withhold theirtaxes because they disagree with a government'spolicies. That usually lands them in jail. The USfaces no such threat for non-compliance andthus makes a show of its leverage over the UN.Such an attitude potentially undermines thedesire of other nations to be receptive to seriousUS needs, resolutions and reforms. The UStherefore needs to be very careful whenexercising its power in the UN and deciding howmuch money to set apart; otherwise countriesmay start to question the role and importance ofsuch a big international organization.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Non-payment of dues is an infringement ofinternational law. Members of the UN areobligated by treaty to contribute. In fact, tennations (all in Africa, Central Asia or theCaribbean) are being threatened with the loss oftheir General Assembly votes for arrears thisyear. These states are required to make farsmaller contributions in total than the gaps oftenleft unfilled by the USA. As of 2009 the US debtto the UN exceeds $ 1.5 billion [1]. Therefore theUN is more or less dependent on US payments.While the US does eventually contribute its dues,and the UN voluntarily complies with its demandto keep a level budget, the threat they hold overthe UN is essentially a breach of treaty andshould be treated as such. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "A no-growth budget for the UN lacksflexibility Circumstances can change rapidly. Inone year there might be a significant need forpeacekeeping or humanitarian needs, while inanother, these needs might be less pronounced.This is the case in 2011 with conflicts in Africa“The United Nations refugee agency warnedtoday that a lack of funding could undermine itsongoing efforts to provide humanitarianassistance to tens of thousands of peopledisplaced by the unrest in Libya, saying it has sofar received slightly over half of the funding itrequested for the operation.” [1] In times ofserious political unrest the UN assistance is ofessential importance. Therefore it needssufficient funding, which cannot be unalterablesince the situation and conditionsalter. Furthermore pressures like inflation affectthe UN as much as they impact the consumer inthe streets of New York. Especially when inflationrates are rising. The current US inflation (as of2011) is nearly 4% [2]. Inflation has meant a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-con04b", "title": "", "text": "US leadership is enhanced when it asserts itselfin the UN. America has the potential to shapedevelopments in the world for good through itsinvolvement in the UN. However, the UN is arepresentative body, and at times in its historysmaller non-aligned states (with notably minimalcontributions to the UN budgetary pie) havebeen able to trample on policies the UnitedStates feels are in its and the world's bestinterests. Inflexibility by the US shows thesestates that they need to toe the line with the USso enhancing the US leadership role. WhileSmaller states play an important role in theUnited Nations, as they represent a largemajority of the membership. In recent years,they have emerged as important players in theinternational community. Their influence is notdetermined merely by the size of their territory,economy or military power, but also by theirability to achieve their goals. If these risingstates wish to achieve their goals having theUnited States and the UN helping towards these", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-ghwfunb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Again - in order to meet the financial demands ofthe UN, a growth budget doesn't need to be set.Even if there are problems, whose solving costsa lot today, this doesn't mean that it willcontinue to be so in the future. Every yearproblems of the status quo are different. A UNbudget is determined to an extent that it can bemet by the state parties. There is not anunlimited amount of money, which can beallocated to international organizations. Ofcourse in times of deep global challenges, themore advanced and developed part of the worldwill try and do the best they can to help the onesin need. But a continuous increase of the UNbudget is not the way to cope with the problems.It just creates a fund-consuming machine, whichis becoming more and more expensive.Furthermore the US already donates too muchmoney to the UN - \"The U. S. State Departmentyesterday announced that the ObamaAdministration has agreed to contribute $4 billionto the United Nations Global Fund to fight AIDs,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Landmines are an excellent way of defending awide area for very little money. They permit thedefence of an area without requiring largenumbers of personnel. This is a legitimate aimboth in warfare, when military personnel arespread too thinly to protect all civilians and inpoor countries during peacetime, who wouldrather invest in their infrastructure than fundingthe military capacity that would otherwise berequired to defend the same ground. They canbe easily removed, but not quickly, which is whatprovides their military utility. The fact thatlandmines can be easily removed (if someoneactually goes about that process) highlights thereal root of the suffering caused by landmines –it is the on-going military conflicts which preventremoval and cause more mines to be plantedwhich are the true cause of civilian suffering. Ifthose conflicts ended then the harm to civilianswould dissipate anyway.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The difficulty of removing Landmines faroutweighs their usefulness The usefulness oflandmines is significantly over-represented. Theyare easily removed by quite low-technologymilitary equipment – which means that they arenot very dangerous to armed forces whosemobility is not significantly restricted, this isafter-all the purpose of the mines, but areincredibly harmful to civilians. [1] A significantproblem is that many minefields have been leftunmarked and that they can remain active formore than 50 years. Removing a landmine canbe fairly easy, but detecting them is not. [1]ICRC, ‘Anti-personnel mines: not anindispensable weapon of high military value’, 28March 1996,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Banning landmines disproportionately punishessmall, underdeveloped countries unable todevelop the higher-technology military capacitythat has made mines less useful to richernations. Because of this, banning landminesharms precisely the kind of nation most likely toneed them for defensive purposes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Banning Landmines is a step towards reducingthe horror of war Landmines are a terrible andimmoral tool of war. America should neitherpractise nor condone this kind of warfare. Unlikeother weaponry, landmines remain hidden in theground long after conflicts have ended, killingand maiming civilians in some of the world’spoorest countries years, even decades later. [1]In Afghanistan 17% of victims are children. [2]Even if other weaponry has similar effects, itdoesn’t mean landmines are acceptable – itmeans they are bad, too. But we must startsomewhere – we can make a difference bycapitalising on the global movement againstlandmines, and we should. [1] United Nationscyberschoolbus, [2] Mine Clearance PlanningAgency, Landmine Impact Survey IslamicRepublic of Afghanistan, August 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Landmines do great harm to people that triggerthem – but so do all weapons of war. They arenot uniquely unpleasant and the debate aboutthem has distorted the public perception oflandmines – in truth, they are little different to ahundred other types of weaponry that remainlegal under the Ottawa ban. In particular,landmines are an entirely defensive weapon.They can render large areas un-enterable untilcleared but in this they are analogous to the longterm harm of a chemical spill – the harm canlargely be mitigated by simply avoiding the areauntil it can be cleared.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "These mines, used in peacekeeping initiatives,protect US troops and present little danger tocivilians. Stopping their use would endanger thelives of peacekeepers and make the USA lesslikely to enter into such operations – part of thereason the USA refused to sign the Ottawa treatyin 1997, and has declined to do so since.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Landmines provide a false sense ofsecurity Landmines provide a false sense ofsecurity. They are often purchased and placed bynations that are fearful of their surroundingneighbours, rather than entering into diplomaticarena to improve relations. They are the symbolof exactly the wrong approach to internationalaffairs. Small, underdeveloped countries shouldchannel their efforts into improving theireconomies – they should not be encouraged (orfrightened by scaremongering) by the USA intobuying the USA’s military equipment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The US army does not need landmines It isabsurd to suggest that landmines are the primeprotector of US forces, or even an important one.It is well known that the principal benefit theUSA’s troops (as opposed to those of othernations) have in peacekeeping is the threat ofthe deployment of overwhelming force if they aredefied. Landmines are nothing to do with it. UStroops have not been pinned down in the waythe opposition suggests since World War Two,except in Iraq: and there, as elsewhere, thedamage done to relations with the civiliancommunity would far outweigh any narrowmilitary benefit garnered from landminedeployment. Indeed the use of landmines by theUS has slowly been changing, since 2004 the UShas only allowed the use of landmines withdeactivation mechanisms however it has notactually used landmines in more than 20 years.[1] [1] Good, Rachel, ‘Yes We Should: Why theU.S. Should Change Its Policy Toward the 1997Mine Ban Treaty’, Northwestern University", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Faith in these so called ‘smart’ mines is hugelymisplaced. Conditions under testing will alwaysvary from those in the field, where all isconfusion and areas of deployment are often notproperly recorded or marked. Even if they workas claimed, there is no guarantee that regimesthat use them will wish to deactivate them uponceasefire, if left in the territory of a neighbour orenemy with whom a dispute still smoulders. Theequipment required for deactivation may be lostor destroyed. The best way to ensure that theseweapons aren’t left in the soil is never to putthem there in the first place. That some usersmight be responsible is not good enough, since ifanyone has landmines everyone will. Even thatassumes that it is possible to be a ‘responsible’user of landmines – once they are in the groundthe user has lost all practical control over them.The only way to take back control is to disarmthem.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Chemical weapons are also cheap and highlyeffective. The use of chemical agents waswidespread in the First World War and domesticterrorists groups have been able to manufactureand use Sarin gas in attacks. [1] These weaponsare banned despite being cheap and effectivebecause of the unnecessary suffering they causeand because of their indiscriminate nature. Minesand gas are both ‘area denial’ weapons whoseeffects can linger long after the conflict in whichthey were employed has faded into history. [1]Wikipedia, Sarin gas attack on the Tokyosubway,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Landmines are easy to use illegallyanyway Landmines are merely a convenient wayof providing what can be rigged in many ways –an explosion triggered when movement occurs ina particular area. Without landmines beinglegally available, troops will improvise landmines– they will wire up pressure plates and handgrenades and trip wires and high explosivecharges, with much the same result. These willthen be much more difficult to disarm as theywill not have a standard design and they mayalso have much more explosive power. [1] Thisbehaviour was widespread in the Iraq andAfghanistan conflicts. The only differences arethat these weapons are less efficient, and moredangerous to the user that prepares them. [1]Maresca, Louis, Maslen, Stuart, The Banning ofAnti-Personnel Landmines, InternationalCommittee of the Red Cross, 2004, p.316,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Landmines are necessary to protect SouthKorea The defence of South Korea fromCommunist aggression depends upon the thickbelt of landmines that lines the demilitarizedzone. Without it, North Korea’s million man armycould easily cross into South Korea and takeSeoul before defences could be organised. [1]South Korea is a key ally of the USA and to joinin the ban on landmines would be to betray thatally. The failure of the Ottawa Convention togrant an exception for the Korean peninsula wasthe key reason for USA non-participation. Withregards to the tunnel network: North Koreawould never be able to perform an invasionthrough a dozen half-finished tunnels just bigenough for a man to pass though. Troopspassing under the DMZ without any heavyequipment or armour would have to assemble inthe open with no protection from RoK and USfirepower and air support. The main force of anyinvasion would have to travel over ground. [1]Marin, ‘Peacemakers Along the DMZ’, 2002", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The ban fails to distinguish between differentkinds of mines The ban fails to distinguishbetween different kinds of mines. The Americanshave mines that can deactivate themselves andcan self-destruct. America only manufacturessmart mines, and since 1976 the USA has tested32,000 mines with a successful self-destructionrate of 99.996 per cent. [1] The ban also fails todistinguish between responsible andirresponsible users. Under American deployment,only smart mines are used, and they are usedresponsibly, being set and removed in amethodical manner. [1] Hillen, John and Spring,Baker, ‘Why A Global Ban On Land Mines Won’tWork’, Heritage.org, 17 January 1997,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Landmines are a useful military tool In thefuture, landmines may not be needed. However,whilst armies still depend on conventionalweapons and movement – moving tanks andlarge infantry groups – and borders are weak,the defensive tactic of landmines is highlyappropriate: it is cheap, affordable, andmaintains borders. Their existence can slow orstop an advance by breaking up an attack andforcing attackers to go certain routes, [1]delaying or even halting conflict; they can deterinvasion in the first place. [2] By guarding wideareas from swift armed advance [1] ICRC,Anti-personnel Landmines. Friend of foe? A studyof the military use and effectiveness ofanti-personnel mines, 1996, pp.14-15 [2]Marin, Albert and Litzelman, Michael,‘Peacemakers Along the DMZ: Non-Self DestructLandmines in the Republic of Korea’, Journal ofMine Action, Issue 6.1, April 2002,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con04b", "title": "", "text": "North Korea has an extensive tunnel networkunder the DMZ that will facilitate thecircumvention of the largest minefield on Earth,if the North Koreans were ever stupid enough toattempt invasion (and there is nothing tosuggest that they are going to). This factdemonstrates the uselessness of landmines – theworld’s biggest minefield is militarily redundant,a danger only to those that will live in this areain future years. The USA knows this – thedefence of South Korea is a hollow, false excuseoffered in defence of landmines – the real reasonis the unwillingness on the part of the militarymachine to relinquish the capability of anyweapon, no matter how horrible. Of course,there is a healthy profit to be made in theirdistribution, too.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-gpwhuwsocb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "That is true if we are discussing a single tripwireor booby trap. But the argument avoids the realpoint of landmines – blanket deployment oververy wide areas, making them impassable formilitary units in the short term, and deadly forthe indigenous population in the long term.Nobody rigs up a few thousand pressure platesat a time. Removing landmines from theavailable military options would mean that thiskind of deployment would become impossible – itwould mean the end of the mine field.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "France and the UK might have declined inrelative power since 1945, but even today onlyJapan and Germany among non-P5 states rankahead of them economically. In any case, Franceand the UK are still amongst the world’sforemost military powers, with the world’slargest nuclear arsenals after the USA andRussia, [1] and the world’s highest militaryexpenditure after the USA and China with Francespending $61 billion and the UK $57 billion in2010. [2] By contrast, the EU has no significantmilitary to speak of, and is thus unable to projectpower across the globe. The EU launched a RapidReaction Force meant to be 60,000 troops in2001, but it is still a paper tiger without even thismany men and with many capability shortfalls.[3] Given the mission of the UNSC to maintaininternational peace and security, eligibility for apermanent seat should be based on militarypower, not just economic or demographicpower. [1] Federation of American Scientists,2011, [2] SIPRI, 2011, [3] Defence Dateline,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The world has moved on since 1945. Thepermanent seats for France and the UK arebased on the fact that they were among thegreat powers and victors of World War II.However, the global balance of powers hasshifted significantly since then: France and theUK have declined; Britain’s manufacturingexports dropped from 25% of worldmanufacturing exports in 1945 to 5% in 2000.[1] And the UK was 6.52% of the world economyin 1950 [2] but down to 3.56 in 2010. [3]Moreover both had large empires which were lostin the decades after 1945. At the same time theEU has emerged as a major player in theinternational arena. The EU is one of the world’slargest trade blocs, has the world’s largest GDP,and represents almost half a billion people. Apermanent seat for the EU would reflect thosenew power dimensions. [1] Schenk, 472, [2]Maddison, [3] World Bank,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The European Union might be an economicpowerhouse and might want to coordinateforeign relations in regards to external economicpolicy, but at heart it is intended to be aneconomic union, not a political union. Most of itsfounding treaties and the daily workings of itsinstitutions focus on creating and maintaining asingle market, not on creating a shared foreignand military policy. Giving the EU representationat what is an institution for foreign and militarypolicy is misreading what the EU was intended tobe.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "France and Britain should be willing to give uptheir seats for the European Union. The mostpractical way to reform the United Nations is forFrance and Britain to give way to a EuropeanUnion seat. Although there would inevitably besome loss of influence for both nations the painwould be minimised by retaining one seatbetween them. The European Union oftendecides what countries get what jobs based uponinternal politics, so for example Catherine Ashtonbecame High Representative for Foreign andSecurity Policy because Tony Blair did not get thepresidency. [1] It would therefore be possiblethrough an internal agreement in the EuropeanUnion to make sure that France and the UnitedKingdom retain control of the UNSC seat throughhaving control of the foreign minister post andthe post of Ambassador to the UnitedNations. [1] Meade, 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Only a more representative United NationsSecurity Council is legitimate. The UnitedNations is a global body that must represent thewhole world. Just as democratic governmentsneed to remain representative to be legitimateso the same is true of intergovernmentalorganisations. If the UK and France hang on totheir permanent seats forever, the UNSC will loseits legitimacy, as the United Nations will nolonger be seen to be representative. The resultwill be an increased risk of war and conflictbecause the world’s major powers have nolegitimate shared arena for discussing theirinterests. This is exactly what happened to theLeague of Nations after World War I. As many ofthe most powerful nations, USA, USSR andGermany were unwilling to join or barred fromjoining the League never had much legitimacy.As a result the League was unable to preventconflicts in Manchuria and Abyssinia (Ethiopia)eventually leading to World War II. [1] Sincetheir interest in a stable world through the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is a good reason why previous attempts atreforming the United Nations Security Councilhave not succeeded. Reform has been attemptedseveral times since 1992 whenSecretary-General Boutros-Ghali called for arenewal of the United Nations by 1995. [1] The‘G4’ made up of Germany, Japan, Brazil andIndia has been lobbying to become permanentmembers but are opposed by others who wantmore non-permanent seats. [2] Kofi Annan in2005 suggested two options either 6 newpermanent members with no veto or eight fouryear renewable terms, [3] but this too hasgotten nowhere. No matter who is on the councilsome countries will feel aggrieved. If Brazilbecomes a member Argentina and Mexico willobject, China might object to India becoming apermanent member and Pakistan certainlywould. [4] In Africa it is not even certain whoshould represent the continent as there is nosingle leader, whoever is chosen some countrieswould not like the result. It is therefore better to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Even if UNSC reform is perfectly logical in theory,in practice they would never work. The UK andFrance have a veto in the UNSC, which meansthey can halt any kind of reform of the UNSCwhich is not in their interest. Losing a permanentseat without getting a clear benefit in return isdefinitely against their interest. Even if they wereto retain control over foreign policy no nationwould want to move from having sole control ofa seat to having to negotiate with its partnerswhich way it will vote. As such the UK and Francewould veto any such proposal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Europe may now have a president but as he hasfew independent powers the Lisbon Treaty hasnot answered Kissinger’s apocryphal question‘who do I call if I want to dial Europe’. [1] The USpresident or Secretary of state would still need tocall round the major capitals of Europe as VanRompuy would need to get the agreement of thePrime Ministers and Presidents of the continentbefore he could do anything. [1] Rachman,2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The European Union is meant to prevent warbeing on the UNSC would allow it to activelypromote peace. The EU might function as aneconomic union, but its original goal was toprevent war from ever happening again on theEuropean continent. The political resolution ofthe Congress of Europe in 1948 said “it is theurgent duty of the nations of Europe to create aneconomic and political union in order to assuresecurity and social progress… the creation of aUnited Europe is an essential element in thecreation of a united world.” [1] The Economicintegration is a means to this goal, by makingmember states economically too dependent oneach other for them to want to declare war oneach other. Given this history, the EU cancontribute a lot of knowledge and experience onhow to use ‘soft power’ in a foreign policycontext. Europe has been successful in creatingpeace on a previously warlike continent. It hasalso had successes in encouraging reform in thecountries of Eastern Europe and is continuing to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The EU now has the necessary foreign policyorgans. In the past the European Union has nothad the necessary foreign policy bureaucracyand decision making capabilities to be able tocontrol a UNSC seat. Since the Lisbon treaty thishas changed. The Treaty created a President ofthe European Council, currently Herman VanRompuy. [1] And a European External ActionService (EEAS) which will eventually have a staffof 5,400. The EEAS is a functionally autonomousEU body with a large number of embassiesaround the world. [2] This will give the EUrepresentation in most countries, 54 withambassadors out of a total of 136, [3] and theability to coordinate a foreign policy. A seat atthe United Nations Security Council would be anatural extension of this. [1] EuropeanCouncil, [2] BBC News, 2010, [3] Waterfield,2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Until now, the member states of the EuropeanUnion have never been able to coordinate theirforeign policies effectively. This has led todivided positions amongst member states, forexample towards Russia, China and other globalplayers, allowing them to play a‘divide-and-rule’-strategy against Europeaninterests. Giving the EU a single seat would givethe Member States a clear incentive toharmonize their policies: a coordinated policycan then be expected to actually take effect,instead of it being a supplement to domesticforeign policy. Interests are guided by whodecides what the interests are. With a unifiedvoice from a unified external action service andPresident Europe will be able to define what theinterests of the Union as a whole are.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The European Union has already been gainingpower at the United Nations. The EuropeanUnion gained what could be consideredsuper-observer status in May 2011. Van Rompuywill be able to address the United Nations as theheads of other states can and the EU also hasthe right to speak, the right to make proposalsand submit amendments, the right of reply, theright to raise points of order and the right tocirculate documents. Europe will be representedby the High Representative and the EEAS.[1] [1] Phillips, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The only way the United Nations Security Councilcan be reformed is through expansion. CurrentUN Security Council members will never give uptheir seats. As well as Britain and France Russiacould equally be considered to be no longerworthy of being a member of the UNSC. Russia’seconomy is significantly smaller than either ofthe other European members. However no oneseriously thinks Russia will give up its seat.Instead the United Nations Security Council willhave to be expanded to make it morerepresentative. This will mean bringing in Brazil,India and an African representative. There isprecedence for expanding the council as Article23 of the charter was amended in 1963 toenlarge the security council membership fromeleven to fifteen. [1] [1] United Nations, 1945,Introductory Note,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-con05a", "title": "", "text": "More is more. While the in number of EUmembers in the Security Council is obviouslybeneficial to the EU and its members theinfluence of the European Union is also beneficialto the UN system as a whole. European powersthat are enthusiastic internationalists andproponents of international organisations act asa counterweight to other powers that still act likegreat nationalist powers from the 19thCenturysuch as Russia and China. [1] They are thereforeenthusiastic about working through the UNrather than acting unilaterally. The EuropeanUnion’s international goals also dovetail well withthe United Nations on a whole range of issues;development, peacekeeping, human rights, theenvironment, humanitarian aid and culture areall areas where there is a lot of cooperation; thismeans that the European Union is often acting inthe interest of the United Nations. [2] Thisinterest can obviously be best served by theEuropean Union having more seats rather thanonly one. [1] Ojanen, 2006, p5, [2] Ibid, p.10,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "There are disputes about enlargement of theSecurity Council. Reforming the UN SecurityCouncil is very difficult as no one can agreewhich new powers deserve representation,whether they should have a veto, and evenwhether permanent membership should continueto exist in any form. Japan and India seemobvious candidates for permanent status, buttheir candidacies are fiercely opposed by avariety of other Asian countries, while Nigeriaand Egypt both feel they have a good claim to an“African” seat. Africa with no obvious leadercould be the most difficult to resolve, alreadythere are six countries which say they wouldwant to be Africa’s permanent member; Senegal,South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, Egypt and Libya.[1] These disputes may in the end lead to amuch enlarged permanent membership, so if theEU did taken over the UK and France’s seats,there would be a much greater likelihood thatEuropean interests will be outvoted on theSecurity Council. [1] Okumu, 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Even if other countries such as Russia areunwilling to give up their own seats Britain andFrance have an alternative in the form of jointEuropean Union membership. Both countries aretherefore much more likely to agree to lose theirseats than Russia w The member states of theEuropean Union haven’t harmonized their foreignpolicies so far simply because they have vastlydivergent interests in the arena of global powerpolitics. The interests of Germany vis-a-visRussia are a world apart from France and theUK’s interests, let alone Poland’s. For example inthe brief war between Georgia and Russia in2008 France, Germany and Italy tried to avoidconfrontation with Russia while Eastern Europeand Britain demanded a much tougher stancewith sanctions. [1] And France and the UKfamously took very different positions over theIraq War, while their different experiences ofempire and decolonisation give them a widerinternational perspective than most other EUstates. Handing the EU a single seat does", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-con05b", "title": "", "text": "The European States are obviously going tobenefit from having large numbers of theirmembers on the UN Security Council, and theUnited Nations itself is not harmed by it thisoverrepresentation comes at the expense ofother regions. No other regions are so closelyintegrated – so countries in them don’t haveallies who they can rely on in the Council, andsome of which don’t have any members whohave veto power. When compared to Europe thatis not only integrated enough that the EuropeanStates will most of the time take a common lineand protect each other but who also have twostates that can wield a veto the situation isgrossly unfair.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The United Nations is meant to be a body ofnation states. The United Nations is aninternational organisation whose members arenation states, not other supranationalorganisations such as the European Union.“Membership in the United Nations is open to allother peace-loving states” [1] The EuropeanUnion is however not a state and is unlikely tobecome one in the near future. Recognising theEuropean Union as a member would pose otherproblems as it would clash with article 9 of theUN charter “Each Member shall have not morethan five representatives in the GeneralAssembly.” And Article 18 “Each member of theGeneral Assembly shall have one vote.” [2] Asthe European Union member would have 27votes, and potentially well over 100representatives in the General Assembly. TheEuropean Union is at present an observer [3]and that is how it should remain. [1] UnitedNations, 1945, Article 4, [2] United Nations,1945, Article 9, 18, [3] The Telegraph, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is widely recognised that the current SecurityCouncil set-up lacks legitimacy and requiresreform. Major states such as Japan, and risingpowers such as Brazil, South Africa and Indiadeserve recognition and giving them permanentstatus would provide representation for a muchbroader cross-section of humanity. In such areformed UN it is much harder to justifypermanent places for the UK and France alone,two essentially similar western Europeancountries. They should instead agree to berepresented through an EU seat as part of anoverhaul of the whole international system.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-eghwgepsusc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Even if other countries such as Russia areunwilling to give up their own seats Britain andFrance have an alternative in the form of jointEuropean Union membership. Both countries aretherefore much more likely to agree to lose theirseats than Russia would be.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The prize is too narrowly defined. At what scaleshould the change be defined? For examplecivil-society and community leaders can makesignificant changes to governance at asmaller-scale; promoting democratic governancefrom a bottom-up initiative can work as well astop down. On another hand, should we only befocusing on the very top? What about thegovernment officials who are not heads of statebut make a change to people’s lives? The narrowfocus on the head of a party or state neglects thebody - such as finance ministers - that maintainsthat system of governance and work hard toensure a democratic transition. The focus onheads of state may deter the state body fromensuring effective governance due to the facttheir hard work is not rewarded orrecognised. Due to the relatively young natureof democracy and multi-party rule across Africa,the criteria of potential prize candidates needs tobe expanded. The number of former heads ofstates having left in the past three years is small.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Focusing on the leaders of goodgovernance Previous winners - such as NelsonMandela and Pedro Pires - made significantchanges to their nation-states, ending apartheidand promoting social development. The formerleaders provided equality and a functioningdemocracy to their people. Such needs to be theaim of leaders today. Providing a prize to thehighest achievers provides an example. Ithighlights leaders from even small countries –such as Cape Verde’s Pires – that can serve asrole models for Africa’s leaders. Without the prizethe most likely role models would simply bethose of the biggest states who are highestprofile. Mo Ibrahim (2013) has stated the prize isfor “excellence, it’s not a pension”. This is why itis not always awarded. The prize is only beawarded when high-standards of goodgovernance are replicated, and maintained, byleaders. Focusing on the top of governmentencourages a top down implementation of goodgovernment. When the leader acts others will", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Although the prize has gained recognition in theWestern world or ‘Global North’ to what extent isthe prize, its reward, and meaning, known andunderstood by African citizens? If the prize isrecognising African leadership citizens need to beaware of the prize in the first place - whethertheir country is up for nomination or not.Awareness is the only way the apparenttransparency can hold power and become areality. Citizens cannot demand change or holdthe state to account when they are not aware ofthe index, the prize, and the so-called changesbeing made.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Recognition when credit is due The past fewyears have seen African governments, and headsof state, reluctant to leave office; driving politicalcoups; and leading violent crimes againsthumanity. Mugabe, Kabila, and Kenyatta are buta few articulating the years of sustained badgovernance. The prize is only awarded whencredit is due - if leaders have made a significantpositive impact this will be recognised andrewarded. The prize is therefore for absolutegains in governance, not relative to othercountries. As the prize is not always awarded itavoids the pitfall that distributing a financialprize where no change has been made to politicalinstitutions would reinforce a system. The statewould continue to function on undemocraticgovernance, and the reward would become anew example of dead money [1] . Instead itencourages improved control over aid andmoney transferred to African states, it showsthat rewards are given based on merit. The MoIbrahim prize therefore encourages the good", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The prize by focusing on leaders ignores theareas where money is needed; not lining alreadyrich people’s pockets but providing money andadvice to actually set up these institutions. Thismeans for example ensuring the police and civilservants are well enough paid they don’t resortto corruption etc. Acemoglu and Robinson (2013)highlight that there is also a ‘vicious cycle’whereby the presence of bad institutions -authoritarian, unaccountable, with limitedeconomic innovations - reinforce poverty andbad governance. Although offering rewardswhere significant change has happened is apositive model, in reality, many African statesrequire funds to be able to enforce change in thefirst place and break this vicious cycle. For goodgovernance to be promoted rewards should notonly go to the best, but also the good in acontinent where bad governance dominates. Forany progress to be made in governance the prizeneeds to lower standards of expectation,recognise where improvements are made, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Transparency The prize is helping citizens to beaware of good governance, and bad, occurringwithin their state. By granting the prize citizensare shown what leaders have done right; and thepublication of the index - the Ibrahim Index ofAfrican Governance (IIAG) - shows whereimprovement may be required. The prize isforcing transparency between governments andsociety. Information on how states are doingmeans citizens can take action, and demandchange where change is needed. The prize iscalling for African citizens to get the leadershipthey deserved, desired, and have a right to. Bymaintaining strict standards on when, and towhom, the reward is provided gives a realisticpicture of governance in Africa. It showcases thecontinued need for good governance; and alsodoesn’t give citizens and the internationalcommunity a false illusion that governance isgood in Africa when it is not.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The committee nominating, and choosing, thefinal candidates remains un-bias and theirexpertise within multiple aspects of governancemeans the high standards can be maintained.Having votes would open the prize up tocorruption and attempts to influence theoutcome by those who are eligible. Atechnocratic standard is needed for goodgovernance.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-con01b", "title": "", "text": "One of the criteria for awarding the prize is‘demonstrated exceptional leadership’. Thisclearly allows the IIAG to be fed into the processas it is the IIAG that can show if the leader beingconsidered has demonstrated this leadership.The IIAG provides a useful tool to assist indeciding the prize winner, and nominees.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Bribing good governance The Mo Ibrahim Prizeis bribing African leaders to shift towards goodgovernance. The financial incentive is beingdistributed to entice leaders to follow goodgovernance approaches and models. The factthat no questions are asked on where the moneyprovided goes; how it is used; and what theformer leaders spend it on raise furtherquestions. Most importantly to what extent canwe claim elaborate bribery is an effective meansto enforce good governance within thecontinent? For a start having what is essentiallya bribe to encourage good governance ishypoctitical. Secondly a bribe for an individualrelies on that one individual’s actions. Thus in2007 the prize was granted to Mozambique’sPresident Chissano. However, since 2007declines have emerged in the scores concerninglaw and rights (Mo Ibrahim Foundation,2013). Additionally for those motivated bymoney the money provided cannot compete withpotential returns that can be gained from natural", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-con04a", "title": "", "text": "A contradictory approach The prize will fail topromote good governance due to thecontradictory approach it undertakes. Goodgovernance cannot emerge and be sustained byrewarding former presidents. Having a goodformer president does not mean their successorwill encourage their legacy to continue. Whycelebrate good former leaders when we need tofocus on what is happening now? Moreover whyreward someone just when they can no longer doany good? The prize suffers from thecontradiction of regarding giving up power as anecessary criteria to obtain the prize. Thisignores that Africa does not want those who arebeing successful at promoting good governanceto leave their post – potentially to someone whowill move backwards. Having a prize for someonewho could have done more good had they stayedis contradictory. Finally the prize is not good forAfrica; the prize has raised negative stereotypesof African states, leaders, and systems. Theattention gained by the prize not being granted", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Who's on the committee? Who decides whethergovernance is going in the right direction withinthe African continent? The prize committeeincludes six individuals who make the decision ofwho is worthy of the reward, and whether it isgranted. The panel includes leading figures, notall of whom have held elected positions such asMohamed ElBaradei, and not all of whom areAfrican, such as Martti Ahtisaari and MaryRobinson (Mo Ibrahim Foundation PrizeCommittee). Among these distinguishedpanellists the voice of Africa’s population ismissing. A prize about good governance shouldincorporate a people’s vote as good governanceis only relevant if it helps the people. Moreoverwithout a public voice there is a lack oftransparency in the workings of the committeeand the decisions made. Hardly a good standardfor a governance prize.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Is the IIAG a good measure of ‘goodgovernance’? How do we define, classify, andrecognise good governance? The Mo IbrahimFoundation has created the Ibrahim Index. TheIIAG calculates governance across Africa andassesses it over time. The IIAG showsgovernance has improved across the continentsince 2000; and in 2013 classified Mauritius withthe highest rank and Liberia as showcasing thegreatest positive change over 13 years. But doesthe index have the right weighting? Where ‘goodgovernance’ is found changes depending on theweighting applied. Even odder is that althoughthe foundation has this index it is not actuallyused when awarding the prize, this is awarded bya committee to those who pass the criteria thatdon’t include the IIAG (Mo Ibrahim Foundation,2013). The prize is therefore methodologicallyunsound as a way of looking at and promotinggood governance", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is not contradictory to offer a reward for goodgovernance after the leader has left office.Dictators holding onto power for long periods areone of Africa’s biggest problems. Rewardingthose who step aside shows that an importantpart of good governance is having presidentswho stick to constitutional terms. A stabletransfer of power is vital in a democracy. This issomething that is even more important when thetransfer is to a political opponent. One of themost important advances in governance that canbe made is to make be considered normal thatthe opposition is as loyal to the country as thegovernment. When this happens power caneasily be transferred without conflict or resultingdisorder.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-appgglhbm-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The reward is an incentive, not a bribe; considerit as being similar to performance related pay.The prize shows how if excellent leadership ispromoted and good governance encouraged theleaders will be praised, recognised and rewarded.The prize is not a bribe, but a way ofincentivising leaders to follow a path towardsgood governance. By highlighting cases wheregood governance has excelled the prize drawsattention to the benefits of good governancethrough a cost-benefit appraisal. The social,economic, and political returns are highlighted;and other African governments encouraged tofollow the trend.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "If terrorism is the concern then the Frenchintervening is one of the worst possible options.Having France fighting in Mali may well result inthe internationalization of the conflict bringing injihadists. [1] Already the islamists are saying theconflict is a holy war as “France has attackedIslam” and they will in response “strike at theheart of France”. [2] [1] Welsh, Jennifer,‘Sending soldiers to Mali may be the onlysolution’, The Globe and Mail, 14 January2012, [2] Bamat, Joseph, ‘Mali-based Islamistspledge attacks on French soil’, France 24, 14January 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Fighting terrorism While it was Tuaregseparatists who first sparked the insurrectionwanting to split Mali but now the North has beentaken over by Islamists and al Qaeda in theIslamic Maghreb presenting a terrorist threatthat cannot be ignored. France’s Defenceminister Jean-Yves Le Drian says \"France's goalis to lead a relentless struggle against terroristgroups,\" and that \"We have to eradicate thisterrorism\". [1] The United States was alreadyclearly worried about Mali becoming a center ofterrorism having on the 7th Decemberdesignated the Movement for Unity and Jihad inWest Africa a terrorist organisation while othergroups involved in Mali such as al-Qa’ida in theIslamic Maghreb were already designated assuch. The State department highlights severalterrorist attacks the group has conducted suchas “a March 2012 suicide attack on a police basein Tamanrasset, Algeria, which wounded 23people”. [2] [1] CNN Staff, ‘France determinedto ‘eradicate’ terrorism in Mali, official says’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Ban Ki Moon has also stated that “I amprofoundly aware that if a military intervention inthe north is not well conceived and executed, itcould worsen an already fragile humanitariansituation and also result in severe human rightsabuses” [1] so French military intervention is notnecessarily the right course to take if theintention is to be helping the people of northernMali. Equally we can ask if this will really end thecivil war? Mali has suffered from several Tuaregrebellions in the past. In particular there was acivil war between 1990 and 1996 [2] which hashad over a decade of sporadic peace negotiationswhile a cease fire held. So while outsideintervention may end the civil war unless theFrench propose to remain in place for decades orwork instead on a diplomatic solution in the longrun Mali will be no better off. [1] Tisdall, Simon,‘UN urges caution over military intervention inMali’, guardian.co.uk, 29 November 2012, [2]Humphreys, Macartan, and Mohamed, Habayeag, ‘Senegal and Mali’, January 2003, pp.19-28", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "France was asked to intervene by Mali’sgovernment “France has answered… a requestfor assistance issued by the interim president ofthe Republic of Mali”. France is therefore notcoming in uninvited. Mali’s President Traoredirectly appealed to French President Hollande toprovide “French military assistance against theseterrorist groups” that have “attacked our frontlines of defense”. [1] As the former colonialpower in much of West Africa, including Mali,France is the obvious country to turn to for help.As a result of this colonial past Mali is a memberof the French led Organisation internationale dela Francophonie. [2] Mali is therefore fully withinits sovereign rights to ask for assistance andHollande is right to agree to provide it. [1]Lynch, Colum, ‘France’s U.N. envoy: Frenchmilitary intervention in Mali is open ended’,Foreign Policy Turtle Bay, 11 January 2013, [2]‘Welcome to the International Organisation of LaFrancophonie’s official website’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Mali should be asking for diplomatic help toresolve the crisis not asking for a military force.France meanwhile should not be accepting arequest from an unelected President to attack hisown people. A request to intervene in a countrydoes not make that intervention legitimate itsimply provides a fig leaf to protect France fromaccusations of colonialism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "This might be an excuse to send a few soldiers tohelp evacuation and possibly a commando raid tofree hostages but it is not a reason for all outintervention. If it was such a justification then inalmost any conflict some state would have justcause to intervene because some of their citizenswere in danger.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "It is a humanitarian intervention Fundamentallyat its heart this is a humanitarian intervention bythe French. The Islamists who took overNorthern Mali have been imposing a severe,austere form of Islam demanding \"No cigarettes,no CDs, no radios, no cameras, no jewelry\" andbeating those who disobey the rules. Men andwomen have to sit in separate areas in buses.With Sharia being more strictly enforced withincreasing number of amputations despiteopposition from the local population. [1] Much ofthe population of the North had already fled tothe south with the UN High Commissioner forRefugees saying 200,000 have fled since January2012. [2] Those who have, like Moussa fromTimbuktu, clearly welcome the intervention, hetold a French radio station “We have beensuffocating and [France] has given us a breath ofoxygen. We are ready to fly Malian and Frenchflags alongside each other.” [3] [1] Mben, PaulHyacinthe, ‘A Trip Through Hell Daily Life inIslamist Northern Mali’, Spiegel Online, 29", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "French interests This intervention is not allabout terrorism and a humanitarian desire to enda civil war. France does have a stake in theconflict and a reason to deploy military forces.There are 6,000 French citizens living in Mali whoare obviously at risk to a rebel advance; evenwithout a full scale intervention France wouldalmost certainly have had to deploy forces toprotect an evacuation. Already there are sevenFrench citizens being held hostage in Mali andrescuing them is one of the three mainobjectives for the French intervention. [1] [1]Welsh, Jennifer, ‘Sending soldiers to Mali may bethe only solution’, The Globe and Mail, 14January 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The French have rejected any parallel withAfghanistan and other quagmires. Fabius,France’s Foreign Minister, has said that \"Lateron, we can come as back-up, but we have nointention of staying forever,\" [1] the handovermay be slower than anticipated but there is noevidence the French will be in Mali for anextended period. [1] ‘Mali: France pledges‘short’ campaign against Islamists’, BBC News,14 January 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Self-determination should first be internal ratherthan external. [1] In other wordsself-determination means autonomy within theexisting state not a new state unless there is noother way of resolving the conflict. In Malitherefore the rebels need to put down theirweapons and accept the authority of the centralgovernment, whose will the French and othersare trying to enforce. It is clear that the peopleof northern Mali would prefer a solution withinthe state of Mali as half the population has fledto the south [2] and Ansar Dine and MNLA havewalked back their declaration of independencepromising “respect for Mali's national unity andterritorial integrity” in December. [3] [1]“Reference re Secession of Quebec”, SupremeCourt of Canada, 1998, 2 S.C.R. 217, [2]Fessy, Thomas, ‘Mali Tuareg rebels declareindependence in the north’, BBC News, 6 April2012, [3] Agencies, ‘Mali rebels agree torespect ‘national unity’, AlJazeera, 5 December2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-con02a", "title": "", "text": "African organisations should have lead theway The United Nations charter is quite clearthat it should be African Nations leading the wayin this conflict. It says “The Security Council shallencourage the development of pacific settlementof local disputes through such regionalarrangements or by such regional agencies��� [1]and since there are several African SecurityOrganisations there is little reason why thesecould not have taken the lead. The African Unionin particular has undertaken interventions insimilar situations before; notably in Somalia. [2]This has been recognised right up until theFrench intervened and the UN Security Councilresolution in December mandated for “thedeployment of an African-led mission to supportefforts by national authorities to recover thenorth.” [3] [1] Article 52, [2] Jowell, Marco,‘Kenya: Intervening in Somalia – Risky BusinessWith No End in Sight’, All Africa, 17 January2012, [3] Security Council 6898th meeting,‘Security Council authorizes deployment of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Quagmire Western states seem to so often bewilling to get involved in conflicts withoutthinking about how to get out of them.Interventions are difficult operations that need alot of planning and the United Nations haspreviously said that in the case of Mali \"Nothingcould be done before September, October,\" andthere should be diplomatic talks and a rebuildingof the Malian army first. [1] Unless there is aclear exit plan then there is the risk that theconflict in Mali will turn into a Quagmire fromwhich French and other Western forces cannoteasily extradite themselves. The conflict has notresulted in many French casualties although theydid have a helicopter shot down. [2] Howeverthere is still a question of how long France willhave to keep a military presence in the country.The French initially said they would be pullingtroops out in March; [3] the first troops did notleave until May. They said they would only have1000 there by the end of the year [4] but inJanuary 2014 still had 2500. [5] [1] Irish, John,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Western countries should not be interfering inAfrican internal affairs Western nations shouldclearly not be interfering in African affairs. Notonly is this conflict outside of NATO’s remit but itis internal to an individual African state ratherthan a war between states. By interveningFrance and other nations are taking part in a civilwar in which they are aiding a government thatwas placed in office by a military coup in March2012 so does not have a democratic mandate.[1] This intervention is an example of Franceonce more playing the role of gendarme andconsidering that it has some kind of divine rightto intervene in Africa. [2] This war is of course inlarge part France’s fault in the first place; it istrying to hold together a nation that should besplit in two as a result of artificial colonialborders that fan conflict by dividingcommunities. [3] In this case France isintervening to deny a legitimate people’s, theTuareg, their right to self-determination. TheTuaregs are divided between Algeria, Kibya, Mali,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aptwhbfri-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This is ignoring both that African nations aretaking a leading role in this intervention and thatit is them who have asked for intervention bywestern states. First of All Nigeria is going tosend 600 troops, Senegal, Burkina Faso, andTogo 500 each, and Benin 300. These numbersfar outweigh the 550 being sent by France andlogistical support provided by other countriessuch as the UK and US. [1] It can therefore besaid that this is an African mission. Secondly theresolution in December did call for “coordinationwith the European Union and other partners”. [2]ECOWAS had already in December called for theUnited Nations to intervene [3] and “thanks theFrench Government for its initiatives to supportMali.” [4] [1] ‘Mali: France pledges ‘short’campaign against Islamists’, BBC News, 14January 2013, [2] Security Council 6898thmeeting, ‘Security Council authorizesdeployment of African-led international supportmission in Mali for initial year-long period’,United Nations, Resolution 2085, 20 December", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aaghwsddf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Cutting aid payments to the governments ofstates that are aid dependent would severelyrestrict the provision of public services andundermine public and international confidence infragile political settlements. This dependencetherefore prevents the aid being cut off. Israel,for instance, would arguably be unable to survivewithout its foreign aid from the USA. Similarly,those states such as Micronesia or Tokelau whichare almost exclusively aid dependent areessentially protectorates of those states that aidthem, giving them political independence and theability to develop. The approach suggested bythe resolution would also have a negative impacton nations that are politically stable but in needof reliable, uncomplicated economic support.Between 45 to 50% of all foreign aid goes tonations such as Argentina, Botswana and Brazil.Indeed, sanctions levelled against politicallyunstable or oppressive states such as Angola andZimbabwe tend to restrict the aid payments theyreceive. Reducing aid to politically mature and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aaghwsddf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Preventing dependence Direct aid createsdependence and a dangerous client cultureamong recipient states. ODA is entwined withforeign policy to the degree where aid is nolonger allocated on the basis of need, butaccording to the political and policy objectives ofdonor states. The USA can muster the politicalwill to provide military aid to Israel totallingnearly $3bn a year [i] , but even in the wake ofLive8, real aid (payment of fresh funds torecipients, as opposed to funds acquired byrescheduling existing aid obligations) to thepoorest nations in Africa is not as largeproportionately. Not only is ODA increasinglybeing used to incentivise compliance ornon-interference with America’s objectives in thewar on terror, as shown by the aid provided toPakistan for its cooperation in the stationing ofUS military bases. When ODA is administered inthis way, there is an increased risk that recipientgovernments will be seen by their people as lessindependent – as stooges of colonial", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aaghwsddf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Using central government spending to encouragegrowth is still a viable developmentstrategy. Whilst the important role that localmarkets play in the development process shouldbe recognised, they are not capable ofgenerating widespread economic change. NGOsserve a different purpose to governments. Theyconstruct local infrastructure projects such asschools and wells, in addition to augmentingskills practiced by established communities byproviding access to up-to-date tools and tuitionthat would normally be unaffordable to thecitizens of developing states. However, economicgrowth also requires significant central spending,in order to develop national infrastructure suchas roads and universities. Indian well-drillingefficiency has increased by 70% since thenascent Indian national space programme wastasked with using satellite technology to identifywater pockets. The diverse origins, policies andskillsets of NGOs tend to prevent them fromcollaborating in an effective fashion. Brazil’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aaghwsddf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Combating corruption Changing the way moneyis given will reduce corruption, embezzlementand manipulation. Centralised governmentstructures control aid distribution in manyrecipient countries. As a consequence,embezzlement by government officials hasbecome more frequent and easier to conceal.Linking aid to specific projects is ineffective atsolving this problem due to difficulty in trackingindividual project accounts within the recipientnation. The need to monitor which individualsand institutions receive donated funds, and toconfirm that funds have been applied accordingto agreed plans and schedules still presents adifficult and intractable auditingproblem. Recently the Netherlands has haltedits $148m development aid programme to Kenyain protest at aid embezzlement in the wake ofmultiple ‘graft’ scandals there [i] . Similarly SaoTome’s Prime Minister was arrested for aidembezzlement in 2004 [ii] . Corruption insidegovernment means that aid is also often directed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aaghwsddf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Advocates of government-to-government aid donot have to defend such out-dated portrayals ofODA. Since at least 2000, many DAC membernations have tied their aid entirely or in part topolitical, economic and environmental reform.The burden is now on recipient nations to provethat aid payments are not being squandered. Anonus is placed on recipients to invest in thecreation of a political culture that tacklescorruption, as has been seen with the foundingof an ‘anti-graft task force’ in Kenya in 2006.Linked aid promotes political stability,development policies conscious of the limitationsof national resources and a consistent economicframework. Moreover, there is no guaranteethat charities and NGOs will be any less corruptor more able to prevent corruption. Easy accessto large amounts of capital creates anenvironment that can foster corruption withinany type of organisation, whether governmentalinstitutions in the developing world ornon-governmental institutions based in wealthy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aaghwsddf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Supporting domestic development and domesticmarkets Direct aid undermines local marketswithin developing states. Many economistsbelieve that economic growth needs to occur at alocal or micro level, with private industryspurring growth and providing employmentopportunities [i] that act to elevate consumerdemand. Chile is often given as an example of acountry which has grown in thisway. Government aid frequently results in thegrowth of large, state-owned corporations whichundercut the creation of local markets,preventing the development of privateenterprise. This can be compared with thedeskilling effect that long term food aid hascaused within developing nations [ii] . Lackingthe will or economic resources to expand landcultivation schemes, formally and culturallyacquired farming have dropped out of use in arange of developing states. Dependence oncentrally distributed aid is slowing reducing thenumber of skilled, practiced agricultural", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aaghwsddf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Direct Aid creates an international welfare trap.ODA incentivises states to restrict developmentspending, in order to avoid the cuts in aiddonations that would accompany risingproductivity, public health and growthindicators. This is made worse by the fact thatone of the primary measures of poverty isincome below $1 or $2 a day (depending on theregion), so governments have an incentive tochannel aid to the elites or to schemes thatincentivise or entrenched foreign investment,whilst leaving the very poorest members of theirpopulation below this poverty line. Theconstruction of hydroelectric facilities, forexample, may reduce the amount that privateindustrial plants and manufacturers pay for theirpower. However, an improved power distributionnetwork may also be irrelevant to the needs ofordinary citizens within a state, unable to affordtools, medication or education, let aloneelectronic equipment. Tax breaks and lax wageprotection laws implemented in order to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aaghwsddf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "NGOs do not deliver aid effectively The idea thatNGO’s are better able to deliver development aidhas become received wisdom – accepteduncritically, repeated unthinkingly. Becausecharities do not have the political staying powerof governments, nor a government’s ability tomobilise force or request assistance fromintergovernmental bodies (such as the UN), theyare often the first to withdraw when dormant warzones turn ‘hot’. Inevitably, and understandably,NGOs will always prioritise the lives of their staffand volunteers. Problems also arise whenfaith-based NGOs attempt to involve themselvesin development projects in poorer parts of theworld. Even large, well-funded charities such asChristian Aid [i] or Saudi educational charitiesare perceived as partisan actors in certain statesand territories. The presence of such groups hasfrequently exacerbated community tensionswhere access to political power, wealth or land isdivided unequally among plural religious orcultural groups. Most importantly, whilst", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aaghwsddf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Protecting sovereignty The internationalcommunity should respect the sovereignty ofdeveloping nations. Side proposition hasattempted to mischaracterise states in receipt ofaid as undemocratic, authoritarian, kleptocraticor Hobbesian wastelands. Side proposition hasdone precious little to acknowledge that manystates that are reliant on ODA are functioning oremerging democracies. Kenya, despite itsgrowing wealth and increasing trade with Asianstates still makes extensive use of aid donations.In 2012 Kenya will hold elections for seats in itsnational legislature – its first since a presidentialelection degenerated into political violence in2007. However, even this extended period ofcivil disorder was brought to an end when themain contenders in the presidential ballot agreeda power sharing deal – a peaceful compromisethat has now been maintained for almost fiveyears [i] . Reducing government aid todeveloping democracies prevents these statesfrom allocating aid in accordance with their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-aaghwsddf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "NGOS are better at delivering aid. Governmentsin those nations most in need of aid are often theleast able or willing to deliver that aid. This isparticularly true in those states where theline-drawing of colonialism has pitched ethnicgroups into conflicts over resources, territory andpolitical recognition. For example, the centralgovernment of the former Sudan consistentlyrefused to apportion aid to the country’s restivesouthern region. Khartoum’s conduct prolongedconflicts in the area and hastened South Sudan’ssecession. Similarly, the Nigerian governmenthas no credibility in the Niger Delta region. TheSomali government, barely able to assert controlover the city of Mogadishu, is unable todistribute aid to other areas of the country. Thesame is true of south American and south eastAsian nations that have been affected by regionalinsurgencies. Under these circumstances, manyfirst world states have been forced to withdrawODA. By contrast, charities have the credibility ofnot being associated with governments; they can", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Biological weapons are indiscriminate. This iswhy they are so horrific, but also why they arenot a concern in this instance. Any use ofbiological weapons in Syria would likely affectnot only rebels but also government supporters.The Syrian government can’t afford to use such aweapon if it wants to ever have a chance ofregaining control of the country.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "What about biological weapons? Chemicalweapons are a horrifying weapon of massdestruction but they are by no means the onlysuch horrific weapons. James Clapper, the U.S.director of national intelligence says “We judgethat some elements of Syria’s biological warfareprogramme might have advanced beyond theresearch and development stage and might becapable of limited agent production, based onthe duration of its longstanding programme”. [1]Biological weapons could potentially be evenmore devastating than chemical weapons as theydon’t necessarily affect just a localised area thendisperse. As with other viruses they can bepassed from person to person. In a country likeSyria where the health services have brokendown, and basically don’t exist in oppositionareas the result could be huge numbers ofdeaths. It is inconsistent to disarm one type ofweapon while leaving another type of WMDavailable to the Syrian regime. [1] AFP, ‘Syria‘may be able to produce biological weapons’’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "That progress is difficult and slow is not a goodreason to leave the country entirely and insteadmake no progress.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Inspectors don’t solve the real problem Thebiggest difficulty with the weapons inspectorsbeing in Syria is that they are a sideshow to thereal problem. Yes chemical weapons use ishorrific but their use in Syria has caused farfewer casualties than conventional weapons. TheSyrian Observatory for Human Rights put thetotal death toll at 115,000 at the end ofSeptember 2013 [1] by comparison the chemicalweapons attack that triggered the threat ofintervention and therefore the inspectionscaused somewhere between 136 and 1300deaths. [2] Syria’s having joined the chemicalweapons convention and allowed in inspectorsmay prevent more deaths as a result of chemicalweapons but it has not stopped the conflict.Many thousands more will die as a result of theconflict while the international community lookson patting itself on the back that it has somehowmanaged to find a solution. [1] Stampler, Laura,‘Group Says Syria Death Toll at 115,000’, Time,1 October 2013, [2] Mroue, Bassem, ‘The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is a limit to what can be done in internalconflicts such as the Syrian civil war. There is achemical weapons convention that almost everynation has signed so there is an internationalnorm against their use and agreement on theirdisarmament. This is not the case withconventional internal conflict. The Syrian regimewill agree to disarm its chemical weapons toprevent bombing by NATO but removingconventional weapons or ending the conflictwould be completely different; a much biggeroperation which the Syrian regime could notagree too as it would mean signing their deathwarrant.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Withdrawing the inspectors is hardly going tomake Syria live up to its commitments. Insteadmore pressure is needed on Syria when it doesdrag its feet.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Unlikely to make any progress Weaponsinspectors are unlikely to actually be able tototally disarm Syria. The OPCW has been given atarget of dismantling Syria’s arsenal by themiddle of 2014 but has admitted that it is a tightdeadline that will require temporary ceasefires ifthe target is to be reached. This is because “Forany particular move that the team has toundertake, the security situation is assessed.Unless we get the clearance from our UNcolleagues, we don't move.” [1] Clearly if theweapons inspectors won’t go where there is ahigh risk to themselves they are unlikely to getthe job done. Already inspectors haveencountered situations where they can’t gainaccess to sites due to safety concerns. [2]Moreover in a conflict situation it will beextremely difficult to verify that all of Syria’schemical weapons have been dismantled. Thereare two potential problems – will the Syriangovernment really be honest about the size of itsstockpiles or will it quietly keep some back, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Syria has not lived up to its commitments Syriais falling well behind on handing over itsweapons. The deadliest chemicals were supposedto be removed by 1st January and the rest by6th February. Neither happened. The Syriangovernment blamed the lack of protectiveequipment as well as the security situation butthe OPCW says it has handed over the necessaryequipment. [1] Under a new timetable Syria haspledged to remove all chemical weapons by 13thApril, but by the end of March had only removedjust over half. [2] If Syria continues to fail tomeet deadlines there have to be consequences,including abandoning the mission. [1] Blanford,Nicholas, ‘Months of stalling preceded Syria’slatest chemical weapons handover’, CS Monitor,4 March 2014, [2] AlJazeera, 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The chemical weapons inspections take thepressure off Syria. When there was a threat ofintervention by an outside power there was areason for the Syrian government to negotiatewith the rebels to find a peaceful solution. It isclear that it was coercion that got the weaponsinspectors in as the White House said “It was thecredible threat of U.S. military action that led tothe opening of this diplomatic avenue.” [1] But ithalts future coercion. With weapons inspectors inthe country the possibility of using coercion isnon-existent; no country is going to consider anattack while they are there and the Syrianregime knows this. The inspections may beconsidered a diplomatic victory for Russia andthe USA but it has come at the expense of thebigger prize of peace. For which there is nowalmost no prospect. [1] Zenko, Micah, ‘Wouldthe Syria Deal Be a Coercive DiplomacySuccess?’, CFR, 12 September 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Conflict would not break out if the inspectorsleft; that point has passed. Now if the inspectorsleft it is likely that nothing would happen. Clearlythe better option is for there to be significantpressure on Syria and Assad to bring aboutpeace in the country – through sanctions, helpfor the rebels, even limited military action. Thiscan then allow much more comprehensiveweapons that don’t provide a chance for theSyrian regime to hide some amidst the chaos.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Inspectors are ending a chemical weaponsthreat Unless you are a warmonger, or you havea particular hatred of the United Nations, thenthere is no reason to throw the weaponsinspectors out. They do no harm in their missionin Syria and have the potential to do a lot ofgood by destroying one of the world’s biggeststockpiles of weapons of mass destruction. 189countries representing 98% of the world’spopulation have signed up to the chemicalweapons convention, which means getting rid ofthese horrifying weapons. [1] Clearly the world isin agreement that they must go and this is whatthe inspectors are endeavouring to do. Gettingrid of the inspectors simply halts this vital workto no end. [1] United Nations Office forDisarmament Affairs, ‘Chemical Weapons’,un.org,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con04a", "title": "", "text": "A point on the path to peace Sometimes peacecomes from one big agreement. But most of thetime there are lots of small steps on the path topeace. This involves finding areas where dealscan be made to help build trust that thenegotiating regimes will carry out their promises.A cease fire is worthless if neither side believesthe other will stick to it as it becomes a race tobreak it first. But the progress of weaponsinspectors shows Syria can be trusted to fulfil itscommitments. Peace talks have followed theagreement on chemical weapons. There havebeen conferences at Montreaux/Geneva, theyhave not brought breakthroughs, but neitherhave they broken down so progress on otherissues such as prisoner exchanges, humanitarianaccess, or safe passage deals, are likely at somepoint. [1] [1] Williams, Michael C., ‘Negotiatinga path to peace: from Geneva to Aleppo, viaMoscow’, New Statesman, 13 February 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Nobody can afford to have the weaponsinspectors leave There were three main actors inthe deal that allowed the chemical weaponsinspectors into Syria; The United States, Russia,and the Syrian government, none of whom haveany reason to want to see the inspectors leave.Russia took the initiative to create the dealhaving leapt upon Secretary of State JohnKerry’s remarks and so has a lot of internationalprestige tied up in making the deal work, it alsoshows that Russia can be constructive as well assimply a spoiler in the international arena. If thedeal collapsed then the United States wouldalmost certainly be back to where it was whenthere was agreement on sending the weaponsinspectors in; days or weeks away from militaryaction. Such military action would be costly andunlikely to work; attacking chemical weaponsfrom the air would be difficult and would riskchemical releases. [1] Because of the risk ofattack it would clearly be in Syria’s interest tostick with the current situation. So far it has", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Inspectors were the only way to avoidinternational conflict Before the deal on allowingin weapons inspectors the course was set for aninternational conflict in Syria; the United Statesand allies, such as France, would have bombedSyria. The only way to prevent such a conflictbecoming a reality is to keep weapons inspectorson the ground. Syria crossed President Obama’s‘red line’ when chemical weapons were used anddespite initial reluctance on the part of theObama administration this was always likely tolead to some form of military response. Syria'sForeign Minister when accepting the Russiansuggestion to disarm its chemical weaponssuggested this was why it accepted as Walidal-Moallem said they accepted to \"thwart U.S.aggression\". [1] If the weapons inspectors leavethe United States is once more left with thequestion of how to get rid of the chemicalweapons, the weapons inspections are the onlynon-military option. [1] AP, 'Syria AcceptsRussian Proposal To Surrender Chemical", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The deal that allowed weapons inspectors intoSyria may have made peace further away notcloser. By allowing Assad’s government to signup to an international treaty while its legitimacywas contested by other groups showed thatother governments accept only Assad as thelegitimate government of Syria. This undid twoyears of attempts to delegitimise Assad; morethan 30 countries had recognised Syria’sopposition as the country’s ‘legitimaterepresentative’. [1] [1] Freedman, Joshua Meir,‘Don’t let Assad sign the Chemical WeaponsConvention on Syria’s behalf’, AlJazeera, 29September 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-mepdwhwhwi-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Taking the weapons inspectors out of Syria neednot be permanent, simply until there is peaceand hopefully a new regime.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "African states have been happy with the ICC inthe past – they referred ICC cases to the courtthemselves. If African states were to set uptheir own court, it would be unclear how it wouldwork with the existing framework of the ICC assome African states may wish to remain ICCmembers. Also, a regional body would still leadto allegations of a “foreign court”, while at thesame time placing the decisions in the hands ofjudges who may be less insulated from regionalgeopolitical pressures.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Regional court is “best of both worlds” Aregional court would be a good way to balancethe competing issues between the legitimateconcerns of the African states and theInternational Criminal Court. It would be able toprovide an African solution to African problems,with no accusations of external interference orcolonialism. Similarly, it would have some of theadvantages of the ICC particularly itsindependence from individual states, meaningthose in high places are more likely to be held toaccount. With this accountability to an Africancourt there would be an impression of being heldto account by peers not outsiders.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There isn’t such a balancing act – without justicethere cannot be peace as it is simply likely tolead to attempts at retribution or vigilantejustice. Justice is a universal value, an end initself. It is not something that can be given awayas a bargaining chip.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ICC is biased against Africans All of the ongoingICC prosecutions are based on events in Africa,and all those on trial are Africans. The ICC hasnot brought actions following the invasion ofIraq, or the conflicts in Sri Lanka and Colombia.The lack of action in any matter outsidesub-Saharan Africa shows that the internationalcommunity are happy to allow the ICC toexclusively prosecute Africans. The UN SecurityCouncil, which contains no African permanentmembers, can veto any possible prosecution [1]and refer a case to the ICC [2] .. Replacing theICC with an African Criminal Court would stopthis bias, or perception of bias. This would bedone by withdrawing from the Rome statute andthe ICC which has been labelled as Westernimperialism by people such as Rwandanpresident Paul Kagame [3] . [1] Rome Statute,Article 16 [2] Rome Statute, Article 13 [3] DuPlessis, footnote 36 (dead links)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Almost all of the cases where people have beenindicted before the ICC – DR Congo, Uganda,Central African Republic and the Ivory Coast –have been referred to the court by Africannations themselves. Those that have not werereferred to the UN Security Council. The onlycase where the Office of the Prosecutor started acase leading to incitement was the Kenya case,Kenya having signed and ratified the RomeStatute. The ICC can only act where it hasjurisdiction [1] - it is not a kangaroo court forparticular cases. The ICC has looked in to casesoutside Africa, including in Afghanistan,Honduras, the Mediterranean sea (an Israeliattack on Comorosian, Greek and Cambodianships), Korea, Colombia, Georgia and Palestine[2] . [1] Rome Statute, Article 22 [2] Office ofthe Prosecutor, Report in to PreliminaryExamination Activities, 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Drugs trafficking was considered as a role for theICC, but rejected as unworkable – an ACC wouldface the same problems. “Unconstitutonalchange of government” would be open torampant political abuse, allowing existinggovernments to cling on to power. No othersupranational regional body has tried having itsown prosecution system or criminal courts – noteven the European Union. Regional bodies can –and should – have courts to deal with treatyinterpretation or human rights treaties, butregional criminal courts are a major step into theunknown. Criminal cases are best served by onenation, or all of them – not a regional bloc withits own tensions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ICC doesn’t strike right balance between peaceand justice for Africa The balance betweenpeace and justice is a complex issue. The ICChas disregarded peace as a priority in cases,focusing exclusively on justice by indictingindividuals, which reduces the diplomatic leewayand drives those indicted towards a bunkermentality. The result then may be the conflictgoes on longer and more crimes are committed.Peace and preventing future crimes should comebefore justice for past crimes. The ICC havefocused on prosecuting Omar al Bashir, but itmay be a better option to focus on diplomaticalternatives to trials for dealing with the conflictin Darfur.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "ACC could deal with pan-African problems thatthe ICC does not address It has been suggestedthat offences such as “unconstitutional change ofgovernment”, drug trafficking, piracy andcorruption [1] should be added to the jurisdictionof an African Criminal Court. The ICC is limitedto only a small number of crimes. However, anAfrican Criminal Court could not only deal withthe existing crimes, but create pan-Africansolutions in terms of dealing with a number ofissues where Africa needs particularsolutions. An ACC could deal with piracy off thecoast of East Africa, where there is no effectivecourt system, due to Somalia amounting to afailed state. Similarly, “unconstitutional changeof government” prosecutions could amount to adeterrent to coups. [1] IRIN, “Analysis: HowClose is an African Criminal Court?”, IRIN(Integrated Regional Information Networks), 13June 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-con03b", "title": "", "text": "An African Criminal Court instead of African ICCmembership would not lead to impunity – justmore local courts. The principle ofcomplementarity, allowing national courts totake appropriate action – is already enshrined inthe ICC. In a particularly bad case, the UNSecurity Council could still refer a situation to theICC. Running an African Criminal Court intandem with the ICC would allow another layerof regional justice to bring the Nurembergprecedent – leaders held criminally responsiblefor criminal actions – in to fruition in Africa.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-con01b", "title": "", "text": "By being a court for the African continent by theAfrican continent, there will not be room forallegations of imperialism and/or racism thatalready exist against the International CriminalCourt. In addition, the African states that aremembers of the International Criminal Courthave chosen to do so – it is not a violation ofstate sovereignty for a state to voluntarily sign atreaty even if that treaty restricts the actions offuture governments.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ACC could destabilize Africa Depending on howthe treaty is drawn up, an African Criminal Courtcould be open to abuse. If it has too broadpowers, it could lead to political trials thanks tojudges following orders from their domesticgovernments, and complaints to it bygovernments in diplomatic spats rather thanactually resolving serious international criminallaw crimes. The same disputes that exist nowwithin the ICC over issues such as interferencewith national sovereignty could just be replicatedon a smaller scale – but rather than resembling afailure of any international body, it would be aregional body and lead to greater problems. Ifthe ICC indicts a leader there is anger at theinternational community, if an ACC does thesame there is a split in the AU.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-con04a", "title": "", "text": "An African Criminal Court would be a waste ofmoney International trials are expensive – 14%of the AU’s annual budget for an ICC trial [1]. The ICC is cheaper than the cost of thetribunal system – the cost of the Charles Taylortrial was roughly two and a half times that of the$20M figure for ICC trials. Africa alreadycontributes little to the budget of the ICC. TheICC will be cheaper than standalone tribunalsthanks to economies of scale. The African Unionhas a track record of failures as well – NEPAD,the New Partnership for African Developmenttried to have a quasi-judicial element aiming tocreate rulings against corruption, but failed [2]. [1] IRIN, “Analysis: How Close is an AfricanCriminal Court?”, IRIN (Integrated RegionalInformation Networks), 13 June 2012, [2]Editorial, ‘African Criminal Court Not Viable’, theStar, 17 July 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Anti-ICC sentiment is a simple desire forimpunity The sole motive for the anti-ICCarguments raised by organizations such as theAfrican Union is a drive towards impunity –particularly for heads of state. The prosecutionsof Uhuru Kenyatta and Omar al-Bashir, soviciously opposed by the AU, are a show thatheads of state are and should be subject to theinternational criminal law – a principle that datesback to Nuremberg. An African Criminal Courtwould simply be granting African leaders’ carteblanche to perform crimes against humanity, asthere would be a ready-made court to acquitthem.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Just as much of a violation of sovereignty as theICC Part of the calls for an African CriminalCourt are based on the perception that thenational sovereignty of African nations is beingattacked in some way before the InternationalCriminal Court. However, an African CriminalCourt would be just as much of a violation of thesovereignty of individual African nations as theICC; it is a system of courts outside the controlof the nation of those it is trying. Europeanstates object to courts outside their controldictating even when they are regional courts –consider the reactions to the European Court ofHuman Rights on areas like voting for prisonersor to the European Court of Justice. That theseare regional not global courts makes littledifference to national opinion. It is no surprisethen that not even the EU with its close relationshas attempted a supra national criminal courtsystem.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Peace is cheaper than war – however much acourt case costs, in both human lives andmoney, it is better for there to be a trial. Even ifit is more expensive, justice is priceless – it isnot something that can be subjected tocost-benefit analyses or bean counting. Thereason why Western countries fund the ICC isnot some form of imperialism – simply a desirefor global peace, justice and security so theywould likely be willing to keep paying much ofthe cost.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alhrilhwca-con02b", "title": "", "text": "If it is a damp squib, so be it – otherinternational organizations have fallen in todisuse – UN institutions that only exist on papersuch as the Trusteeship Council are not doingany harm and there would be the fallback ofreturning to the ICC if things go wrong.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is only fair that the US should have some sayon domestic drug policy considering the extent oftheir military assistance. The offers of assistanceare optional and the conditions of compliance areknown by both parties. The US gave $6,495million in military assistance to the Columbiangovernment between 1998 and 2008 to counterthe narcotics trade and the rebels who werereliant on the business1. Since this fundingcomes from the USA’s federal budget, the USshould be able to dictate how the money isspent. 1) Acevedo,B. ‘Ten Years of PlanColombia: An Analytical Assessment’, TheBeckley Foundation Drug Policy Programme,September 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Sacrifice of sovereignty Guinea-Bissau wouldhave to sacrifice its autonomy if it became thenew front for the war on drugs. In order toreceive assistance from the US, a state mustadhere to US policy on drugs. If it fails to do so,like Bolivia did in 2009, then aid is severed underthe certification system1. This restricts therecipient state’s ability to respond to the drugthreat in a way that they deem suitable to theirown circumstances. As a state should be free toform domestic policy without influence byexternal actors, the USA’s certification process isa violation of national sovereignty. 1) Walsh,J.‘U.S. Decertification of Bolivia: A Blast from thePast’, Washington Office on Latin America, 17September 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The judicial system is not capable of handlingnarcotics cases fairly. Corruption and civil warhave left Guinea-Bissau’s judicial system broken.Military leader General Antonio Indaj, who hasalleged links to the drugs trade, has vetted allpolitical and judicial appointments1. Consideringthat Guinea-Bissau has no prison, it is unlikelythat those in the drug trade will be properlyprosecuted. The US’ judicial system is seen as farmore impartial and is, therefore, a more logicalchoice. 1) Reitano,T. & Shaw,M. ‘Arrest ofGuinea-Bissau’s Drug Lords Just the First Step inthe Battle Against Trafficking’, Institute forSecurity Studies, 12 August 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Gives power to military coup leaders Assistancefrom the US would ensure that the coup leadersof Guinea Bissau remain in power. Thesecuritisation of issues such as drugs and ‘terror’is encouraged by the United States. A majorproblem with this policy is that it provides unduepower and legitimacy to those countering thethreat1. In early 2014, the military were stillunconstitutionally ruling over the country. Thedrug war provides an external threat for themilitary to justify their leadership position.Considering the military has refused to allowdemocratic elections to occur and has regularlycommitted coups2, the US drug war could be aperfect excuse for to remain in power until the‘threat’ subsides. 1) Crick,E. ‘Drugs as anexistential threat: An analysis of theinternational securitization of drugs’,International Journal of Drug Policy, 2012 2)BBC, ‘Guinea-Bissau drug trade ‘rises sincecoup’, 31 June 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Part of the financial assistance received bycountries on the front line of the drug war is afund for ‘strengthening of democraticinstitutions’. Plan Columbia, the USA’s attempt toreduce drug cultivation, saw 27% of all fundinggoing towards democratic initiatives1. In areview by the Congressional Research Service ofUS drug control policy, the strengthening of therule of law and democratic institutions is apriority for the US2. If the US drug war wasbrought to Guinea-Bissau then funding wouldmost likely go towards promoting democraticinstitutions and a transition of power from themilitary to the civilians. 1) Acevedo,B. ‘TenYears of Plan Colombia: An AnalyticalAssessment’, The Beckley Foundation Drug PolicyProgramme, September 2008 2) Wyler,L.‘International Drug Control Policy: Backgroundand U.S. Responses’, Congressional ResearchService, 13 August 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There is a stronger focus on alternativedevelopment in drugs policy compared to thebeginning of the drug war. The United NationsOffice on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), historicallyinfluenced by US drug policy, has taken anincreasingly alternative development-orientatedstance. The UNODC has committed itself toeffective alternative incomes, gendermainstreaming and community participationwhich demonstrates a global shift towardsbeneficial development1. 1) United NationsOffice on Drugs and Crime ‘Making a differencethrough Alternative Development’ data accessed30 January 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Judiciary are undermined Should Guinea-Bissaubecome the new front of the US drug war thentheir judiciary will be furthered undermined. TheUS has frequently tried offenders from othercountries in the US, superseding the localjudiciary1. While this is usually due to formalagreements between states, extradition cancause indignation amongst the local population.Guinea-Bissau’s ex Naval chief Na Tchuto wasarrested by American forces and, rather thanallowing his home state to prosecute him, wastried by the New York District Court. This causedresentment in Guinea-Bissau towards theUS2. 1) Aronofsky,D. & Qin,J. ‘U.S.International Narcotics Extradition Cases’ 2)Reitano,T. & Shaw,M. ‘Arrest ofGuinea-Bissau’s Drug Lords Just the First Step inthe Battle Against Trafficking’, Institute forSecurity Studies, 12 August 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "War on the poor The war on drugs has turned into a war on the poorest in society. Throughheavy handed techniques of enforcement andmilitarisation, the American war on drugs hasfailed to identify to key motivating factor formany of those involved in the trade; poverty1.Guinea-Bissau is the 5th poorest nation in theworld, and other primary exports such as cashewnuts are starting to fail1. Due to lucrative profits,many of the poorer in society turn to the drugtrade. US policy does not put enough of a focuson alternative development projects which canprovide a livelihood through licit means. Insteadthey are treated as criminals and, in turn, arepushed further away from reconciliation. 1)Falco,M. ‘Foreign Drugs, Foreign Wars’,Daedalus, 121:2, 2007, pg4 2) The Guardian,‘Guinea-Bissau’s dwindling cashew nut exportsleave farmers facing hardship’, 23 August 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Corruption is still present in many states whichhave joined the US drug war. The war on drugshas done little, and perhaps exacerbated,Columbia’s corruption despite US assistance. In2011, Columbian ex-government ministers werejailed and prosecuted for corruption andco-operation with paramilitaries.1Judicial reformshave also met with varied success. The MeridaInitiative in Mexico, designed at removing thecorruption of the cartels, has failed to addresscorruption in the judicial system which is stillrampant. 2 1) Bogota,S. ‘Closer and closer tothe top’, The Economist, 29 July 2011 2)Corcoran,P. ‘Mexico Judicial Reforms Go Easy OnCorrupt Judges’, In Sight Crime, 16 February2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Interdiction rarely works. If Guinea-Bissau wereto remove illicit drug operations from within itsterritories then the cartels would moveelsewhere. Known as the hydra effect, once onepotential drug route is cut off then another one isfound and the trade continues1. This was thecase for interdiction efforts between the US andMexico. Initial government operations weresuccessful at interdicting drugs being shippedbetween South American and Florida. Inretaliation, traffickers began to use theUS-Mexico border. The border witnesses largevolumes of trade and interdicting the drugsproved to be nearly impossible2. It is logical toconclude that traffickers would find a new way toensure drugs reached the Western markets ifGuinea-Bissau sought US assistance. 1) Boaz,D.‘The Hydra-Headed Drug Business’, CATOinstitute, 30 June 1998 2) Morton,D. ‘The Waron Drugs in Mexico: a failed state?’, Third WorldQuarterly,39:3, pg.1639", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con02a", "title": "", "text": "US will provide equipment Guinea-Bissau shouldjoin the US drug war as they do not have themeans to fight the war themselves. The local lawenforcement is underfunded and ill-equipped todeal with the international threat. Guinea Bissauhas one ship which patrols 350km of coastline,their officers have little in the way of landtransport, petrol, phones or hand cuffs1. Thelimited reach of the law has allowed the cartelsand gangs to prosper which, in turn, furtherdamages law and order in Guinea Bissau. USmilitary assistance will therefore help restore lawand order to Guinea Bissau. 1) Parkinson,C.‘LatAm Drug Traffickers Set Up in Guinea-Bissau,Expand in Africa’, In Sight Crime, 29 August2013 2) Acevedo,B. ‘Ten Years of PlanColombia: An Analytical Assessment’, TheBeckley Foundation Drug Policy Programme,September 2008Shirk,D. ‘The Drug War inMexico’, Council of Foreign Relations, March2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Becoming a narco-state Guinea-Bissau’s socialfabric is being destroyed by the presence of thedrug trade and requires international support.Guinea-Bissau has been named as Africa’s firstNarco-state; a country controlled by drug cartelsand gangs. Violence committed by these gangshas escalated since the arrival of the Columbiancartels in 20071. Addiction, a consequence of thecocaine and heroin use, is prevalent throughoutmuch of the country. It was estimated in 2012that around 20-30% of the population use crack,an extremely addictive form of cocaine, andthere is only one clinic in the country2. The onlypeople who are visibly profiting from thepresence of drugs are the Columbian drug lordswho have extravagant mansions and moderncars3. Guinea-Bissau cannot hope to fight theprominence of these gangs by themselves andrequire aid. 1) Time, ‘Guinea-Bissau: World’sFirst Narco-State’, data accessed 28 January2014 2) Hatcher,J. ‘Guinea-Bissau: How CocaineTransformed a Tiny African Nation’, Time, 15", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Deal with Corruption Guinea-Bissau’sinstitutions have become too corrupt to deal withthe drug problem and require support. Thepolice, army and judiciary have all beenimplicated in the drug trade. The involvement ofstate officials in drug trafficking means thatcriminals are not prosecuted against. When twosoldiers and a civilian were apprehended with635kg (worth £25.4 million in 2013), they weredetained and then immediately released withColonel Arsenio Blade claiming ‘They were on theroad hitching a ride’1. Judges are often bribed orsent death threats when faced with sentencingthose involved in the drug trade. The USA hasprovided restructuring assistance to institutionswhich have reduced corruption, such as in theMexico Merida Initiative, and could do the samewith Guinea Bissau. 1) Vulliamy,E. ‘How a tinyWest African country became the world’s firstnarco state’, The Guardian, 9 March 2008 2)Corcoran,P. ‘Mexico Judicial Reforms Go Easy OnCorrupt Judges’, In Sight Crime, 16 February", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Prevent drugs from reaching Westernmarkets By joining the war on drugs,Guinea-Bissau will be in a better position tothwart the transportation of cheap cocaine andheroin to Europe and North America.Guinea-Bissau’s position makes it ideal for thecocaine trade, where drugs can be unloadedfrom Latin America and then distributed moreeasily to the West1. Around 18 tons of cocaine(worth $1.25 billion) passes through West Africaannually, most of it travelling through the state2.US assistance and interdiction operations wouldhelp prevent illicit drugs from reaching theprofitable Western markets. 1) Smoltczyk,A.‘Africa’s Cocaine Hub: Guinea-Bissau a “DrugTrafficker’s Dream”, Spiegel, 8 March 2013 2)Hoffman,M. ‘Guinea-Bissau and the SouthAtlantic Cocaine Trade’, Centre for AmericanProgress, 22 August 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Considering that many of the military leadershave an invested interest in the drug trade, it isunlikely that Guinea-Bissau will seek help onthese grounds. Antonio Indaj, the army’s Chief ofStaff, was accused in 2013 of acting as a middleman in transactions between the South Americancartels and the Western markets1. Not only hashe been involved in drugs transactions, but Indajhas also been accessed of supplying weaponry tothe FARC. This makes it unlikely that theseleaders would want US assistance which woulddisrupt their profits and possibly leave themopen to prosecution. 1) Hoffman,M.‘Guinea-Bissau and the South Atlantic CocaineTrade’, Centre for American Progress, 22 August2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-international-alcphbgbsnl-con02b", "title": "", "text": "US assistance does not guarantee successagainst illicit drug organisations. Despite themilitarisation of the drug war in the Reagan-era,armed gangs are still prominent throughout thedrug world. In Columbia, the left wing FARC stillremains despite decades of war against theColumbian and USA governments1. The FARC,who use drugs for much of its income, stillcontrol large territories in the South Easternterritories. The effectiveness of military aid isconsequently uncertain. 1) Acosta,N.‘Colombia’s FARC rebels end holiday ceasefire’,Reuters, 15 January 2014 2) Vulliamy,E. ‘How atiny West African country became the world’sfirst narco state’, The Guardian, 9 March 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Modern society discriminates itself against theprinciples of individuals choosingself-determination and parental rights when itcomes to the opposite case. There are highdouble standards when for example a couplechooses that their child should be deaf, just asthey are. This was the case with Tomato Lichyand his partner Paula, who wanted IVF in orderto produce a child that was deaf- just as theyare. The “embryo bill in 2008 (UK)” passed witha clause that exactly prohibits such actions asthe deaf couple in limits of their right toself-determination and parentingrequested. Clause 14/4/9 states that, \"Personsor embryos that are known to have a gene,chromosome or mitochondrion abnormalityinvolving a significant risk that a person with theabnormality will have or develop a seriousphysical or mental disability, a serious illness orany other serious medical condition must not bepreferred to those that are not known to havesuch an abnormality.\" (1) Specifically this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Parents have a right to acquire and act uponmedical information This argument comes fromthe idea, that a body is the property of its owner,as well as a fertilized egg is the property of thecouple that created it whom also have parentalrights a) Self-determination Some proponentsof genetic screening might go as far to create thedistinction between an embryo and a child:considering an embryo not to be a living being,but rather just a mass of cells, makes it possibleto avoid entirely considering the \"screening\"process as a selection process between livinghuman beings. Rather, it could be interpretedmerely as a selection between differentorganizations of cells that have differing potentialto become healthy \"life\". b) Parentalrights Currently we allow couples to choose notto have children due to their own geneticdeformations. We allow them to tie their tubes,get sterilized due to their own decision not tohave children with genetic defects or children atall. Experts suggest, that due to the sanctity of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Seen from a philosophical point is that if a childis not brought into the world, it has not benefitedof the community and in that sense you cannever harm a person by bring it into existence,unless the person's life is so dreadful thatnonexistence is preferable. That life with adisability or chronic illness is predictably worsethan non-existence is not plausible for most ofthe defects for which we test, even Downsyndrome, which is the most tested for andcommon reason for abortion, Where in fact ahappy disposition is actually a characteristic trait.Hence, bringing a child into existence cannotcount as harming it. (1) 1. StanfordEncyclopedia of philosophy, , accessed05/24/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Genetic testing ensures the best quality of life forchildren vulnerable to heritable diseases Wehave a duty to the child to give it the bestpossible start in life, and if the technology isavailable to determine whether a baby is broughtinto the world with or without a geneticneurological disease such as Huntington’s, cysticfibrosis or sickle cell anemia, we should exercisethat right. A child that has Cystic Fibrosis (CF)produces too much fluid and mucus in the lungs,pancreas and passage ways, which then becomethick, sticky and hard to move. This means thatgerms get stuck in the mucus and the childsuffers from a lot of infectious diseases. Thuslead to reduced life expectancies (1). For thegene detectable blood disease Thalassemia in itsmoderate and severe forms children may needvery frequent blood transfusions, which overtime lead to damage of heart, liver or otherorgans. Or may need stem cell transplants (bonemarrow transplants) in order to get thesetransplants children will usually need to undergo", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The genetic test does not prevent or cureanything. It merely asserts whether someone isa carrier of a genetic disorder. The testing wouldbe paid for by couples to see if they are bothcarriers of this disorder. The decision then acouple can make based on the screenings is thento: a) not have children together The idea ofthese tests preventing people from marrying ismental. In our liberal society surely it is love thatcounts in a relationship, not how well your genesfit together to make the perfect child. b) choosein vitro fertilization In order to make themprevent the disease, so that the defected genes(in some cases) can be manipulated. c) abortthe present fetus We pressurize and take awaychoices of the parents, by giving them theknowledge, regarding their children. A professorof Law at Harvard University, Paul Freund alsotakes up the position that an unborn child hasthe right to random genes. Freund states, 'Themystery of individual’s personality, resting on thechance combination of ancestral traits, is the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Liberal societies have a duty to minimiseavoidable suffering that might affect theirmembers Some of the genetic diseases testedinclude great suffering for the individual, one ofthem is the Tay Sachs syndrome. Where nervecells become fatty from reoccurring infections.(1)This is a disease, where even with the best ofcare; a child dies at the age of 4. Another is alsoDown Syndrome, where half of the sufferershave heart defects, increased risks of types ofleukemia and high risks of dementia. Physicaland mental limitations are also a feature of sucha defect which causes many children to die early.(2). So it is the duty of any society to preventsuch sufferings for both child and parents at anycost or method. A similar view is shared amongthe Jewish community, who has problems with ahigh prevalence of Tay Sachs syndrome. Theybelieve that due to the psychological andphysical repercussions of the birth of a child withthe genetic disorder it is better to screen andchoose a healthy embryo (or abort the present", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Most genetic screening tests can also beperformed at home, with results sent only to theuser and so kept secretly – away from insurancecompanies and health institutions. It is then thedomain of the individual itself if he or she wantsto disclose this information. Discrimination basedon the genetic pool currently seems to be rarebut since thousands of Americans areaccustomed to a health insurance system inwhich known risks carry financial penalties, theydo not disclose this information (1). Regardinggenetic screening in the UK, there is a voluntaryban among members of the Association of BritishInsurers from being able to access the results ofgenetic tests (apart from Huntington’s disease).This ban will be again reviewed in the year 2014(2). 1. Amy Harmon, Insurance Fears LeadMany to Shun DNA Tests, 02/24/2008, ,accessed 22/05/2011 2. Impact, , accessed22/05/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Genetic screening allows for parents to give theirchildren the possibility of living a life without adebilitating genetic condition. Surely those wholive with these conditions would not want to haveother endure their pain, when there is an optionnot to. By having these genes that cause suchpain, and short life expectancy eventuallyremoved from the gene pool we are alsoincreasing the strength of the humanrace. Genetic screening is only to be used toprevent and let families know about geneticdefects. It is not discrimination to want humansto not bear genetic defects that debilitate theirlife, or end it premature through pain andsuffering.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "A screening culture may lead to the value ofhuman life becoming distorted Geneticengineering treats embryos like commodities: “ifthe product isn’t sufficiently equipped, doesn’tproduce the desired results – we will not launchit”. Even if we weren't considering embryos to be\"human life\", it is inappropriate to treat them ascommodities with an \"option to purchase\". Thischeapens at least the potential life-forms theseembryos can become. Views of doctors and alsofuture parents regarding the value of theirunborn children’s lives are changing. In a surveytaken in New England (USA), there was asubstantial majority in favor of genetic screeningfor a wide range of disorders. About 11 per centof the couples have also admitted to wanting toabort a child that was genetically predisposed toobesity. A condition with which it is possible tolive a good lifestyle (1). With allowing more andmore genetic screening and abortions /manipulations based on genes we are making lifemore of a commodity. 1.Jim Leffel, Genetic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Genetic destabilisation Natural selection is theprocess whereby people mate, have children andthose children enrich the gene pool – if theysurvive. Occasionally genetic mistakes are madein that reproduction. As long as the result is notfatal, that mistake can begin to infiltrate thegene pool. More people may come to have thismistake in built into their genome. Whilst wemay see it as a mistake in our current livingconditions, that mutant gene may be a defenseto future conditions. For instance, the spread ofsickle cell anemia in Africa. This disease causesred blood cells to carry less oxygen due to thesquashed nature of all the red blood cells. Thiscondition causes people to die younger, in 1973life expectancy for a sufferer was 17, and it isnow 50 and above. However, sickle cell anemiais a natural immunity against malaria. The lifeexpectancy for someone with malaria is farlower.[[Sickle cell disease, QualityHealth, 13thJanuary 2011, accessed 25/05/11]] We needdifferent genes in the human gene pool even if", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Genetic screening may lead to the pooling andcentralised storage of genetic information Mostdiseases people will not have heard of. Suchtests can be used also to store DNA in adatabase. The hotly debated idea of a DNAdatabase has received much criticism. Byframing the question of the ethics of a DNAdatabase in this light is much more positivelyreceived by the public, and this is a waygovernments and insurance companies willchange the public perception of a DNAdatabase. Health insurance companies inAmerica and life insurance companies in Britainwill be very keen in the use of this data in orderto give higher premiums to those who showpositive for certain diseases. Such geneticscreening then may lead to companiesdemanding information about clients beforeensuring them. This fear of insurance in the USbeing denied due to genetic predispositions is notgroundless. A study conducted by GeorgetownUniversity Health Policy Institute in 2008 proves", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Genetic screening may lead the marginalisationof those living with genetic disorders Seen froma philosophical point is that if a child is notbrought into the world, it has not benefited ofthe community and in that sense you can neverharm a person by bring it into existence, unlessthe person's life is so dreadful that nonexistenceis preferable. That life with a disability or chronicillness is predictably worse than non-existence isnot plausible for most of the defects for which wetest, even Down syndrome, which is the mosttested for and common reason for abortion,Where in fact a happy disposition is actually acharacteristic trait. Hence, bringing a child intoexistence cannot count as harming it. (1) 1.Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy, , accessed05/24/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Side proposition are not suggesting that naturalselection would not still occur, but that seriouslydebilitating genetic diseases would no longerlead to the death of many infants, or the poorquality of life. In 1973, we did not have thetechnology to prevent malaria which we havenow. With the technology we have today we canmanage and treat many more illnesses thanpreviously thought possible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-olrfhwapgs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "In 2006 already Baroness Ruth Deech, theformer chairwoman of the Human Fertilisationand Embryology Authority in the UK explained,that it is far more ethical to choose an embryobefore implantation, than getting pregnant,deciding there’s something wrong with the babyand then aborting it. Mainly it is the duty toimpose the right restrictions that would enable adistinction on what is necessary for a normallifestyle and where to draw the line for geneticpredispositions (so for example to not abort ornot implant babies with genes for obesity). Alsoit is in the human nature to abort fetuses fromthe uterus if they are not healthy, it is a help tothe natural process. Because during every cycleof a sexually active female fertilized eggs if notfound to be healthy enough to survive getaborted naturally (1). 1. Head to head: Geneticscreening, 05/10/2006, , accessed 05/23/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Reality is a lot murkier than theory. How are weto determine a state’s intent? Sometimes goodintentions are bound up with bad; publicjustifications for war may not always representthe real reasons. And who is determine if a peaceis just or a wrong has been committed? Thenation initiating the war will use its own values tojustify its intentions, and these values may be atodds with those of the other party to the conflict.Furthermore, it is altogether possible to fight awar for selfish motives and nevertheless protectcivilians and reduce suffering in so doing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Right Intention The intentions behind the warmust be good. States have the right to use warto restore a just peace, to help the innocent, orto right a wrong. For example, the US and NATOwere justified in using force in Bosnia andKosovo. Waging war was far more ethical thanstanding by and permitting genocide and “ethniccleansing”.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "Prospect of Success The war must have areasonable chance of success. War alwaysinvolves a loss of life, but expending life with nopossibility of achieving a goal is unacceptable.Thus, if a fighting force cannot achieve its goal,however just, it should not proceed. Charging anenemy’s cannons on horseback or throwingtroops at a pointless occupation are clearly notjust actions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Many nations wage war without officialdeclaration (e.g. the USA’s involvement inVietnam) and act unilaterally instead. Suchunilateralism does not necessarily lead to aninevitable circumvention of the GenevaConventions, it merely avoids the bureaucracynecessary to draw authoritative approval.Moreover, who is to decide which entities canand cannot issue calls to arms? Legitimateauthorities have sanctioned some of the mosthorrific wars in history.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Proportionality The goal of the war should beproportional to the offense, and the benefitsproportional to the costs. For example, when anattacker violates a nation’s border, aproportionate response might extend to restoringthe border, not sacking the attackers’ capital. Awar must prevent more suffering than itcauses. The Coalition that formed under theaegis of the United Nations to repel the Iraqiinvasion of Kuwait fought a proportional conflictto the extent that they did not march onBaghdad after they had pushed the Iraqi Armyout of the occupied territory.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Just Cause Wars are just if the cause is just.Nations should be allowed to defend themselvesfrom aggression, just as individuals arepermitted to defend themselves against violence.In the UN Charter, signed in the wake of WorldWar II, article 2, paragraph 4 altogetherprohibits the use or threat of force with onlyself-defence, as stated in article 51, permitted asa justification to the resort to arms. [1] [1]United Nations. (1945, June 26). Chapter I:Purposes and Principles. Retrieved May 9, 2011,from Charter of the United Nations:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Just cause is an elastic concept. Who determineswhat is “aggression”? Could violating a disputedborder region (e.g. Ethopia-Eritrea,Pakistan-India) or imposing economic sanctions(e.g on North Korea) be aggression? And if astate is unable to defend itself, can another stateintervene militarily on its behalf? Theseborderline cases make invoking this criterionvery problematic.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "We have seen that a proportional responsefrequently doesn’t work. Suicide bomberscontinue to blow up victims in the Middle Eastdespite the response. Why should a nationtolerate continued aggression for the sake ofproportionality? And if a nation knows it is likelyto be attacked, why should it wait to disarm theaggressor? Is not pre-emptive action justified toprevent the loss of innocent life? Finally, what ofdeterrence: a vigorous response to an aggressiveact may not be strictly proportionate, but bymaking all potential aggressors think twice aboutfuture actions, it can be justified as saving moresuffering in the long run.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "Sometimes it is morally imperative to fightagainst overwhelming odds, as resistancefighters did in World War II. Also this conditionmay give large nations free rein to bully smallones because they could not win a war. It alsomay cause a country to surrender in a war itmight actually win. Weak countries have wonwars against powerful ones – look at theAmerican Revolution. Finally, the point at whicha war became unwinnable, and therefore unjustby this definition, is often only identifiable withhindsight – consider the Soviet occupation ofAfghanistan, or the American involvement inVietnam.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Sometimes going to war before all alternativesare exhausted is the most moral action. Forexample, a nation might decide to go to war if itdetermines that waiting would enable to theenemy to increase its strength and to do muchmore damage than an early war would haveinflicted. This, after all, is the bitter lesson of thefailure of appeasement in the 1930s. Waitingmight allow an invading state to entrench itselfso that far greater force would be necessary toremove it at a later date.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Legitimate Authority The war must be lawfullydeclared by a lawful authority. This preventsinappropriate, terrorist-style chaos, and ensuresthat other rules of war will be observed. Forexample, when states declare war, theygenerally follow specific legislative procedures; aguaranteed respect for such procedures is likelyto ensure that the nation will respectinternational humanitarian law, formally codifiedin the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and updatedin the Additional Protocols of 1977.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Last Resort War must be a last resort. The stateis justified in using armed force only after it hastried all non-violent alternatives. Sometimespeaceful measures – diplomacy, economicsanctions, international pressure, orcondemnation from other nations – simply do notwork, but they must at least be tried in order togive every chance for a peaceful resolution to acrisis.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The traditional just war framework may bedifficult to apply to the contemporary war onterror, but whilst war remains, we must possessthe just war framework as a strategic tool toboth prevent and regulate its occurrence. Whilstthey may involve the alteration of certaincriteria, as has happened throughout its history,it does not suggest it has lost all use. The Bushadministration’s attempts to circumvent the jusin bello principles of non-combatant immunitywere stalled, albeit belatedly, by widespreadpublic disapproval, proving the basis for just warthinking is not in vain idealism but moralintuition. Therefore the just war doctrine is notonly necessary but to an extent, innate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "War is a necessary element in internationalaffairs when there is no scope for diplomacy andconditions dictate that force is necessary toprevent or stop suffering. Few would argue thatthe United States was acting unjustly in enteringthe 2nd World War, or that more generally thedefeat of the Nazis was an unjust act on thebehalf of the Allies. Furthermore, just wartheory has little to say on the overall existence ofwar, but merely seeks to regulate war as apermanent feature of international society. War,as an institution and a human activity, hasexisted for as long as there have been politicalcommunities. The resort to force is therefore notone made due merely to a belief in its legitimacybut a belief in its utility. Just war theory actstherefore as a series of moral criteria to regulatethe resort to warfare in order to prevent, ratherthan exacerbate, war for war’s sake. Itrecognizes the ‘war is hell’ mentality and is, ifanything, born from it, encouraging a resort toforce only in cases where diplomacy is unable to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The just war doctrine encourages resort towar The just war doctrine establishes aframework for leaders to justify the resort toforce in any given situation whereby they canfind ostensible evidence for all the necessarycriteria. It, in other words, leaves war on thetable constantly as an option; diplomaticnegotiations and bargaining must succeed withthe constant shadow of war looming as not onlya realistic eventuality, but an eventuality thatcould potentially be deemed ‘just’ by either side.Any such doctrine therefore renders the resort towar as far too permissive, and encourages thefalse presumptions of aggressive states that theirmotives are not only self-serving but legitimate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Just war doctrine is an anachronism The ‘GlobalWar on Terror’, according to the Bushadministration and its legal team, ushered in anew ‘paradigm�� of warfare. [1] Characterised bynon-state actors, acting across internationalborders, often from failed states, just war theoryis arguably out of its depth in dealing with it. TheUnited States’ war in Afghanistan was notproportional, had little prospect of success ineradicating the ideology of Al-Qaeda itself andcertainly was not a last resort, but neverthelessmany felt it was ‘just’ in 2001. [1] Lukach, T.(2005, March 17). War on Terror creates NewParadigm for Guard, Reserve. Retrieved May 9,2011, from U.S. Department of Defense:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "War is always unjust The formulation of the justwar doctrine, a moral framework for theinstitution of war, inadvertently serves tolegitimise its activities and inherent barbarity. Itundermines the intuitive norm against warfareby emphasizing the ‘just’ and undercutting the‘war’, leading to a framing of public discoursewhereby anti-war campaigners can be presentedand ostracized as traitors and soldiers, even ofaggressor nations, heroes. In many religionswar can never be legitimised for example inBuddhism “War happens. Buddhism does notdeny such facts. It tries to understand how warhappens. But Buddhism never accepts orlegitimizes war as necessary or “just.” Onenaturally defends oneself when attacked. Onemay prevent someone from doing harm toothers. Neither, however, justify harming thealleged or imagined perpetrator/aggressor.”[1] [1] Bhikkhu, S. (2003, March). \"Just War\" isan oxymoron. Retrieved May 9, 2011, fromLiberation Park:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbtcbstjw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "War has always been an option in internationalaffairs; few rulers before just war theory wasdeveloped felt constrained by the absence ofsuch a moral framework. What the just warcriterion provide for is a regulatory frameworkwhereby war cannot break out before at leastone side satisfies the criterion. As such, thisensures a temporal space for diplomaticnegotiations to play out and if necessary, foreither top-down pressure from more powerfulstates or bottom-up pressure from the public toalleviate any desire for war.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Some forms of elite manipulation will be muchworse under direct democracy. Media barons, forexample, influence politics primarily byinfluencing public opinion. Whereas electedpoliticians can sometimes resist public opinion,this is not possible if the public make politicaldecisions directly. Under direct democracy,owners of newspapers and other media outletswould be much more powerful because theirpower over the public mind could be translateddirectly into political decisions. This influencewould even be outsized when individualsopinions are sought, as in the wiki constitutionmodel, as people’s opinions are shaped by themedia many will simply follow the lead set by themembers of the elite who are setting the agendathrough their media networks.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Representative Democracy Enables Rule byElites Representative democracy is lesslegitimate because it empowers unelected elites.Representative democracy is systematicallybiased against ordinary people, particularly poorpeople. Unelected elites like wealthybusinessmen, trade union leaders, civil servants,party officials and media proprietors are able tobypass the democratic process and exert directpressure on elected politicians. This happensbecause decisions are made behind closed doorsby individual politicians who can be easily bulliedor bought out. This allows elites to effectivelywield public power even when they are notelected themselves. If decisions were made moredirectly by the people there would be less scopefor elites to manipulate the process by simplyappealing to a politician’s self-interest. Eliteinfluence is a systematic problem because it isself-reinforcing: elites lobby for laws to preservetheir own power and disempower the public. Agood example of this is Rupert Murdoch’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The problem of domination by elites andassertive minorities will be exacerbated becausethey are the only people who will be able orwilling to make the time to play politics.Participatory democracy demands much moreinvolvement than representative democracy –indeed that’s the whole point. Every single issueis the subject of its own debate, campaign andeven referendum, and most voters will losetrack. It’s a simple question of motivation:people with extreme views will tend to bestrongly driven to impose their beliefs, whilstpeople whose special interests are at stake willbe prepared to go out and fight for them.Ordinary working people or people withoutstrong political views will not have the time orthe inclination to put in the high level ofinvolvement participatory democracy requires.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Participatory Democracy Produces BetterDecisions Participatory democracy will lead tobetter decisions because laws will only be passedif they can be justified to the people. Professionalpoliticians are disproportionately drawn from theprivileged classes and are often ignorant of theeffects their policies will have on ordinary people– as are the civil servants who advise them.Moreover, professional politicians are susceptibleto corruption, lobbying or bullying by powerfulvested interests seeking to direct governmentpolicy away from the general interestrepresented by the vast majority of theindividual citizens, who generally lack such adeterminant influence over the decision-making.Participatory democracy will therefore make surethat the legislation that is passed will help thepeople as much as possible; for example theywill limit unecessary bureaucracy and make surethat policies are fair. Thus for exampleSwitzerland has passed with 68% of the vote in areferendum a proposal that prevents big payouts", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Participatory Democracy Preserves our NaturalLiberty Representative democracy is oppressivebecause it takes more power away from thepeople than is strictly necessary. Whilst acompletely direct democracy is impractical, weshould nevertheless recognise that there is noreason not to have as much direct democracy aspossible. In the words of Herbert Marcuse, “Freeelection of masters does not abolish the mastersor the slaves”. [1] The key point is that merelyholding an election every four years does notfundamentally alter our state of subservience: atelection time, we are given a choice of three orfour manifesto programmes on an all-or-nothingbasis, manifestos which may never be honoured.The only power over our government we ascitizens have is the power to punish politiciansretrospectively, by voting them out after years ofobeying them. It is quite possible to create anauthoritarian system that has regularrepresentative elections, even with severalcompetitive candidates and yet still not be giving", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "First elections are not just a retrospective voteon how the government did, it is also about whatpolitical parties want to do. Yes a few elctionpromises get dropped but the vast majority stickto their promises because they know that notdoing so will result in them losing the nextelection. It is simply not true that representativedemocracy is oppressive. If people aren’t happywith the way the government is using its powerthey can vote for a candidate who promises toundo what the previous government has done, orthey can even enter politics themselves. Thepeople can always take back powers that theydon’t want the government to have by formingand supporting a party or a lobby specifically forthat purpose. The reason why this hasn’thappened yet is that most people are happy withthe representative system and do not feel liketheir liberty is being violated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Professional politicians know that they will beheld accountable if they pass policies that areineffective or damaging. This gives them a bigincentive to carefully research all the optionsbefore making an important decision, and theyhave the time and the resources to do so(making decisions is their only job). Ordinarycitizens do not have a big incentive to get apolicy right unless they can directly see how itaffects them, and even if they had the inclinationto make an informed decision, they will lack thetime and resources. Participatory democracy istherefore much more likely to lead to a muddleof contradictory legislation as different groupsfocus on different legislation without anoverarching vision that advances the nation’sinterests.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "This point only stands if participatory democracyactually involves more participation. In reality,when taking the example of referendums, formost voters all that changes under aparticipatory system is that they get to votemore regularly – which given how turned offvoting many people are this may simply lead tothem ignoring all the new votes. In anyreferéndum all the electors have to do is decideto vote yes or no. There’s hardly any intellectualstimulation at all. This binary choice is muchmore basic than choosing which political party tovote for, and encourages even sloppier thinking– just look at the misleading claims the “No toAV” campaign spread in the 2011 UK referendumon electoral reform. [1] Then, participatorydemocracy is not the be all and end all, weshould not ask only for more participation but wemust move towards a more deliberativedemocracy, where the public debate andconsequent consensus is an important issue topass new political decisions. [2] [1] Newman, C.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Participatory forms of Democracy Can RestoreTrust in Politics Representative systems struggleto sustain popular trust, which is bad fordemocracy. Public trust in politics always tendsto be dented by three specific features ofrepresentative systems. Firstly, the perception ofelite influence over the political process is alargely unavoidable feature of electoraldemocracy because such elites are easily placedto manipulate politics, even if they do notactually do so. Secondly, the spotlight inrepresentative democracy is on individualpoliticians (rather than on policies) andconsequently exposing scandals and smearingthe characters of politicians is an essential partof the political game: media coverage ofpoliticians is largely hostile (particularlyproblematic if it diverts discussion from themerits and demerits of particular policies). Athird feature of the system is that, since publicopinion has no direct power, unpopular decisionsdon’t have to be properly justified. Governments", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Participation Is Good In Itself Giving peoplemore responsibility for making political decisionsis itself a good thing. Participating in politicaldecision-making allows citizens to achieve ahigher state of intellectual and moral maturity,letting them lead better and wiser lives. Sincethe difficult business of government forces themto learn how to make tough choices andcompromise they will quickly abandon theirsimplistic prejudices and assumptions.Representative democracy is the opposite: ittreats the public as if they are incapable ofmaking important choices themselves, and thusdenies most citizens a chance to meaningfullyparticipate. Representative democracy oftenimplies a mercantile vision of the politicalperformance, where the politicians play the roleof the sellers and the voters act as a simplebuyers of political options. [1] This means thatthe vast majority of voters remain ignorant atbest, and apathetic at worst. This leaves themvulnerable to manipulation by deceitful", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The more experience of participatory democracythe people have, the better they will get at it. Inparticular, common wisdom will learn from pastmistakes. Whilst the Californian example cited istrue, it is also true that in 2000, just six yearsafter the “Three Strikes” law was introduced, the1978 tax amendment was partially repealed inresponse to money shortages. [1] [1] State ofCalifornia (7 November 2000) “Proposition 39School Facilities. 55% Local Vote. Bonds, TaxesAccountability Requirements.” Smart Voter.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Under participatory democracy people canparticipate as much or as little as they like. Theyare not obliged to vote in every referendum orattend every public meeting, but they have theright to. If they only care about a few politicalissues, they can just vote on those and ignoreeverything else. That way they get to have theirsay on just the issues they care about withoutbecoming part-time citizen-politicians. Moreover,that would be more effective than simply votingfor a politician once every five years because itwould allow them to specifically vote on theissues they cared about rather than having tosupport an all-or-nothing manifesto that they willprobably only partially agree with.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Referenda Produce Snap Decisions Referendumswill lead to poor-quality snap decisions. Theproblem with referendums is that they are calledand voted on quickly, without a series of lengthyparliamentary debates or review by committees.This means that decisions are essential made byshort-term popular opinion. This is a problembecause there are many policies that are painfuland unpopular in the short term but essential inthe long run, such as cutting unaffordable publicdebts. Under representative democracy,governments can make these tough decisionsand hope that they pay off before the nextelection. Harmful short-termism is particularlylikely because voters, unlike professionalpoliticians, may lack the technical or economicexpertise to realise the necessity of adoptinglong-term solutions. A clear example is the effectof referenda over the fiscal policy in California.[1] Then, when short-terminism is at the heart ofpolitical decisions in a given society, it becomesvery difficult to govern. Furthermore, it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Representative Democracy Prevents Dominationby Special Interests Governments often have topass decisions which anger small, well-organisedspecial interest groups – like teachers unions –but are in the long-term interest of the country.Under representative democracy, thegovernment can simply make the decisions it hasto, and resist the political pressure these groupsput on them. But under more direct forms ofparticipatory democracy, the special interestgroups can organise their members to campaignand vote against proposals which are good forthe country but against their private interests.The reason why they are likely to be successful isthat most voters won’t have the technicalknowledge to recognise the importance of theproposal (curbing unaffordable public sectorpensions, for example), they may beuninterested if they do not see how it directlyaffects them, and will probably be exhausted andbored of referendums if they are held veryregularly – an effect observed in Switzerland", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Participatory Democracy Facilitates theMisrepresentation of Issues An intrinsic problemwith participatory democracy is that issues areeasily misrepresented to the public. Whilst mostvoters may be intelligent and informed enoughto understand a single issue in isolation, they willalmost certainly not understand its complexrelationship with other issues, and what a “yes”or “no” vote would mean for everything else –this is because only a full-time politician has thetime and the resources to properly understandhow dozens of different government policies fittogether. An example of this effect is that in1978 Californians voted to pass an amendmentmaking it almost impossible to raise taxes, andthen in 1994 voted for the “Three Strikes” Lawthat tripled their prison population. As a result,California is now almost bankrupt. [1] Thereason why this happened was that these issueswere presented in isolation from one another andfrom other issues as a simple yes-or-no choice –the public just didn’t connect the fact that if they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Representative Democracy Lets People Get Onwith their Lives People should be free to get onwith their private lives, but they can’t do that ifthey’re expected to also be their owngovernment. The reason why we delegatepowers to politicians is that we want to have asay in government and still be free to get on withour lives. The business of government istremendously complex and most people justdon’t care about having total control over thedetails of policy – they just want the power tokick out governments that are no good. Thinkabout it: how many people actually have time,on top of all the other things they have to do, toattend weekly meetings and committees,research technical policy details to decide whichpolicy they will support and then go out and voteon a dozen issues every week? You’ll notice thatall the ancient direct democracies – like ancientAthens – were societies in which there weremore slaves than citizens. It is only because theslaves did all the work that the citizens were free", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This point assumes that there will be noorganisations capable of campaigning againstspecial interests, and this is plainly false. Politicalparties, taxpayer’s organisations and even rivalspecial interest groups already run countercampaigns against perceived special interestlobbying. Furthermore, special interest groupsare naturally disadvantaged in the battle forpublic opinion because it is very easy to paintthem as selfish or greedy. A good example ofthis is the hostility with which the public usuallygreets strikes and industrial action. [1] Inaddition, governments in liberal democraciesmight pay special attention to particular issuesprecisely because of the existence of powerfullobbies. In such case, they would beunder-representing other groups or individualcitizens becoming, then, the cause of thedomination of the public decision-making byspecial interests. [1] Smithson M. (21 June2011) “ComRes finds little support for publicsector strikes”, PoliticalBetting.com.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pphsipd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "That is just a case for having a cooling-off periodin between the proposal of a new law and thereferendum on it. There is no reason whyreferendums cannot have a lengthy publicdebate before the vote takes place. It is not clearthat the voters will only look at the short-termconsequences: in the 2010 UK General Electionthe British voters backed the Conservative Partyand their long-term deficit reduction plan, forexample. [1] Furthermore, professionalpoliticians may also take decisions thinking in theshort term in order to raise their popularity. Insuch case, referenda would not be worse thanthe representative system. [1] Glover, J. (21June 2010) “Budget 2010: Three quarters ofvoters back spending cuts not tax rises –Guardian/ICM poll” guardian.co.uk.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A medical procedure is not a product that shouldbe excluded from those who cannot afford it.Either it is beneficial enough to be subsidized bythe state and therefore available to all, or it isthe start of a slippery slope towards designerbabies and therefore should not be available toanyone. Furthermore, the investment andexpertise required to develop such technologyare resources that should be utilized for causesthat are far more important, under-funded andunder-developed than gender selection. To allowthe private sector to provide such a genderselection service would not only encouragefurther investment in a unnecessary technologybut tempt medical professionals away from theirgovernment-funded research with the promise ofmore money.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The private sector can provide parents, who canafford to and want to, with gender selectiontechnologies Gender selection technology shouldbe available, at whatever cost the marketdictates, to those who can afford the process andwish to choose the sex of their children. Thereshould be no other restrictions on the coupleswishing to go through with the process, otherthan an assurance that the mother is physicallyable and willing. As it is not an essentialprocedure, the state should not be expected tosubsidize either the process or the developmentof the technology. Nevertheless, the privatesector should be encouraged to develop thetechnology and continue to provide the publicwith a path to maximise their own happiness.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of choice is an important principlegenerally, but it should not be granted at theexpense of unconditional love for one’s children.The pre-selection of gender ‘is a threat to thecore value of parenthood that is usuallyexpressed by the commitment to unconditionallove’, according to a Georgetown professor 1.Children should not be loved because of whothey are, not because they are exactly what wewanted of them. As Harvard professor MichaelSandel notes, ‘consider the father who wants aboy in hope of having as a son the athlete he hadnever been. Suppose the son isn’t interested insports…what sorts of expectations will burden achild who has designed with certain purposes inmind?’ 1. For that reason, parents should not bepermitted freedom of choice in this regard, butencouraged to love their child equally, regardlessof gender. 1. Stein, R. (2004, December 14). ABoy for You, a Girl for Me: Technology AllowsChoice.Retrieved May 20, 2011, from TheWashington Post:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Gender selection will prevent incidents ofinfanticide Some cultures place greatimportance on having at least one child of aparticular gender. We can help realise this aim.We can prevent the trauma and stress of nothaving a child of a particular gender, which canhave negative cultural connotations. If a state'spopulation became seriously imbalanced, onemight have to rethink: but given that mostcountries, including all in the West, havebalanced populations, and given that manyfamilies in most countries will choose to haveroughly as many of the other sex, this should notstop this proposal being put into effect in manycountries. Even in China, the problem is largelydue to the \"one-child\" policy which has beenrelaxed in many areas since the mid-1990s. Overtime, a scarcity of one gender will in any caseproduce new pressures to rebalance thepopulation, for example the paying of dowriesmay change, and women will achieve higherstatus.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This argument veils the likely result of the policy:reinforcement of already unhealthy culturalpractices. Selective abortion has meant thatgender imbalance in China and India is alreadyvery, very high – 914 girls for every 1,000 boysin India – demonstrating the likely result of suchpolicies in some countries 1. ‘Parents choose toabort female foetuses not because they do notwant or love their daughters, but because theyfeel they must have sons’ (usually for socialreasons) 1. Even in western countries someminority groups' gender preferences may resultin serious imbalances in some communities.These imbalances are socially harmful because intime many young men will be unable to find apartner; in China this is already linked to a risein sexual violence, kidnapping and forcedmarriage, and prostitution. 1. The Economist.(2011, April 7). Add sugar and spice. RetrievedMay 20, 2011, from The Economist:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Sex-specific, generic diseases are only avoided amajority of the time, the process is not near100% accurate and therefore the medicalbenefits cannot be used without considering ofthe medical costs. Pre-implantation geneticdiagnosis involves the development of embryosoutside the womb, which are then tested forgender. One or two of the desired gender arethen implanted in the womb. Those that are notof the desired gender, or are surplus torequirements are destroyed (typically, over adozen embryos are used to select a single one tobe implanted). A human life has been createdwith the express purpose of being destroyed.This is another form of abortion – only theconception is deliberate. Ultimately, it will bethese technologies and not MicroSort that isused, since whilst the latter has a 93% accuracyrate if a girl is desired (itself a lower result thangenetic diagnosis), its accuracy falls to 82% forboys, and the vast majority of selections willinevitably be for males 1 . Thus, given that they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Parents should have freedom of choice Peopleshould have freedom of choice. Why shouldn’twould-be parents be able to do this, given thatno harm is done to others by their decision?Article 16 (1) of the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights states that: \"Men and women offull age… have the right to marry and to found afamily\" and this right should be understood tocover the right to make decisions over how thatfamily should be formed 1.When a family have alarge number of boys or girls, why should theybe deprived of the opportunity to have a child ofa different gender if the technology exists? Asthe Director of the Fertility Institute notes, ‘theseare grown-up people expressing theirreproductive choices…(they) are really happywhen they get what they want’ 2. 1. U.N.General Assembly. (1948, December 10). TheUniversal Declaration of Human Rights. RetrievedMay 20, 2011, from United Nations: > 2.Stein, R. (2004, December 14). A Boy for You, aGirl for Me: Technology Allows Choice.Retrieved", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Sex-specific, generic diseases can beavoided Some parents are carriers of knownsex-specific diseases. It is obviously in the child'sinterests that they don't have such a condition.Determining its gender can ensure that. Manyfamilies have predispositions towards certaincommon conditions that are more likely in onegender in another, and these can be avoided too.Nearly all neurodevelopmental diseases areeither more common in one gender or moresevere among one gender. Arthritis, heartdisease and even lung cancer also seem to beinfluenced by a person's gender. Malesdisproportionately suffer from X chromosomeproblems because their body has no copy to fallback on 1 These range in nature from baldnessand colour blindness to muscular dystrophy andhaemophilia. Women are disproportionatelyaffected by diseases of the immune system 2.Genetic modification is not the only technologyavailable. The MicroSort technique uses a'sperm-sifting' machine to detect the minute", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is hardly shattering the mystery of childbirth,given how common ultrasound scans are. SharlaMiller, who went through gender selection,refutes the suggesting it is like playing God,arguing 'it's just like every other procedure themedical field can do for you. When our eldestchild had spina bifida, they fixed that. Were theyplaying God?' 1. Moreover, knowing what gendera child will be is tremendously helpful for parentsin planning for the future (picking clothes, colourschemes, toys, names etc.). Why not extend thatability to plan? Moreover, in many countries andcultures gender selection happens already,usually by selective abortion or abandonment ofunwanted babies. Everyone can agree that this isa terrible waste of life and potentially verydangerous for the mother concerned, and ofcourse many people object strongly to abortionon moral grounds. The use of new technologiesto allow gender selection at the start ofpregnancy will reduce and hopefully eventuallyend the use of selective abortion. 1. Leung, R.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It is for the individuals to decide whether thistreatment is worth the expense. The anecdotalevidence from parents who have gone throughthe process suggests that pre-selecting the sexof their children was not a ‘frivolous purpose’.Asked whether her three boys had not beenenough, Sharla Allen replied ‘They are. They’retotally everything I could ever want…but why nothave two daughters that will be just as wonderfulas they are?’ 1. No-one is harmed in thisprocess, the parents know the risks beforehandand it should be their prerogative to have thetreatment. 1. Gajilan, C. (2005, November 17).Gender selection a reality, but is it ethical?Retrieved May 20, 2011, from CNN Health:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Children should not be designed tospecifications Children are not toys. They arenot meant to be designed to specifications mostconvenient to the ‘owner’. ‘It runs the risk ofturning procreation and parenting into anextension of the consumer society’ arguesHarvard philosopher Michael Sandel 1. If weallow parents to choose gender, soon some willwant to choose eye colour, or hair colour. That isonly the beginning. We are, in allowing this,encouraging false ideas of ‘perfection’ – damningthose that don’t look a certain way. Furthermore,since of course there’s no justification forallowing such indulgence at public expense, thedivide will grow ever-larger between rich andpoor, as the rich tailor not only their clothes andbelongings to reflect their wealth, but also thebodies of their children. If a \"gay gene\" isdiscovered, would parents be permitted to weedout embryos with it, using the technology thisproposal would condone? We really should beencouraging the idea that when it comes to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The lottery of childbirth should not be interferedwith Having a child is a process of wonder andawe. These proposals make having children tosomething more like pre-ordering a car. To manypeople the moment of conception is the start oflife, touched by God and not to be interfered withor abused out of selfish human motives. Dr. MarkHughes, who helped pioneer the procedure,intended it to be used to prevent disease and'your gender is not a disease, last time Ichecked. There's no suffering. There's no illness.And I don't think doctors have any businessbeing there' 1.Furthermore, In the view of many,the new technologies are not morally differentfrom abortion - in all cases a potential life istaken. These new technologies are likely to makeselective abortion more common, as if they arelegalised they will appear to legitimise throwingaway a human life simply because the parentswould prefer a specific gender. 1. Leung, R.(2004, April 11). Choose the Sex of Your Baby.Retrieved May 20, 2011, from CBS News:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Pre-selection of gender uses expensive medicalcare for frivolous purposes The treatmentrequired for the pre-selection of gender wasinitially designed for the prevention of disease.Many of the patients now using the revolutionarynew treatment are perfectly capable ofconceiving healthy children naturally. Dr. MarkHughes, a director the Genesis Geneticsinstitute, says that 70% of patients wouldn'thave needed IVF in the first place, meaning'healthy, fertile couples are choosing this higherrisk, expensive, sometimes painful process whenthey could conceive otherwise' 1. 1. Gajilan, C.(2005, November 17). Gender selection a reality,but is it ethical? Retrieved May 20, 2011, fromCNN Health:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsgsgfhbpsb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Parents have every right, if the technology ispresent, to choose the gender make-up of theirfamily. Guaranteeing (or improving the chancesof) a child being of the gender they want meansthat the child is more likely to fit into the family'sdreams. He or she is, bluntly, more likely to beloved. Talk of designer babies is scaremongeringnonsense. 'All babies are, to some extent,designed. Individuals do not procreate randomly:they choose their partners, and often choose thetime of conception according to their own ageand prosperity' 1. Parents give so much tochildren. They invest years of their lives and alarge amount of their earnings in theirupbringing. Isn't it fair that in return, they get todecide something like this if they want to? This isan extension of reproductive rights. 1. Meek, J.(2001, July 5). Baby Blues. Retrieved May 20,2011, from Guardian:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The alternatives to either invasion or atomicbombing are covered in the previouscounterpoint. It can only be said that none ofthem are without a high human cost, thoughinvasion spearheaded by an atomic barrage issurely the worst. The principle of advantage ofthe conventional bombing option being that itwould be easily justifiable as only quantitivelydifferent to what the Japanese had alreadymeted out themselves. The blockade similarlyhas easy justification in not being a deviationfrom any accepted standards as well as onlyindirectly attacking the home islands whileputting the onus on the Japanese government toavoid starvation. Really in order to find a lesscostly alternative then diplomacy has to beraised for which refer to the second responseargument.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The continuation of a conventional war wouldhave been much costlier than an atomicattack The US was planning for a massiveinvasion of the Japanese Home Islands(Operation Olympic). Nine divisions were to landon the southern Japanese island of Kyushu.However the Japanese had ten divisions insouthern Kyushu by August, and 600,000 troopson the whole island. [1] The US army widelydisseminated a figure of half a million casualtiesfor the conquest of Japan. This was however onlythe figure for public consumption and somecalculations went much higher. [2] On top of theUS losses the same amount and probablyconsiderably more Japanese deaths would haveto be added. The estimates of US losses were sobad that atomic bombs were actually consideredfor use in clearing the landing beaches. Chief ofStaff George C. Marshall argued “We had tovisualize very heavy casualties unless we hadenough atomic bombs at the time to supplementthe troop action.” [3] Invasion was therefore not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Having a weapon is hardly a good argument forusing one, society would fall apart if ‘I have agun thus I must shoot someone’ became anaccepted maxim. Since war is policy by othermeans the ultimate weapon is one that achievesits policy objectives without the need to beactually be used. As to the cost, the $2.2bntranslates to a little below $7,000 for eachJapanese life taken.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The use of atomic bombs was the only was topersuade Japan's rulers to surrender From late1944 Japan’s defeat was certain. The Japaneseleadership knew this, but this knowledge did notequate acceptance nor did it translate intoaction. The Americans felt that some sort ofgame changer was needed to push the Japaneseinto surrender. According to Henry L. Stimson“We, [the administration] felt that to extract agenuine surrender from the Emperor and hismilitary advisors, they must be administered atremendous shock which would carry convincingproof of our power to destroy the Empire.”[1] The United States Strategic Bombing Surveyreckoned that to cause equivalent damage doneby the Atomic Bombs using conventionalweapons would require 345 B29’s. [2] However itis not the fact that the Atomic bombs savedhundreds of B29 missions that is the crucialelement. That is the sheer terror that thedestructive power of the atomic bombs. Thismade the Atomic bombs of a different order to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It can be argued that conventional bombingcould have brought about a Japanese surrenderwithout the recourse to the use of the atomicbombs. Compared to conventional bombings theatomic bombs caused disproportionate amountsof civilian casualties. The Strategic Bombingsurvey estimated that in the 9 months prior tothe surrender there were 806,000 Japanesecivilian casualties inclusive of A-bombs, of which330,000 were deaths. Therefore nearly a third ofcivilian deaths were as a result of the atomicbombings (and that is only counting those whodied immediately). In Hiroshima 72% ofbuildings were destroyed, in Nagasaki 37.5% ofbuildings were destroyed. However in aconventional raid Yokohama was 47% destroyedin an hours bombing, for the comparatively lightcost of 5,000 civilian fatalities. [1] Of coursesome conventional raids, particularly fireraidscaused very heavy casualties, in particular theTokyo firebombing of March 9th 1945 killed100,000 and destroyed 15.8 square miles.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The United States need to maximise theeffectiveness of its atomic weaponry programbefore it could be compromised There was nopossibility of keeping nuclear weapons underwraps; scientists from several countries hadbeen working on them. They were ripe fordiscovery. Robert Oppenheimer pointed out “it isa profound and necessary truth, that deep thingsin science are not found because they are useful;they are found because it was possible to findthem” [1] If Atomic bombs were going to bedeveloped anyway there was a compellingreason to be the first to own these weapons,even to be the first to use them. Deterrence,would not work if suspected to be a bluff or adud, having used the bomb twice it could not bedoubted that the US was willing to use it again inextremis. The cost of building the bomb wasenormous. At 2.2 billion dollars the Manhattanproject cost about the same as the drive to getto the moon in the sixties, but the comparison isnot adjusted for inflation. [2] The vast majority", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Before Hiroshima and Nagasaki the use of theAtomic Bomb did not raise profound moralquestions with allied policymakers. Civilians hadbeen intentionally targeted from the air since thestart of the war and both Japanese and Germancities had been already subjected to relentlessbombardment. There was no compelling reasonfor politicians to view the Atomic bomb anydifferently from the London blitz or the Dresdenraid. [1] The Hague conventions had beensystemically honoured only in the breach for theprevious six years and so would not have givenTruman or his advisors any particular heartache.The radiation effects were as yet unknown andso there was no reason to treat atomic bombs asanything more sinister than a mightyconventional bomb would be. Had the radiationbeen known about then it might have movedthem into a category akin to chemical orbiological weapons, which were already frownedupon. Chemical weapons were banned by theHague convention in 1899. [2] This did not of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The justification for the second bomb reliesprincipally upon the argument that Japan wouldpresume there was only one A-bomb if anotherwas not dropped, so the destruction of Nagasakiwas a necessary evil to force surrender just asmuch as that at Hiroshima. Indeed seniorJapanese figures did argue that there was onlyone bomb, and even in one case that the bombdropped on Hiroshima was not atomic at all,simply a very big conventional bomb. The Chiefof the Naval General Staff Toyoda Soemuthought “it is questionable whether the UnitedStates will be able to use more bombs in rapidsuccession.” [1] This was a view that AnamiKorechika, the army minister, shared until it wasshattered by the second bomb although eventhen he said “The appearance of the atomicbomb does not spell the end of war” [2] [1]Admiral Toyoda quoted by Sadao Asada, ‘TheShock of the Atomic Bomb and Japan’s Decisionto Surrender - A Reconsideration’ in Hiroshima inHistory: The Myths of Revisionism, p.37. [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-con02a", "title": "", "text": "A negotiated peace would have been preferableto the dropping of the atomic bombs It isconventional to argue that Japan was defeatedalready and so the bombings were unnecessaryas Sadao Asada points out this confuses defeatwith surrender. However such a position seemsequally to confuse surrender with peace. Thatthere had to be an unconditional surrenderseems almost unquestioned. Most wars do notend in an unconditional surrender of one side orthe other, Japanese defeat was plain so anegotiated peace would normally have been setin motion when the US saw the terriblecasualties it might be forced to take in its pushfor total victory. The Americans learnt ofJapanese willingness to negotiate in July, on the13th Secretary of the Navy Forrestal wrote in hisdiary “The first real evidence of a Japanesedesire to get out of the war came today... Togosaid further that the unconditional surrenderterm of the Allies was about the only thing in theway of termination of the war” [1] Stimson,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The bombing was immoral and illegal The use ofthe Atomic bomb raised immediate moralquestions as to its use. Albert Einstein argued“The American decision [to use the bomb] mayhave been a fatal error, for men accustomthemselves to thinking a weapon which has beenused once can be used again... [on the otherhand] Our renunciation of this weapon as tooterrible to use would have carried great weight”[1] So far Einstein has been proved wrong andthe precedent thus set has not been followed.That the bombs are ‘to terrible to use’ does seemto have sunk in. The use of the bombs was alsoillegal as it would have breached the Hagueconventions of 1899 and 1907, signed by the US.Of Hague IV The Laws and Customs of War onLand it probably breached articles 23, forbiddingthe use of weapons that cause ‘unnecessarysuffering’, and article 25 forbidding the attack ofundefended towns. It would certainly by itsindiscriminate nature have breached article 27“In sieges and bombardments all necessary", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It was not necessary to use atomic weapons on apopulation centre The first bomb, on Hiroshimawas sufficient to achieve the objective ofsurrender without the use of the second bombafter only a very short period of time. There wasonly three days between the two bombings, anunpardonably short period. Communicationsbetween Hiroshima and Tokyo had unsurprisinglybeen severed, so the full effect had yet to sink inon some policy makers by the time ‘Fat Man’ wasdropped. It had however already convincedForeign Minister Togo, Prime Minister Suzuki andcrucially the Emperor himself. He said uponhearing the news of Hiroshima: “Now that thingshave come to this impasse, we must bow to theinevitable. ... We should lose no time in endingthe war so as not to have another tragedy likethis.” [1] The rest of the cabinet was as yetunmoved, but even if they had been it is unlikelythey would have been able to actually surrenderbefore the second bomb was dropped. Therewere significant other factors in play as well.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-epwhbuabaha-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Offering the preservation of the Monarchy wasunlikely to have altered the outcome of theconflict by bringing peace before August 6th.This was the only concession to the Japanesethat was even considered by the US government.It was thought that even this would be very hardfor the American public to swallow. Truman’spersonal feeling was also that nothing short of anunconditional surrender would do to avengePearl Harbour. [1] [1] Tsuyoshi Hasegawa,Racing the enemy: Stalin, Truman and thesurrender of Japan, (Cambridge, 2005) p.291.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The American system is one that can be changedwith a popular vote. Further, the competitionbetween the two parties and the bid to bere-elected causes them to make decisions thatare good for the country so that they arecredited for that by the people. Whilst theprocess does have flaws, it is illegitimate to calldecisions made by the process unjust when theprocess is a clear process that can be accessedby everyone and can be changed if results areseen to be consistently unjust. If the Republicanvoting base acts in the way that the propositionsuggests it might simply be that the Republicanvoting base dislikes tax increases for reasons theproposition has not considered, such as aslippery slope effect where tax increases for therich eventually make it more acceptable toincrease taxes for the poor.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The Tax Cuts Only Exist Due to An UnjustSystem The tax cuts that were created under aRepublican government can be strongly linkedwith the Republican power base. The Republicanparty relies on a relatively small number of veryrich and powerful donors. A tax cut for thesepeople often leads to an increase in funding forthe Republican party. Republican representationamong the other classes generally comes fromother conservative policies as opposed to onefiscal policy. Further, there is an attitude in theU.S. among many poorer communities that taxregardless of the actual purpose is a bad thing.As such, the Republicans can often reduce taxesfor the wealthy without significantly harmingtheir voting base among other communities,despite the fact that these changes often harmpoorer communities a great deal. This meansthat implementation of the tax cuts was due to apolitical system that focuses on parties winningelections as opposed to doing what is best forAmerica as a country. As such the system forces", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "As is mentioned in argument two of theopposition, if tax increases for the rich causethem to leave the country then it is entirelypossible that this will lead to even less paritybetween those left behind and the poor whohave to make do with even less tax revenuethrough redistribution. Further, the rich areoften the people who provide work for the poorthrough investments in enterprise and newproducts. Given that this is true, lower taxes forthe rich often benefit the poor by allowing therich to invest more and take more risks withtheir money. This often leads to innovations andthe creation of new goods and services that oftenthe poor may buy into and this allows them toimprove the quality of their lives in the long run.[1] [1] Ortman, Johnathan, “Tax Incentives forEntrepreneurship and Innovation.”Entrepeneurship.org", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Removing Tax Cuts Would Reduce theDeficit Maintaining Bush tax cuts would cost thegovernment $680 billion in revenue over thenext ten years according to PaulKrugman. Given the downgrade in the U.S.credit rating by some credit agencies, it seemsprudent to choose to roll back at least some ofthese cuts in order to please those agencies andconvince them that the U.S. is taking seriousaction to tackle its debt. If this is the case, thenthey are likely to upgrade or maintain the U.S.credit rating. This is beneficial for the U.S. as itmeans that in the future it has smallerrepayments to make on its current debt and canmore readily take on debt in the future. Further,given that the rich spend a smaller percentage oftheir money than the poor on consumption, anincrease in taxes for the rich will firstly not causea significant downturn in consumption andsecondly, if spent responsibly by thegovernment, will lead to further growth in thefuture which might cause the government to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Under current economic circumstances, thedeficit is bad, and a downgrade of the creditrating has bad effects. However, stimulation ofthe economy during a recession is neededmore. If the economy is stimulated throughlower taxes, it might cause it to recover fasterand move into a boom period earlier. If this isthe case, then even if the lower credit ratingresults in higher repayment costs, the economyreturning to growth earlier will mean tax revenueis higher earlier. If that is true then it is possiblethat the government will recoup the cost of thetax cuts later on with higher growth. Secondly,the extension of Bush tax cuts for a two yearperiod is unlikely to have any lasting impact onsuch a large deficit. Whilst the rich have a lot ofmoney, it is entirely within their power to useaccountants and other means such as offshorebank accounts to ensure that they do not bearthe full brunt of the change. Bush tax cutscaused more rich people to keep their money inthe U.S. This meant that despite the lower taxes,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Removing Tax Cuts for the Rich PromotesEquality. The removal of tax cuts for the rich willhelp create greater equality in the U.S. Firstly itcan do this by direct means, taxing the rich to agreater extent than is currently done wouldmean, obviously that the rich have less moneyand are thus more equal to the poor in income.However, further to this, money gained fromsuch tax cuts that is not being reserved fordeficit reduction can be redistributed to the poorin order to allow them to progress further insociety. Income inequality within the U.S. issignificantly worse than in most other Westernliberal democracies. It often leads to problems ofthe poor feeling disenfranchised within a societywhere they feel that the rich have all theinfluence. Poverty can lead to crime, motivatedeither by want and pure physical need, or by adistorted sense of entitlement fostered byconsumer culture. A lack of parity in an economicsystem may be interpreted as justifyingparticipation in crimes with an economic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There are a number of social ties that the richhave to the U.S.A. with many of them havinginherited wealth or having families in theU.S. Moving to another country is inconvenientas it leads to the removal of all of these socialties, further the actual cost of moving is oftenenough to prevent them from doing so. Further,many rich Americans have an attachment toAmerica itself, either as a land where theirparents prospered or as a land where theymanaged to earn their own wealth. As such,there are emotional ties to the country. Manyhave political influence in the U.S. which theywould be unable to take advantage of shouldthey leave the country. [1] Finally, it should benoted that states which routinely imposeextremely low rates of personal income tax, orwhich refrain from taxing the bonuses paid tobusinesses’ senior managers obtain the majorityof their state funding from natural resourcesrevenues. Saudi Arabia is one of the largest andmost active oil extractors and exporters in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "As mentioned, tax cuts for the rich offer the leastdirect stimulus owing to the small percentage oftheir income that the wealthiest Americansspend on consumption. Often what is taxed ismoney that simply sits in bank accounts accruinginterest. Given, then, that the super rich are atiny portion of the population, despite theirwealth, the immediate change the policy willhave on the economy is fairlynegligible. Opposition may talk aboutinvestment in businesses, however the risks thatbusinesses take and their benefits are only trulyreflected in long term statistics, which areirrelevant in the case of recession prevention asin a few years it is likely that there will not befears of another recession. [1] [1] “A RealDebate On Taxes,” New York Times, 23/08/2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Expiring the Tax Cut Would Harm SmallBusiness A number of small businesses areowned by individuals who pay taxes asindividuals. However, being small businessowners they often earn enough to put them inthe highest tax brackets. Given that this is true,the tax rate that these business owners wouldface following the abolition of the Bush tax cutswould be a rate higher than most big business. Itseems unjust that small business owners wouldpay rates of tax at 36% or 39.6% given thatbusinesses such as Goldman Sachs pay lowertax. Further, the expiration of a tax cut for thesesmall businesses means that the owners willoften project less personal gain from projectsthat the business might undertake. A simpleexample (for use in a debate) is of a project thatcosts $100 to invest in and has a 10% chance ofsuccess, returning $1100. A tax rise couldtheoretically cause the return for the owner tofall from $1100 to $1000. This means that now aproject that would have been profitable is no", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Expiring the Tax Cuts Would Cause InvestorMovement Abroad As mentioned in the previousarguments, the expiration of Bush tax cuts wouldfirstly cause investors and people in the upperbrackets to resort to tax avoidance methods,such as placing money in foreign accounts andusing legal lacunae to reduce their taxliability. However in a world where the uppermanagement of most businesses can be handledfrom other countries, it is prudent for thosefacing higher taxes in the U.S. to move away toavoid them. Most countries in the U.A.E, forexample, have incredibly low tax rates for theentire population. The reason that manyAmerican taxpayers in upper brackets have notmoved away to take advantage of this is becausethe tax cuts and the Republican governmenthave kept them satisfied enough that there is noreason to go through the inconvenience ofmoving. The removal of the tax cuts could easilyprovide this impetus owing to the fact that theymight result in further higher taxes for the rich", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Expiring Tax Cuts Would Cause a Double DipRecession Whilst the rich spend proportionatelyless of their income than the poor, the rest oftheir income is often invested in other areas andfinancial vehicles, boosting the economy in boththe short and long term. In the short term thismoney allows businesses to take more risksowing to a greater pool of money to offset therisk, alongside lower interest rates. In the longterm, these risks often lead to innovations thathelp the economy overall. In increasing the taxburden on the rich, the spending and investmentthat wealthy individuals partake in is cut off,preventing these areas of the economy fromgrowing. Recessions and recession preventionare often reliant upon public perception of aneconomy’s general health and the extent of itsexposure to less stable economies. Due to thisfeedback mechanism, it is possible, therefore,that an unfounded belief that tax rises couldobstruct economic growth might cause panicamongst the media and the populace. A", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-ppphwrbtcw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, the harm to small business from such taxcuts could easily be mitigated by providing somemeasure of exception for small business owners.The U.S. already provides subsidies for smallbusinesses that show signs of innovation and assuch it seems logical that another exceptioncould be added to prevent harm to smallbusinesses. Further, less that 2% of tax returnsciting small business revenue come from the toptwo tax brackets. Most small business ownerssimply aren’t part of the top income bracket andfurther most investors in the top income bracketsdo not rely on small business revenue as theirprimary source of income. The harm should thispolicy go through without exception is muchsmaller than portrayed by opposition. Further,the focus on small business is also a result of a“supply side” economic policy that has failed.Whilst the Bush system focused mainly uponsupporting the private sector in order to createjobs, it has emerged after eight years to havehad almost no effect on the number of Americans", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Having children enriches parents emotionally.The experience of parenting triggers deep andgenuine emotions, which parents would notexperience otherwise. Attachment, caring,compassion, understanding, moral outrage, joy,and wonder are all inevitably a part of parenting.Many parents claim that they have never lovedanybody as much as their children. Thus, havingchildren actually enlarges both the spectrum andthe intensity of emotional experiences forparents. Worrying for kids is a naturalconsequence of praising them so much. Themore valuable something is, the more attentionwe pay to it. The fact that parents worry abouttheir children that much is only a furtherevidence of how much children’s contributionmeans to parents.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Having children is emotionally draining forparents The level of emotional involvement inbringing the child up is immense. Parents pourall their souls into children, who, in turn, oftenleave them disenchanted and exhausted. Parentsalso have to share their child’s problems, fearsand traumas, so that the amount of grief thatparents take on themselves doubles (or eventriples, depending on how troublesome the childis). Not only that, but those who have offspringalso become more vulnerable. They worry abouttheir kids from the moment they are born untilthe day they themselves die. Parents’to-worry-about list is endless: from child’snutrition to summer camps, from accidents tosocial acceptance, from choosing a school tomoving out. Having raised children, parentsbecome emotional wrecks. All parents agree thatit is emotionally draining and stressful, in 1975,advice columnist Ann Landers asked her readers,“If you had it to do over again, would you havechildren?” seventy percent of respondents said", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "Not having children promotes genderequality Social and economic inequalitiesbetween men and women stem primarily fromthe fact that women are the child bearers, andmothers overwhelmingly spend more time onchildrearing tasks than do their male spouses.Not surprisingly then, many employers stilldiscriminate against women when recruiting towork. They view females as those responsible forparenting and thus not reliable, devoted or loyalas employees. Even when there is little or nodiscrimination in recruitment women often hit a‘glass ceiling’ due to breaking their careers inorder to have children, in the UK a recent reportby the Chartered Management Institute found itwould take until 2109 to close the pay gap.* Ona social level, not having children will mean moregender equality as there will be no ground forjustifying an unequal labour division. *Goodley,2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Any money spent on children is well used. Isthere a better way to invest money than to usethem to support future generations? The morewe spend on children’s health care, the moreproductive our society will be; the more wespend on their education, the wiser our societywill be; the more we spend on their culturalawareness, the more conscious of art our societywill be. There is no better use of money thanspending them on our kids.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Not having children is environmentallyfriendly The more people consume in the world,the greater the environmental damage. Anaverage American produces 52 tons of garbageby the age of 75.* However, producing extralitter and pollution is not the only hazard thatevery child poses to the planet. Increasingworld’s population also places incredible stresson Earth’s resources. It is estimated, forinstance, that by 2025 three billion people willlive in water-scarce countries. By reducing thenumber of human beings we will manage toavoid numerous overpopulation crises andreverse the damage done to the environment. *Tufts Climate Initiative., 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Having children has a devastating effect on livesof parents Parenting effectively prevents peoplefrom pursuing their own interests and fulfillingtheir own goals. The child becomes the centerand the only valid part of parents’ lives. Byhaving kids, people turn from free individualsinto servants. They often have to abandon theircareers in order to take care of the offspring.Women’s careers are most heavily affected, aswomen usually end up being the major childcareprovider. Furthermore, people with children havemuch less time for socializing resulting in losingfriends. Couples’ relationships are also bound todeteriorate as mother and father become moreinterested in a baby than in themselves. It hasalso been proven that couples with kids engagein sexual activities far less often than those whoare childless. All of these reasons contribute togeneral dissatisfaction of parents who feel theyhave lost their own lives. As the evidence forthat we can quote Daniel Gilbert, who holds achair in psychology at Harvard. Based on his", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Having children is one of the most fulfilling andrewarding experiences in life. When peoplebecome parents obviously they experience amajor change in their lives. However, changedoesn’t mean a change for worse. Raisingchildren is not easy, but it brings about a feelingof fulfillment. For many people, having childrenis the main purpose in their lives. Kids enableparents to rediscover the world around them.Additionally, parents feel empowered as they canshape another human being to a previouslyinexperienced extent. Relationships with kidsseem to be the deepest, most enduring ones.These are the very reasons why people becomeso upset when they cannot have children. Thedevelopment of treatments such as in vitrofertilization proves how much we want to havebabies. There is also substantial evidencesupporting the claim that having children has aconstructive rather than destructive influence onparents. Dr. Luis Angeles from the University ofGlasgow in the UK has just published in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Not having children is not a good way to combatenvironmental problems. The real answer toenvironmental issues is developing cleantechnology and promoting ecological awareness.If we start to produce energy from renewableresources, switch to electrical transportation,recycle waste etc. we won’t need to reducepopulation in order to sustain the environment.Furthermore, a higher population living in a moreeco-friendly manner would be less harmful thanthe current level of population with its lifestyles.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "There are better ways of eliminating genderinequality. First of all, inequality between sexesis far more complex of an issue than theproposition would like us to believe. There aremany reasons why gender inequalities prevail inthe society. They are grounded in differentphysical, psychological and social features ofmales and females. Moreover, they date back toprehistoric times when men and women occupiedthemselves with different tasks and had differentresponsibilities. It is too simplistic to say that bynot having children gender inequalities will beeradicated. Furthermore, there are other moreeffective and less damaging ways of headingtowards equality between sexes, such aseducation, affirmative action and social policyencouraging men to participate in childcare onequal basis with women.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There is no better present for somebody than togive him a life. Our lives are not just aboutmoney. There are so many valuable emotions,situations, experiences that have nothing to dowith wealth level, for example falling in love orsimply being enchanted by the world’s beauty.Even if the child is born to an impoverishedfamily that doesn’t mean he won’t be able to riseout of the poverty. There are numeroussponsored programmes that encourage socialmobility in both developing and developedcountries. However, we need to accept thissimple truth that life is not a sequence of onlyjoyful events, and sometimes we have toexperience a difficult situation to be able toappreciate all the good out there. Additionally,positive experiences in lives usually outweighthose negative, that’s why a vast majority of uswould never change our lives for not being born.Therefore, giving a child a life is more thanmorally right.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Having children is extraordinarily expensive Formajority of people children are the biggestexpenditure they ever undertake. The UnitedStates Department of Agriculture reported in2008 that the average annual expensesassociated with raising a child can be as high as$22,960.* If we assume that a child will live withtheir parents until the age of 18 and add averagecost of sending a child for 4 years to college, wearrive at the conclusion that bringing up a childin a developed country costs around $500,000.This money can be far better spent, for instance,on enhancing the standard of education or healthcare, subsidising economic initiative indeveloping countries, investing in greentechnologies, etc. *Boy Scouts of America,2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "It is morally wrong to bring children to this crueland miserable world. Four out of every fivechildren will be born to families whose memberssurvive on less than $10 a day. Around one thirdof children in developing countries is estimatedto be underweight or stunted.* Researchsuggests that even in the USA, 20% of childrenlive in poverty. And such an extreme plight ofthe child is only the beginning. Even if a child isborn into a relatively well-off family, there areendless devastating situations he has to faceduring his life: war, death of family members,chronic illness, divorce, crime, and socialexclusion. The list can go on and on forever.Having children is the equivalent of forcinginnocent people, against their will, to experiencethe misery of life. Thus, it is inhumane. *Shah2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is no causal link between having childrenand being supported later in life. After childrenleave home they become fully independentindividuals. They haven’t chosen to be born andso they shouldn’t be burdened by the parents. Ifkids do look after their parents it should be outof choice as it is not their duty to do so. It isgovernment’s responsibility to take care of itscitizens, so that the elderly can spend their lastyears in fair conditions with the possibility to livein decent old people’s homes if necessary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "People are free to choose whether or not to havechildren. Human beings are granted freedom ofchoice. The decision to have offspring is, likemany others, only a matter of personal choiceand there is no duty here that we can talk about.The only real responsibilities towards society thatpeople have are those imposed on them by law.(Paying taxes or protecting a country beingprime examples of these). Because society hasnot chosen to create a law forcing everybody tohave children, we see that choosing not to bearoffspring is accepted by society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Having children is the essence of existence forevery creature The most basic purpose of everyhuman being, like of any other animal, is toreproduce, thus ensuring the continuity of onesspecies. Reproduction is even included in ourvery definition of life “the state or quality thatdistinguishes living beings or organisms fromdead ones and from inorganic matter,characterized chiefly by metabolism, growth, andthe ability to reproduce and respond to stimuli”.*Our bodies (physiological features), behaviour(flirting, dressing up) and sexual drives all pointto that fundamental aim of our lives. It is only byhaving children that we can fulfil the mostnatural goal of our existence. Until very recentlythe family and ensuring its continuance has beenthe goal of almost every human. This is shownby how hereditary has been one of the definingfeatures of almost every society in history,whether it is in government; through monarchyor an aristocracy, in the economy; throughpassing wealth down from one generation to the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The act of having children makes people moredesirable citizens. Not only does parenting teachresponsibility, but it also triggers such feelings aslove, compassion and helps develop suchfeatures as patience, devotion, tenderness,understanding. For instance, if parents learn thebenefits of being patient towards their children,they are more likely to react patiently in otherlife situations, which in turn will lead to lessaggressive society. Therefore, the more peoplehave children, the more desirable our societybecomes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Having children guarantees support forparents From parents’ point of view it is alsobeneficial to have children as they are the onlyguarantee of help and support when parents getold. It has been one of the most prevailingpractices around the globe for children to returntheir parents care and dedication. When theybecome elderly, parents that have lost theirspouse often come and live with their children.Additionally, kids tend to look after their parentswhen they get chronically ill towards the end oftheir days. It is also the child that visits itsparent in hospital. Moreover, many kids supporttheir parent financially, which may becomecrucial in an era of population ageing, which willbring about drastic reductions in pensions. InChina a traditional saying is “Raise children inpreparation for one’s old age’ as families oftenhave to care for senior citizens but with adeclining population each person may soon becaring for two parents. There is very little in theway of social care there are old-age beds for only", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Having children is our duty andresponsibility We cannot live without thesociety; it is that very society that provides uswith basic goods and services such as education,health care, transportation, work. We can onlyinteract with other people and fulfil our mostbasic needs if we live within the society.Therefore, we owe it to the society to ensure itscontinuation. It is only by having children thatwe can do this. Falling rates of population growthin developed countries highlight how dire theneed for reproduction is. If people don’t havechildren today, the society will run into anenormous economic crisis tomorrow, as therewill not be enough citizens to work for thegrowing numbers of the elderly. In the long run,not having children will lead to human beings’extinction. If present trends continued it wouldonly be 25 generations before Hong Kong’sfemale population shrank from today’s 3.75million to just one. Similarly on current trendsJapan, Germany, Russia, Italy and Spain will not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Having children can be counterproductive inachieving a desirable society. First of all, havingchildren is by no means necessary for possessingall those valuable traits. All of them can bedeveloped though other experiences as well.Secondly, having kids may actually lead tosociety being less desirable. For instance,parents being exhausted by constant absorptionwith their children become less productive. Theycan also become disillusioned or frustrated bytheir offspring, which will result in their generalbitterness.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-lsfhwnhc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is a lot more in humans’ lives than havingchildren. There are numerous differencesbetween humans and other animals. While itmay be true that the purpose of animals’ lives isto produce offspring, it is not the case when wetalk about humans. People, being much morecomplex creatures, can contribute to society inmany other ways than by having kids (forinstance by artistic or scientific activities). So,although our physiology and behaviour maypoint to reproduction as the main purpose of ourlives, these indicators are simply misleading.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-iilepphbf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There is no clear reason why a 'desire' must be a'right', even if it were universal. Merely wishingfor something does not establish the existence ofrights, but merely creates a 'wish list' which maynot actually be possible in reality. For examplehumans may universally desire a life of leisurewithout hard work, but it would be impossible tomeet this desire for everyone, as then therewould be no work done and therefore noresources to support leisure.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-iilepphbf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Universal individual desires Certain desires,such as the desire for happiness, are universal toall human beings. Even if they actively denythem to others, every individual works towardsthe fulfilment of these desires for himself, andrecognise that the denial of this fulfilment isharmful to himself. For example historicallyslave-owners still desired freedom of movementand labour for themselves, even if they denied itto their slaves on the basis of selfish interests.Therefore, because all humans desire happinessfor themselves, and also desire the means to thisend such as freedom of speech and the freedomto make their own choices, there exists auniversal basis of desire for human rights inevery individual. The enshrinement of'fundamental human rights' simply universalizeswhat every individual acknowledges for himself:that the denial of certain rights is alwaysharmful. This already even has a basis in the'Golden Rule', to not do what is harmful toyourself to others, which can be found in some", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-iilepphbf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The recognition and enforcement of fundamentalhuman rights would and does not benefiteveryone equally. For example a strong man in asociety where he can use the threat of hisstrength to cause others to serve him againsttheir will stands to lose his comfortable life, inwhich he is happier, if the weaker men's right tosecurity of person is guaranteed. This loss is afar greater harm to him than the small potentialthat he might be replaced by an even strongerman who appears. Therefore not everyonebenefits from the recognition of fundamentalhuman rights, and so they cannot be termedeither fundamental or universal, as they advancethe interests of some at the expense of others.Similarly the international examples show howthose in famine-prone areas benefit at theexpense of those in more prosperous areas.Moreover, the excuse of 'protecting humanrights' can be used as easily to advanceneo-colonial or imperial ambitions on the part ofone nation against another as it can be used to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-iilepphbf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Universal human nature Fundamental humanrights exist and are founded on universal humanneeds. Certain needs are necessary to human lifein every instance and circumstance. Theseinclude food, water, shelter and security ofperson. Human life is not possible without anyone of these things, and so these needs may betermed 'fundamental rights' necessary to thecontinued existence of that person. Every personhas a right to the fulfilment of these needs as thealternative is non-existence, which is contrary toour basic human nature to survive. Because allhumans everywhere possess at birth a drive tosurvive and all share these requirements, theyare clearly fundamental to our nature and wehave a right to their fulfilment and protection.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-iilepphbf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Not all 'human rights' are necessary forexistence. The so-called 'right to free speech'and 'right to liberty' can both be removed from aperson forcibly without ending their existence,and so cannot be justified on the basis of a'universal drive to survive'.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-iilepphbf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Universal benefits of human rights All humansbenefit from the protection of the human rightsof others. For example, a society whichguarantees the security of person for all itsinhabitants means every individual can feelassured of their safety and thus live a happierand more productive life, whereas in a societywhere this was not guaranteed to all, everyonewould have to live in fear of their person beingviolated in the present if they cannot guaranteetheir own security, or in the future if they shouldlose the ability to protect themselves which theymay enjoy in the present. This fear would lowerthe quality of life for all, and make society worse.Therefore, it could be argued that, even iffundamental human rights do not exist, it is stillbeneficial for us to believe in them and protectthem, as we are all better off as a consequence.This applies internationally as well; theconception of universal human rights whicheveryone possesses has meant that manymodern instances of humanitarian disasters,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-iilepphbf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The labelling of a right as 'fundamental' ensuresit is protected against opportunistic or populistattacks which may not fully consider the longterm. As long as we limit our definition of'fundamental rights' to those things needed anddesired by all humans universally, we shouldavoid enshrining 'rights' which are only needed insome times and places.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-iilepphbf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Fundamental human rights were 'new' to allcultures once, but this does not mean that theyhave not always been an underlying fact.Arguments surrounding different culturalperceptions of rights and 'cultural relativism' arealmost universally used by the powerful interestsin certain cultures to justify their abuse of thehuman rights of those with less power in theircultures, for example leaders of authoritarianregimes who protect their own power at theexpense of the freedom of their people andjustify it on the basis of 'Asian values'. Therecognition of fundamental human rights willalways require change in a culture or locality thatdid not previously recognise them, but this doesnot mean that they are not universal on the basisof needs and desires that do exist in all cultures.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-iilepphbf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Human rights contradictions Many human rightsare not compatible with each other. If two thingsare both 'fundamental' then they must both beequally true and important. However theprotection of any human right requires theviolation of others. For example the right tosecurity of person requires the existence of apolice force, which must be funded by taxescoercively obtained, which violates the right toproperty. Similarly the right of a wife to divorceher husband to protect her own happiness maycompromise his own happiness. A right cannotbe 'fundamental' if it must be weighed up,balanced against and possibly compromised inlight of another 'fundamental' right, as this wouldmean they exist in conflict with each other.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-iilepphbf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Danger of dogma Having a fixed set offundamental human rights makes it harder toadapt to changing circumstances. As we havealready seen conceptions of human rights varyby culture and time, and should be properly seenas a product of those specific factors, not asuniversal fundamentals. What was seen as a'fundamental right' in the 18th Century may notbe appropriate for the 21st, and what is seen asa right in the 21st Century may be activelyharmful to recognise as a right in the 24th. Forexample it could be argued that the right to keepand bear arms was more useful in the America ofthe 18th Century, when there was no police forceand hunting for food was more important, thanin the 21st Century, where it could be arguedthat gun ownership results in higher gun crimerates for America than for other industrializednations. [1] Enshrining rights as 'fundamental'makes it much harder to remove or modify themas circumstances change and they become lessuseful. [1] Gumbel, Andrew “The Big Question:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-iilepphbf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Relative perceptions of human rights Iffundamental human rights really existed, thenthey would be equally and identically recognisedin all cultures, localities and times. This clearly isnot and never has been the case. Firstly thereare differing conceptions of what fundamentalrights are originating from different cultures andtraditions, which often contradict each other. Forexample the former Prime Ministers of Singaporeand Malaysia Lee Kuang Yew [1] and Mahathirbin Mohamad have both cited 'Asian values'which differ from Western conceptions of humanrights by having a greater focus on communitystability, order and loyalty at the expense ofpersonal freedoms. [2] Even within similarhistorical traditions conceptions of 'fundamental'human rights differ. The 'right to keep and beararms' is considered fundamental under theconstitution of the USA [3] but is not found ineither the UN's Universal Declaration on HumanRights [4] or the European Union's EuropeanConvention on Human Rights. [5] Therefore no", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-iilepphbf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is possible to establish a hierarchy of rightswhereby only the most important are the'fundamental' human rights. The fulfilment of theneeds we all cannot live without, such as food,shelter and security of person, should be giventhe greatest priority, as they are all equallynecessary for life, and need not be balancedagainst each other as they are all equallynecessary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There are many reasons to doubt the deterrenteffect of the death penalty. For one thing, manycriminals may actually find the prospect of thedeath penalty less daunting (and thus, lesseffective as a deterrent) than spending the restof their lives suffering in jail. Death by executionis generally fairly quick, while a lifetime in prisoncan be seen as a much more intensivepunishment. Moreover, even if criminalspreferred life in prison to the death penalty, it'snot clear that a harsher punishment wouldeffectively deter murders. Heinous crimes oftenoccur in the heat of the moment, with littleconsideration for their legal repercussions1.Further, for a deterrent to be effective, it wouldhave to be immediate and certain. This is not thecase with the death penalty cases, which ofteninvolve prolonged appeals and sometimes end inacquittals2. Finally, the empirical evidenceregarding the deterrence effect of the deathpenalty is at best mixed. Many of the studiesthat purport to show the deterrence effect are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The death penalty deters crime. The state has aresponsibility to protect the lives of innocentcitizens, and enacting the death penalty maysave lives by reducing the rate of violent crime.The reasoning here is simple- fear of executioncan play a powerful motivating role in convincingpotential murderers not to carry out their acts.While the prospect of life in prison may befrightening, surely death is a more dauntingprospect. Thus, the risk of execution can changethe cost-benefit calculus in the mind ofmurderers-to be so that the act is no longerworthwhile for them1. Numerous studies supportthe deterrent effect of the death penalty. A 1985study by Stephen K. Layson at the University ofNorth Carolina showed that a single executiondeters 18 murders. Another influential study,which looked at over 3,054 counties over twodecades, further found support for the claim thatmurder rates tend to fall as executions rise2. Ontop of this, there are ways to make the deathpenalty an even more effective deterrent than it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Escapes from prison, though sensationalized bythe media, are relatively rare occurrences1. In1998, according to the Bureau of JusticeStatistics, 6,530 people escaped or were AWOLfrom state prisons. Given a total prisonpopulation of 1,100,224 state prisoners, thatfigure represents just over half a percent of thetotal prison population. On top of this, it is notimpossible for people to commit further crimeswhile on death row. Those sentenced to deathmay be even more eager to escape prior to theirexecution than those awaiting life in prison, so itis not true that execution necessarily preventsfurther crimes. 1 Suellentrop, Chris. \"How OftenDo Prisoners Escape?\" Slate. February 1, 2001.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Execution helps alleviate the overcrowding ofprisons. POINT The death penalty can help easethe problem of overcrowded prisons in manycountries, where keeping people for life in prisoncontributes to expensive and at timesunconstitutional overcrowding1. In 2011,California prison overcrowding was soproblematic that a district court panel orderedauthorities to release or transfer more than33,000 inmates. This decision was held up by theU.S. Supreme Court, which argued that theconditions in the overcrowded prisons are sooverwhelming that they constitute cruel andunusual punishment2. Similarly, in the UnitedKingdom two thirds of prisons in England andWales have been deemed overcrowded3. Assuch, the death penalty may be preferable to lifein prison since it helps alleviate a pressingproblem in the criminal justice system. It isbetter to execute those who deserve it than to beforced to release dangerous offenders intosociety because prisons are overcrowded by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "It helps the victims' families achieveclosure. The death penalty can also help provideclosure for the victim's family and friends, whowill no longer have to fear the return of thiscriminal into society. They will not have to worryabout parole or the chance of escape, and willthus be able to achieve a greater degree ofclosure. Mary Heidcamp, a Chicago womanwhose mother's killer faced the death penaltybefore the State Governor commuted thesentences to life in prison, stated 'we werelooking forward to the death penalty. I'm just sodisappointed in the system'1. Other victims'families deemed the decision a 'mockery', that'justice is not done'1. 1 Goldbery, Michelle. \"TheClosure Myth\". Salon. January 21,2003.Accessed June 30,2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Many victims' families oppose the deathpenalty1. While some might take comfort inknowing the guilty party has been executed,others might prefer to know that the person issuffering in jail, or might not feel comfortableknowing that the state killed another humanbeing on behalf of the victim. Furthermore,Stanford University psychiatrist David Spiegelbelieves 'witnessing executions not only fails toprovide closure but often causes symptoms ofacute stress. Witness trauma is not far removedfrom experience it'2. Even if it was the case thatcapital punishment helped the victims' families,sentencing is simply not about what the victims'families want. Punishment should beproportionate to the crime committed, and notthe alleged preferences of victims' families. 1Murder Victims' Families for Reconciliation.Accessed June 9, 2011. 2 Rahka, Naseem.\"Capital Punishment: Muhammad and the'Closure' Myth.\" November 1, 2009. AccessedJune 29, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Executions are rare enough that they do nothave a significant impact on prison populations,which are largely composed of people who wouldnot be eligible for the death penalty. Even iflarge numbers of people could be executedinstead of serving prisons, resources would notbe saved due to the expenses associated withdeath penalty cases1. Instead of execution,there are better, more humane solutions foralleviating overcrowded prisons. One couldincrease community service requirements, buildmore prisons, or target broader crime reductionprograms2. Principally, whether or not a convictdeserves to live or die should not be contingenton factors as arbitrary as the availability ofprison spots in a given region. Justice is aboutthe proportionality of punishment to crime, notof prisoners to prisons, so it is not fair to usecrowded prisons as a justification for the deathpenalty. 1 \"Saving Lives and Money.\" TheEconomist. March 12, 2009. Accessed June 5,2011. 2 Death Penalty Information Center.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There is no fairness or consistency in aneye-for-an-eye attitude towards justice. Justiceshould remain above the petty retributive justicethat marks street or community warfare,whereby the murder of one family memberjustifies a revenge attack against the murderers'family. Furthermore, it is inconsistent with otherareas of the law. As New York University LawProfessor Anthony Amsterdam notes, 'we don'tburn arsonists' houses'1. Capital punishment'attempts to vindicate one murder by committinga second murder. And the second murder ismore reprehensible because it is officiallysanctioned and done with great ceremony in thename of us all'1. The Christian logic of an eye foran eye is undermined not merely by the Popehimself, who advocated 'clemency, or pardon, forthose condemned to death', but scripture itself,which preaches mercy just as vigorously as itdoes retribution1. 1 Time Magazine. \"The DeathPenalty: An Eye for an Eye\". Time. January 24,1983. Accessed June 30, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Execution prevents the accused from committingfurther crimes. POINT The death penalty is theonly way to ensure that criminals do not escapeback into society or commit further crimes whilein prison. While in prison, it is not uncommon forthose receiving life in jail sentences to commithomicide, suicide, or other crimes while in jail,since there is no worse punishment they canreceive1. Putting dangerous murderers in prisonendangers other prisoners and the guards whomust watch them. The other advantage ofexecution is that it prevents the possibly of anescape from prison. Even the highest securitydetention facilities can have escapees2. Thus,the only way to be absolutely certain that aconvicted murder can no longer hurt others is toexecute them. 1 Murdock, Deroy. \"A Sure Way toPrevent Prison Escapes.\" March 30, 2001.Accessed June 9, 2011 2 Davis, Laura. \"Crimeand Punishment: the view from a convictedcriminal.\" The Independent. May 19, 2011.Accessed June 9, 2001.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The death penalty should apply as punishmentfor first-degree murder; an eye for an eye. Theworst crimes deserve the most severe sanctions;first-degree murder involves the intentionalslaughter of another human being. There arecrimes that are more visceral, but there are nonethat are more deadly. Such a heinous crime canonly be punished, in a just and fair manner, withthe death penalty. As Time put it, 'there is azero-sum symmetry to capital punishment that issimple and satisfying enough to feel like humaninstinct: the worst possible crime deserves noless than the worst possiblepunishment'1.Human life is sacred; there mustbe a deterrent mechanism in place that ensuresthat those violating that fundamental precept arepunished. Capital punishment symbolizes thevalue and importance placed upon themaintenance of the sanctity of human life. Anylesser sentence would fail in this duty. 1 TimeMagazine. \"The Death Penalty: An Eye for anEye\". Time. January 24, 1983. Accessed June 30,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Wrongful convictions are particularly rare incases where the death penalty is sentenced. Thelengthy and thorough procedures associated withdeath penalty cases offer sufficient protectionagainst wrongful convictions. If there is anyreasonable doubt that a person is guilty, they willnot receive the sentence. Finally, even in caseswhere there is a wrongful conviction, there isgenerally a lengthy appeals process for them tomake their case. For example, in 1993, AlexHernandez was sentenced to death for thekidnapping, rape and murder of a 10-year oldgirl in Chicago; he was released a number ofyears later due to his lawyers proving both apaucity of evidence and the confession of heractual killer1. As a result, very few innocentpeople receive the death penalty, and thelegality of capital punishment does not increasewrongful or prejudicial convictions2. 1 Turow,Scot. \"To kill or not to kill,\" The New Yorker,January 6, 2003. Accessed June 3, 2011, 2Murdock, Deroy. \"A Sure Way to Prevent Prison", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "A just state regularly abrogates people's rightswhen they intrude upon the rights of others. Bysentencing people to prison, for instance, thestate takes away rights to movement,association, and property rights from convictedcriminals. The right to life should be no different.When you commit certain heinous crimes, youforgo your right to life. This does not devaluelife, but rather affirms the value of the innocentlife taken by the criminal. Certain crimes are soheinous that the only proportionate sentence isexecution. As for the executioners themselves,there are methods of execution that involvemultiple executioners which might reduce theassociated psychological burdens. At any rate, noone is forced to become an executioner, andpeople who choose to take on that role do sowith full awareness of the risks involved.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The death penalty is a financial burden on thestate. Capital punishment imposes a very highcost on taxpayers, which far outweighs the costsof alternative punishments such as life inprison1. A single capital litigation can cost over$1 million as a result of the intensive juryselection, trials, and long appeals process thatare required by capital cases2. The cost of deathrow presents an additional financial burdenassociated with the death penalty. Savings fromabolishing the death penalty in Kansas, forexample, are estimated at $500,000 for everycase in which the death penalty is not sought1.In California, death row costs taxpayers $114million a year beyond the cost of imprisoningconvicts for life2. This money could instead bebetter spent on measures that are of muchgreater benefit to the criminal justice system-greater policing, education, and othercrime-preventing measures that are far morecost-effective. 1 Liptak, Adam. \"Does DeathPenalty Save Lives? A New Debate.\" The New", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The death penalty can produce irreversiblemiscarriages of justice. Juries are imperfect1,and increasing the stakes of the verdict canpervert justice in a couple of ways. First,implementation of the death penalty is oftenimpacted by jury members' social, gender-basedor racial biases2, disproportionately impactingcertain victimized groups in society and adding acertain arbitrariness to the justice system. A2005 study found that the death penalty wasthree to four times more common amongst thosewho killed whites than those who killed AfricanAmericans or Latinos, while those who killwomen are three and a half times more likely tobe executed than those who kill men2. Regionaldifferences in attitudes towards the deathpenalty can also introduce elements ofrandomness into sentencing. For instance, inIllinois, a person is five times more likely to get adeath sentence for first-degree murder in a ruralarea than in Cook County2. Finally, the fear ofwrongful execution can also pervert justice by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Wrongful convictions are irreversible. There arean alarming number of wrongful convictionsassociated with the death penalty1. So far, morethan 130 people who had been sentenced todeath have been exonerated2. In many cases,unlike those who have been sentenced to life inprison, it is impossible to compensate executedprisoners should they later be proven innocent.The state should not gamble with people's lives.The chance of wrongful execution alone shouldbe enough to prove the death penalty is notjustifiable. 1 European Union Delegation to theUSA. \"EU Policy Against the Death penalty.\"October 10, 2010. Accessed June 5, 2011. 2\"Saving Lives and Money.\" The Economist. March12, 2009. Accessed June 5, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "State-sanctioned killing is wrong. The state hasno right to take away the life of its citizens. Byexecuting convicts, the government is effectivelycondoning murder, and devaluing human life inthe process. Such acts violate the right to life asdeclared in the Universal Declaration of HumanRights1 and the right not to be subjected tocruel, inhuman, or degrading punishment2. Ontop of this, the state forces executioners toactively participate in the taking of a life, whichcan be unduly traumatizing and leave permanentpsychological scars. Thus, a humane statecannot be one that exercises the death penalty.1 Amnesty International. \"Abolish the DeathPenalty.\" Accessed June 5, 2011. 2 EuropeanUnion Delegation to the USA. \"EU Policy Againstthe Death penalty.\" October 10, 2010. AccessedJune 5, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that juries are prone to several biases isnot a flaw inherent or unique to capitalpunishment. If there are racial or prejudicialissues in sentencing, these are likely to presentthemselves just as often in cases where thepunishment is life in prison. It is equallyproblematic for people to die or spend decades injails for crimes they did not commit. These errorssuggest that the judicial process may need somereform, not that the death penalty should beabolished. Implementation errors that result indiscrimination can and should be corrected.Moreover, there is little evidence that thesebiases are even present in most death penaltycases1. A study funded by the National Instituteof Justice in the US found that differences insentencing for white and non-white victimsdisappeared when the heinousness of the crimeswere factored into the study1. Thus, factorsrelating to the crime, not the race, of theaccused accounted for some of the purportedracial disparities that were found. Finally, jurors", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-oppelhsdp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Justice is priceless. Even if the death penalty ismore expensive than other punishments, that isnot sufficient reason to ban it. Fair andproportionate punishments should beindependent of financial considerations. Further,there are ways to make the death penalty lessexpensive than it is today. Shortening theappeals process or changing the method ofexecution could reduce its costs1. 1 \"SavingLives and Money.\" The Economist. March 12,2009. Accessed June 5, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Excluding cases of rape, the woman exercisesany right to choose in causing conceptioninitially. Afterward, even if a woman has a rightto her body and to \"choice\", this right isoverridden by the fetus's right to life. And, whatcould be more important than life? All otherrights, including the mother's right to choice,surely stem from a prior right to life; if you haveno right to any life, then how do you have a rightto an autonomous one? The woman mayordinarily have a reasonable right to control herown body, but this does not confer on her theentirely separate (and insupportable) right todecide whether another human lives or dies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Women have a right to choose Women shouldhave control over their own bodies; they have tocarry the child during pregnancy and undergochildbirth. No one else carries the child for her; itwill be her responsibility alone, and thus sheshould have the sole right to decide. These areimportant events in a woman’s life, and if shedoes not want to go through the full nine monthsand subsequent birth, then she should have theright to choose not to do so. There are few – ifany – other cases where something with suchprofound consequences is forced upon a humanbeing against her/his will. To appeal to thechild’s right to life is just circular – whether afetus has rights or not, or can really be called a‘child’, is exactly what is at issue. Everyoneagrees that children have rights and shouldn’t bekilled; a fetus is not a life yet.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Denying someone life because of thecircumstances of their conception is unfair. Theyhad no say in these circumstances, and were,instead, simply given life. It does not matterwhat the conditions of this life were. It is stillwrong to kill life, particularly an unborn baby.The child has a right to life just as much as thatwoman had the right to not be raped. The rapistviolated her rights. Aborting the child would beviolating the child's right to life. In 2004, only1%1 of women cited rape as their reason forabortion, so this is more an exception than areason for legalizing abortion. 1 L.B Finner et al", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "There are practical problems with banningabortion Not only is banning abortion a problemin theory, offending against a woman's right tochoose, it is also a practical problem. Enforcingan abortion ban would require a quite degradingand inhumane treatment of those women whowished to have their fetus terminated. Moreover,if pregnant women traveled abroad, they wouldbe able to have an abortion in a country where itwas legal. Either the state takes the draconianmeasure of restricting freedom of movement, orit must admit that its law is unworkable inpractice and abolish it. The middle way of tacitlyaccepting foreign terminations would renderhypocritical the much-vaunted belief in thesanctity of life. The demand for abortions willalways exist; making abortion illegal, will simplydrive it underground and into conditions wherethe health and safety of the woman might be putat risk.1 Example: Polish women, living in acountry with extremely restrictive abortion lawsoften go abroad to the Netherlands, Germany", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Practical considerations should not influence thelegislation of an issue of principle. Many lawshave difficulties pertaining to implementation,but these do not diminish the strength of theprinciple behind them: people will kill otherpeople, regardless of your legislating against it,but it does not follow that you shouldn't legislateagainst it. Even though the Netherlands hadmore liberal drugs' laws than in England, this didnot lead, and nor should it have led, to a similarliberalization here. As far as undergroundabortions are concerned, the problem is one ofthe implementation of the law. If the law wereproperly enforced, underground abortions wouldnot be offered in the first place.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "What right does anyone have to deprive anotherof life on the grounds that he deems that life asnot worth living? This arrogant and sinisterpresumption is impossible to justify, given thatmany people with disabilities lead fulfilling lives.What disabilities would be regarded as thewatershed between life and termination? Allcivilized countries roundly condemn the practiceof eugenics.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Rape victims have no choice when it comes togetting pregnant, therefore they should have theright to terminate the pregnancy Women, and insome cases girls, who have been raped shouldnot have to suffer the additional torment of beingpregnant with the product of that ordeal. Toforce a woman to produce a living, constantreminder of that act is unfair on both mother andchild. In cases where the rape victim cannotafford or is not ready to have a child, abortioncan do both the victim and the unborn baby afavor. There are cases where school students areimpregnated through rape. Pregnancy itself is aconstant reminder of the sexual assault theyunderwent and might cause emotional instability,which will affect their studies, and subsequentlytheir future. Babies born to unready mothers arelikely to be neglected or would not be able toenjoy what other children have, be it due tofinancial reasons or the unwillingness of themothers to bring up the \"unwanted children\". 1SECASA", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "There can be medical reasons for terminating apregnancy There are cases in which it isnecessary to terminate a pregnancy, lest themother and/or the child die. In such cases ofmedical emergency and in the interest of savinglife, surely it is permissible to abort thefetus. Also, due to advances in medicaltechnology it is possible to determine duringpregnancy whether the child will be disabled. Incases of severe disability, in which the childwould have a very short, very painful and tragiclife, it is surely the right course of action to allowthe parents to choose a termination. This avoidsboth the suffering of the parents and of thechild.1 1 PRO-Life Information", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Yes, our societies do strive to affirm life as muchas possible, and to make the quality of life of ourcitizens as high as possible. Foetuses do notapply here because they: a) are not lives, arenot human until fairly late b) if they are born asunwanted children, and the mother is effectivelyforced to give birth, the quality of life of both thechild and the mother will be lowered, and that iswhat really goes against the principle of lifeaffirmation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Women do not \"want\" abortions. They findthemselves in a position in which abortion is theless bad between bad alternatives. Thisargument is important in explaining that abortionis not about a malicious desire to \"kill babies\" oreven to express their right to choose; it is aboutallowing women to make the best choice.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Legalizing abortions leads to irresponsible sexualbehavior Abortion shouldn't be a form of birthcontrol when other forms are readily available.With contraception being so effective, unwantedpregnancies are typically a result of irresponsiblesexual behavior. Such irresponsible behaviordoes not deserve an exit from an unwantedpregnancy through abortion. In Mexico City, ayear after abortion was legalized, the frequencyincreased.1 1 LIFESITE NEWS", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "A fetus is a life from conception, thereforeabortion is murder It is unquestionable that thefetus, at whatever stage of development, willinevitably develop the ability to feel and thinkand be conscious of its own existence. Theunborn child will have every ability, and everyopportunity that you yourself have, if you givehim or her the opportunity. The time-restrictionson termination had to be changed once, when itwas discovered that feeling developed earlierthan first thought, so they are hardly impeccablesafe-guards behind which to hide: In the UK, therestriction was moved from 28 weeks to 24weeks in 1990, due to scientific discoveries.1Human life is continuum of growth that starts atconception, not at birth. The DNA that makes aperson who they are is first mixed at conceptionupon the male sperm entering the female egg.This is when the genetic building blocks of aperson are \"conceived\" and built upon. Theperson, therefore, begins at conception. Killingthe fetus, thus, destroys a growing person and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Legalizing abortion defies the principle of lifeaffirmation Every life presents an inherent valueto society. Every individual has the potential tocontribute in one way or another, and taking thechild's life before it has even had a chance toexperience and contribute to the worldundermines that potential. Even more, theunderlying philosophical claim behind abortion isthat not every life is equally valued and if a life is'unwanted' or 'accidental' it is not worth enoughto live. That kind of thinking goes directly againstthe life-affirming policies and philosophies ofmost countries, and peoples themselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Most abortions are performed out ofconvenience Most abortions are performedentirely voluntarily by women that have themeans to raise a child, but simply don't want to.While emergency abortions or abortions undertrying circumstances such as rape are held outas reasons to continue to have abortions, theyare infrequent and serve more to provide coverfor voluntarily \"life-style\" abortions. This iswrong. For example: In 2004, only 7% of womenin the US cited health risk as the reason forabortion. Most had social reasons, i.e. were notready, did not want a baby, a baby wouldinterfere with their career etc.1 1 L.B Finner etal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Are we really talking about a 'life?' At what pointdoes a life begin? Is terminating a foetus, whichcan neither feel nor think and is not conscious ofits own 'existence,' really commensurable withthe killing of a 'person?' There rightly arerestrictions on the time, within which atermination can take place, before a foetus doesdevelop these defining, human characteristics. Ifyou affirm that human life is a qualityindependent of, and prior to thought and feeling,then you leave yourself the awkward task ofexplaining what truly 'human' life is. A foetus isnot a life until it fulfils certain criteria. Before 24weeks, a foetus does not feel pain, is notconscious of itself or its surroundings. Until afetus can survive on its own, it cannot be called alife, any more than the acorn can be called atree.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-tgppelhbwrc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The assertion that obtaining an abortion isalways the result of irresponsible behaviour isdisrespectful to every woman undergoing anabortion. Using birth control is a completelydifferent decision from getting an abortion.Besides, contraception, though effective, is stillnot accepted, available or affordable for womenin certain countries. Moreover, even whenlegalized, abortion will only be a last resort in thecases where the quality of life of the baby ormother or both will be in danger.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pppghwblro-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Experience teaches us that if you simply removethe government then those who are currentlystrong get stronger and those who are weak getdestroyed. Tackling issues such as prejudice inthe workplace, health and safety, protecting thevulnerable, managing immigration and a millionothers require not only the involvement of thestate but for a government that is activelyengaged in countering private interests. To allowthe market to run unfettered seems unlikely toprotect the rights of the individual but, ratherwould cede hard fought rights to the rapaciousinterests of corporations. Without compulsion bygovernment, it is unlikely that the disadvantagedin society would be paid much heed [i] . [i]\"Libertarianism\". Standford Encyclopedia ofPhilosophy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pppghwblro-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A growing alliance that defies party lines and thedefinitions of the last century A libertarianagenda is one that draws people from across thepolitical spectrum. The crisis in the financialsector has confirmed for many that governmentand large financial institutions have simply gottoo close. Republicans say they can reduce thesize of government but never do, Democrats saythey can regulate corporations but show no signof doing so. The primary reason why people canapproach libertarianism from across the politicalspectrum is that, as a philosophy, it doesn’t seekto judge individual policies. So policiestraditionally associated with the left – thelegalization of drugs or gay rights – as well asthose of the right - independence for schools andreducing taxation – both fall within a Libertarianagenda that simply says that none of theseissues are any business of the state [i] . [i]Brian Micklethwaite. “How to Win The LibertarianArgument”. 1990", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pppghwblro-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The appropriate response, in a democracy, to ahegemonic political class is not to scrap the Statealtogether but simply to vote for someoneelse. It is also interesting to note the largenumber of people who are claiming that ‘nothingcan be done’ or that ‘voting never changesanything’ are themselves electedrepresentatives. In those countries where thereis a dominance of two major parties, thoseparties also tend to reflect a wide diversity ofviews, thus in the United States and Britain therecan be as much division within the parties asbetween them. The fact that there is a broadconsensus on certain key issues, such as thegeneral structure of the economic model, reflectsnot the imposition or a worldview but theassumption of a worldview shared by the vastmajority in those societies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pppghwblro-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Neither citizen nor subject, consumer norcustomer: the supremacy of the individual Asensible Libertarian position accepts the rights ofpeople to do whatever they like as long as itdoesn’t infringe upon the life of anyone else.That may sound like something that anyonecould sign up to but the reality is not so simple.The Right may defend corporate greed and theLeft government intervention but there is aclearer principle; I have the right not to have myair poisoned by your chemical company whichmeans I don’t have to pay for any governmentbody to clear up the mess. The Oglala Siouxactivist and actor, Russell Means has argued that“A libertarian society would not allow anyone toinjure others by pollution because it insists onindividual responsibility.” All too often the linebetween consumer and citizen is blurred becausethe interest of both state and private actors havebecome conjoined leaving little or no room forthe individual between them. A libertarianapproach would break that cozy consensus.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pppghwblro-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is impossible in any modern state to pretendthat the state simply isn’t there or thatindividuals on their own can act againstmultinationals or government departments andagencies. The Libertarian perspective is the stuffof fantasy; neither taxes nor markets are goinganywhere anytime soon however much a ragbagof theorists may wish for it. Benjamin Franklinargued that “All property, indeed, except thesavage's temporary cabin, his bow, hismatchcoat and other little Acquisitions absolutelynecessary for his Subsistence, seems to me to bethe creature of public Convention. Hence, thepublic has the rights of regulating Descents, andall other Conveyances of Property, and even oflimiting the quantity and uses of it. All theproperty that is necessary to a man is his naturalRight, which none may justly deprive him of, butall Property superfluous to such Purposes is theproperty of the Public who, by their Laws havecreated it and who may, by other Laws disposeof it.” [i] The point is that an individual cannot", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pppghwblro-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "There is very little meaningful choice left in manysocieties with the major parties all singing fromthe same score One of principal reasons for thegrowth of libertarian parties, especially in theWest, is the dominance of one particularideological viewpoint that is broadly shared by allthe major parties. As a result anyone who doesnot share this viewpoint are effectivelydisenfranchised and have the world view of a defacto governing class imposed upon them. Theonly sensible response is to reduce the impact ofthat government altogether. Indeed in theUnited States, where the libertarian argumenthas been made most vociferously, the entirepolitical system is designed on the predicate of aminimalist state and is poorly designed to dealwith the behemoth that the Federal Governmenthas become.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pppghwblro-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The reduction in the size of the state is a processand not an event. Rolling back the state can bedone over time giving people responsibility andpower over their lives on a growing range ofissues. The presumption that the state shouldonly act when individuals can’t, however, wouldreverse the direction of legislation which hastended to see the intervention of the state intothe lives of its citizens as beneficial in and ofitself – not just the nanny state but the furtherassumption that ‘nanny knows best’. The role ofgovernment should only to be that all have equalaccess to the available freedoms and that thosefreedoms are not abused. These principles areknown as the law of equal liberty and thenon-aggression principle between the two ofthem they comfortably control and define therole of the state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pppghwblro-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Libertarianism is not about abolishing the state,simply about returning it to an appropriate size.In the era following WWII the state in mostWestern nations expanded into almost everyarea of citizen’s lives. In the USA in 1929government expenditures accounted 9.46% by2008 this had risen to 35%, this is mirroredelsewhere, in Sweden at the beginning of the20th century government expenditure was 7% ofGDP, it has now risen to over 50%. [i] Theperiod of high expenditure is the historicalanomaly, not the norm. The libertarianmovement seeks to return the level ofgovernance to the more traditional ‘nightwatchman state’ where the government hasresponsibility for protecting the borders,maintaining domestic security and the provisionof a level of support that preventsdestitution. Beyond that the state should notreally have a role. It certainly does not have themoralising, semi-parental role it has takenon. [i] Hyman, David N., Public Finance A", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pppghwblro-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Libertarianism is really a coalition of theunwilling; the fringes of the left and right, happyto criticize but without a single policy on whichthey can agree The alliance supportinglibertarianism is an interesting one, consistingmostly of right-wing pragmatists who don’t wantto pay taxes and left wing idealist who think thateveryone would be kind and helpful in a freesociety. What both groups simply ignore is thatthere are many issues, such as the redistributionof income or prohibition of drugs, where there isa settled will of society that supports the statusquo. Even the very presence of, for example,wide-spread drug use would be an offence tovery large numbers of people and unfairlyimpinge upon their lives which is why so fewpeople actually vote for libertarian parties oncethey find out the realities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pppghwblro-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Libertarianism only works – even in theory – ifyou start off with a level pl It is entirelypossible, if one were constructing a hypotheticalsociety from scratch, that you wouldn’t end upwith one looking like an actual society that hasevolved over centuries or millennia. However inthe real world there are interest groups andthose who to a greater or lesser degree areadvantaged or disadvantaged, everyone mayhave equal rights but we do not always naturallyhave an equal capability to defend our rights.The role of the state is to provide some degree ofbalance. Simply removing the mechanisms inplace would accentuate those differences thatexisted within society at the time of theirremoval.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pppghwblro-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Libertarians would return society to a state ofnature where ‘life is cruel, bloody andshort’. There is no denying that government isultimately responsible for maintaining the seriesof compromises that we all adopt as part of thesocial contract. Destroying that capacity would,in effect, destroy the contract it underpins. Theprocess of governance may at times becumbersome and apparently interventionist butthe results of those interventions are collectivesecurity. Without it society as we know it wouldreturn to a state of nature where all except thosewith the means to pay for their own protection –physical and financial – would be at risk.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pppghwblro-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is absolutely the case that an individual hasthe right not to be harmed by the actions ofanother but it would be impossible to argue thatthey have the right not to be offended. Thepresumption should always be in favour of thefact that people are free to do in their own liveswhatever they wish so long as it doesn’t causeharm. That is an attractive position to many but,inevitably, those interested in lifestyles orpolicies that do not fall within the ‘standardmodel’ as a result libertarian policies havetended to receive their most vociferous supportat the margins of the policy agenda, that doesnot mean however, that the approach is notequally beneficial to those with a moremainstream view.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "States may not be perfect but they are betterthan a stateless society. Whilst states do nothave a perfect track record a stateless societywould have all sorts of negative consequences.The laws in modern countries are designed toprotect the weak from theft and harm. Propertylaws protect people's property that, in the caseof houses they may have worked for 20 years ormore to acquire. A stateless society is one thatcannot enforce these laws and must always bemore unjust than a society with a state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The state is a meaningless metaphysical entitythat is unnecessary and indeed detrimental forour lives. There is nothing that states providefor us that we cannot provide for ourselves byworking together as communities. All the stateseeks to do is oppress the people, forcing us toobey laws and pay taxes we did not consent to.In many cases the state goes out of its way todeprive people of their basic needs, for instancewhen the state evicts squatters from houses thatwere being left unused, the UK for example ismoving to criminalize squatting [1] ; or when thestate has property laws that keep wealth in thehands of the few whilst the many struggle tosurvive as has been the case in the UnitedStates, particularly in the 19thCentury whenPresident Hayes argued “There can be norepublican institutions with vast masses ofproperty permanently in a few hands, and largemasses of voters without property”. [2] [1] [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Democracies are not perfect but they are betterthan the other options. Whilst democracies arenot perfect they are the best way we have ofaggregating the interests of society. Peoplemight not always get what they want but this isinevitable where there are differences in opinionand one course of action must be taken. Headsof state may not be demographicallyrepresentative at the moment but we are seeingan increase in the numbers of minority groups inpositions of power in many countries. Removingthe state to solve this problem is using asledgehammer to crack a n", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Community action is a more powerful tool thanthe state for providing goods. Forcing peopleinto community action, as the state tries to do,detracts from real community action. Peoplenaturally try to help one another out and do whatthey can for their communities but when thestate tries to undertake this action itself it alwayswastes a huge amount or resources and sendsthe message that the job is done. In a statelesssociety people would know that they have aresponsibility to care for their fellow man andtake all the steps they possibly can to do so. Thisaction will be more direct, enthusiastic andrelevant than any taken by the governmentbecause those organising it will inevitably be incloser contact and have more of a stake with theproblems they are trying to solve.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Even in societies with a state, anarchist groupsprovide a voice for the oppressed. Even if thestate is never overthrown anarchism will alwayshave something important to say. Anarchistgroups were at the forefront of resistance groupsin world war two, and today they are at theforefront of protests against the state wheneverit tries to take even more from the worst off insociety, for example in anti cuts protests in theUK. [1] Anarchist communities like FreetownChristiana in Copenhagen exist as centres ofpeace and culture, by standing outside of societyit provides a useful commentary on society aswell as being an example for how people can livemore freely without a state. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Anarchists in fact often have a negative effect onprotests, they regularly use far more extrememeasures than any other protester at thedemonstration and this can often distract fromand distort the message behind the protests.Anarchist groups are infamous for trying tohijack protests that were not about anarchism;trying to use extreme and often violent measuresto get an anarchist message across when theoriginal protesters have no interest in anarchismwhatsoever. Even Christiana cited by theproposition has seen violence in 2009 when 1500people were arrested after setting fire tobarricades and throwing fire bombs at police. [1]Anarchist groups have their own ideology, notthe interests of oppressed groups at heart. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Community action is good, but the state isalways necessary. Community can make a bigdifference but it can make a bigger differencewith state help, states fund many organisationswhich would not be able tooperate. Organisations like state health serviceswould not be able to function as communityprojects; they require a huge amount of funding,specialist training and facilities and organisationthat would simply not be available without thestate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "States have done much good as well; World WarTwo was fought because states wanted toprevent Nazi conquest; states intervened in theKosovo war to prevent ethnic cleansing; and theAmerican Civil War was fought to stop slavery, itis clear that states use their military power forgood as well as bad, in a stateless world therewould be no actors who would be there toprevent people from taking advantage of theirfellow man. While states can do bad things thesolution is not to dismantle states, we need abetter international court system to help preventatrocities and hold those responsible accountablefor their actions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "States are never truly representative of thepeople. Even if we ignore all of the totalitarianregimes in the world, democracies do not trulyrepresent the people. Politicians all too oftenpromise progressive changes and then fail todeliver, for example Obama’s failure to closeGuantanamo Bay [1] and Nick Clegg breaking hispromises over tuition fees [2] The interests ofpoliticians in democracies are far too often tiedto the interests of the rich and powerful; peoplelike Rupert Murdoch have unprecedented accessto politicians which is quite simply not availableto the average person [3] Demographicallyheads of state are very rarely representative,The USA has never had a female or Hispanicpresident, the UK has never had a non whitePrime Minister and 66% of UK ministers havebeen privately educated [4] . These people cannever truly have the people’s interests atheart. [1] [2] [3]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The state has far too often been an instrumentfor facilitating wars and other acts ofviolence. The state has, throughout history,been responsible for an immeasurable amount ofviolence and destruction. From ancient timeswhere states were the primary instrument ofenforcing laws so that people could keep slaves,to the actions of imperial nations like Britain, tothe holocaust to all of the pointless wars foughtthroughout history, states have a long record ofslaughtering and ruining the lives of countlessnumbers of their own and other states people.William Eckhardt estimates battle deaths since3000 BC at 151million while Beer came out witha much higher figure of 1.1 billion battle deaths(NB both use dodgy calculations and of course ineither case the total military deaths let alonecivilian would be much higher).1 These actionsare always taken because they are in the interestof the ruling class, but the ruling classes arenever the ones directly involved in theseconflicts, they instead use the state as an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This is an unfair portrayal of FreetownChristiana. Soft drug use is something that thepeople of Christiana have decided is not immoralor illegal and is something that they tolerate intheir society. They should not be criticised forpeople who do things which are totally within therules of Freetown Christiana society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-con01b", "title": "", "text": "COUNTERPOINT These could still be provided ina different way. These issues can be dealt withquite sufficiently within small communities, inthe case of a fire people the whole communitywould likely assist in fire-fighting duties whilstequipment could be ownedcommunally. Anarchist communities do notnecessarily have no rules, these rules can beadequately enforced by the community and thecommunity can collectively decide what to doabout rule breakers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Anarchy has nothing to contribute butviolence. Anarchist groups may claim tocontribute to political discussion and propose aviable alternative to states, but too regularlythey contribute very little more than violence,they regularly hijack legitimate peaceful protestsand by acting in a violent way detract from thoseprotests. [1] In order to be able to contribute tosociety they need to be able to show that theyhave something to contribute. People will notlisten if the movement is associated withviolence so anarchism will never have anopportunity to contribute while it practicesviolence. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Anarchist Communities have a very poor trackrecord. Without the state there is very little inthe way of protection against immorality, if onelooks at Freetown Christiana, supposedly ananarchist utopia, it has actually been a blight onCopenhagen society; it has only thrived becauseof the cannabis trade, and is a haven for bikergangs [1] where the police have been attackedwith petrol bombs [2] . If a small community likeChristiana cannot survive without becoming ahotbed of immorality then what hope is there fora totally stateless world? [1] [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The state provides functions which are utterlyessential. Anarchist groups are very naive inbelieving that we could survive without states,states provide a countless functions that wouldnot exist otherwise. Things like the fire servicewould be very hard to organise as a community,it is likely that that very few people wouldvolunteer to perform such a dangerous job.There are many vital services that requireeconomies of scale to exist in order to providethe specialized services. This means thatsomething larger than a local community isneeded to provide it. For example communitiescould provide basic healthcare but could theyprovide the cutting edge research necessary toimprove it, and then the expensive treatments tobe able to take advantage of thatresearch? Legal systems are dependent on thestate for their existence, without a centralisedsystem of law and a state to appoint judges andorganise and fund courts and the police. Underanarchy law and order is likely to look a lot more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-pgppghba-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Violence is not intrinsic to Anarchy Whilst thereare many violent anarchists there is nothingabout anarchy that means that violence need bea part of it. Many anarchists identify themselvesas Anarchist-Pacifists and are against any and allviolence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Ignoring the law some of the time underminesthe state. The opposition believe that thislegislation goes much further than showingsolidarity between the government and religion,and is actually the government showingsubmission to religion. This legislation setsreligion as a higher authority than thegovernment and, as such, undermines thegovernment’s power as the ultimateauthority. The likely effect is that religiousgroups will begin to see themselves as above thelaw and will begin to disregard to government toan ever greater extent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Relationship between state and religiouspopulation People who are caused distress andhave their religious freedom limited by theirgovernment are likely to feel disillusioned withand sidelined by their government. They willwonder why other religious groups can follow allthe teachings of their faith while the governmentlimits theirs. This kind of limitation of how toworship or what traditions and beliefs to followcan be part of the cause that leads to membersof that religion feeling not welcome anddiscriminated against, ultimately leading toextremism. Allowing religious beliefs to overridegovernment laws would relieve these feelingsand dramatically improve religious people’srelationship with the state. This improvement inrelationship would severely reduce the likelihoodof anti-government feelings and general civilunrest.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Undermines the state. Similarly to the pointabove, the opposition believe that this legislationwill actually be seen by organised religion as asign of submission from the government. Itshows organised religious groups that they holdpower over the government whenever theychoose to use it. In terms of internationaldiplomacy, it shows theocratic states and the likethat we are moving to become more like them.This legitimises their position, which theopposition thinks is an inherently harmful one asthe voice of the people is not heard innon-democratic countries.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "People have a right to freedom ofreligion. Freedom to religion is widelyconsidered to be a fundamental human right.Freedom of religion is very similar to freedom ofexpression and is an inalienable right that cannotbe taken away by the state. Article 18 of theuniversal declaration of human rights states“Everyone has the right to freedom of… religion;this right includes freedom to change his religionor belief, and freedom, either alone or incommunity with others and in public or private,to manifest his religion or belief in teaching,practice, worship and observance.” [1] Inaddition to this, many people consider religion tobe the single most important thing in theirlife. Under the status quo, many people areinhibited in their ability to practise their religionto its fullest degree. This not only causes themgreat distress due to how important this is tothem but is a breach of their human rights. Thegovernment has an obligation to provide peoplewith a basic standard of life and thus must pass", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Rights only exist so long as they do not harmothers. Like all rights, the right to practise yourreligion to its fullest extent, regardless of theconsequences for other people and the laws ofyour state is only a right in as far as it does notaffect other people. The opposition believes thatlaws are in place to stop people from causingharm to one another and allowing religiouspeople to break these laws is putting the rightsof the religious people ahead of the rights ofeveryone else in society. The government has aresponsibility to respect the rights and standardof life of all people, not just religious people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Religious extremism is not currently considered‘legitimate’. The community at large have a greatdisdain for terrorism and similar activity andmainstream religions desperately try todisassociate themselves from extremism, all thewhile condemning it. [1] The opposition believesthat this good will be so barely perceptible that itdoes next to nothing to outweigh all the harmsthat this legislation will bring. [1] Iannaccone,Laurence R. “Religious extremism: Origins andconsequences” Contemporary Jewry. Volume 20.1996.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Relationship between state and organisedreligion. Currently, the state and organisedreligion are often seen as diametrically opposed.[1] For example the state often worries aboutthe threat of religious extremists. This causes alot of tension between the government andreligious communities within the country, as wellas between the state and states which holdreligion more highly. As the Bishop of Liverpoolputs it “Church and politics are not two parallellines; rather they are two live wires, side by side,which when they touch should ignite andexplode.” [2] Thus when Rowan Williamssuggested Sharia might be accommodated hiscomments created a political storm. Thislegislation would show that we do value andrespect religious freedom and rights and wouldimprove our relationships on both of thesefronts. [1] Gay, Kathlyn. “Church and State.”Millbrook Press 1992 [2] The Bishop ofLiverpool, ‘Church and Politics: “My Kingdom isnot of this world” Really?’, St Wilfrid Lecture,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Delegitimises religious Currently, bombings andattacks in the name of religion are a big problem.These are mostly caused by people feeling thattheir religion is being discriminated against. [1]For example Dr Williams, the Archbishop ofCanterbury believes that \"There's a place forfinding what would be a constructiveaccommodation with some aspects of Muslimlaw, as we already do with some other aspects ofreligious law.\" He believes this would helpmaintain social cohesion because Muslims wouldnot need to choose between \"the starkalternatives of cultural loyalty or state loyalty\".[2] If the government is seen to be supportingall religions then these attacks will lose theircredibility and will inevitably be reduced in bothseverity and frequency. [1] Iannaccone,Laurence R. “Religious extremism: Origins andconsequences” Contemporary Jewry. Volume 20.1996. [2] BBC News, ‘Sharia law in UK is‘unavoidable’’, 7 February 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This treats everyone the same rather thantreating people differently. The proposition doesnot accept that people will perceive this as oneset of rules for one group of people and anotherset of rules for another. This legislation does notcreate divisions in society but relieves them byensuring that everyone is allowed to practisetheir religion to the fullest extent that they wishto. The status quo is that some religious groupsare allowed to practise their religion to its fullestextent and others are not. The propositionbelieves that this is far more divisive than thislegislation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This is a weak slippery slope argument. Theproposition does not accept that this legislationputs religion above the law. Religious people andmovements do not see the potential to practisetheir religion to its fullest degree as a way to getone over on the state but a right that theydeserve as a human being. This legislation willnot be seen as weakness but as tolerance. Asfor honour killings, they are not religious butcultural and are denounced by leaders of all theworld’s major faiths [1] as such they havenothing to do with this legislation and would notbe perceived as having anything to do with thislegislation. [1] “Honour Crimes.” BBC EthicsGuide. 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Makes the affected laws effectively inoperable intheir totality. If people wish to carry knives inpublic or smoke marijuana, the rational thing forthem to do under this legislation is to falselyclaim to be Sikh or Rastafarian respectively sothat they are not subject to these laws. This logicapplies to all laws affected by thislegislation. The government would first have towork out what religions count for this legislation,the government would likely want to exclude atleast some extremist cults and would not want toallow individuals or small to make up their ownreligions. Equally problematic would be that thegovernment would need to regulate what allthese beliefs are so as to prevent new beliefsfrom springing up to get around laws. Thegovernment would then have to work out waysof working out if someone is legitimately part ofa religion or not, this would be practicallyimpossible. The ultimate effect would be that alllaws affected by this legislation would be so easyto get around that they may as well not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Causes divisions in society. One of the mostfundamental things in any democracy is equalitybetween those in that society. Many minoritieshave been struggling for this equality fordecades. This includes religious minorities forexample between the reformation in the 16thCentury and 1829 Catholics were second classcitizens. [1] This demand that religious beliefsshould override government laws switches thingsaround and once again means that not everyoneis equal before the law. Moreover making it lawthat certain groups of people are allowed tobehave in a way that other groups of people arenot inevitably leads to social divisions. Thismeans people who are unaffected by thislegislation will see religious people as gettingspecial treatment, feel side-lined by thegovernment and see religious people as theirenemy in this. This will promote tensionbetween religious and non-religious communitiesand will thus create divisions in society as well asdeepening pre-existing ones. [1] Living", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Sets a standard for religion as it being above thelaw. This legislation essentially indicates thatanything to do with religion is not subject to thesame laws as everyone else and removes thestate from his position as ultimate authority overits subjects. The limits will be very difficult todraw – there are some things that everyonewould agree is based upon religious belief suchas the Sikhs carry knives but there may be othercases where a minority of the religion believesthat something is required by their religion,should this still be allowed? Similarly would thisapply to every single religion and sect or wouldthe state have to define what it counts as areligion and limit it only to major religions? Byextension, this legitimises actions like honourkillings, which are killings done in the name ofreligion. Although they would not be directlyallowed by this legislation, they would beimplicitly encouraged and those carrying it outwould try to claim that it was carrying out areligious belief in order to get protection from the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppprfmhb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This harm can be avoided very easily. Avoidingthese laws becoming completely inoperablewould actually be quite simple. People whoobserve nothing but the potentially illegal partsof the religion would not be considered part ofthat religion, particularly if they only beganidentifying as part of that religion once thislegislation was passed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Term-limiting legislators insults the intelligenceof the electorate. Individuals can make prudentdecisions about who to vote for, and it sohappens that that decision is often to keepincumbents in power. If the reason for such highreelection rates is due to an uneducated ordisaffected electorate, then the problem is not besolved by simply instituting term limits. Rather,such results mean an effort must be made toeducate voters and to fight voter apathy. Neitherof those things is accomplished by limiting thechoice of the voters.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Term limits create more competitive elections forpublic office that empower new leaders andideas: Incumbency provides a huge electionadvantage. Politicians almost always winreelection. The frequency with which they winvaries over time and between states, butincumbency is always a powerful advantage. Thisis seen most visibly in the United StatesCongress of the past 30 years, in which it hasbecome virtually impossible to unseat anincumbent legislator. Legislators are reelectedbecause they have better name recognition bothwith the electorate and with lobby groups. Peoplehave a tendency to vote for whom theyrecognize, and firms tend to support pastwinners who will likely continue to benefit theirinterests. Term limits actually increase voterchoice by making elections more competitive andencouraging more candidates to run. In areaswhere term limits have been instituted there isfar higher turnover amongst legislators, givingvoters far more choice in who should represent", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "People are intelligent enough to recognizewhether a representative is benefiting them ornot. They will not vote for someone who is usinghis privileged position in the legislature to enrichhimself or build a fiefdom of influence. Rather,legislators will only be able to stay in office solong as they do what their constituents want. Iflegislators are maintaining their power by othermeans, such as institutionalized corruption andforce, it is not because there are no term limitson them, but rather because of otherfundamental problems of government in thosestates.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Term limits restore a concept of rotation in publicoffice, and reestablish the concept of the citizenlegislature: It is gravely unfortunate that politicshas become an accepted career path for citizensof democratic states. It is far better thatparticipation in government be brief. To endpolitics as a lifetime sinecure, thereby makinglegislative service a leave of absence, ratherthan a means of permanently absconding from aproductive career in the private sector, requiresthat there be term limits 1. Without term limits,the temptation to remain in office for life willkeep people seeking reelection long after theyhave accomplished all the legislative good ofwhich they are capable. It does not take long forlegislators to become more occupied with theirrelationships with each other and with lobbyists,than with their constituents. Representativeassemblies work best when they function ascitizen legislatures, in which people who pursuecareers other than politics enter the legislativeforum for a brief time to do their country service,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "If people wish to pursue a career in politics, thenit is their right to do so. There is nothing wrongwith career politicians so long as they obey thewill of their people and accurately represent thedesires of their constituents. While there shouldbe no bar to people seeking to enter politics on atemporary basis, placing that form of politicalparticipation over a more lasting one makes nosense. Furthermore, career politicians havevaluable experience that can be extremely usefulin the forming of legislation and the conductingof public business. Term limits destroy thisvaluable resource by casting people out of thehalls of government at a fixed point, regardlessof the worth they might still impart to thelegislative process.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "A term-limited legislator suffers from the effectsof being a lame duck. A final term legislator willnot be able to command the same degree ofleverage as one who can potentially serveanother term. Building the necessary support forworthy legislation might thus prove far moredifficult than it would have had the legislator notbeen a lame duck. Furthermore, with regard tolobby-group support, a politician on the way outwho cannot seek another term has an incentiveto favor groups and firms that will place him ontheir boards, a potentially highly lucrativeretirement package for outgoing legislators, paidfor often at the expense of the public.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The longer a politician remains in office, themore entrenched his grip becomes, and the morelikely he is to use his office to his personaladvantage: Power is highly intoxicating; it cancorrupt even the most scrupled individual givenenough exposure over time. For this reason,power should not be left in the hands of specificindividuals for too long. When a politician isfirmly entrenched, he may seek to enrich himselfat the expense of the public. He may seek toshower benefices on family and allies in order tomaintain and strengthen his powerful position.Without term limits legislators often becomeself-serving individuals, more interested incraving out personal power bases than withserving the people who elected them. Becauselegislators are so likely to be reelected, lobbyistsand special interest groups find the lines ofpower in states' capitals largely predictable, andare thus able to buy the influence of thepermanent power nexuses in the legislature withrelative ease1. Term limits serve to limit the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The need to constantly fight electionscompromises a politician's ability to make thedifficult and unpopular decisions that may beneeded at a given time: A major focus of alegislator hoping to serve another term is on thenext election and on vote getting. It is often thecase that hard decisions need to be made bylegislators, but it is difficult for them to do sowhen they are fixated on being reelected.Legislators have an incentive to put toughdecisions off if they can retain power by doingso. An example of such seemingly perpetualprocrastination is observable in the United StatesCongress's attitude toward social security. Thefund is set to become insolvent, by someestimates, in less than two decades, yetcongressmen and senators have chosen time andagain to put off enacting painful, but necessaryreform to the system. They find it easier to delaya decision until the next Congress, preferringtheir own reelection to the good of the nation.When constrained by term limits, legislators", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Legislators may gain skill in maneuvering in thelegislative arena with time, but they also gain apropensity for power grabbing andself-advancement. Politicians of long standinguse their knowledge of the working of thelegislature as much for the lobbyists and interestgroups, who they prefer to work with rather thanyoung, inexperienced legislators. The power oflobbyists is magnified by the solidity of thechannels of political influence created by highrates of incumbency. Term limits actually serveto restrict the power of interest groups, andinstead places emphasis on the production ofprogressive legislation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Term limits promote greater choice in candidatesand protect democracy1. While people may notbe able to vote for a legislator again who hasreached his limit of service, they can still vote fora continuation of his policies by voting for hischosen successor or for his political party'scandidate. Limiting individual politicians tospecified terms, however, prevents them frombecoming too powerful and damaging thedemocratic system through efforts atself-enrichment and influence-peddling. 1Bandow, Doug. 1995. \"Real Term Limits: NowMore Than Ever\". Cato Institute Policy Analysis.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The incentive for corruption and self-enrichmentin office is increased by term limits: With termlimits, a legislator will, after he enters his finalpermitted term of office, not have to face theelectorate again, meaning he can do whateverwants, to an extent. This encourages corruptionand self-enrichment on the part of legislators intheir final term of office when they do not needto face the people to answer for poormanagement. There is likewise less incentive tofollow through on election promises tosupporters, since their withdrawing support canhave little tangible impact on a lame duck. Astudy into term limits in Brazil found that\"mayors with re-election incentives aresigni?cantly less corrupt than mayors withoutre-election incentives. In municipalities wheremayors are in their ?rst term, the share of stolenresources is, on average, 27 percent lower thanin municipalities with second-termmayors.\"(Ferraz, 2010) Furthermore, lame duckpoliticians can devote time to buddying up to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Term limits tend to increase partisanshipbetween political parties and factions: Termlimits on legislators serve to exacerbate partisantensions between political parties1. This is due toseveral causes. First, the increased iteration ofprimary elections, caused by politicians beingforced out of office by term limits, in which theretends to be low voter turnout, and higher voterapathy when they happen to regularly. This leadsto the selection of more conservative candidatesfrom the right, and more radical candidates fromthe left. These more opposed groups forminglarge portions of political parties' representationwill lead to more tension in the legislature.Second, newly elected politicians are often morelikely to readily take the party whip when theyenter the legislature. These results in moredisciplined voting, which restricts the ability ofmoderates on either side to build consensuses onlegislation. Third, the ability to build consensusand support from other parties relies onexperience and deft political acumen, which are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Experienced legislators who understand theworkings of the legislative system are needed fortheir expertise and wisdom: The process ofdrafting legislation and shepherding it throughthe legislature often requires a delicate andpracticed hand, especially when the issue underdiscussion is of a controversial nature. By forcingpoliticians out of the legislature on the basis ofterm limits, the depth of knowledge andexperience available to the assembly is reduced,often to its serious detriment [1] . Seasonedpoliticians are also needed to help newcomersacclimate to the environment of the legislature;something first-time elected individuals arecompletely unused to. Naiveté on the part of newpolicymakers who are unused to the system willleave them vulnerable and exploitable. Lobbyistsand special interest groups will seek to influencepoliticians while they develop their firstimpressions of life in the legislature, and willimmediately capitalize upon any perceivedvulnerability. Luann Ridgeway a Republican", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Term limits are undemocratic and suggest,falsely, that voters cannot make intelligentdecisions about their representatives withoutguidance: Term limits are flagrantlyundemocratic. If a legislator is popular anddesired by the people to continue to representthem, then it should be their choice to reelecthim. The instituting of term limits assumesvoters cannot act intelligently without properguidance. This is a serious insult to voters'intelligence. The electorate can discern for itselfwhether a legislator is doing a good job and willvote accordingly. Preventing a potentiallypopular candidate from standing for reelectionsimply removes the right from people to makeimportant political decisions. It is not the duty ofthe state to encourage more candidates to run inelections to replace politicians who are alreadypopular and doing a suitable job1. Should the USpeople have not been allowed to elect FranklynD. Roosevelt for his third term? FDR was a verypopular and successful president who brought", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The dynamics of party primaries are not thesame in all jurisdictions, and efforts at promotingmoderate and capable candidates can still bemade after the institution of term limits.Furthermore, new politicians may in fact be morewilling to work on bipartisan projects, as they arenot inculcated in the culture of confrontation thatpredominates between political parties in manylegislatures. For this reason politicians of longerstanding might actually be a hindrance tobipartisan compromise. It is far better to allowfor a preponderance of political views by makingthe legislature more open. The best way toaccomplish this is clearly to impose term limits.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-philosophy-eppppghwe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "A politician who has to constantly concernhimself with reelection has a much greaterlikelihood of being beholden to special interestgroups and lobbyists than one who isterm-limited so will actually engage in morecorruption. While a term-limited legislator maysuffer to a degree from lame duck status, theneed to continuously seek electoral support is farmore damaging to his ability to do what is rightfor the nation. Politicians who are notterm-limited will spend more time doing what ispopular than what is necessary. It is far better tohave a representative who has only a limitedtime to enact the policies he envisions, so thathe actively seeks to implement his vision, ratherfocusing on the short-term goal of reelection.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is wrong to simply make drones “a defaultstrategy to be used anywhere”. Yes some of thetime drones will be the right choice for catchingterrorists and other militants but much of thetime they won’t be. Instead of spurninginstitutions like the ISI and Pakistan’s Military weshould be relying on them to fight extremism.This targeting of terrorists is happening in othercountries sovereign territory. Their sovereigntyshould be respected wherever possible meaningthat the Pakistanis, the Somalis and the Yemenisshould be the ones who carry out theseengagements. Again here there is the difficultyof not knowing how many were killed in dronestrikes (see counter to prop 1). We cannotcompare other types of strikes unless we havemore reliable figures. This is something thatsending special forces in would help with; theywould have much more accurate figures of whothey kill and could check whether they reallykilled the person they were supposed to betargeting. This would prevent any attempt to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "UAVs are the best possible weapon for thejob. We need to eliminate terrorists somehowand UAVs are the best possible equipment withwhich to carry out this mission. All the otheroptions either would result in significantly morecasualties or would have other problems thatwould likely allow terrorists to escape. Firstthere is the collateral damage that would becaused by using other alternatives to strikingterrorists. Professor Plaw of the University ofMassachusetts says that when terrorists werebeing confronted by the Pakistani Army, whowere attacking at the behest of the UnitedStates, 46% of casualties were collateraldamage. A similar number of 41% was the figurewhen Israel was targeting Hamas. [1] Whencompared to the 16 or 28% collateral damagefigures for UAVs the choice should beeasy. Moreover other options have otherdisadvantages. Sending a hit squad in toeliminate terrorists may mean little collateraldamage but would cause a diplomatic crisis as it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This is incorrect; It makes the assumption thatUAVs could not be used at all if they were notbeing used to attack targets. They could still beused in a surveillance role so providing the sameamount of time to deliberate before striking in adifferent fashion, one that is appropriate to thesituation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "UAVs cause less collateral damage. There areonly two things that really matter when targetingterrorists; is the terrorist eliminated, and iscollateral damage kept to a minimum? InPakistan there have been a total of 334 strikesby UAVs between 2004 and June 2012 with thetotal reported killed at 2496-3202 of which only482-832 were civilians according to the Bureauof Investigative Journalism. [1] Moreover thenumber of civilians killed in strikes is falling; 28percent of casualties in 2008 were civilians butby 2011 this had fallen to 16 percent [2] and thisis a figure that is likely to continue falling asdrones improve technologically makingidentification easier and making strikes moreprecise. These figures show that the UnitedStates in its use of drones is not only hitting a lotof terrorist targets and eliminating them but iscausing very little collateral damage incomparison to the number of strikes made. [1]Woods, Chris, and Serle, Jack, ‘June Update – UScovert actions in Pakistan, Yemen and Somalis’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Because drones are not on the ground and can’tcheck the identities of those who are killed thereis no way of knowing if they really do cause lesscivilian casualties; what the proposition calls‘collateral damage’. We also do not know whatdamage would be caused by other forms ofattack on the same targets. It is howeverdefinitely open to question whether these attacksreally do cause less civilian casualties. Localactivists believe that around 3,000 people havebeen killed in Waziristan of whom only 185 werenamed al Qaeda operatives – a very poor ratio of16 civilians for every al Qaeda man killed. [1]The Brookings institution meanwhile estimatesthat for every al Qaeda and Taliban militantkilled there are ten civilian casualties. [2] Ifeither of these estimates are anywhere near themark then there are very large number of civiliancasualties, much higher than propositionbelieves, and probably higher than other formsof strikes would cause. [1] Shackle, Samira,‘Drones and the “bugsplats” they cause’, New", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Today most forms of conflict do not have muchrisk to western militaries. While the attacks werecarried out from high in the sky NATO did notsuffer a single loss in combat operations overKosovo in 1999. [1] Moreover this lack of dangerwith UAVs is potentially immoral; we no longerhave a war in which both sides are at risk rathera shooting range for drones to kill ‘terrorists’.Having at least some danger is needed as arestraint on the use of force. A good litmus testto use for the authorisation of lethal force wouldbe whether the public would find the goals of theaction worthwhile even if it did result in the lossof several soldiers. [1] Gallis, Paul E., ‘Kosovo:Lessons Learned from Operation Allied Force’,CRS Report for Congress, 19 November 1999,p.8", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "UAVs allow more care and safeguards beforeshooting. When engaging in covert operations itis essential that the right target is identified sothat the correct target is eliminated. This issomething that using UAVs allows as they areable to track their target, sometimes for days,before attacking. This means there is much moretime for scrutiny of targets and possiblecollateral damage. This also means that there isplenty of room for the decisions to be made rightat the top. Every person on the kill list getsdiscussed at a weekly meeting of more than 100members of the US government’s securityapparatus. President Obama himself signs off onstrikes and can change the decision if thesituation on the ground changes. FormerNational Security Advisor Jones says “Manytimes… at the 11th hour we waved off a missionsimply because the target had people aroundthem and we were able to loiter on station untilthey didn’t.” [1] While UAVs may be ‘unmanned’they are certainly heavily monitored as each", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Using UAVs prevents soldiers from beingkilled. To put it bluntly any military orintelligence service wants to keep its own mensafe while carrying out its missions; UnmannedAerial Vehicles are the ultimate capability withwhich to manage this. No military or civilianpersonnel are going to be killed if the deliveryvehicle is controlled from the United States. Thismeans that unlike in other methods of attack theUAV can take its time even if it is at risk. In thewar in Kosovo NATO air forces had to launchtheir attacks from 15,000 feet due to worriesthey would be shot down. [1] Attacking fromsuch a height from a fast moving aeroplanemakes missing the target much more likely. [1]Thomas, Timothy, ‘Kosovo and the Current Mythof Information Superiority’, Parameters, Spring2000, pp.13-29.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This is a conflict situation, a war, pure andsimple. While this is a new kind of conflict; whenthe opponent is a non-state actor states have tobe able to strike at these groups that intend toattack them even when they are sheltering inother states. Such attacks should also notinclude the state where those groups aresheltering unless that state is supporting thatgroup as was the case in Afghanistan. Yes thedistinction between civilian and combatant isblurred by this conflict but this is something thathappens regardless of whether the United Statesuses UAVs. It is the terrorists themselves whothrough their horrific attacks by ‘civilians’ oncivilian targets that strip away the distinction.The United States has to be able to respond withwhatever method is most likely to prevent moreof these terrorist attacks.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Getting special forces or allies on the ground isnot always an option. In countries like Somaliaand Yemen where there have been conflictsbetween factions the authorities will not alwayscooperate and even if they do they may notcontrol the territory where the strike team wouldneed to operate. There will also be many timeswhere it is simply too dangerous to try andsnatch someone. If that person is a danger theyneed to be stopped in the quickest way possible;and that will be by the use of the UAV that isalready far above monitoring the target.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The use of drones makes the use of force easierto sanction. Using drones encourages the use oflethal force rather than alternatives. The reasonfor this is obvious – it is much easier to resort toviolence if you know there is no risk to yourself.With the operators thousands of miles away inthe United States the only risk of using drones isthe loss of equipment. As Christof Heyns, the UNspecial rapporteur on extrajudicial killings, hassaid “The term 'targeted killing' is wrong becauseit suggests little violence has occurred. Thecollateral damage may be less than aerialbombardment, but because they eliminate therisk to soldiers they can be used more often.”[1] The use of drones is also politicallyexpedient in a way that otherwise the use offorce would not be. Dennis Blair, the formerdirector of national intelligence, points out thatthe strike campaign is dangerously seductive asit is “low cost, no U.S. casualties, gives theappearance of toughness… It plays welldomestically, and it is unpopular only in other", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The use of drones creates a precedent that otherstates may use. The United States is the firststate with a large number of drones and otherunmanned military vehicles. It is also the firstcountry to use them. This inevitably means thatthe US is creating the precedent for how they willbe used in future. The United States is aware ofthis potential and President Obama’scounterterrorism adviser John Brennan hasstated “Other nations also possess thistechnology, and many more nations are seekingit, and more will succeed in acquiring it.President Obama and those of us on his nationalsecurity team are very mindful that as our nationuses this technology, we are establishingprecedents that other nations may follow, andnot all of those nations may — and not all ofthem will be nations that share our interests orthe premium we put on protecting human life,including innocent civilians.” [1] This is exactlythe problem; do we really want to live in a worldwhere any country can carry out targeted killings", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Using drones blurs the distinction between warand peace. The use of drones further blurs thealready worryingly indistinct line between a stateof war and a state of peace. The drone attacksare taking place in countries where the UnitedStates does not have any legal authority. TheUnited States is not officially at war withPakistan, Yemen, or Somalia, yet has launchedhundreds of attacks on these countries and theircitizens. The assumption is that a state can be atwar with a non-state actor such as a terroristgroup and therefore is free to target themwherever this group may be found. This meansthat the US is prosecuting a war in which only itthinks it is at war while sovereign countries likePakistan are targeted despite believing they areat peace. It is the use of drones that makes iteasy to circumvent sovereignty and attacktargets on another country’s soil so creating theambiguity. Equally worryingly is the blurring ofthe distinction between civilian and combatant.Firstly the U.S. has decided to define any adult", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The use of drones means shoot to kill is the onlyoption. Using drones cuts down the options onthe ground. A drone can only keep circling or goin for the attack; their only option is to kill atarget or let them escape. Using ground forces;either your own, or in this case the Pakistani orYemeni military, provides the third option ofcapturing the target. This is ethically a muchbetter position for the United States to be in as itmeans that the terrorists can be given the optionto surrender rather than simply being killed. Thisin turn would provide the benefit of allowing atrial helping to show the justice of the operation.Moreover these captured militants would likelybe valuable intelligence assets who could bequestioned which may well lead the intelligenceservices to other terrorists. Finally using dronesis a very aggressive and provocative stance as itprevents any possibility of a peaceful resolution.The usage of drones immediately eliminates thepossibility of negotiation because drones areremote from their operators. This means that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Any other nation seeking to take a precedentfrom the use of drones would have to be involvedin a conflict against a terrorist organisation thatposes a credible, clear, and present danger andnot be able to fight those terrorists by othermeans. The situation in Pakistan, Yemen, andSomalia is in many ways unique in that these arestates that have either failed or are near failure.As a result the sovereign government cannot berelied to combat terrorists on their own soil.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpthwuuavs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is absolutely not the case that UAVs will meanunnecessary attacks that would not otherwise bemade; all the targets are checked by a largenumber of national security experts and theattacks are signed off by the President himself.The attacks are therefore taken very seriously bythe administration. Moreover that the attacks arelow cost is exactly what we want – the capabilityto strike our enemies without losses to ourselvesor any collateral damage should be prized notshunned.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppsmhbhce-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This again assumes that there is no additionalharm attached to the perpetrating of such acrime by an individual who holds these ideas,which there demonstrably is (though theinflicting of terror on one specific community).Moreover hate crimes themselves are a violationof the right to freedom of speech; a person doeshave the right to express themselves, but not ina way that would prevent others from exercisingtheir own rights. A hate crime is the ultimateattempt to limit another's freedom of expression.A hate crime is an attempt to silence the veryidea that a particular person has the right toexist or to live a particular lifestyle. Therefore, inorder to uphold the first amendment, hate crimeenhancements are not only just, but are in factnecessary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppsmhbhce-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Hate crime enhancements are an attack on freespeech Hate crimes are crimes that are basedon an idea that the perpetrator had prior to thecrime. The crime itself is no different from anyother crime except that it is punished moreharshly. Why is this so? Because we arepunishing an idea. All forms of violent crime,whether they are murders, rapes, or beatings arean expression of hatred toward another humanbeing. To add more punishment to a crimebecause it represents a particular kind of hate(an idea) is to unfairly distinguish betweendifferent violent acts and trivialize those violentacts that do not appear to be motivated byprejudice hate. This is unjust because the ideaitself does not cause harm, and is in fact legal inmost cases (with the exception of directincitement to violence), as racist or prejudicedstatements and ideas are not illegal in mostwestern liberal democracies. We allow extremeand prejudiced ideas to be legal because werecognise the value of free speech and open", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppsmhbhce-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "In almost every case where hate crimes arecommitted, the communities involved alreadyperceive themselves as distinct and opposed,mostly because they already believe that theircommunities have been sundered by structuralinequalities and hate-motivated crimes. Simplyignoring hate crimes will not make thesecommunities stop perceiving them. Rather, itcould lead to some communities feeling that theirconcerns and grievances are not being properlyaddressed, and lead to more inter-communityviolence as they seek to ensure 'justice' is doneby their own hands.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppsmhbhce-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Hate crime enhancements unfairly punish equaloffences differently Hate crime enhancementsare unjust because they respond to two equalresults (i.e. assault vs. racial mugging) withdifferent punishments. We need to judge solelyon the concrete actions of the aggressor in orderto prevent punishments from being based onarbitrary judgements as to an offender’s “intent”,which can be very difficult to prove. Otherwise“intent” may be supposed or argued in caseswhere it did not exist, leading to perversesentencing whereby a crime is punished moreharshly despite the true absence of intent. Thereis a danger of unjustly branding someone asbigoted and punishing them excessively, e.g. fortheir involvement in a bar fight where the victimcoincidentally belonged to a minoritygroup. Juries might also be willing to make thelogical leap that, because the aggressor wasproved to hold bigoted views in general towardshis victim's ethnic group, these views must havemotivated his actions in this individual incident,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppsmhbhce-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This presupposes that hate crimes are equal intheir effects to non-hate crimes, which they arenot as hate crimes cause harms in terms ofterror directed at, and felt only by, specificgroups. Moreover, intent is considered in trialsin many other circumstances, such as indifferentiating between manslaughter (killingwithout intent to kill) and murder (killing withintent to kill), or when deciding whether amurder was premeditated or not. There is noreason to suppose intent cannot also be judgedin possible hate crime cases.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppsmhbhce-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Hate crime enhancements causeinter-community tensions By defining crimes asbeing committed by one group against another,rather than as being committed by individualsagainst their society, the labelling of crimes as“hate crimes” causes groups to feel persecutedby one another, and that this impression ofpersecution can incite a backlash and thus leadto an actual increase in crime.(1) These effectsspread beyond the hate crimes themselves. Byprosecuting high-profile cases of white hatecrimes against blacks, for example, it encouragesblacks to see themselves as part of a distinctcommunity different from the white communityand whose relations are marked by crimescommitted by one against the other. This isespecially true when one community seems toperpetrate more hate crime (or at least moreconvictions thereof are secured) against anothercommunity than visa-versa. An analysis of hatecrime date from the USA examining how hatecrimes against whites are viewed with respect to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppsmhbhce-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Victims of violence may be prone to accusingtheir assailant of hate-motivated crimes. Victimsfrequently seek revenge, and hate crime lawscreate a very easy avenue for doing so. Thushate crime enhancements may serve to fuel thefires of inter-community tensions as peopleperceive them as being used to exact communalvengeance.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppsmhbhce-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Much of this symbolism and “meaning” attributedto hate crimes is deeply subjective and open to(mis)interpretation, especially in a politicizedenvironment where hatred against one group isperceived as being the “usual” motivation behindany crime by any individual from anothercommunity against that group, and where theidea of hatred motivating a crime againstanother community by a different individual(based on his own background) is treated withscepticism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppsmhbhce-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Hate crime enhancements help prevent hatecrimes The additional punishment given to hatecrimes under enhancements can help deterpeople who hold hateful views from acting onthem, as they fear going to prison for anyamount of time, and so any additionalpunishment affects their risk calculation beforethey commit a hate crime. Moreover, increasedpunishments help prevent those who haveperpetrated hate crimes from re-offendingthrough rehabilitation in prison. In cases ofcrimes motivated by deep hatred, rehabilitationmay require increased time and increased effortin order to provide criminals with the correctfocus and concentration, and a longer sentenceis necessary for this to happen. Hate is not anessential human trait, we are not born hatingpeople, it is a learned factor that can beunlearned when correctly rehabilitated.Therefore hate crime enhancements are justbecause they help prevent hate crimes and helpprevent hate crime recidivism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppsmhbhce-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Hate crime enhancements can help emphasizetolerance and inter-community relations Hatecrime laws can teach society that hatred is highlycondemnable and mould society into a streakaway from racism, sexism, etc. Mostgovernments have already taken this turn withthe advent of segregation laws, discriminationlaws, etc. To simply leave these issuesunaddressed would be to make manycommunities, especially minority communities,feel that their grievances were ignored and thatthe state allowed discrimination and violenceagainst them. Such feelings would furtherpolarize communities against each other andmake racial tensions and further hate crimesmore likely. Therefore hate crime enhancementsshould be maintained as a way for the state tosend a message that it desires tolerance and willnot allow crimes based on prejudice to standun-addressed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppsmhbhce-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Hate crimes uniquely harm through terror Hatecrimes should be given a more severe penaltybecause the harm done to the victim and societyis greater. Given that the intent of hate crimes ismore malicious than simple premeditativemurder; it is just to enhance hate crime laws toreflect stronger punishment. Hate crimes don'tmerely victimize the individual upon whomviolence is inflicted, they also victimize acommunity or minority group that the hate crimewas intended to terrorize. This is why hatecrimes frequently include highly public acts suchas lynchings in town squares, dragging hatecrime victims behind cars along streets inhabitedby certain communities, and graffiti onsignificant buildings -they are intended to send amessage. Hate crime-delivered messages limitthe freedom of expression and group associationof the victim community, thus violating theirliberties. For this reason, hate crimes have morevictims than other crimes, and subsequentlydeserver greater punishment. Moreover, as hate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppsmhbhce-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It isn't necessarily true that hate crimeenhancements really do deter hate crimes orhelp fight recidivism. Those committing hatecrimes would face significant deterrents (in theform of legal sanctions, including prison time) forthe crimes they commit even without theenhancements, so it seems unlikely that theaddition of a few more years on their sentence,for example, would make a large difference tothem when considering committing a crime.Moreover most hate crimes are based onirrational hatred and prejudice, and thus areunlikely to be rationally considered in a riskanalysis as this argument supposes. In terms ofrehabilitation, it should be noted that prisons arefrequently places of racial and sectarian tension,with violent prison gangs built on ethnic andother identities, and thus hardly seem the placeto counteract such prejudices.(4)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Just as some people have difficulty rememberingso many passwords, so some people havedifficulty remembering where they misplacedtheir belongings. This motion offers no solution ifsomebody should lose their identity card; giventhat it may be used to have access to a bankaccount, act as a travel card or simply be used togrant general access to the bearer, how couldthey possibly survive if they lost it? It isreasonable to assume that a biometric identitycard might take as long or longer than a passport(which contains some biometric data) to bereplaced. Given that in the UK it takes threeweeks to receive a new passport if you lose it [1]and can cost between £77.50 and £112.50, thisis simply too expensive and too slow for theaverage citizen to be able to continue with theirdaily life. A week without access to dailynecessities such as your own bank account is toolong to wait. [1] Accessed from on 10/09/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Identity cards confer advantages on theirusers The average person is faced withnumerous requisitions for identification everyday, whether trying to access their own bankaccount, prove their age or prove their address.The identity card could easily incorporate all ofthis information to become one convenient for ofidentification and save the user the hassle ofcarrying so many documents around with them.Given that ‘the average person now has toremember five passwords, five PIN numbers, twonumber plates, three security ID numbers andthree bank account numbers just to get througheveryday life’ [1] , there is evidently a need for asingle, concise form of identification. Moreover, itwould help them to identify the people they haveto interact with. There have been numerouscases of criminals posing as company officialssuch as gas workers in order to gain access tosomebody’s home and steal from them [2] [3] .These identity cards would particularly helpvulnerable citizens who are the most at risk of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Many illegal immigrants already take steps toavoid official identification. For example, theyfrequently take jobs which pay cash-in-hand [1]so that they do not have to set up and authorisea bank account, or have a social securitynumber. There is not reason why this would notcontinue. Moreover, this measure simplyprovides more fuel for injustice. These is alreadya problem of police officers targeting minoritygroups for ‘stop-and-search- checks [2] ; underthis motion, this injustice would be amplifiedunder the guise of checking for illegalimmigrants. This measure is contradictory to thenotion of democracy. [1] BBC. ‘The British illegalimmigrants’. Published 02/02/2005. Accessedfrom on 10/09/11 [2] BBC. ‘Police stop andsearch powers ‘target minorities’. Published15/03/2010. Accessed from on 10/09/11.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Only those who are guilty have anything to fearfrom systems that monitor and confirmidentities Law-abiding citizens who have not anddo not intend to commit any crimes should nothave a problem with this motion. Carrying asingle card is not a huge burden to an individual.Rather they can reap the benefits of convenienceto them personally, alongside the added securitybenefit to their whole nation which will help tokeep them safe. As it is to be issued to everyonethere will not even be the inconvenience ofhaving to spend a long time applying for the cardas it is in the government’s interest to make it assimple as possible with mobile offices taking therelevant biometrics where the people live so asto have the least impact on individual’s lives aspossible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Identity cards improve public safety Identitycards could prove a key instrument to combatcrime, terrorism and fraud. Given that terroristshave used fake passports to cross borders in thepast [1] , a sophisticated identity card, possiblycontaining specific biometric information whichcannot be easily faked, could be crucial inpreventing terrorist acts in the future. In caseswhere the police were suspicious, they couldrapidly check the identities of many people neara crime scene, which would make theirinvestigation much swifter and more effective.The CBI also believes that ‘the creation of asingle source of identity data’ [2] in the form ofbiometric identity cards would also decreaseidentity fraud. Given that identity fraud currentlycosts the UK £2.7 billion per year [3] , Canadaover 10 million Canadian dollars per year [4] ,and in America identity fraud relating to creditcards alone costs around $8.6 billion per year [5], this is obviously a serious problem under thestatus quo. These crimes would be much more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Many countries – including America [1] andBritain [2] - already use biometric chips inpassports to reinforce proof of identity whencrossing national borders. If this data does notwork in this case, especially since security hasincreased hugely since 9/11 [3] , there is noevidence to support the idea that it wouldsuddenly be improved if this chip was in anidentity card instead of an official nationalpassport. Moreover, the biometric information onthese cards has already been proved faulty.Experts have demonstrated that they could copythe biometric information provided on identitycards ‘in minutes’ [4] . Identity cards areunnecessary and will not help to prevent thecrimes mentioned. [1] The Economist. ‘Havechip, will travel.’ Published 17/07/2009.Accessed from on 10/09/11 [2] Accessedfrom on 10/09/11 [3] Accesssed from on10/09/11 [4] The Times. ‘ “Fakeproof”e-passport is cloned in minutes.’ Published06/08/2008. Accessed from on 10/09/11.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "It is perfectly legitimate for an innocent citizen tooppose identity cards on the grounds of how theythreaten to alter society. The oppressivemeasure of gaining and essentially holding toransom everybody’s intimate personal detailsand biometric data is hardly a soft measure; it isradical and may completely change the way inwhich society functions. Moreover, the fear thattheir card will be lost or stolen [1] , or that theirinformation could be hacked and used bysomebody else, is more than ample reason tofear or oppose the introduction of identitycards. [1] Accessed from on 10/09/11.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "It’s perfectly fine to acknowledge that medicalemergencies require fast action – but that’s theexact reason why we use medical alert bracelets[1] . We already have a simply, non-intrusiveway of ensuring that somebody who suffers froman illness such as epilepsy or diabetes can bequickly identified – without the need for anexpensive and illiberal measure such as identitycards. Moreover, in the need to contact arelative, why not simply use their mobilenumber? Even if mobile umbers were nowrequired by the government at all times, this isstill far less intrusive than the scheme whichproposition proposes. [ 1 Accessed from on10/09/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Identity cards can assist in the efficientmonitoring of immigration Illegal immigration isan enormous problem in Western nations. TheUK estimates that there are more that onemillion illegal immigrants living in Britain [1] ,likely around 2.2 million [2] . For America, thisnumber could be as high as 11 million [3] .Identity cards would mean that, even if illegalimmigrants did succeed in crossing the border,they would most likely be found out becausethey could not pass routine security checksrequired on an everyday basis because theywould not have been issued an identity card.Given that illegal immigration is frequently linkedto international crime such as trafficking [4] ,this is clearly a problem which we need toaddress in a new way. [1] The Times. ‘UK hometo 1m illegal immigrants.’ Published 25/04/2010.Accessed from on 10/09/11. [2] The Times. ‘UKhome to 1m illegal immigrants.’ Published25/04/2010. Accessed from on 10/09/11. [3]The New York Times. ‘Number of illegal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Identity cards can be used to locate individualswho are in danger As biometric identity cardswould be able to store medical data, they couldbe instrumental in saving somebody’s life. Forexample, if somebody suddenly suffered anepileptic fit, it would be much faster for medicalstaff to find out their illness and medical historyno matter where there medical records are heldas everyone’s records would be linked to their IDcard [1] , allowing them to be treated faster andmore efficiently. It would also be easier tocontact a friend or relative if they knew the lastplace where they had used their identity card,allowing faster unity of family in a medicalemergency. [1] Accessed from on 10/09/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While these crimes are obviously a problem, itdoesn’t mean that other crimes which can bechallenged by this scheme should be allowed tocontinue. Identity cards would at least make itmore difficult for fraud to occur, which in casesof petty criminals would provide an activedeterrent for them to try it in the first place.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Governments already have the majority of thisinformation through passport applications [1] ,social security numbers [2] and so on, withoutenormous objections by the public. Moreover,many have called for increased security since therise of terrorist attacks [3] and comply withincreased security at places like airports. Thisisn’t pre-emptively condemning people forcriminal activity; it is, like all other securitychecks, a routine check to enhance the safety ofthe general population. There is not reason notto identify with that as a common aim. [1]Accessed from on 10/09/11 [2] Accessedfrom on 10/09/11. [3] Accessed from on10/09/11.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-con02a", "title": "", "text": "An identity card scheme is open to subversionand abuse Demanding identity cards has alreadybeen shown as a way for police officers andofficials to harass minority groups by singlingthem out for questioning and searches [1] . Thismotion would simply serve as a thinly-veiledexcuse for more intrusive searches which the lawwould not otherwise allow. This motion couldalso lead police to believe that those with acriminal record on their identity cards who justhappen to be near a crime scene when a crimehappens must be involved. This would lead to anunfair perversion of justice as those individualsare seen as the ‘usual suspects’, perhapsblinding the police eye to the real culprits if theydid not previously have a criminal record. [1]Accessed from on 10/09/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The scheme would cause inconvenience andpublic discontent The more information which isincorporated into identity cards, the greater theproblems if they are misplaced or stolen. Youwould be ‘required to report the theft at a policestation’ [1] rather than being able to cancel byphone, because the only way to prove that youare the owner of the card would be to have yourbiological information – like your fingerprints -scanned [2] . Moreover, if your details werestolen online and used without your knowledge,the ‘illusion of security’ [3] surrounding the cardswould make it very difficult to probe that it wasnot in fact you who was using the card. JerryFishenden of Microsoft also pointed out that ‘ifcore biometric details such as your fingerprintsare compromised, it is not going to be possible toprovide you with new ones’ [4] . It is alsounreasonable to expect someone to carry thiscard on them at all times, particularly if police orother authorities are able to stop and search ondemand. Overall, the introduction of biometric", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The scheme does not prevent forgery or identitytheft The entire premise of national security andcrime prevention falls when biometric identitycards are in fact incredibly easy to falsify.Microchips have already been forged in a matterof minutes in an experiment to determine theirsecurity [1] , and biometric information can begained remotely by computer through ‘cracking’,‘sniffing’ and ‘key-logging’ [2] . Moreover,common crimes which would not require anykind of identification to be committed – vehicletheft, burglary, criminal damage, commonassault, mugging, rape and anti-social behaviour[3] – would not be combated at all by thismeasure. Given that hackers have managed topenetrate even the highest-security sites such asthe CIA database [4] , there is not only a dangerthat individual cards would be hacked, but thatthe greater database of information could behacked. There is no such thing as animpenetrable security system. We would be farbetter off using the money which would", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-con01a", "title": "", "text": "This motion represents an unacceptable intrusioninto individual liberty Introducing identity cards,and particularly biometric identity cards, wouldcreate a ‘Big Brother’ state where each individualis constantly being watched and monitored bythe government. An identity card couldpotentially monitor the movements of eachcitizen, particularly if it had to be swiped to gainentry to buildings. Moreover, requiring thebiometric information of each individual defiesthe principle of innocent until proven guilty.Under the status quo in the UK, biometricinformation is only taken during the process ofcreating a criminal record [1] - in short, we onlytake biometric data after somebody has beenconvicted of a crime. This motion presumes thateverybody is or will become a criminal. This isobviously a huge injustice to the millions ofinnocent, honest and law-abiding citizens whowould have their data pre-emptively taken. Theneed to carry this card at all times will onlyagitate the current problems of prejudicial", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This point alludes to a potentially tiny minority ofincidents. It is likely that most people, realisingthe importance of their card, would not lose it. Incases where it is used properly, it could be anenormous benefit to the user and increase theirconvenience.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrpghwicic-con02b", "title": "", "text": "If anything, this is a reason to introduce betterpolice training, not to abandon the concept ofidentity cards altogether. An unfortunate fact isthat immigrants, who often come from poorbackgrounds or have low levels of education, aremore statistically likely to be involved in crime[1] . This ‘disproportionate’ [2] level of crimeamong immigrants provides a reason for theseemingly disproportionate targeting of minoritygroups by police authorities. [1] Accessedfrom on 10/09/11. [2] Accessed from on10/09/11.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Obviously the destruction of the Buddhas ofBamiyan was an atrocity, it may have beenaimed at a particular group, Buddhists, but it ishard to see how their destruction was crimeagainst humanity because of this. It may havecome as a grave harm and insult to Buddhistsaround the world, however none can be said tohave been physically harmed in any meaningfulway that would constitute a crime againsthumanity. The oppression during the ChineseCultural Revolution may be a better example forthe proposition, however even in this case it ishard to compare the crime of destroying oldChinese art and monuments, to the mass killingand imprisonment of Chinese civilians during thesame period!", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The desecration and destruction of culturalproperty is often discriminatory and attackspeoples’ identity. Items and sites of culturalheritage are often destroyed for discriminatoryand oppressive reasons. The Maoist onslaught onall “old” aspects of Chinese culture is a primeexample while the destruction of the Buddhas ofBamiyan in Afghanistan by the Taliban in 2001 isanother recent example. These were violent,ideologically driven attacks on the part of thestate against segments of that states ownsociety. The Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyedby the Taliban simply because they were not partof the Islamic society they were trying to create.Such explicitly discriminatory attacks areparticularly harmful to cultures that are thevictims of the attacks for two reasons. Firstlybecause the cultural property in question hasincreased cultural, religious or historical value forthem, and secondly because such discriminatoryacts attack the very identity of people part ofthat cultural group. The international community", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The kinds of people or groups that attack anddestroy sites of cultural heritage are not likely tocare much about international law. If anything,making the destruction of cultural property acrime against humanity would further radicaliseextremist groups. One only has to look at theproposition’s example of the destruction of theBamiyan Buddhas to see this point. The Talibanordered their destruction in direct defiance ofinternational law, but what’s more, they did it asa direct response and retaliation to sanctionsimposed upon them by the internationalcommunity for hosting and fostering terroristtraining camps. [1] A similar sort of retaliationmay occur if threats were to be made explicitlyregarding the treatment of cultural property. Thiswould then put more precious cultural propertyin danger. In respect to the example of USforces in Iraq, their actions would not actuallyfall under crimes against humanity even underthis proposition anyway. Setting up a base in anarchaeological site would not be a crime against", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Our world cultural heritage is extremelyimportant and its destruction would constitute acrime against humanity. Cultural property isimportant for many reasons. In this argument,its significance as part of our world culturalheritage will be assessed, while in the secondargument, its local significance isexamined. Sites of cultural heritage often carrya large degree of aesthetic value. RenownedWorld Heritage sites like the Coliseum in Romeor the Pyramids of Giza or the Forbidden City inBeijing are truly stunning and constitute amasterpiece of architecture and a celebration ofwhat the human mind and human culture arecapable of. Their stunning beauty alone issufficient to warrant their protection. Howevercultural property is more than just aestheticallyvaluable – they tell a story of human existence.Everything that makes up our society (our moraland aesthetic values, our language, ourtraditions, our way of life etc.) derives from ourancestors. Cultural property – be it in the form of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The proposition are not contentious in theirclaims that our world cultural heritage isvaluable. However it is not true that if an item orsite of cultural heritage is destroyed, it ceases tohave any educational value. If the Taj Mahalwere destroyed, of course it would be a greatloss in terms of aesthetic value, but its footprintin the world would still exist in the form of themyriad of photographs and academic literatureon it. The Dodo may be extinct, but we havesufficient academic records to still have in depthknowledge of how it lived, what it looked like etc.It is evident that the proposition areexaggerating the harms that would result fromthe destruction of cultural property. Regardingthe ICTY, the precedent it sets is not the oneidentified by the proposition. Rather thansupporting the prosecution of destruction ofcultural property as a crime against humanity bythe ICC, it suggests that such issues should bedealt with on a case by case basis. This is thecase with the ICTY which was set up specifically", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Making destruction of cultural property a crimeagainst humanity would ensure it isprotected. Were the desecration and destructionof items and sites of cultural heritage to be aninternationally recognised crime againsthumanity, people would be more reluctant incausing either intended or collateral damage (ina conflict) to them. Under the status quo,UNESCO conventions alone are insufficient toprotect cultural property. Firstly, it providesinsufficient protection, since even high-valuecultural property under “enhanced protection”can be legally targeted in a conflict, if it is beingused by opposition forces. Moreover, the currentconventions lack sufficient deterrents to back-upits protective measures. For example, US forcesset up military bases in and around ancientBabylon during the Iraq war and even used partsof the ancient site to make sandbags. Thisconstitutes a violation of the UNESCOconventions, because US forces actively causeddamage to the cultural property and also, in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, it is not true that human beings are notharmed with the destruction of cultural property.When committed on a systematic and large scaleas was seen in China during the 1960s, suchattacks are very harmful. The harm comes morefrom the motivation and symbolism of the acts ofdesecration and destruction, rather than fromthe acts themselves. This is because such actsare committed in a highly discriminatory manner.They attack peoples’ culture, their beliefs, theirtraditions and their very identity and brand themas illegitimate and often as enemies of the state.This is a form of oppression could certainly classas serious “mental injury” which the ICC holds asa criterion for an act to be a crime againsthumanity. Furthermore, the fact that theprosecution of such crimes does not under thestatus quo fall under the duties of the ICC is nota reason for why this should not be changed toinclude them within their duties. The kind ofcrimes the proposition has been talking aboutare sufficiently serious and sufficiently harmful to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Making the destruction of cultural property acrime against humanity is mainly targeted at thewanton destruction of sites of immense value orthe systematic destruction on a gross scale, suchas that witnessed in the 1960s in China. For themajority of cases, the current UNESCOconventions regarding the protection of culturalproperty in times of conflict would apply. It is notas though insurgents would be able to hide insideany mosque or museum or ancient site and betotally untouchable. It is true, however, thatsituations are conceivable where militarynecessity would normally dictate an attack on ahigh value site or object of cultural heritage, butthe proposed legislation would not allow. This isnot as peculiar as the opposition suggest.International law has created a vast number oflimits on warfare that could potentially be usedto gain a vital strategic advantage. There areexisting limits on what constitute legitimatemilitary targets (civilian populations are not, forexample), and with respect to the kind of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Military objectives are more important than thatof protecting cultural property. Ultimately thedebate between conservation of cultural heritageand the need to secure a military advantage intimes of conflict, comes down to a comparison oftwo different kinds of goods. One the one handwe have cultural goods that are beneficial foraesthetic and educational purposes, and on theother we have more tangible goods that areoften sough through military endeavours. Whenthe latter are particularly pressing and importantgoods, such as the need to prevent genocide, ordistribute famine relief or defend one’s security,these benefits far outweigh the benefits ofpreserving our world cultural heritage. Althoughit is regrettable that cultural property ofsignificant value may be damaged, it isincomparable to the damage caused by masskilling of individuals or mass curtailing of humanrights. The safeguarding of basic human rightssuch as the right to life, the right to be free fromfear, enslavement or torture etc. is a prerequisite", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The protection of cultural property is not withinthe scope of the ICC. Though it is true theinternational Criminal Court (ICC) prosecutesand investigates crimes against humanity, thedestruction and desecration of cultural propertycannot be categorised as a crime againsthumanity. This is quite simply because humanbeings are not directly harmed when culturalproperty like ancient monuments or old scriptsare destroyed. According to the ICC, thefollowing would consist of crimes againsthumanity: ‘Murder, extermination; enslavement;deportation or forcible transfer of population;imprisonment; torture; rape, sexual slavery,enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy,enforced sterilization, or any other form ofsexual violence of comparable gravity;persecution against an identifiable group onpolitical, racial, national, ethnic, cultural,religious or gender grounds; enforceddisappearance of persons; the crime ofapartheid; other inhumane acts of a similar", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Making destroying cultural heritage a crimeagainst humanity would create severe strategicdisadvantages for our armed forces. The currentUNESCO conventions are correct in allowing forthe possibility of a waiver on our internationalduty to protect cultural property should a case ofmilitary urgency arise. The Proposition argue forthe implementation of overly-rigid internationallegislation. Although, of course, world culturalheritage should be protected, it is short-sightedto not even allow the possibility of militarynecessity to outweigh our duty to protecthigh-value cultural property. The UNESCOconventions already dictate that one can only bejustified in attacking or targeting a site ofcultural heritage if ‘there is no feasiblealternative available to obtain a similar militaryadvantage’ [1] Therefore, the proposition areonly making a difference to cases where there isno feasible alternative available. This could provedisastrous and create a significant limitation onthe capacity of a state’s armed forces. The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgtlilhwtd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The opposition present us with a false dichotomyhere. It is not true that we have to make achoice between saving lives and protectingcultural property. The hypothetical situationwhere a site of high cultural and historical valuewould have to be destroyed in order to providefamine relief or prevent genocide seems slightlyfar-fetched. However, even if such a choice hadto be made, we should still ensure that thedestruction of cultural property was a crimeagainst humanity. It is important to set aninternational precedent for rules of conductduring warfare in order to minimise harms on alarge scale, despite the possibility of small,minority cases where going against that lawwould be beneficial. This is the case, forexample, with the laws about targeting civiliansin warfare. In order to safeguard the precedent,the law must apply to all situations despite thefact that in certain cases a war could be wonmore easily by targeting civilians.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilphbined-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The Lubanga case took 6 years to reach a verdictowing to problems with the reliability oftestimony and the sheer number of witnessesand victims involved in the proceedings.[1] Although the Prosecutor sought a harshersentence, these problems with the weight ofevidence and difficulties ascertaining the numberof child soldiers required the Trial Chamber toimpose a more modest sentence. [2] Therefore,even if the Lubanga conviction might not have astrongly deterrent effect by itself, the ICC ispursuing many other cases and it is theseconstant and cumulative investigations thatdeter others from committing similar crimes. [1]Kammer, \"Deconstructing Lubanga\" [2] HumanRights Brief", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilphbined-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "In the decade since its formation, the ICC hasonly one successful conviction Since becomingoperational in March 2003 the ICC has only hadone case resulting in a conviction and it iscurrently being appealed. Despite being foundguilty of the war crime of recruiting and forcingchild soldiers to fight and kill, Thomas Lubangawas sentenced to just 14 years imprisonment.Lubanga was arrested and sent to the Court inMarch 2006. This single ICC conviction and thelight sentence imposed are hardly sufficient todeter other warlords from using child soldiers.Six years later, in the same country whereLubanga’s crimes occurred, thousands of childsoldiers are being recruited by various armedgroups. [1] [1] UN News, \"Child recruitmentremains endemic.\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilphbined-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Precisely because many rank and fileperpetrators are easily controlled or manipulatedby group leaders, their criminal responsibility isdiminished. While Article 26 of the Rome Statuteprevents prosecution of those under 18 years ofage, this is designed to prevent injusticestowards those who are often themselves victimsof those in command. Article 33 specificallyrejects the ‘Nuremberg defence’ that followingorders absolves a person from criminalresponsibility. But in keeping with InternationalHumanitarian Law (Rule 155 of Customary IHL),child soldiers should not be prosecuted for crimescommitted under severe coercion by leaders.Prosecuting those responsible for that coercion isthe most powerful deterrent. [1] [1] IRIN News,\"Should child soldiers be prosecuted for theircrimes?\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilphbined-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC lacks the power to ensure arrests Whilethe ICC has the power to issue arrest warrants, itdoes not have the coercive powers to ensure thatthose warrants are followed. Despite the factthat States that are parties to the Rome Statuteare obliged to co-operate with the directions ofthe Court, there have been many instanceswhere such States have failed to pursue thoseindicted. Cases that have been referred to theICC by the United Nations Security Council allowsthe Court to extend its jurisdiction to include UNmember States that are not parties to the RomeStatute. This enabled the ICC to issue aninternational warrant for the arrest of Sudan’sPresident Al-Bashir. Yet several of thesecountries obliged to arrest him have refusedwhen the opportunities have arisen. [1] [1]Rothe & Collins, pp.198-9", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilphbined-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that the Sudanese president has beenable to travel freely to several countries withoutbeing arrested does not indicate that he or otherwould-be criminals are undeterred by the threat.Though the African Union has strongly advisedits member states to ignore the arrest warrantand most have obliged, more recently Malawiand Kenya prevented Al-Bashir from attendingsummits. Even when Nigeria allowed hisattendance at an AU summit last year, Al-Bashirfled within a day of arriving, after local humanrights groups filed a court action. TheDemocratic Republic of Congo has surrenderedseveral suspects to the ICC and this was enoughto induce another suspect to surrender. [1] [1]Roth, \"Africa Attacks the International CriminalCourt.\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilphbined-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "As the ICC intentionally limits its prosecutions togroup leaders, many of those who actuallycommit atrocities need have no fear ofprosecution By prosecuting only those leadersdeemed ‘most responsible’ for the crimes inquestion, the ICC is effectively allowinglower-ranked perpetrators to commit crimes withimpunity. These rank and file troops generallyhave little awareness or understanding ofinternational criminal laws. Furthermore, just aslocal domestic laws fail to deter offenders whooften commit crimes with little thought of beingpunished, distant ICC threats are even less likelyto deter those whose actions are easilymanipulated and controlled by militia leaders.Child soldiers, in particular, have often beendrugged before going into combat. [1] [1]Mullins & Rothe, pp.782-4", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilphbined-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Many of those 122 States Parties haverepeatedly shown their reluctance to co-operatewith the ICC. Among the African Union states,only Botswana has shown its completecommitment to the Rome Statute. It appearsthat even South Africa may ultimately be moresupportive of the AU than the ICC. [1] [1]Miruthi , p.4", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilphbined-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The actions by Columbia and Sri Lanka do notalter the fact that, as noted earlier, therecruitment of child soldiers in Africa andelsewhere is still endemic in 2013. And while theLord’s Resistance Army and its leader JosephKony have indeed been muted, that is largelydue to the initiative of the U.S. governmentwhich has itself refused to ratify the ICC’sStatute. [1] [1] Schomerus, Allen andVlassenroot", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilphbined-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Potential prosecution by the ICC encourageslocal authorities to improve their own judicialsystems. As an international court of ‘lastresort’, the ICC’s very existence serves as aconstant reminder of the failings of national andregional governments to effectively curtail crimesagainst humanity in all their forms. Therefore,the Court exerts a strong deterrent effect byimplicitly challenging the adequacy of thosegovernments whose judicial systems allow suchcrimes to be committed with impunity. Seekingto avoid such international embarrassment hasitself been enough to motivate many countries toboth join the ICC Assembly and aim to improvetheir own domestic judicial systems. A clearexample of this direct effect was the Kenyangovernment’s judicial and electoral reforms thatfollowed from the ICC’s indictments over thepost-election violence in 2007 which made thejudiciary and election commissionconstitutionally much more independent. [1] [1]Kimenyi", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilphbined-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC’s widely endorsed authority extends itsdeterrent effects. The ICC’s investigative andprosecutorial powers are endorsed by 122 StatesParties to the Rome Statute. This broad reachand agreement not only provides a strongdisincentive for individuals and groups whowould attempt to evade prosecution, but also hasthe effect of deterring states that mightotherwise ignore the Court’s authority.Furthermore, even non-member states haverecognised the importance of co-operating withthe Court’s investigations. In 2013, one of themost wanted war criminals, Bosco Ntaganda wasforced to surrender to the ICC while hiding inRwanda. Though a non-member state,“Rwanda's aid-dependent economy wasdamaged by the allegations of links to MrNtaganda's rebels.” [1] [1] The Economist", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilphbined-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC’s investigations have already deterredpotential crimes. There is compelling evidencethat the ICC’s past or current investigations havecaused potential perpetrators as well as thosealready indicted, to abandon their plans. Forexample, as the ICC’s first Prosecutor noted,even before the Court had convicted ThomasLubanga for the recruitment of child soldiers, itsAfrican investigations were enough to promptresponses in Columbia and Sri Lanka, resulting inchildren being released. [1] At the same time,there has been a notable decrease in crimes bythose already under investigation, such as theLord’s Resistance Army in Uganda. [2] [1] ICCProsecutor's Address to Council on ForeignRelations , p.9 [2] Bosco , p.176", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilphbined-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Even if Kenya’s recent reforms were motivatedby the ICC’s indictments, the 2013 electionswere still marked by violence which “as ofFebruary 2013, had claimed more than 477 livesand displaced another 118,000 people.”[1] Despite many African governments’ initialenthusiasm for the ICC, the African Union hassince openly challenged the Court’sinvestigations and Kenyan authorities have beendoing their utmost to obstruct the ICC’sinvestigations. [2] [1] Human Rights Watch [2]Evenson", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Although prisoners may associate closely withother criminals within jail, many more offenderswere introduced to crime outside prison. Adeprived social background, a family lifedisrupted by domestic violence and familymembers with histories of criminal behaviour canall lead an individual to become involved withcrime. For many young men, prison can becomea sanctuary from links with gangs or a chaoticand damaging home life. Once placed within theregulated, disciplined environment of the prison,they can be introduced to the essential skills andeducational opportunities that they may havebeen denied in the outside world. Prison cangive an individual the opportunity to develop thepractical and psychological skills they require toescape social alienation. Many prisons in Europe,the UK and the States achieve this objective. USprisons may also operate special units that offerhelp and protection to offenders who want toleave gangs. Under-staffing and a poorunderstanding of inmates’ needs are arguments", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Prisons create criminals The prison environmentis harmful to many offenders. Consider the riskof developing a drug or alcohol addiction whileincarcerated in the UK (15% of the inmates ofone of the UK’s largest jails tested positive fordrugs in 2006) [i] ; the risk of being subjected tosexual violence in an US prison (217,000prisoners were subjected to sexual violence inAmerican prisons in 2008) [ii] ; the rise in gangmotivated violence and killings within prisons onboth sides of the Atlantic. Prison brings togetherindividuals with a wide range of social andbehavioural problems that incline them towardsdeviance and violence. These individuals areplaced in closed conditions with restricted accessto productive activities. In many westernnations, a lack of funding and staff means thatmost prisoners have little to fill their time, andmay be confined to their cells for up to twentythree hours a day. The privations of prison makeprisoners more, rather than less likely to engagein violent or exploitative behaviour. Prisoners in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "As noted above, the consequences of non-violentcrimes can be just as damaging as those ofviolent crimes. More over, non-violent criminalscan also present an immediate danger tosociety. The cost of constructing a prison isoutweighed by the benefit of preventingindividuals from committing crimes.Rehabilitation programmes are not a panacea –they are not instantly or reliably effective. Even ifan individual refuses to engage with anyrehabilitative activities in prison, they are stillrestrained from engaging in further criminalactivity. Consider the senior members oforganised criminal syndicates. These individualsmay only be involved in using deceptiveaccounting or front-companies to conceal theactivities of their colleagues, but by doing sothey enable and encourage multiple violentoffences. Similarly, drug dealers may createconditions in which social deprivation and familybreak-down flourish. As noted both above and onside proposition, these same conditions can", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Proportionality A recent study conducted amongprisoners in Florida found that from 1997 to2010 the proportion of new inmates who hadcommitted violent crimes (collating both stateand federal prisons statistics) fell by 28% [i] .Meanwhile, the number of first time prisonerswho had committed non-violent offences rose by189% [ii] . It is argued that imprisoningindividuals found to be guilty of non-violentcrimes is a disproportionate response to theiractions and does not serve the objectives ofcriminal sentencing set out above. Criminalsentences must deliver a punishment inproportion to the crime an offender hascommitted. A disproportionate sentence- usingthe death penalty to punish theft, for instance- isless likely to be perceived as a fair or rationalresponse to criminal behaviour. An offender whois punished excessively is more likely to seehimself as the victim of injustice, and less likelyto consider the impact of his own conduct. A lawabiding individual who that fears that jaywalking", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The victims of non-violent offences may suffer asmuch as the victims of violent offences. A largescale financial fraud, such as that perpetrated byRobert Maxwell or Bernard Madhoff, may deprivethousands of individuals of their savings andpensions, condemning them to a life of poverty.A petty drugs dealer may be supplying a habitthat drives an addict to steal and attack others inorder to find money. Moreover, fraud, deceptionand drug dealing draw on the same predatory,cynical and exploitative attitudes that motivateviolent theft, organised crime and violent rape.An individual who has committed onlynon-violent offences is not necessarily in a betterposition to appreciate the harm that violencemay do, or to understand that others may sufferas a result of his actions. It may be proportionalto hand down a severe prison sentence to a“white collar” criminal, who has abused aposition of trust or wealth for personal gain.Such crimes are aggravated by the fact that theirperpetrators have often led privileged, secure", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "It is unrealistic to expect the police to act as thesole deterrent to criminal behaviour. Themajority of police work concerns the detectionrather than the prevention of crime. Only amassive and unfeasible expansion of policenumbers and powers could provide a realdeterrent to criminality. The purpose ofdeterrence is to reduce the likelihood ofdamaging behaviour without dramatically raisingthe cost of enforcing the law. Deterrence relieson individuals acting in a rational manner andbeing able to regulate their own behaviour.Property crime often results from the offenderperforming a rational balancing of his likely gainsagainst the likely costs of incarceration. Limitingthe use of prison sentences means thatcalculating offenders will be much more likely toengage in property crime. Finally, theproposition is unable to deal with the threatposed by habitual and compulsive pettycriminals. The actions of such individuals oftenstraddle the boundary between outright", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Incarceration is expensive, rehabilitation isnot Many of the rehabilitation and interventionschemes made available in prison are replicatedin community settings by social services andcharities. The cost of delivering theseprogrammes in prison originates from theconcept of prison itself. The expense of building,equipping, staffing and monitoring a prisonvastly outweighs the cost of rehabilitativeactivities. Research conducted by Steve Aos hasshown that rehabilitative programs designed toreduce crime can be cost-effective [i] . Prisonsshould be used only where the imperative toprotect society from criminal behaviour cannotbe met by the imperative to rehabilitate. Aminority of offenders will be incorrigibly violentand uncontrollable, but under the status quo,these dangerous offenders not represent themajority of the prison population (see statisticsabove). The yearly cost of incarcerating a youngoffender in the UK is now £140,000, almost threetimes the annual fee charged by an elite public", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Deterrence is a myth The deterrent effect ofprison is uniformly overstated. It is popularlythought that the indignity and strictness of theprison environment will discourage criminalbehaviour. Further, exposure to the harshrealities of prison is thought to discourage formerinmates from re-offending. These assumptionsdo not reflect most offenders’ reasoning, nor dothey reflect the contexts in which most criminalbehaviour occurs. Punishment of the type offeredby prisons doesn’t meet the criteria forreinforcement of behaviour that one wouldassociate with behaviour change; thepunishment happens long after the behaviour,and is therefore futile [i] . Firstly, it should benoted that among many inmates, especiallyyoung men, criminal actions, including publicorder offences, assault and petty theft, arecarried out on impulse. Impulsive behaviour isoften influenced by alcohol and peer pressure.Under these circumstances, deterrence isineffective. Secondly, empirical evidence", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-con03b", "title": "", "text": "A modern liberal state’s duty is to pursue policiesand promote values that will have a real andlasting impact on its citizen’s lives. Theresolution is such a policy. The opposition’sargument has been tried and failed; in the US,‘increasing punitive measures have failed toreduce criminal recidivism and instead have ledto a rapidly growing correctional system that hasstrained government budgets’ [i] . Pandering topopulist thinking in the name of maintainingconfidence in a particular government is ashort-term strategy. It is an approach designedto win elections rather than bring about socialchange. The most effective way for agovernment to fulfil its obligation to protect itscitizens is to reduce deviance effectively andefficiently, even if that change has to come atthe expense of political capital. The penalsystem operating under the status quo brutalisesindividuals and entrenches criminality incommunities in the name of law and order. [i]Andrews, D.A. & Bonta, J., “Rehabilitating", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The opposition argument assumes thatpunishment must be proportional only to thesuffering caused to the victim of a particularcrime. Opposition state that for a sentence to betruly proportionate, it must reflect the subjectiveresponses of the victim. This analysis fails toacknowledge that the definition of proportionalityextends beyond the victim. The four objectivesof criminal sentencing are complimentary, notmutually exclusive. The aspect of a sentence thatseeks to punish should be proportionate tooffender’s crime, but in addition, it must notobstruct the functioning of the other objectivesof sentencing. A burglary may be upsetting forthe victim, and incarceration of the burglar mayseem a proportionate response. However, whenthat sentence is weighed against the imperativeto rehabilitate the burglar, we discover thatrehabilitation in prison would be less effectivethan rehab in a community setting. Whencustodial punishment is weighed against theimperative to protect the public, we discover that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Rehabilitation can only succeed inprison Rehabilitation programmes are not apanacea – nor are they instantly or reliablyeffective. The risk of an individual committingcrime can only be reduced by long-termengagement with such schemes. Under thesecircumstances, the best location in which torehabilitate offender is prison. Prison serves, insome cases, to separate prisoners from povertyand desperation, and to help them accesstraining and education that they may have failedto engage with previously. Prison can alsoquarantine offenders from the influence of gangsand other sub-cultures that may compete withthe positive behaviours fostered byrehabilitation. This is particularly the case forhigh risk offenders. It seems ridiculous toassume that dramatic changes in an individual’sbehaviour can be brought about without acorrespondingly dramatic change in theirenvironment and lifestyle. Criminality frequentlydevelops as a survival strategy within hostile or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Incarceration has symbolic value A custodialsentence has strong symbolic value, foroffenders, for victims and for society as awhole. Exclusion from society and confiscationof freedoms that the state would normallyprotect at any cost is a powerful message, onethat can be understood easily by both whitecollar fraudsters and semi-literate muggers.There are few more effective ways ofcommunicating society’s disapproval andindicating the boundaries of its tolerance. For allside proposition’s talk of long term consequencesand proportionality, there remain a significantnumber of offenders and potential offenders whowould perceive the resolution as a weakness tobe exploited. We give up the symbol ofincarceration at the cost of emboldeningcriminals. Confidence in the state is founded onthe state’s ability to protect its citizens and theirproperty from physical harm. This is somethingon which all but the most extreme ends of thepolitical spectrum would agree. Even if the state", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The false distinction between “violent” and“non-violent” crime Distinctions between violentand non-violent offences are not useful whendeciding which offenders should be imprisonedand which should receive more lenient,rehabilitative sentences. The severity of a crimecan only be defined by its context andconsequences, not by semi-arbitrary labels suchas violent and non-violent. All forms ofcriminality, and not just violent crimes, can havedisturbing and traumatic consequences. Theeffect of a robbery on the physical health andpsychological stability of an elderly person canbe as pronounced as the effects of a violentassault on a healthy young man. It isdisingenuous to claim that the nature of acriminal act can be separated from that act’seffects on a victim. As the widely known commonlaw maxim states, a victim should be taken as heis found. A reasonable adult citizen will not beexcused from responsibility for what he knew tobe a harmful criminal act simply because he did", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpphwlpvo-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Families and other social networks can play animportant role in supporting and encouraging anoffender as they rehabilitate. Wives, husbandsand children can effectively monitor thebehaviour of an offender when trained staff areunavailable. Given that the imprisonment of anadult family member is emotionally traumaticand financially damaging, families have a strongincentive to ensure that rehabilitation issuccessful. Disruptive family environments arealso catered for by the proposition resolution.Where family breakdown is a cause ofcriminality, social workers and rehabilitationspecialists will be able to “treat” the familyalongside the offender. Underlying drug oralcohol addictions can be addressed.‘Therapeutic programs’, as they are termed,enable offenders to be rehabilitated by andwithin the community in a ‘living-learningsituation’ [i] . Prison on the other hand is anunsupportive environment where offenders areblamed for their behaviour and sometimes", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There is no moral duty to respect the humanityof terrorists. Terrorists themselves do notrespect human rights. By attacking civilians, theybreach the terms of the Geneva Conventions andinternational human rights law. They do notdeserve to be protected by the laws of warbecause they do not behave like a militaryorganisation. If they do not comply with the lawsof war there is no reason why they should enjoythe benefits of the Geneva Conventions whenthey are detained.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The moral duty to respect a basic level ofhumanity, which the Geneva Conventionembodies, must be retained Even if we think theterrorist cause is illegitimate we have a moralduty to respect a basic level of humanity. Thereare certain acts, such as torture, to which noindividual should be subjected, regardless oftheir own behaviour. The Geneva Convention isabout universal respect for human dignity(International Committee of the Red Cross,1949), not merely for those who show it inreturn. Civilised nations can and should beexpected to act in a humane manner, regardlessof the barbarity of their adversaries. Only byacting in such a manner can states prove thesuperiority of their own humanity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Poor treatment is not a significant recruitmenttool: whilst some people may be encouraged tojoin terrorist groups as a result of suchbehaviour, those who are outraged by humanrights abuses in this context should be equallyconcerned about the violation of human rightswhich occurs when a terrorist detonates a bomb,or flies into a building, killing large numbers ofinnocent civilians. The ideology invoked existsindependently of the way in which suspects aretreated and indoctrination with such beliefs is thereal tool in the recruitment process.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The United Nations can punish those states whorefuse to subject its prisoners of war to theGeneva Conventions The United Nations, as theinstitution that formed and maintains the GenevaConventions and other restrictions on warfare, isable to use its structures to punish states that donot adhere to its protocols. The InternationalCriminal Court, established by the Rome Statuteof 1998, is able to prosecute those specificpersons who are charged with war crimes. Suchdefendants, if convicted, can be ordered to paythe victims. Furthermore, the International Courtof Justice is able to bring cases against specificstates that are clearly identified as having brokenthe protocols of war. As such, the United Nationsis both legally and institutionally capable ofensuring that the dictates of the GenevaConventions are upheld, specifically the right of acombatant captured in a conflict zone to begranted prisoner of war status. While this wouldprovide a degree of protection for capturedterrorists, it also means that terrorist", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Terrorists are engaged in war, which muchremain subject to the Geneva Conventions lest itbecome unrestrained Terrorists are engaged in awar like any other: they unite as a political actorto undertake military action in favour of aspecific cause. The fact that they do notrepresent one individual nation and that they arenot at war with a specific list of states does notundermine this: Al Qaeda, for example, has cleargoals including eliminating American influencewithin Muslim nations, destroying Israel andre-establishing the Caliphate (Blanchard, 2007).The fact that we may not view these causes asworthy or legitimate is irrelevant: we do notassess the merits or legitimacy of a conflictbetween states before deciding whether to applythe Geneva Convention. It should thereforeapply equally to soldiers and terrorists. TheGeneva Conventions were formed to ensure thatfuture wars would not result in the barbarity andwanton violence that mired World War II; todeny it to terrorists would risk the undermining", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Terrorists are not engaged in a war. Their actionsare aimed at destruction of civil society and ofnations across the globe. The GenevaConventions exist to control wars betweennations in a way which respects human dignityand minimises long-term harm. Wars betweennations have a foreseeable end, and theConvention is an important means of aidingreconciliation and cooperation in the future: it isharder to build a relationship with a state whichhas brutally tortured your soldiers upon capture.However, a war against terrorists will often haveno end: it is inconceivable, for example, eitherthat Al Qaeda will successfully achieve thereestablishment of the Caliphate or that the Westwill quash all terrorist activity. Reconciliation andfuture cooperation are meaningless here.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The United Nation has the potential to punishparties that do not abide by its protocols,including the Geneva Conventions. However, itsability to do so is limited even when it comes tostates since that power is itself granted by itsmember states. For example, the InternationalCriminal Court is only able to bring cases whichthe Security Council approves. Therefore, thecontemporary targets of terrorists, most notablythe United States and the United Kingdom, areinevitably going to veto any proposition topersecute themselves for violating the GenevaConventions. The circular process of asking astate whether it will approve the prosecution ofitself betrays the absurdity of the United Nationsas an institution enforcing the protocols of war.As for the behaviour of terrorist groups, theirmembers are subject to prosecution for actionsequivalent to war crimes whether or not they aresubject to the Geneva Conventions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Harsh interrogation is indeed necessary, due inpart to the unique efficacy of harsh interrogationin dealing with the new threat. The interrogationof a terrorist is qualitatively different to that of asoldier, due to the nature of terrorist attacks andthe importance of information in theirprevention. Michael Hayden, former Director ofthe CIA, argues that there is no other way forthe CIA to have acquired information from them,‘given their character and given theircommitment to what it is they do’ (Martinez,2009). The effectiveness of harsh interrogationmay vary, but an absolute prohibition based onthe few exceptions would be too high a price topay. Protecting civilian lives must come beforemaintaining any moral high ground.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Poor treatment of terrorists affirms terroristideology and provides a recruitment tool,therefore the Geneva Conventions must beapplied to prevent this. Poor treatment affirmsterrorist ideology: regardless of what is morallyright, it would be beneficial to treat terrorists inthe ways prescribed by the Convention. Terroristideology is often predicated on the behaviour ofthose countries against which it is targeted.Treating captured terrorists or terror suspects ina way that ignores their human dignity onlyreinforces negative perceptions of the West andencourages the radicalization of the youth(McCarthy, 2007). In addition, such behaviourcan be used to justify terrorist actions to lessradicalised members of certain communitie", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Harsh interrogation is not necessarily aneffective tool for extracting valuableinformation. Harsh interrogation of captives hasnot been shown to be effective (White, 2007).Those who are prepared to die to advance theircause are unlikely to yield information, no matterhow much they are threatened or tortured.Where captives do provide information, theyoften state simply what they think that theinterrogators want to hear, rather than anythingthat is true (Mazzetti, 2007). In addition, giventhe cellular nature of many terroristorganisations, those captured often have verylittle useful information to begin with. Even ifthey have been involved in a plot, they may onlyhave information about a very small part of thatplot. Furthermore, winning the trust of prisonerscan lead to more effective information than theuse of torture.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Special interrogation methods are not necessaryto combat the terrorist threat. It is always easyto imagine extra lengths that states couldconceivably go to in order to protect theirsoldiers or civilians. However the ambition of theGeneva Conventions in the wake of World War IIwas to establish limits. The ‘unlawful combatant’legal loophole created by the United Statesthreatens to erode the restraint on warfare builtup over half a century. The high-profile case ofwaterboarding involving Al-Qaeda suspect AbuZubaydah casts serious doubt on any claim thatsuch methods are effective, and by extension,necessary in combating the terrorist threat.Water-boarded 83 times in one month,Zubaydah’s treatment demonstrates that theabsence of the constraints of the GenevaConventions is a slippery slope to the use ofwanton, sadistic violence with no justifiable end(Shane, 2009). Though Zubaydah’s interrogationis believed to have been fruitful in terms ofintelligence gathered, there is little reason to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The re-definition of terrorists as unlawfulcombatants threatens to encourage the use ofthe evolution of war as an excuse for humanrights abuses. The refusal to apply the GenevaConventions allows states to use tactics such asindefinite detention without trial and enhancedinterrogation techniques such as water-boarding,which are seen by many as a form of torture (UNGeneral Assembly, 1984). These practices arecruel and significantly harm the physical andpsychological wellbeing of detainees. Even ifthese techniques were effective in the war onterror, they should not be practiced because theyare a violation of both the laws of war andinternational human rights law (ICRC, 1948).Moreover, under Protocol 1 (1977) Additional tothe Geneva Conventions, non-state forcesengaged in wars aiming at self-determination arepermitted to operate without use of uniforms orcarrying arms openly (except during combat andwhile visibly deploying immediate prior toattack).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "With no hope of reciprocity, adherence to theGeneva Conventions would undermine the fightagainst terrorism There is no moral duty torespect the dignity of terrorists. States should dowhatever possible to protect their own citizens.The Geneva Convention is about reciprocity: it isin the interest of our own citizens to treat enemycombatants in a humane manner so that if oursoldiers are caught they will receive similartreatment. There can be no guarantee ofreciprocity from ‘terrorists’ as a whole, or evenspecific terrorist groups given the cellular natureof the organisations and the disparate nature ofthe command structures. Furthermore, terroristsspecifically use poor treatment of hostages as atool in their campaign. Given this, it is in theinterests of our own citizens to use whatevermeans possible to fight terrorism; compliancewith the Geneva Convention undermines this.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "There are other means by which to protect therights of terrorists without needing to apply theGeneva Conventions Under the auspices of theGeneva Conventions, prisoners of war can bedetained for the duration of hostilities, and areonly entitled to return home at the end of thewar (International Committee of the Red Cross,1949). Given the open-ended nature of the waron terror, it is very likely that treating terroristdetainees as POWs will mean they are neverreleased. Furthermore, there is no guaranteethat the Geneva Conventions protect humanrights any better than existing domestic law orpolicy. In democracies, the accountability ofelected politicians and judicial review byindependent judges can instead be trusted toensure that detainees are not abused ormistreated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Special interrogation methods are necessary inorder to combat the terrorist threat The war onterror is unlike any other war and so differenttactics are necessary in order to win. There is nopoint maintaining a moral high ground where thisleads to more civilian deaths. The GenevaConventions put barriers in the way of winningthe war on terror because tactics such asindefinite detention are necessary. For example,Israel’s practice of targeted killing of terroristswas restricted by the Israeli Supreme Court onthe grounds that it did not comply with theGeneva Conventions (The Public Committeeagainst Torture in Israel v. The Government ofIsrael, 2006). Often there is no other way tocombat terrorists and the Geneva Conventionsrestrict tactics that save hundreds of lives.Governments would also not be able to gain asmuch intelligence if they had to adhere to theGeneva Conventions when interrogatingterrorists. It is dangerous to put the west at anoperational disadvantage in the war on terror", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Terrorists are not lawful combatants, thereforethey not do not acquire prisoner of warstatus Prisoner of war status is only granted tothose who legally and morally deserve itsprotections. Therefore, those who wish to seekthe protection of the Geneva Conventions, thelaws of war, have a duty to distinguishthemselves from the civilian population (Detter,2007, p.1063). Terrorists who absolvethemselves of this responsibility in the pursuit ofwanton violence, who flagrantly ignore the lawsof war, cannot thereafter appeal to its protectiononce captured. Such a norm is required in orderto preserve the sanctity of the GenevaConventions, including the immunity of civilians,and prevent the encouragement of using civiliansas means to ends. Terrorists who operate outsideof the law and attempt to thereafter use it totheir advantage should be denied thatopportunity. Attempts to permit the use ofnon-uniformed soldiers in Protocol 1 lackauthority as several key states are not party to it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The Geneva Conventions provide the only fair,impartial and strong mechanism for protectingthe human rights of detainees in the war onterror. Applying the Geneva Conventions wouldallow the Red Cross to inspect prisons wheredetainees are held (Anonymous, 2002).Breaches of the Geneva Conventions also giverise to State Responsibility, as seen in the USAand Israeli courts’ supervision of the treatmentof terrorists and terror suspects. Individuals canalso be held criminally responsible for breachesof the Geneva Conventions, for example theCharles Taylor trial at the Special Court for SierraLeone and the trial of Radovan Karadzic at theInternational Criminal Tribunal for the FormerYugoslavia (Dworkin, 2003). The GenevaConventions are therefore a useful way ofensuring that states respect human rights, ratherthan simply promising to treat detainees well asa matter of policy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilthbtsbs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Treating terrorists with respect for their humanrights allows those fighting the war on terror totake the moral high ground. By failing to complywith the Geneva Conventions, countries such asthe USA are no better than the terrorist groupsthat they are fighting. The objects of war havechanged, states no longer seek territory purelythrough force but by cultivating popular support,‘hearts and minds’ (Kilcullen, 2009). The valuesthat the West stands for are exactly whatterrorists are attacking and the West needs toshow that it can win the war on terror while stillrespecting fundamental values such as the ruleof law and human rights. Applying the GenevaConventions is therefore a vital part of winningthe war on terror, regardless of whether theterrorists choose to apply them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Hate speech can encourage dialogue and bepositive. Allowing hate speech provides anopportunity to combat and change the views ofthose who are promoting hatred. In the longterm this will lead to a reduction in violencethrough helping air and then solve the underlyingcauses. (See Op Argument 1)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Reduced dialogue While hate speech is a form ofexpression, it is not one that encouragesdialogue. By promoting hatred based onimmutable personal characteristics it is bydefinition anti-dialogue. Hate speech does notcontribute anything; it merely provides ajustification for violence and discrimination.Extreme messages, be they in words or throughsymbols, deter moderates from voicing theiropinions, either because they do not want tolegitimize the message or out of fear of reprisals.This reduces the net dialogue on universitycampuses and injures the quality of the dialoguethat remains.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The need for interaction is all the more reason toensure that all ideas are in the marketplace. Thisway, the veracity of all ideas are questioned. Forexample, if someone brings bigoted ideas withthem as a freshman, perhaps because theseideas were prevalent in the community theygrew up in, if they cannot express these ideasand be challenged they may never attempt tointegrate. Instead, they will gravitate to thosewho share their ideas and remain isolated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Danger to students Hate speech poses a cleardanger to students and other members of thecampus community. Often, the hatred is directedtowards minority groups that are easilyidentifiable based on skin colour, clothing, orbehaviour. Because these minorities are easy toidentify, they can be targeted by those swayedby the speaker’s message. Every hate crime is atragedy and an attack against the principles ofWLDs. Even when the message doesn’t provokeviolence, it can have a deep emotional harm onmembers of the targeted community. As such,the government has a duty to intervene toensure that individuals are safe. [1] [1]Kaminer, Wendy and Femi Otitoju, “Protectingfree speech is more important than preventinghate speech” (Debate) Intelligence2. Retrieved2011-08-24.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The government’s primary duty is to protect theconstitutional rights of its citizens. Censoringspeech is a clear attack on the right to freeexpression. Governments can use the criminalcode to ensure people are protected. Acts thatphysically harm people or directly encourageothers to use violence are already illegal andthese laws can be enforced without violating anindividual’s constitutional rights. [1] [1]Kaminer, Wendy and Femi Otitoju, “Protectingfree speech is more important than preventinghate speech” (Debate) Intelligence2. Retrieved2011-08-24.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There is the potential for massive harm shoulduniversities become places where individualscontinuously need to contain their thoughts andideas for fear of sanction. It is far easier toactively promote open dialogue and tolerance asthis will lead to more diversity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Allowing Hate Speech Discouragesdiversity Members of groups that findthemselves the targets of hate speech will beless likely to attend universities where they feeltargeted. As a result, those campuses willbecome less diverse which will decrease themost effective deterrent of hateful ideas:understanding through interaction. Less Muslim,gay, Jewish, etc. students on campus is exactlywhat those promoting hatred are trying toachieve. Less students of the targeted groupmakes them easier to target because there areless people speaking out against the hatespeech. A downward spiral is created that, if notchecked, can drastically reduce campus diversitywhich is a massive harm to social integration andsocial harmony. Speech codes or othercensorship sends a signal to minorities that theyare welcome in the university. [1] [1] Seaman,Julie, ‘Hate Speech and Identity Politics’, FloridaState University Law Review, Vol. 36:99, p.107", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Discourages education of minorities Whenindividuals feel that they will be targeted at auniversity based on who they are, they are lesslikely to attend that university either out of fearthey will be discriminated against or becausethey believe that they will not be allowed toexpress themselves freely without beingdiscriminated against or assaulted. No groupshould be discouraged from attaining highereducation because of immutable personalcharacteristics. Tertiary education is at the heartof social mobility and self-actualization. Even ifno attack ever takes place, because hate speechcan create an atmosphere which deters membersof society from attending university the state isjustified in banning it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "As stated, hate speech can have significant harmon certain individuals’ abilities to attenduniversity and engage in campus life. Their rightsto education must balanced against any potentialharms that may befall someone who has to thinktwice before saying something hateful about amember of their university community.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It is wrong that obnoxious and hateful viewsshould be given an airing and individuals left totheir own devices to decide if those views areright or wrong. Accepting that these views canbe voiced on campus and opponents of theseviews can make their own case implies thatthese views have equal standing; which is notthe case, while there may be freedom of speechthere is not freedom to hurt one and other. It iswrong to suggest that hateful ideas will spreadfaster if banned as if they are not banned thosewho are preaching such ideas have greateraccess to others so have more opportunity topersuade", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Universities are bastions of freeexpression Historically, universities have beencentres of free speech and expression. The ideaof tenure for professors was developed to ensureacademic freedom both for teachers andstudents. [1] Censorship of any type ofexpression is a direct assault on the principles ofa university. As Oliver Wendell Holmescommented, \"The very aim and end of ourinstitutions is just this: that we may think whatwe like and say what we think.\" Free speech oncampus is responsible for producing, or at leastfostering many of the progressive ideas of the20th century even though these ideas werethreatening and caused emotion distress tomany people. [1] American Association ofUniversity Professors (AAUP), ‘1940 Statementof Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure’,1940,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of expression is a politicalright Freedom of expression is enshrined in theconstitutions of all WLDs because it is anecessary political check on the government. Forexample article 10 in the European Conventionon Human Rights [1] and The First Amendmentin the United States. [2] The protection of thisright is most severely tested when the ideas areabhorrent to our morality but when one person isdenied their freedom, it is a harm to everyone’sfreedom. [1] ‘Convention for the Protection ofHuman Rights and Fundamental Freedoms’, June2010, [2] ‘Amendment I’, Cornell UniversityLaw School Legal Information Institute,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of expression is a means toeducation Students need to be able to takechances and express unpopular ideas in order tomaximize their personal growth anddevelopment. Speech codes, even ones designedto only censor hate speech, have a chilling effecton all speech as students become afraid to sayanything that is not politically correct. Forexample a student at California Polytechnic StateUniversity underwent a day long disciplinaryhearing for posting a flyer publicising a talk “It’sO.K. to Leave the Plantation”. [1] It would not besurprising if students are less willing to organisesuch events after such a dressing down.Students also need to learn to respond to ideasthey don’t like because even if censorship of hatespeech is effectively controlled on campus, it stillexists in the outside world. Students will only beable to maximize their ability to ask questions,state opinions, and respond to ideas on a freecampus. [1] Berger, Joseph, “Film PortraysStifling of Speech, but One College’s Struggle", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The marketplace of ideas The truth can onlyemerge from competition between various ideasin free, transparent discourse. To silence anyidea is to remove ideas from the marketplacethus reducing the individual’s ability to usehis/her reason and intellect to arrive at aconclusion. [1] Silencing ideas also createsseparate marketplaces thereby reducing thelegitimacy of both and making it easier forsomeone espousing hate speech to usecensorship as a justification for not engagingtheir ideas in open debate. When this happens, itbecomes more likely that individuals who feelalienated from main stream society will findmeaning in the hateful ideas which have alsobeen excluded from the mainstream. This is verysimilar to the concept of the free market ineconomics where the freer the market the betteroff everyone is. [2] [1] Wikipedia, “Marketplaceof Ideas”, Retrieved 2011-08-23. [2] Lee,Steven P., ‘Hate Speech in the Marketplace ofIdeas’, D. Golash (ed.), Freedom of Expression in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "All rights have to be balanced. Universities havea duty to ensure that everyone is protected andif one person’s right to free speech is infringingon another person’s right to safe access toeducation in a non-hostile environment then it isjust to slightly infringe the first party’s rightrather than entirely eliminate the second party’sright.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aullgsmhwchs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Whatever value the expression of hate speechhas can be discussed in classrooms where theideas can be discussed in their social contextrather than promulgated from a platform.Banning hate speech will not transformuniversities into factories of rote learning orcrush a progressive atmosphere. Hate speechisn’t about affirming rights, it is about limitingrights. There is no analogy here to the feministor gay rights movements.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is better that people be afraid of what is reallyhappening than to be blissfully ignorant and thusvulnerable. Crime can be frightening, but peopleneed to know about it so they can preparethemselves to deal with it. Furthermore, ifviolence is growing within communities, theremay well be a need for better policing, so callingfor such provisions is not necessarily justtreating the symptoms of social illness, butrather is holding society together andmaintaining necessary order. [1] Fear may causepeople to do irrational things, but so too canignorance. [1] Jones, Stephen. UnderstandingViolent Crime. London: Open University Press.2000.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Reporting generates a constant iteration of fearin the public, and precipitates a ratchet effecttoward crime Constant reporting on violentcrime makes people more fearful. This not adeliberate effort on the part of the media to keeppeople afraid, but rather is a corrosive negativeexternality; violence sells, so media provides,resulting in the scaring of audiences. The resultof the media’s reporting on violent crimes is aconstant iteration of fear, which makes peoplewary of each other, and of the world. [1]Furthermore, such reporting creates a feeling inpeople of other individuals and groups mostoften reported as committing crimes as being“other” from themselves. For example, reportingon extensive crimes in inner-city areas in theUnited States has caused middle classsuburbanites to develop wariness towardAfrican-Americans, who are constantly reportedin the media as criminals. This is sociallydestructive in the extreme. The heightenedsenses of insecurity people feel leads to vigilance", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Some journalists and media outlets aredespicable in the way they treat people. Preyingupon victims and their families is absolutelywrong, but a ban is not the way to solve thisproblem as it would simply move the mediafrenzy to whenever the ban on a case is removedand the details become public. Instead betterregulation of the press is needed in suchemotional cases in order to make sure that themedia is respectful of families and also to makesure that those accused are seen to be innocentuntil proven guilty.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Reporting on violent crimes compromises theintegrity and fairness of law Judges and jurieshave to be neutral when they preside in court,and no bias can enter the court’s discourse anddeliberation if justice is to be done. This isespecially true of violent crime, for two reasons.First, in such cases, the court is dealing withpeople’s lives, as violent crime convictions yieldhigh sentences, and the court’s decisions oftenhave a lasting effect on the physical wellbeing ofboth victims and perpetrators of such crimes.Second, the visceral nature of violent crimenaturally causes an emotive response frompeople hearing about it, which can cause them toact less rationally. [1] Opinion is thus moreeasily colored in deliberations over violent crimethan with any other kind. In light of these facts itis necessary to analyze the behavior of themedia when it reports on violent crimes. Themedia is a commercial enterprise. It prioritizessales over truth, and always wants to sell thegood story and to get the scoop. For this reason", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Law should be just and unbiased. That is not acontroversial position. However, it seems difficultto imagine that reporting on violent crimes hasso tremendous an effect on the public thatjudges and jurors cannot be unbiased in theirdeliberations. Rather, the process of juryselection as it stands is designed to guaranteethat there is no bias with both prosecution anddefence being allowed to examine and object toa juror. Furthermore, most reporting on violentcrime is about simple facts rather than anyattempt to influence opinion on specific crimes.This is the essence of what news is, people havea right to know what is going on in their society,even if what is going on is brutally violent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Terrorists and serial killers make up a tinyproportion of murders and violent criminals inWestern countries. In the United Kingdom forexample there have been less deaths due toterrorism between 2000 and 2010 than due tobee stings. [1] As a result the very few copycatattacks are not really the issue at all when thequestion of reporting on violent crimes in themedia is under discussion. Talk about theserarities serves only to distract people from thereality that most violent crime is not so bizarreas these cases. [2] Rather, the need to report onviolent crime stands for all the violent crimescommitted in every society, and fears ofterrorists and serial killers can do little tochallenge that need. [1] Anderson, David, ‘TheTerrorism acts in 2011’ Report of theIndependent Reviewer on the Operation of theTerrorism Act 2000 and Part 1 of the TerrorismAct 2006, June 2012, [2] Morton, Robert.“Serial Murder”. National Center for the Analysisof Violent Crime. 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The state owes a duty of protection to victims,victims’ families, and those accused ofcommitting crimes Victims of violent crimes andtheir families face an emotional and vulnerabletime in the wake of such crimes. People needtime to recover, or mourn. The media’s fixationon violent crimes subjects these vulnerablepeople to the assault of reporters. In fact, thereexists a perverse incentive for the media tobadger families until they break down, as tearssell. Such exploitation must be stopped, and thebest way to do that is to deny the media theability to report on such things. The media doesnot care about hurting feelings, and bad behavioron the part of reporters never hurts readership ofmedia outlets, as is indicative of such tabloids asthe National Enquirer. Outlets can always deflectany backlash that might occur for their excessesby cutting loose “rogue reporters”. Furthermore,families and victims usually do not want themedia's, and the nation’s eyes upon them.Rather they tend to seek support from family", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The contagion effect of reporting on violenceleads to increased impetus for terrorist attacksand serial killings The media has beenconsistently demonstrated through empiricalevidence to aid in the exacerbation ofpremeditated violence. There is an observablecontagion effect, as the media serves to spreadthe virus of violence. Studies have shown thatthe greater the level of media coverage, theshorter the lag time between initial crime andemulations of them. In the case of terrorism,there is a demonstrable clustering effect. The1970s embassy takeovers in Middle East, forexample, show how media coverage canencourage terrorists to emulate past actions thatgained attention in the past. [1] People seesuccess of certain kinds of attacks and seek torepeat them. For example, the successes ofFatah in Israel led to the formation of theGerman Red Army Faction that would beresponsible for many terrorist activities. In thecase of serial killers and mass murders, the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Political will to affect change in areas riddled withviolent crime is not generated by mediareporting on the violence. Rather, the way themedia reports, prioritizing the sensational, bloodand guts, aspects of crimes, results in frightenedvoters clamoring for something to be done. Thisusually just results in more policing and moredraconian sentencing laws. Neither of whichsolve the underlying problems of poverty andpoor provision of essential state services. Rather,they serve merely as stand-ins for real action,resulting in no efforts to genuinely reclaimtroubled communities. By excluding mediareporting on the most visceral goings on in theseareas, namely violent crimes, politicians and thepeople affected can enter into rational dialoguethat is not perverted by media sensationalism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It is not necessary for people to know the extentof criminal activity in order to be able to takeprecautions, everyone regardless of whetherthey know the amount of crime in an area shouldtake what precautions against being attackedthat they can. For example they should stick towalking on well-lit streets at night. Local groupson the other hand do not need to be informed bythe newspapers if there is crime in the area, theywill already know because they live there howsafe the area is. The police will certainly giveresidents the information if there is a threat tothem even if they are not giving that informationto the media.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "To not promote the truth of events is contrary tothe duty, and to the right of free speech, of aresponsible media The media has two jobs; first,it has a duty to report on what people careabout, and second, it has a duty to report onthings that seriously influence society. Muzzlingthe media’s ability to disseminate information bypreventing reporting on violent crimes can onlydo harm to society. The media has afundamental duty to report on anything that mayinfluence the lives of the citizens it reaches. Thisis particularly true of the state-run media, whichis meant to be free of political influence and isnot as dependent upon ad revenues and thus notas prone to sensationalist reporting. Beyond itsduty to inform, the media, like all bodies andindividuals in society have a right to freedom ofspeech. This must extend to the right to reporton things that are ugly and that frighten people.It is better that people be informed of the truthby a free media and be terrified than to leavepeople without knowledge of the real seriousness", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The mainstream media is essential for theaccurate reporting of information; without itreporting on violent crimes, they would simply bereported by less accountable, less accuratefreelance reporters and blogs The media isregularly accused of being sensationalist and ofhyping up the extent and gruesomeness ofviolent crimes. In some cases this may be true,but the media generally reports facts in a soberand informative, if also exciting, way. Withoutthe mainstream media, however, news aboutviolent crimes will still spread. The news will bedisseminated within local communities andacross the Internet via email and blogs. Theresult is lessening of journalistic quality, asbloggers are not bound by any exactingrequirements in terms of the need for factualbases of stories. [1] The mainstream mediaprovides a largely credible source of news thatnew media still lacks. In the absence ofmainstream reporting, especially on such a hotbutton issue as violent crime, will only serve to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The media’s reporting and investigating acts as acheck on the behavior of the justice system Thestate often does not want to deal with serioussocial issues in politically disenfranchised areas,where crime rates tend to be higher and thepopulations poorer This is because such areascannot be counted on for electoral support asthey often have low turnout rates and can be toocomplicated to be worth dealing with from apolitical perspective. Without the media, no onewill report on criminal activity in these areas,meaning there will be no political will to reformthem. This gives the police the opportunity toabrogate their responsibility to thesecommunities. In the absence of mediareporting, authorities would also be able to hidethe true extent of crime in misleading statistics.For example, police in parts of the United Stateshave been caught publishing deliberately falsecrime statistics, often understating levels ofviolent crime in poorer communities. [1] Themedia has served to uncover the truth of these", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It is necessary for people to understand theextent of criminal activity in order for them tocoordinate an effective response People have aright to know, for the sake of their own safety,about violent crimes being committed. Otherwisethey will be unable to prepare themselvesadequately for the possibility of being attacked.However people cannot make rational decisionsabout how to react and respond to violence insociety if they do not have an accurate picture ofnot only the frequency of crime, but also theirnature. Everyone should take necessaryprecautions to prevent themselves being victimsof crime, as part of this they should know whatareas are for example safe to walk through atnight. If there is little or no reporting of whereand when crime occurs the public will not havethis necessary knowledge to keep themselvessafe. Local groups will also be less able to protecttheir neighborhoods. For example in Pimlico,London, local groups have set up patrols in orderto deal with an increase in muggings, if these", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Bans and restrictions on the old media wouldequally affect the ‘new’ media of the internetage. Bloggers could just as easily be taken tocourt for their reporting as conventionaljournalists so the news would still be restricted.While individuals may still report crimes thiswould become limited to the local area wherepeople do have a genuine interest in the crimerather than it being reported nationally.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-umlcphwrmrvc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is no such thing as these two duties thatthe opposition asserts for the media. The mediais a business like any other, because its businessis information and news it will report on violentcrime as it is something that the people careabout so will purchase news about it, but it doesnot have a duty to do such reporting. Similarlythere is no duty to report on things that influencethe lives of the citizens of the state, again themedia does so but only because it sells. Indeedlarge amounts of media do not report things thatare either things that most people care about orthings that seriously influence society. There arelots of magazines and newspapers on things likehobbies, such as toy models, but it is absurd tosuggest that this is what most people care aboutor that the issues that affect toy model hobbyistsinfluence the rest of society. It would be equallyabsurd to suggest that such a magazine ornewspaper should have a section devoted toviolent crime because that is what is important.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Prison is the harshest possible way to preventthe offender from continuing to bully. As thecrimes were committed online the offender canbe cut off from the internet, or simply bannedfrom the sites where he was committing theoffence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Jail prevents continued harassment Part of thepoint of time detained in jail is to prevent theoffender from reoffending while inside. Being injail prevents the offender from continuing toengage in cyberbullying by denying unsupervisedaccess to the internet or telephones. It is themost reliable way to prevent reoffending for theduration of the sentence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Punishment does not have to be the completeloss of freedom that is prison. The loss offreedom as punishment should be interpretedmore broadly than not being able to move from aparticular location. Losing the freedom to use theinternet or social networks can be as muchpunishment when these are activities that theoffender enjoys.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Cyberbullying ruins lives just like any otherbullying; age of the culprit does notmatter Punishment must fit the crime.Cyberbullying by a young person can be just asdamaging to a victim as a similar crime bysomeone older. As a result should be equallypunished. When cyberbullying has ruinedsomeone’s life, and possibly led them to commitsuicide, there were 9 teenage suicides as a resultof bullying on Ask.fm in 2012 alone, [1] then notonly the victims but their loved ones lives havebeen ruined as a result of the offender’s actions.Such a consequence deserves jail time to pay forthe actions. [1] Broderick, Ryan, ‘9 TeenageSuicides In The Last Year Were Linked ToCyber-Bullying On Social Network Ask.fm’,BuzzFeedNews, 11 September 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Sentencing a criminal should not just be aboutpunishing them for the magnitude of the result ofthe crime. Instead it should be about reformationand reintegrating the offender so that they cancontinue their life in future without engaging inany crime. While cyberbullies bear muchresponsibility for what they have done when thevictim commits suicide it was not a direct actionby the offender.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Prison is punishment While rehabilitation andprevention are important parts of sentencingthere also needs to be punishment. There beinga punishment, is necessary to ensure there is adeterrence to prevent the offender reoffending,and to prevent others carrying out the samecrime. This applies equally to young offenders asto older criminals.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The other options are much less likely to beeffective at stopping the bullying from takingplace than jail time. 58% of ASBOs handed outbetween 2000 and 2013 were breached. 43%were breached more than once. [1] [1] HomeOffice, ‘Anti-social behaviour order statistics:England and Wales 2013 key findings’, gov.uk,18 September 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Many children under the age of 18 both know theconsequences of their actions and know thatbullying, whether on or offline, is wrong. Wecannot simply let these people get away withlittle punishment simply because they are under18. If they have a lower mental age then there isalready the possibility of the defence pleadingdiminished responsibility.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Should not damage a normal childhood withjail Putting young offenders in jail does notwork, it increases not decreases crime. Going tojail makes children more likely to offend againwith young offenders 67% more likely to be injail again by 25 than those young offenders whodid not go to prison. At the same time they are13 percentage points less likely to finish highschool. [1] These statistics shows the damagethat jail has on a young life; instead ofcompleting high school and eventually getting ajob jail usually means those who have spent timebefore continue on a self destructive criminalpath. [1] Beauchamp, Zack, ‘Study: ThrowingKids in Jail Makes Crime Worse, Ruins Lives’,ThinkProgress, 17 June 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There are other options besides jail Jail or timein a Young offenders institute is an extremereaction to a problem that can be solved by othermeasures. As an online crime the offender couldbe denied access to the internet or a mobile for aset period. Cutting off access would not onlyphysically prevent reoffending but would have asimilar ‘denial of liberty’ to jail. There have beensuggestions that there should be internet ASBOs(Anti Social Behaviour Orders) to block peoplefrom particular sites in response to racismonline, this would be similar. [1] Any otheroption would be cheaper than prison which costson average £38,000 per prisoner per year in theUK. [2] [1] Syal, Rajeev, ‘Punish hate crime onsocial media with internet asbos, say MPs’, TheGuardian, 9 February 2015, [2] Ruskin, John,‘Why has prison emerged as a prominent form ofpunishment for most crime and what are itsfunctions in relation to wider society?’, InternetJournal of Criminology, 2011, , p.3", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Children should not be sent to jail Childrenunder 18 should not be sent to jail. Children areconsidered less responsible for their crimes andthe age of criminal responsibility is arbitrary withsome countries having much higher ages thanothers; in the UK it is 10 however in some suchas many Latin American countries it is as high as18. [1] Children are often not able to understandthe full damage of their actions or why it iswrong. This is not something that comes at a setage but is a slow change. As such children atyounger ages should not be punished to thesame extent as adults. [1] ‘Defense of infancy’,Wikipedia, checked 29 April 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpisyhwhcdt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The key here is to provide the educationalopportunities and care inside a young offenders’institute that they would be engaging in outside.This will allow learning and development tocontinue as normal while still providingpunishment. The UK has from 2014 beenincreasing learning to 24 hours a week [1] – veryclose to what many British secondary schoolsprovide. [1] Fazaeli, Toni, ‘Securing educationfor young offenders – learning first, detentionsecond’, FE Week, 24 January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The ICC has itself said that “No country in theworld has a right to ask the ICC to prosecutecertain people” and highlighted that even afterratification “only the court’s prosecutor candecide whether there is sufficient ground forconducting an investigation”. Once ratifiedUkraine may ask, but the ICC is not bound toprosecute him because of the request. [1] [1]ITAR-TASS, ‘Ukraine not able to prosecuteYanukovych through International CriminalCourt’, en.itar-tass.com, 26 February 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Would mean Ukraine signing up to theICC Having the ICC prosecute Yanukovychcurrently faces a major difficulty; Ukraine hasnot ratified the Rome statute. [1] It is thereforeoutside the jurisdiction of the court. Technicallythis means the parliament can’t ask for ICCprosecution as there is no State Party to referthe situation to the prosecutor. [2] Clearly thereis an easy solution to this; Ukraine should ratifythe statute. This would have the benefit ofreaffirming international criminal law, showingthat it can be beneficial in a crisis, and increasingit as an accepted norm. [1] ICC, ‘The StatesParties to the Rome Statute’, icc.cpi.int, accessed28/2/2014, [2] Rome Statute, Article 14", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There is little evidence that Yanukovych still hasmuch support anywhere in Ukraine. However anICC trial could simply inflame the other side;those who have overthrown Yanukovych arelikely to want a trial to take place as soon aspossible (which may be a long time offconsidering he is in Russia) and want it to takeplace in the Ukraine. The ICC would almostcertainly be willing to give in to popular opinion;previously in Libya the prosecutor did not actwhen it was clear that public opinion did notwant an international trial of Saif Gadaffi.[1] [1] Kersten, 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Yanukovych committed crimes againsthumanity Even before most of the violence byriot police in February some experts weresuggesting that Yanukovych had committedcrimes against humanity – crimes committed bya state against a civilian population. ProfessorAlexander J Motyl argued “The Yanukovychregime may already be guilty of “imprisonmentor other severe deprivation of physical liberty inviolation of fundamental rules of internationallaw” and “persecution against any identifiablegroup or collectivity on political, racial, national,ethnic, cultural, religious, gender … or othergrounds.”” [1] Now at the very least murder canbe added to that count. [1] Moryl, 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Simply committing murder, or imprisonment, orpersecution is not enough to make a crime acrime against humanity. It must be “widespreador systematic”. A great many states are involvedin individual killings or unjust imprisonments sothere has to be a threshold for ICC intervention.Unfortunately this is undefined so it will be up tothe prosecutor to decide whether these crimesmeet that threshold. [1] [1] Kersten, 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "International help would be available to ensurean impartial trial in the Ukraine. The OSCE hasoffered “an OSCE role as impartial witness andguarantor to the implementation of concretesteps agreed between the parties” which couldalso extend to any trial. [1] With otherinternational organisations involved in gatheringevidence and providing legal assistance therecould be certainty of an impartial trial withouthaving to go to the ICC. [1] Burkhalter, Didier,‘OSCE Chair-in-Office welcomes Ukraineagreement’, osce.org, 21 February 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Would prevent division Justice is about the past.But when prosecuting someone there also needsto be a thought for the present and the future ofthe country. In the case of prosecutingYanukovych there could be serious consequencesas he had support in one half of the country.Ukraine is a divided country with many in theEast considering themselves to not be Ukrainian,and certainly look to Moscow not the EU. [1] Thenew administration has already abolish a lawthat made Russian a second language in thecountry so infringing the rights of many in theEast. [2] Trying a former leader in Kiev would besimilarly provocative to those who believeYanukovych is still the legitimate president, oreven those who may not agree with Yanukovychbut dislike the westward movement even more.While it would be unlikely to cause conflict on itsown the action would certainly be an aggravatingfactor if other actions against the east of thecountry are being taken. [1] Jamison, Alastair,‘Can Ukraine Avoid an East-West Split and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The Ukrainian justice system is broken Justicefor Yanukovych should be international simplybecause it would be a much better guarantor of afair trial. The Ukrainian justice system isunfortunately corrupt, and at the behest ofprosecutors; it has an amazing conviction rate of99.8%. This is because judges are they are onlyappointed for five years then the governmentconfirms tenure if it believes they have beenvoting the right way. Yulia Tymoshenko, anopponent of Yanukovych, was imprisoned formaking a deal with President Putin to ensure gassupplies – something that was a humanitariannecessity to ensure Russia did not freeze Ukraineinto submission. [1] [1] Robertson, Geoffrey,‘Yulia Tymoshenko's trial was a travesty ofjustice’, The Guardian, 23 February 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The Ukraine is perfectly at liberty to decide thatit wants its former president to be tried at theICC rather than at home. The crimes may havetaken place in Ukraine but the reasoning behindthe need for the ICC is that some crimes –including crimes against humanity – are so greatthat they are the responsibility of all, they affectother nations. The Ukrainian people would seejustice done just as well by it being carried out inThe Hague as in Kiev.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Even if the former President cannot beprosecuted at the ICC for his corruption therecan still be investigations into his wealth, hisassets can be frozen and the money foundrepatriated to Ukraine without specificallyindicting him for corruption. Switzerland hasalready said that it is freezing any ofYanukovych’s assets in the country while the EUis considering an inquiry into his embezzlement.[1] Clearly there will be action taken againstcorruption even as Yanukovych is being tried forother more serious crimes. [1] Fraher, John,‘Yanukovych to Appear in Russia Tomorrow asSwiss Freeze Assets’, Bloomberg, 27 February2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Does Yanukovych really qualify for the ICC? It isquestionable whether Yanukovych’s crimes, asabhorrent as they may be, really qualify for theICC. It is clear that he does not qualify for threeof the four crimes the ICC charges; genocide,war crimes, and the crime of aggression (this isfor attacking other states not your own people).This leaves crimes against humanity. Crimesagainst humanity can include murder when“committed as part of a widespread orsystematic attack directed against any civilianpopulation” [1] so the ICC will need to decidewhether less than 100 dead is widespread andgrave enough to justify the charge – and this issomething that is up to the prosecutor. [2]Moreover as yet we don’t know if Yanukovychhimself was directly responsible for orderingattacks on the protesters in the last couple ofdays before the fall of his government. [1]States Parties, ‘Rome Statute of the InternationalCriminal Court’, icc-cpi.int, A/CONF.183/9 17July 1998, , Article 7 [2] Kersten, 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC is slow has resulted in a conviction isagainst Thomas Lubanga – the trial took eightyears from arrest to conviction. [1] The option oftrying Yanukovych in the Ukraine with outsidehelp in the process is therefore a better idea. TheCouncil of Europe’s Secretary General hasalready offered “legal… expertise… by theInternational Advisory Panel (IAP), which willoversee investigations into recent acts ofviolence. I expect the IAP to start its work inUkraine as early as next week.” [2] The OSCEtoo will help “efforts to establish facts on acts ofviolence and human rights violations.” [3]Clearly the Ukraine would be in a good positionto provide a free and fair trial for its formerpresident that could bring justice much fasterthan the ICC while also showing justice beingdone in the right place. [1] Open SocietyFoundations Justice Initiative, ‘background’,lubangatrial.org, [2] Jagland, Thorbjørn,‘Secretary General Jagland welcomes theAgreement on the Settlement of the Crisis in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Should be tried at home The ICC recognises thata case is inadmissible where “The case is beinginvestigated or prosecuted by a state which hasjurisdiction over it”. [1] The state of whichYanukovych is a national, and where the crimestook place has precedence. Ukraine thereforehas first right to try Yanukovych, indeed the ICCwill only act if Ukraine is unwilling or unable todo so itself. As the crimes he is alleged to havecommitted took place entirely in Ukraine, overUkrainian issues he should be tried in Ukraine.This would allow the Ukrainian people to seejustice done themselves rather than relying onothers to do it for them. [1] States Parties,‘Rome Statute of the International CriminalCourt’, icc-cpi.int, A/CONF.183/9 17 July 1998, ,Article 17", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Could not be tried for all his crimes TheInternational Criminal Court only tries a fewinternational crimes. This means that othercrimes that Yanukovych has committed that arenot covered by ‘international criminal law’ cannotbe prosecuted at the ICC. It is possible that notall the charges of violence against protestersmay count as the crimes against humanity thatthe court can charge. Equally Yanukovych’sfinancial crimes cannot be prosecuted at the ICC.It was already known that Yanukovych becamevery rich as a result of corruption during his timeas president but it is only now beginning tobecome clear how much corruption there was.Yatsenyuk the new Prime Minister “Over $20bnof gold reserve were embezzled. They took$37bn of loans that disappeared. Around $70bnwas moved to offshore accounts from Ukraine'sfinancial system in the last three years” withmuch of that money finding likely finding its wayto Yanukovych or his friends. [1] Considering thehole in Ukraine’s finances it would be far better", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Slow might potentially be beneficial in thisinstance. It would mean that there is time for theworst of the scars of the protest, crackdown andchange in power to heal so reducing the chanceof any instability or violence when the outcome –whichever way it goes – is announced.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwsyh-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Clearly whether Yanukovych was directlyresponsible for the deaths and injuries byordering assaults is something the prosecutorwill need to investigate. It is likely thatYanukovych authorised attacks, there havealready been leaks that he was planning to gomuch further with a large military “antiterrorist”operation to break up the protesters. [1] Itseems almost certain that one of the three thatthe parliament voted to send to the ICC will beresponsible for the deaths. It would be far betterthat the ICC were to be the one who decided whois directly responsible for what than an interimadministration that has every reason to dislikeYanukovych and therefore influence thecharges. [1] Robins-Early, Nick, ‘Ukraine’sPresident Yanukovych Planned Crackdown As HeFled Documents Show’, The Huffington Post, 25February 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is not true that the human rights situation forwomen is deteriorating. The Social Institutionsand Gender Index has found between 2009 and2012 there has generally been improvement forexample “The number of countries with specificlegislation to combat domestic violence hasmore than doubled from 21 in 2009 to 53 in2012”. Women rights can be improved throughthe United Nations. This has the legitimacy toconvince governments to change their policiesand liberalize them. Also, the power of theUnited Nations comes form the number ofcountries involved, adding besides the EU, thepowerful US, China, Russia, and South Africa etc.More than that, the UN has a lot of experience indealing with these kind of cases. A perfectexample is the economic and diplomaticsanctions imposed on the South Africangovernment in order to convince them to leavebehind the apartheid regime. Moreover one ofthe reasons for the United Nations is thepromotion of universal human rights, and this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Asylum is the only way to protect women TheEuropean Union is not able to protect women inother countries that are not a part of the union.Countries that have legislation discriminatingagainst women are clearly not listening toEuropean urgings on human rights. They will notrespond to these urgings social and culturaltraditions are deeply ingrained and only slowlychange. Where women are seen as second-tiercitizens it is seen as a natural part of the societycan barely walk to the corner of the streetwithout the consent of their husband. Moreover,the situation in countries with legislateddiscrimination against women is not improving,in countries which were previously secular thereis increasingly a challenge from Islamism as inLibya and Egypt during the 'Arab Spring'.Moreover the influence of the European Union isdeclining; it has always been primarily financial,through aid which is declining, and throughinvestment which, at least in the MENA, regionhas reversed as a result of those same", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "With regards to a life threatening situation underwhich women might face severe consequencesupon their return, it should be noted that theEuropean Union will not send someone back if itis believed their life is at risk if they are sentback. They will not be forced to leave the countryeven if asylum is not granted as they will begranted humanitarian protection or discretionaryleave to remain which will allow them to remainuntil the threat is lifted. If the country inquestion wishes to return the asylum seekerthen it will take steps to negotiate with theasylum seeker's country of origin in order toobtain guarantees that the asylum seeker willnot be harmed upon their return. UNHCR, ‘TheFacts: Asylum in the UK’, unhcr.org.uk, June2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "We would allow discriminated women to reachtheir full potential Women who are constantlythreatened by their husbands or who are insocieties where they are considered to representless than a man will most certainly lack ambitionto achieve their full potential – or even if they dohave the ambition will be restrained fromfulfilling it. When you live under a system thatconsiders you inferior to the other gender anddenies you opportunities on the basis of gender –sometimes including education the individual isclearly never going to have a chance to maketheir life worthwhile for its own sake. They won’tbe able to take up jobs that will have an impacton the world, they won’t control their owneconomic circumstances as their husband is theonly breadwinner, and they will be denied theopportunity to express their ideas and views. Bygiving them asylum in a place where women andmen are treated equally, we give them theopportunity to do whatever they wanted to dobefore. Besides the security that they will gain,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The EU needs to help those suffering fromhuman rights abuses Everyone is equal. Womenwho live under legal system that permitsdiscrimination against them are being denied ofbasic human rights whether this is the right tovote, to a fair trial, or bodily integrity. ShariaLaw, for example, clearly denies them humanrights like equality before the law, a basic humanneed according to Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights. \"All are equal before the law andare entitled without any discrimination to equalprotection of the law.\" Under Sharia a woman’stestimony is worth half a man’s and she gets halfthe inheritance of her male siblings. Second ofall, bodily integrity is affected when women arestoned to death or beaten by their husbandswithout them even being punished. Theimportance of self-determination and autonomyare neglected in Saudi Arabia where women arenot allowed to drive or go alone in public. Femalegenital mutilation, which causes bleeding,infections and infertility, and is almost always", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The EU is responsible for its own citizens and notfor those that live in other countries or regions.Its burden is to protect human rights forEuropean citizens and not for the entire world. Atthe moment, because of the economic crisis andausterity measures imposed, all the EU attentionshould be focused on delivering basic humanrights (in terms of basic necessities such as food,shelter and employment) for people in Greece,Spain, Italy and other countries in distress. Theburden lies here because the government of acountry serves the people of that country and asa union each country accepts some of the burdenfor others in that union. Others that are outwiththat union are not giving any direct benefits forthe European Union and therefore should theynot be our focus. Any more egregious violationsof human rights in these countries would alreadybe sufficient cause for granting asylum without afurther offer presented to women who arediscriminated against. Douglas-Scott, Sionaidh,‘The European union and Human Rights after the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Rather than being selfish and wanting for thesewomen only to be able to achieve their fullpotential in the European Union, we shouldconsider doing something in order to change theway they are treated at home. Most women arenot able to run away from home, or travelhundreds of miles in order to get into Europe toapply for asylum and have this opportunity fordevelopment. Even if they were the EU could nottake every woman in. The European Union needsto look at the bigger picture and encourage thosecountries that discriminate against women tobecome much more liberal in their attitudes towomen. This can be done by aid, sanctions, anddiplomacy. The EU simply needs to persuadethese countries of the massive loss they aresustaining by not allowing half of their populationto realize their potential.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The image of the European Union, even onhuman rights, does not result from how theytreat the foreign citizens of some distant countrybut more on how they treat their own citizens. Aswith any nation or union of countries the EU’sprimary responsibility is to fulfill its dutiestowards its own citizens. More than that, thesocial balance and economic stability are muchmore important factors in the European Union’simage abroad than how the union is treatingwomen in faraway countries. So if we decide totalk about image, granting asylum will notimprove nor damage the unions. On the otherhand, its duty is to protect the European citizensand many things can still be done in thisdirection. There is no reason in wanting to helppeople abroad when you can do so much for yourown.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The status quo involves sending women back tothe threat of persecution Sometimes, womenwho are persecuted by their government end uprunning from their country just to be sent backfrom the EU when their asylum application isrejected. Under the current legal system, theproblems of women from countries thatimplement Sharia Law and other forms ofdiscrimination are often not considered sufficientgrounds for asylum. This is because refugees areonly considered to be refugees ‘owing towell-founded fear of being persecuted forreasons of race, religion, nationality,membership of a particular social group orpolitical opinion’, so it does not includepersecution for gender. The consequences canbe of two kinds. The first and the worst issending them back home where to face harshpunishment for trying to leave. This was the casewith two women who applied for asylum in GreatBritain in 1997 and were denied this right eventhough they faced death by stoning upon", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The EU’s reputation can only benefit from astrong policy on women’s rights There is a moralobligation for such a powerful and diverse groupof nations to protect not only their own citizensbut also people in desperate need all around theworld. All the countries in the EU have signed theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights andtherefore stand behind its principles. As theworld biggest economic power the EU is fullycapable of doing so. The Union is wealthy enoughthat it can take in the extra migrants that wouldoccur as a result of taking in women fromcountries where they face discriminatorylegislation. The European Union’s internationalimage is not based on its military might but uponits economy and on being upstanding in itspromotion of a human rights agenda. Grantingasylum to women that live under discriminatorylegal system reinforces this image of beingconcerned for human rights. The European Unionhas signed up to the United Nations’ Conventionon the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-con03b", "title": "", "text": "No violence or incitement to violence can bejustified by changes in legislation. It is not acultural attack of any kind towards the Islamicreligion or a certain culture. We mustacknowledge that even the Quran clearly states,“Both men and women should be equal”.Implementing such a measure is simplyhighlighting that these nations are not living upto their obligations and applying rights that theythemselves have accepted are universal bysigning up to the Universal Declaration of HumanRights. It is a reminder that every country hasthe duty to respect its citizens and offer equalopportunities disregarding sex, religion, skincolor etc. The intention of the European Union issimple and clear: you have to respect theinternational law and common sense.Furthermore with the example of South Parkthere is a fundamental difference in thatportraying Mohammed is a fundamental attackon a religion where encouraging equality forwomen is simply encouraging change in a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-con01b", "title": "", "text": "At a first glance this might be true but let’s takea deeper view upon these societies. The exampleof Saudi Arabia where women are slowly beinggiven the vote is true but this is not much of again in a country where the parliament hasalmost no power. In a culture where it is normalthat they require the approval of their husbandor father in order to be able to vote or doanything the result is simply another vote for theman. More than that, in countries like SaudiArabia, basic rights like the right of movementare denied to women who cannot get a drivinglicense. That there is progress in some areasdoes not mean that there is no reason for apolicy of welcoming women asylum seekers. Farfrom it, such a policy would increase thepressure on these countries to step up theirreforms. We should also remember that progresscan go into reverse – thus the trend towardsmore governments that are less secular in theMiddle East should be a worrying reminder ofwhy the EU needs to let these women in. Goss,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The response will be to impose more control overthe movement of women. While it is cliché thatevery action has an equal and opposite reactionin this case the reaction is likely to be bad. If theEuropean Union wants to open up to womenfrom countries that discriminate against womenthen the clear recourse for those countries is tomake sure their women can’t leave. Moregovernment and family control will mean morerights will be infringed and leaving the countrywill be impossible even for tourism. If men areworried about their wives claiming asylum whenon holiday why would they give them theopportunity? The state could respond by takingaway, or regulating the possibility for women toleave the country. If in the present day, wherethe EU is not offering asylum, countries in theMiddle East and Africa have the certainty thatwomen will come back after their visa expires,this certainty will no longer be in place after weapprove the motion. It is in no interest fornational governments to lose population and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Allowing women asylum will damage feministmovements In order to drive social change,these regions need women who are open-mindedand want to be part of feminist movements. Bygiving them the “easy way-out”, social changewill be delayed in countries with a legal systemthat discriminate against women. Females willhave two options. First of all, they can leave thecountry and come in the European Union wherethe situation is already better. Second, they canchoose to remain in their national country andfight for their rights. It is only human to take theeasy way out. Movements for women’s rights willtherefore lose many of those who want tochange something and are willing to take actionand as a result a lot of power. Those whomigrate will be those who are more independent,more willing to do something to change theirsituation. Their energies will be directedoutwards to leaving their home rather than toimproving their situation where they are whichwould help millions of other women as well as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Offering asylum for women will be seen as a caseof cultural imperialism Offering asylum towomen who live under Sharia Law or other formsof discriminatory systems will be seen as acultural attack made by the West against Islamicand Africa values. The European Union’s actionswill be seen as neo-colonialism meant toinfluence foreign states population.Ultraconservative Islamic countries are alreadysuspicious of the west of social and culturalissues; this will simply show that they are correctin their concerns. Let’s take the example ofSouth Park, an American comedy TV-Show thatportrayed Muhammad as a bear during one of itsepisodes. A website known for supporting jihadagainst the West published a warning against thecreator, threatening to kill them if they don’tremove the episode. Despite being a cartoon fora western audience it was seen as an attack onIslam. A policy which would appear to be in largepart directed at Islamic states would beneedlessly inflammatory. The European Union", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The situation in these countries is improving, noneed for a new policy. Such an extrememeasure as granting asylum to all women fromthese countries is not required as the situation incountries that discriminate against women isimproving. Moreover, such an approach might beseen as an attack and make Middle Eastern andAfrican countries react badly. Most of thesecountries are moving towards a more liberalapproach and starting to promote the rights ofwomen and reduce legislated discrimination.They already have an interest in aligning withwestern conditions in order to increase theirinternational reputation. More than that, peoplein these societies are becoming more liberaldemanding more and more rights as we see inthe Arab Spring. In Kuwait, female suffrage hasbeen allowed since 2005, whereas Saudi Arabiapermitted women to vote and participate inmunicipal election from 2011. The right fornational election will follow in 2015, with KingAbdullah changing his country’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Women will chose to remain in their countrybecause they have a family, a husband, friendsand most likely a place to live. Not every womanwho is a leader will simply think of helpingthemselves, many will want to stay and helptheir country overcome its discrimination. Andwe should not suggest that those who do go tostart a new life in the EU will not benefit thecause of women’s rights at home. They can learnfrom the example of the state they end up in,learn to lead organisations and mobilise peopleso that they can be more effective at promotingsocial change at home.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilsgihbes-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is wrong to suggest that the EU should nottake an action because some countries might useit as an excuse to clamp down on women’srights. Europe needs to respond to its ownproblem that in the Status Quo women who getto the European Union are denied asylum evenwhen they have every reason not to wish toreturn home. The UK asylum system representsan example of a system that regularly denieswomen asylum even when they have beenpersecuted. Second of all, it is absurd to believethat countries like Saudi Arabia or Yemen willdefinitely close their borders for women to leaveas to do so would likely bring retaliation from theEU, these countries if proposing such a moveclearly don’t think much of the value of theirwomen so why would they wish to lock them inwhen to do so will result in less trade. Secondrefugees are for the most part those fleeingpersecution – not those leaving under apassport. Many are already travelling without thepermission of their state. If their state revokes", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is doubtful whether genocide such as this isbased on rational calculations. For instance, thediversion of resources into the ‘Final Solution’was a major reason why Hitler lost the war. Inthe same way, war criminals are unlikely to bedeterred by legal threats such as these; they aredriven by a fanatical hatred, not common sense.Furthermore, in wartime situations theimmediate threats are so pressing that thehypothetical, long-term prospect of justice won’taffect the actions of lower-ranking officers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Justice needs to be seen to be done in order toprovide a deterrent to others. An accepted tenetof most justice systems is the achievement ofdeterrence. Without the prosecution of warcrime, its perpetrators have to consider notangible cost to their actions. This applies tothose who claim to have “just followed orders,”who now face a counter-motivation to refuse ordefect. In the case of high-level war criminals itbecomes effective when they realise they arelosing a conflict. If they fear prosecution they aremore likely to seek to negotiate rather thangoing on a final destruction spree. In the finaldays of the Nazi regime, Himmler stoppedcommitting atrocities and attempted to negotiatepeace because he realised his own vulnerabilityto prosecution. [i] [i] Allen, Martin, Himmler'sSecret War: The Covert Peace Negotiations ofHeinrich Himmler.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, in many instances the victims of warcrime want to move on with their lives. Beingforced to testify and therefore relive theirsuffering can be deeply traumatic. Secondly, forvictims to achieve catharsis or receivecompensation the prosecution has to besuccessful, which they rarely are. If aprosecution fails to achieve a conviction, an evenworse message is sent to the victims of thosecrimes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "War criminals need to be prosecuted in order toprovide justice. In the instances of small-scalecrime we accept that if a community condemns aperson’s action, our sense of justice demandsthat they be punished. However, it is often thecase that those who commit the most heinouscrimes at the highest levels of responsibility arenot prosecuted because of the complexities ofthe process. For example Slobodan Milošević theformer leader of Serbia’s trial took four yearsand he died before the verdict was given.According to ICTY Chief Prosecutor Carla DelPonte “The death of Slobodan Milosevic deprivedvictims of justice”. [i] As an internationalcommunity we have repeatedly pledged toprevent war crimes, in recognition of the factthat they are beyond the scope of local courts.When they occur it is a collective failure toprotect, so the responsibility to prosecute andmake amends falls with the internationalcommunity. An admission of our inability toprosecute war crime undermines the decades of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The very scale of war crimes means that courtsare inadequate vehicles for prevention orpunishment. To achieve the internationalcommunity’s goal of “never again” othermethods, like sanctions, diplomatic engagementand the appropriate use of military deterrent andintervention must be employed. These pragmaticmethods are unquestionably more effective andmore likely to achieve long-term change.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "After war, the primary need of the affectedcommunity is to regain day-to-day functionality,create prosperity and achieve reconciliation.While a Truth and Reconciliation Commissionmight help to air grievances with positivepurpose, trials only serve to rake up old hatredsand prolong social divisions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Prosecution provides closure for the victims ofwar crimes. The intention of many crimes of waris to destroy and demoralise individuals andcommunities. As a result, they often causeon-going harm to victims who cannot feel safe intheir communities even after the conflict hasended. For victims, prosecuting war criminalshas a vital cathartic function in helping them, tosome extent, to come to terms with the crimescommitted against them and their families. Whilefull compensation is impossible, both thesymbolic realisation of justice and the illustrationof real commitment to prevention allows peopleto rebuild their lives to some extent. Failure toprosecute sends victims a message that theattacks on their freedoms were somehowacceptable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Trials help bring divisions into the open to helpheal them. For post-conflict societies tofunction, the tensions and divisions of the conflictmust be brought out into the open and dealt within order to be fully put to rest. Those mostresponsible for war crimes must be brought tojustice, those involved in the regime but lessculpable must have opportunity to make amendsand victims must feel that they have beencompensated. This allows compromise and thepotential for effective governance. Thealternative is to allow undiscussed, simmeringhatreds and resentments to persist, whichundermine growth and create a risk of furtherconflict.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, more prosecutions take place indeveloping nations because in recent decadesmore war crimes have been committed indeveloping nations. Western nations have beenequally committed to prosecutions in the formerYugoslavia, in an increasingly prosperousEuropean region. Secondly, although the refusalof the United States to become a signatory to theICC is problematic, an inability to prosecuteevery war crime should not prevent us fromprosecuting any.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Proving the commission of crimes on this scalebeyond reasonable doubt must take a great dealof time and expertise. The end is so importantthat the cost must be borne. The successes atNuremburg and the ICTY convictions prove thatit is possible to bring war criminals to justice.While the ICC has had limited success, it is ayoung institution and is likely to streamline itsprocesses and achieve more convictions in thefuture.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Post-conflict reconciliation These trials are notalways in the best interests of people on theground in post-conflict societies. Victims mayfeel great trauma at having to testify andrevealing information might inflame tensions.This is particularly true when large numbers ofpeople in the society had connections to the warcriminals. For instance, many high-rankingCambodian businessmen and officials had KhmerRouge connections [i] and in Rwanda, Hutusmake up 85% of the population. Prosecution isintended to allocate blame not to encourageprogress and reconciliation. If any official processis necessary, Peace and ReconciliationCommissions are more suitable. [i] Justice of aKind, The Economist,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Problems with symbolic justice There is no suchthing as symbolic justice. While full justice is anadmirable aspiration, its value is undermined byconsistent failure. If prosecutions cannot becompleted, the international community is seenas toothless. This undermines its deterrent valueand trivialises the trauma of victims, who mayfeel their suffering is subordinate to esotericlegal principle. Furthermore, the prosecution ofwar criminals could use up political capital,thereby preventing more effective preventativemeasures, or real commitment to post-conflictrebuilding.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Double Standard While proposition may claimthat prosecution of war criminals is a moralimperative, the reality is that geo-political factorsdetermine which prosecutions are taken. Forexample, all of the ICC’s prosecutions have beenagainst African leaders. [i] Furthermore,although the United States is strongly suspectedof war crimes in Iraq and Afghanistan, it is toopowerful to be prosecuted. Fair justice shouldapply equally to everyone. Because it doesn’t,these prosecutions are often seen as Westernimpositions. This aggravates internationaltensions and reduces willingness to take anyaction on war crime in the developing world. Forexample, the African Union has refused to upholdthe ICC’s arrest warrant on Omar Al Bashir.[ii] [i] Case reports of the ICC [ii] BBC News,'Warrant issued for Sudan's leader', 4 March2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The prosecution of war criminals is generallyvery ineffective. The scale of crimes beingprosecuted cause very slow trials, and a highlikelihood of technical acquittals. InternationalCourts rarely have police forces of effectivemethods of enforcing rulings. The ICC has neverachieved a successful conviction, the ICTY hasbeen criticised for inadequate sentencing [i] andthe current trials in Cambodia have becomemired in court and national politics, to the pointthat it is expected that no further Khmer Rougeofficials will be tried. Given the improbability ofsuccess, the cost and trauma of these trials isunjustifiable. [i] \"Ten years in prison forMiroslav Deronjic\". The Hague: Sense Agency.March 30, 2004. Retrieved 8 May 2011. \"JudgeSchomburg however thinks that the punishmentis not proportional to the crime and is not withinmandate and spirit of this Tribunal. According tohim, the crime to which Deronjic pleaded guilty\"deserves a sentence of no less than twentyyears of imprisonment\". In a brief summary of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Justice is always aspirational. International law isa work-in-progress and while there is noquestion that a lot of work remains to be done,abandoning the effort will cause stagnation.While many failed prosecutions may come beforeInternational Courts, as commitment tointernational law strengthens so will thesuccess-levels of prosecutions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhwpwc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "In most instances, victims support the progressof prosecutions and are willing to testify. If manypeople in the society had connections to criminalregimes then that has to be acknowledged andaddressed through official means. If not, thetensions will still exist. Even if they are drivenunderground, the risk of violent tensionre-emerging continues to exist. While Peace andReconciliation Commissions may be useful intandem with prosecutions, by themselves theyrisk appearing as mere talk shops that do notprovide either punishment or compensation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Those who satisfy these demands by citizens aremore likely to be voted back into office. It is intheir absolute interest to keep their focus onrelevant emails or phone talks, as if they don’tdo that, there is another person qualified for thejob who will. Secondly, it is clear that in thisquest for protecting society, it is in thegovernment’s interest to obey the law. As recentevents have proven, the population is allergic toany state agency’s violation of law, especiallywhen it comes to warrantless tapping. Theywon’t risk breaking the law in the hope they willcatch more criminals as they know there wouldbe a society and media backlash. If anything, itis in any politician’s interest to search andinvestigate if any government agency isconducting such abuses and to reveal it with theresulting plaudits and votes it will bring. Apolitician will gain much more if it takes a publicstance against that agency by imposing tightercontrols and inspections rather than secretlysupporting it. Let us not forget that it is the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Warrants are needed to prevent abuse In thelight of the recent NSA events(1) , we must tryand see past this curtain of fog the governmenthas put in front of us, trying to make us believethat everything it does, it does for our own goodand that in this process the law is beingrespected to the letter. Unfortunately, if thenecessary system of checks-and-balancesbetween the government and the masses orjudicial courts is lacking, it will always find waysto abuse its powers and violate our rights. Evenwith the warrant currently being mandatorywhen trying to tap one’s phone, we see thatJustice Department’s warrantless spyingincreased 600 percent in decade(2). If thegovernment is currently invading our lives whenwe have specific laws banning it from doing so,why should we believe that this phenomenonwon’t escalate if we scrap those laws? Thegovernment's biggest limitation when activelytrying to spy or follow a large group of peoplewas technological; it was difficult - if not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Undeniably, any government needs confidenceand trust from the population in order toimplement reforms in an efficient way. You needthe citizens to be on the same side with theelected officials rather than trying to impedethem from doing their job. Despite this, therewon’t be any lack of trust as a result of scrapingwarrants. In order to prove this fact, one mustlook at the source that makes the populationtrust the government. There might be somemistrust in the beginning as a result of theprotests that will come as soon as the scrappingoccurs, but this won’t last long. In time, associety becomes safer, as terrorist attacks andcrimes become scarcer, there government’s goodimage will return. Results are what people careabout. Let us not forget that the biggest blowthat a state’s image can receive happens when itis unable to protect its citizens. No matter if weare talking about 9/11, London Metro Bombingsor the ones which happened at DomodedovoAirport in Moscow, each and every time the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Freedom from government intrusion One of themost important pillars on which every singlewestern liberal democracy has been founded isfreedom. Allowing the government to be able totrack and monitor individuals through mobile orinternet connections is against everything we, asa western society, stand for. First of all, it isundisputable that liberty and freedom areindispensable to our society. Every singleindividual should and must be the master of hisown life, he should have the capacity ofcontrolling how much the government or otherindividuals know about him, the right to privatelife being the main argument in thisdispute. Secondly, it is clear that phone andinternet tracking potentially allow thegovernment to know almost everything aboutyou. Most phones have a GPS incorporated and alot can be deduced about ones habits by thephotos or updates on his social network profile.One who knows all of another’s travels, candeduce whether he is a weekly church goer, a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "What is imperative to understand is thatprinciples are never the end result; they aresimply the means to an end. We rely on certainprinciples like the philosophy of liberty andfreedom because in general they have positiveoutcomes on our lives. The question which riseson this point is what principle, protectionfreedom, brings more benefits to us. Thefreedom of no one knowing your whereaboutsand the right to privacy may sound good intheory, but the truth is they don’t have anyeffect on the individual. No matter if my phone isconnected to the NSA headquarters or not, myday remains exactly the same and nothingchanges. I face the same obstacles and joys andI feel the same emotions, as I am not aware ofthis tracking. But if we prioritize protection overfreedom we see that there is significant changein someone’s life. As the government will stopand prevent more crimes happening by tracingand intercepting calls and e-mail s, the lives ofthe citizens will be drastically improved. Any", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "In order to fully understand the impact of suchmeasure would have over the human mind wemust take into consideration that generallypeople have a very complicated and busy lifestarting from going to work, taking care of yourkids, paying the bills and many more. Maybethis won’t be the case initially, but as time goesby and as you don’t feel any kind of physicaleffects from being under surveillance, slowly,this feeling of anxiety would fade away.Individuals will reach the conclusion that nobodyis tracking them. Or at least they won’t careabout it. This takes place because a person ismore likely to focus on the things they love, theydo or which generally surround them and have avisible effect on their life like their families, jobsor passions rather than on an uncertain possibleaction performed by a distant actor, especiallywhich isn’t palpable. Second, even if somepeople do feel this anxiety and can’t seem to beable to find a way to get rid of it, it would still bea small price to pay in order to have a more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Reducing trust in the state In a world wherestate agencies would have the possibility oftracking everyone’s moves without any personknowing it, we would reach a point in which thepopulation lose their trust in their electedofficials. The consequences could then be verydamaging to democracy. This phenomenon tookplace right after the NSA leaks, as the confidencein the US government was near record’slow.(1) First of all, the population would knowthat the government is spying and tracking theirmoves, but they wouldn’t know how much. Thisgeneral lack of information on this matter willcreate a lot of scepticism relating this process,and inevitably the population will reach theconclusion that the government is conductingmassive phone tapping and spying campaigns asno one is checking on them. Despite potentialofficial document trying to give certain factsregarding this, due to the previous incidentswhen the state has been releasing little ormisleading information, these will have little", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Changes in behaviour Surveillance changes theway we make daily decisions—the same way thata rapidly approaching police car in yourrear-view mirror may make you feel nervouseven when you are driving completely lawfully.The very existence of a mass surveillance systemwill negatively influence the behaviour andemotions of a significant majority of thepopulation. First, surveillance affects emotionsand mental performance, as it leads toheightened levels of stress, fatigue and anxietydue to the constant feeling that you are beingwatched.(1) Secondly, it creates conformity tosocial norms. “In a series of classic experimentsduring the 1950s, psychologist Solomon Aschshowed that conformity is so powerful thatindividuals will follow the crowd even when thecrowd is obviously wrong. A government thatengages in mass surveillance cannot claim tovalue innovation, critical thinking, ororiginality.”(2) This is of extreme importance asfirst of all, it is the state’s duty to create the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is clear that the population has high demandsand high expectations from the government, butthat is because it should do. It is clear that everytime the state fails to protect us, every time itbreaks the law and every time it violates ourconstitutional rights, the state needs to be heldto account. But that doesn’t mean the state’s jobis impossible and unfeasible simply that it needsto learn and improve from its mistakes, and theonly way this will happen is if it is open andtransparent about its systems. In addition,crime has fallen in the western world,governments can and do both protect thecivilians and respect their rights at the sametime. Such a system requires warrants and checkand balances on government. The populationmay sway in terms of its demands but this ismostly driven by events; when there is a largeterrorist attack there is a response, whengovernment goes too far again the people willrespond. This ensures that the governmentstrikes the right balance.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It may be true that we gave the state the burdenand the duty to protect us and it is a veryhigh-ranking priority. But this doesn’t justifysacrificing day-to-day freedom just for the stateto fulfil its duty a little bit more. We cannot saythat the state can do whatever it wants as longas it does that for the safety of our safety. Onthat logic, it would be OK for the government tohave a bodyguard stand next to us without ourconsent for every single minute of our lives, asthat way, we would be more protected. TheSupreme Court ruled on this in 2012 and heldthat police need a warrant to attach at GPSdevice to a car.(1) One cannot say specificallywhat the main purpose of the state is, as it’srather a combination of protecting us and servingus. As it is the population who controls thegovernment and not vice-versa, it must be up tothem to decide where to draw the line betweensecurity and privacy. What we see on this levelis that by engaging in these sorts of operations,the government is not fulfilling its purpose as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con02a", "title": "", "text": "A safer country On this point, there are twolevels on which a government which isn’t forcedto obtain warrants protects the populationbetter. In 2011 violent crime went up for the firsttime since 1993 data collected by the Bureau ofJustice Statistics in telephone surveys showed a22 percent increase in assaults so somethingclearly needs to be done to stop violentcrime.(1) First of all, let’s not imagine that thereare people hired by the government who willlisten to every single word of every singleconversation and that every email will be readword for word. In this type of situation, thepolice uses special software designed to identifycertain key words like “murder”, “Al Qaeda”, etcas well as more subtle combinations which couldpossibly be a clue towards finding certaincriminals. If someone is talking or emailing aboutcertain wanted criminals belonging to militarymilitias or terrorist organizations, I would wantto know what they were talking about. Now, wehave the possibility of doing that, as, last year,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Warrants are ineffective One of the mainreasons for scraping the warrant-system isbecause of its ineffectiveness. This system ofchecks-and-balances was created in order toprevent the government from over monitoringthe population, but unfortunately, lately, theyhave just become another administrative andbureaucratic step in achieving thatsurveillance. If we look at the statistics whichrevolve around the FISA court, the one whichemitted warrants for the NSA, we see that it “hasrejected .03 percent of all governmentsurveillance requests”(1). This is absolutelypreposterous, as one cannot reasonably assumethat no abusive requests were submitted. As aresult, even if there was a so-called preventivepurpose of warrants, they are far from achievingit. (1) Erika Eichelberger “FISA Court HasRejected .03 Percent Of All GovernmentSurveillance Requests” Mon Jun. 10, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The public can’t decide what they want Sadly,we reached a point in our desperate quest forperfection where the population, through itsmutually exclusive demands, has ended upputting the government between a rock and ananvil. The population then blames thegovernment for not being able to fulfill thesedemands, when actually we are at fault. Wedemand our government protects us fromterrorists, criminal organizations and in generalpeople who want to harm us. If it fails to do thisjob, we blame it and throw dirt at it for beinginefficient. But what we see is that although thestate has the power to launch a full campaignagainst wrong-doers through electronicsurveillance means, we deny him the possibilityof doing that. If, by chance, the government isbreaking this law when trying to stop andprevent crimes from happening, like in theexample of the NSA, again we launchmeaningless offenses and start accusing stateagencies for being too intrusive. This fickleness is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Purpose of the state We as individuals createdthe state in order to protect and improve ourlives. We gave it the burden of improving ourlives from multiple points of view, economically,socially, environmentally, etc. But before these,in order for one to benefit from this advantagesthat the state brings, he must be alive, thereforethe main burden and purpose of the state is theprotection of its citizens’ lives. As a result, whenjudging a principle, one must mainly look if it ishelping or preventing the state from reaching itsultimate purpose. As a result, it is legitimate torisk sacrificing your right to private life in orderfor better protection. The existence of mandatorywarrants can bring, as an advantage, only avague feeling of safety and happiness, as there isno real harm for you if someone is tapping yourphone, as long as you are a law-abidingcitizen. On the other hand a world in which thegovernment wouldn’t be forced to obtainwarrants would be much safer for the individuals,as the government would be able to intercept", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is absolutely clear that there exists a need fora system to keep the government in check. Wecan’t just stand and do nothing, while hoping forthe best. There are two reasons why it is justifiedto keep the warrants. It is cases like this thatshift opinion and force Government to reversecourse. As a result everyone, including FISA andother courts will be much more careful, evenwith no new laws when scrutinising warrants asnobody is willing to risk another scandalhappening. Secondly, this is an argument fortightening up the warrant system not againstwarrants themselves. It there is such a problem,let’s make warrants harder to obtain with morescrutiny before they are granted, along withmore punitive punishments for abuse, morecontrols and a higher number of inspections. Ifso few warrants are being rejected there clearlyneeds to be more done to prevent thegovernment from abusing its powers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghrhwrgo-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is obvious that warrantless tracking of citizensis not the only way to fight crime. There areother ways which do not negatively impact thecitizens to such an extent. When talkingexclusively about protection, the governmentcould have better trained police officers, harsherlaws in other to deter criminals from committinginfractions, improved gun control regulations anda more efficient judicial system. There a lot ofalternatives to this, as the elected officials mustunderstand that they need to choose a pathwhich does not hurt the population. Moreover, ifwe look at statistics (1), in most of the westernworld, the crime rate has been decreasing.Slowly but surely, crimes are falling and oursocieties are becoming safer and safer. Thus, notonly we have other ways of fighting crime, butcrime is becoming less of a problem, so do wereally need new intrusive measures to deal withit? (1) Eurostat Statistics,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "For every expert who advocates the use ofintercept evidence there is another who fiercelywarns against it, particularly those who areexperts in law [1] . Despite the use ofwiretapping in the USA, many people advocateagainst intercept evidence by pointing out itspast failures [2] and questionable authorisation[3] [4] . In the UK, MI5, MI6 and GCHQ havevoiced concerns that wire-tapping would exposethe methods used by intelligence services [5] .This is not purely a debate about whetherwire-tapping works, but whether it is in line withthe legal principles held by those countries andstates who currently do not allow it to be used incourt. Just because it could be used does notmake it legitimate – in fact, there is often heavycriticism against wiretapping within the legalprofession itself [6] [7] . [1] , accessed30/08/11 [2] , accessed 30/08/11 [3] ,accessed 30/08/11 [4] , accessed30/08/11 [5] , accessed 30/08/11 [6] ,accessed 30/08/11 [7] , accessed 30/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Intercepted evidence could be incredibly usefulfor both prosecution and defence cases in manytrials. Intercept evidence offers the opportunityto speed up court trials and stop wasting timeand money by providing information which couldlead to a faster, more accurate verdict. Otherwestern democracies who use wire-tap evidencebelieve that is has or will help to achieve criminalconvictions [1] [2] [3] , which demonstratespopular support for it as an effective and swiftmethod of justice. Given that the UK has allowedwire-tapping in some specific cases [4] , it seemsto be that it is not the principle of interceptevidence itself which is viewed as unacceptableby these countries, but perhaps a need to set upa formalised system of the conditions when andwhere intercept evidence can be used. DavidBickford, the former chief legal adviser to MI5,has stated ‘I know we have lost cases as a resultof not using such evidence’ [5] and other expertshave called for the wide use of interceptevidence in court [6] . Allowing the use of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The more obvious solution to this problem (fromthe opposition’s view) would be to maintain aclear policy where no intercept evidence isadmissible in court. However, this particular casebecomes an anomaly for good reason. Individualcountries – in this case Britain – cannot dictatewhether foreign intelligence services – the Dutch– choose to reveal their intelligence-gatheringmethods or not. In this case, the crossoverbetween national policies on informationintelligence [1] led to this anomaly. [1] ,accessed 30/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Wiretapping is a highly effective method whichhelps to prevent serious crime and secureconvictions for criminals. Wiretapping helps tomake society safer; we have the opportunity toprevent serious crime and to uphold the principleof prosecution in the justice system [1] bycatching criminals and convicting them. Forexample, in the UK in 2003, intercepts led to theseizure of 26 tonnes of drugs and also detectedwide-scale fraud and money laundering,resulting in 1680 arrests [2] . Without thisevidence, these criminals may have escaped thejustice system and remained free in society tocommit other crimes. It is nonsensical to rejectevidence which clearly implicates this individualswho would otherwise be released without charge.As the threat of terrorism escalates and hadalready damaged many countries [3] [4] [5] [6], refusal to use this evidence in court puts thepublic at serious risk and fails to act in thedefence of the country in question. For example,if the Norwegian authorities had kept closer tabs", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "If the use of wiretapping and intercept evidencewas as simple as proposition makes out,undoubtedly it would be a common tool.However, there are also serious flaws in how thisintelligence is gathered and interpreted. Forexample, a phone call might seem undulyincriminating when taken out of context andheard in a court of law which has alreadyprojected suspicions upon a particular individual[1] . Focusing only on one form ofcommunications as is normal when authorisationis given for these interceptions fails to take in thewider picture and continues to be heard withoutthe context [2] . Whether this unfairlyincriminates somebody who has not acted in acrime, or falsely ‘proves’ the innocence ofsomebody who is not in fact innocent, interceptevidence is limited in its scope and as suchshould not be admissible in court. [1] ,accessed 30/08/11 [2] , accessed 30/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "While intercept evidence may well show linksbetween people, it does not necessarilyaccurately show what they were doing. In thisway, intercepts make good intelligence, but poorevidence. There is no guarantee that interceptevidence will ‘prove’ anything in court ratherthan simply creating unfounded implicationswhich could actually serve to confuse, ratherthan clear, the case in question. Until interceptintelligence can prove itself reliable enough to beroutinely used as genuine evidence – and it isunclear that it ever will [1] – it certainly shouldnot become an established part of the wider legalsystem. [1] , accessed 30/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Countries which do not allow intercept evidencehave created a contradictory, rather thantransparent, set of legal boundaries. Britain inparticular seems to hold a paradoxical set ofvalues in relation to intercept evidence. Forexample, British courts have allowed interceptmaterial which has been lawfully obtained byforeign police forces. One notable example ofthis was the conviction of the Merseyside drugssquad chief Elmore Davies when it wasdiscovered that he had a corrupt relationshipwith drug baron Curtis Warren [1] . Theinformation which led to his conviction wascollected on Dutch mobile phones by the Dutchpolice force, despite the fact that some of theconversations took place wholly within the UK.However this – bizarrely – was allowed asevidence in a British court [2] , despite thesystematic rejection of intercept evidence inother cases. When a country seems to recogniseand even capitalise on the potential of interceptevidence in some cases but simultaneously reject", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Intercept evidence deals particularly well withcases of conspiracy and criminal gangs whichhave a widespread network. Intercept evidencecan be very useful for showing associationsbetween groups of people [1] , which can beincredibly helpful in cases such as conspiracies tolink people and events together. It can alsoexpose inconsistencies or falsity in an individual’salibi [2] or personal character if they denycontact with a certain party where interceptevidence proves that they had communicated [3]. However, under the status quo the defencelawyer may not be authorised to interceptevidence which would prove their client’sinnocence [4] . Allowing such techniques wouldhelp to equalise the prosecution and defence;after all, the aim of court is not to blindlyprosecute the defendant, but to ascertainwhether he or she is in fact guilty before anyprosecution occurs. Widening the array of toolswhich can be used by both prosecution anddefence helps to encourage a wider view of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con03b", "title": "", "text": "More established forms of evidence – even thoseas sophisticated as DNA testing – also have theirweaknesses. Following the death of Britishstudent Meredith Kercher, her supposed killerAmanda Knox was imprisoned after DNAevidence proved that Knox’s DNA was found onthe handle of the murder weapon (a kitchenknife) while Meredith’s blood was on the blade[1] . However, an appeal has declared that theDNA evidence ‘was so small it should have beenconsidered “inadmissible”’ [2] , and the originalforensic team have been branded as incompetent[3] . This is an example of an extremelyhigh-profile case which hinged a conviction onthe use of ‘reliable’ DNA evidence, and maypotentially be proved wrong – the appeal iscurrently ongoing. There is no evidence which isutterly, 100% certain; it is always open tointerpretation. However, allowing interceptevidence in court gives another chance at findingout the truth. Given that intercept evidencewould work in combination with expert", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con01b", "title": "", "text": "As criminals and terrorists adapt to moderntimes, so should the law. If the principles of laware responsible for a failure to act whichultimately leads to criminals walking free andcrimes being repeatedly committed, then the lawhas failed to serve the society it was built for [1]. The principles of law are meant to upholdjustice [2] , but in this case they become anobstacle to it. Considering that the law incountries like Britain has already acknowledgedintercept evidence as a tool in specific cases [3] ,it cannot oppose the underlying principle ofintercept evidence – rather, the practicalities.This undermines the opposition’s argument thatintercept evidence is fundamentally out of jointwith legal practice. Problematic practicalities willbe better regulated [4] [5] and monitored if thismotion is granted, but until then we risk allowingcrime to go unhindered because of an imaginaryobligation to the past. [1] , accessed30/08/11 [2] , accessed 30/08/11 [3] ,,accessed 30/08/11 [4] Regulations in American", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Wiretapping can actually threaten the success ofintelligence services in preventing crime andhelping to prove criminals guilty. Regular use ofwiretap and intercept evidence poses a danger tothe evidence-gathering capabilities of intelligenceagencies. There are concerns among experts thatterrorists, far from being apprehended, willsimply learn new techniques for ‘listening in tocalls made over the internet’ [1] and knowexactly who and what the intelligence servicesare monitoring. In this way, they could actuallyevade intelligence services and the police byusing different forms of communication, such asencrypting messages or using disposable mobilephones. Revealing the capabilities of ourintelligence agencies could create harms whichfar outweigh any potential benefits of interceptevidence [2] . This makes intercept evidenceself-negating; if it is used, the very revelation ofits use will alert criminals to it and make itvulnerable to manipulation and tampering –therefore, the evidence actually becomes less", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Common authorisation for wiretapping wouldresult in misallocation of resources. Wiretapsare not only unreliable, but incredibly expensive[1] [2] . Intelligence agents also often findthemselves inadvertently listening in on‘irrelevant, non-incriminating aspects of thetarget’s life’ [3] which not only breaches theprivacy of innocent people but is an obviouswaste of time and money for all involved. Giventhat many countries are considering or have cuttheir funding for police forces because of therecession [4] [5] [6] , this money could be put toa better use: preventing crime and terroristactivity by a stronger police presence. [1] ,accessed 30/08/11 [2] , accessed30/08/11 [3] , accessed 30/08/11 [4] In theUK: , accessed 30/08/11 [5] In the USA: ,accessed 30/08/11 [6] In New Zealand: ,accessed 30/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Intercept evidence is simply not reliable enoughto be effective evidence in court. Wiretapevidence is not as reliable as other forms ofevidence which we currently have at ourdisposal, such as DNA evidence which has ‘sentthousands of people to prison and . . . has playeda vital role in exonerating men who were falselyconvicted’ [1] . Many potential aspects ofintercept evidence lack this reliability. Voiceanalysis, for example, has been shown to beunreliable in exploring messages supposedlyspoken by Osama Bin Laden [2] . Video interceptevidence notably failed when a video whichpurported to show Morgan Tsvangirai (theZimbabwean opposition leader) conspiringagainst the government, when in fact he wassomewhere else at the time [3] . The poorquality of intercept evidence is a threat within anindividual trial, but also more widely; reliance onintercept evidence by prosecutors might lead tomore cases collapsing after the evidence isproved unreliable, and wasting time and money", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The controversy which surrounds interceptevidence is far-reaching and very complex. Thisdebate is not contained within the courtroom butalso spans wider principles of legal justice andthe rules which uphold democratic law. Evencountries which currently allow this evidence,such as certain US states [1] , have noted that itcan be difficult to use successfully and withoutviolating past Acts and wider legal principles [2] .Bodies such as MI5, MI6 and GCHQ argue thatrevealing the ‘evidence’ necessitates revealinghow that evidence was garnered; as such,intercept evidence can compromise the securitystatus of intelligence services and theirtechniques [3] . This kind of method should bereserved, if used at all, for singular, extremecases such as terrorist activity where all otherpossibilities for collecting evidence have trulybeen exhausted. Finally, wiretapping andintercept evidence has been criticised or deemedillegitimate by many legal professionals [4] [5] .For this kind of evidence to be admissible in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con04b", "title": "", "text": "If wiretapping and intercept evidence can stoplarge-scale conspiracies [1] and potentially stopterrorist actions [2] , as it has done and has thepotential to do, then price becomes irrelevant.The price of preventing perhaps hundred ofpeople from being harmed in terrorist actionshould and will always outweigh a financialargument. Wiretapping could in fact lift theburden on over-stretched police forces as theydo not have to physically apprehend criminals toattain evidence of their guilt. Wiretapping andintercept evidence is a step towards greaterefficiency in our justice system. [1] ,, accessed30/08/11 [2] www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN05249.pdf , accessed 30/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcphwawtai-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This argument is made irrelevant by the fact thatthe UK and other jurisdictions have rules ofevidence which prevent the release of sensitiveinformation from intelligence services [1] . Thereis no reason why playing a few minutes ofrecorded conversation in a courtroomautomatically means that criminals and terroristsknow the exact mechanisms used to record thatinformation. Furthermore, if a trial is being heldanyway, then the suspects involved alreadyknow that they have been monitored byintelligence services – otherwise they would nothave been brought to trial. Similarly, high-riskterrorist cells already protect theircommunication by using things like encryptedmessages [2] and disposable mobile phones [3] .Dangerous criminals and terrorists are alreadyone step ahead of our current justice system;implementing this motion is the only way to havea genuine chance at apprehending them. [1]The Official Secrets Act of 1989: , accessed30/08/11 [2] , accessed 30/08/11 [3] ,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilppthwr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Via legal precedent, [1] Habeas Corpusprotections extend to foreign nationals detainedin the US. Furthermore, to focus solely on theimmigration status and purported guilt ofsuspected terrorists ignore the fact that HabeasCorpus exists to protect us all. Eliminating therights for “bad people” necessarily eliminatesthem for the innocent as well. [1] SupremeCourt of the United States, Boumediene v Bush,553 U.S. 723 (2008),", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilppthwr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Enemy combatants are not US citizens and assuch they should not enjoy any protection whicha US citizen enjoys under theConstitution. Unlawful enemy combatants arenot US citizens. The only connection they have tothe US is the desire to destroy it. As such, theydo not fall within the group of people theConstitution is intended to protect. [1] [1] BBCNews, ‘Guantanamo appeal denied’, 12 March2003,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilppthwr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The current war on terror is not comparable topast wars during which Habeas Corpus wassuspended. Both the Civil War and World War IIwere openly declared wars of limited durationfollowing invasions by hostile forces. The “war onterror” is nebulous and open-ended. In any case,history has harshly judged arbitrary detentionsduring wartime. Lincoln’s Civil War detentionsand Roosevelt’s Japanese internment camps ofthe 1940s are embarrassing chapters in USnational history. The fact that former presidentsimproperly suspended Habeas Corpus is all themore reason to exercise caution now.Additionally, the suspension of Habeas Corpus bythe UK in 1971 arguably strengthened the causeof the IRA, and made it easier for theorganisation to recruit members. Westerngovernments should be careful not to repeat themistakes of the past", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilppthwr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Restricting Habeas Corpus is necessary in theface of the new and dangerous threat whichmodern terrorism poses. Restricting suspectedterrorists’ rights to challenge their detention isnecessary to ensure that that individual cannotparticipate in future terrorist activities. Theattacks of September 11th constituted acatastrophic and unprecedented attack on USsoil, and the measures undertaken by the US atGuantanamo Bay, in holding many terroristsuspects without trial, are necessary to preventfuture attacks of that nature. Terror suspects stillhave recourse to military tribunals, which containmany of the same safeguards as the federalcourt system", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilppthwr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is no reason why the United States cannotuphold constitutional protections such as HabeasCorpus and effectively combat terrorism at thesame time. The two are not mutually exclusive.In fact, ensuring that suspected terrorists haveaccess to Federal courts will save much-neededresources and ensure more accurateadministration of justice. In the present case, itis unclear which of the Guantanamo detaineesactually committed the acts that are used tojustify their indefinite detention. Allowingdetainees to challenge their detention wouldbring clarity to this uncertain situation and freeup resources in the war against terrorism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilppthwr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Habeas Corpus has often been suspended intimes of conflict, when it has been deemednecessary. There is a longstanding tradition ofsuspending Habeas Corpus protections duringtimes of war and conflict. For example, PresidentLincoln suspended Habeas Corpus during theCivil War. [1] Habeas Corpus was also suspendedbriefly in the Hawaii during World War II,immediately after the attacks on Pearl Harbour.[2] In the UK, Habeas Corpus was suspended in1794, after the French declared war on Britain,[3] and in 1817, [4] in order to arrestparliamentary reformers. In 1971 Habeas Corpuswas again suspended in the UK in order that IRAsuspects could be arrested and detained. [5]9/11 and other Al Qaeda plots require thatWestern countries respond in just as determineda way. The war on terror may not follow therules of traditional warfare, but it is a warnonetheless. These precedents show that, incertain circumstances, the suspension of HabeasCorpus is both necessary and justified. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilppthwr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The hatred that terrorists feel for the US and itsAllies does not depend on details of theirrespective legal systems. Their hate stems fromour success in building a tolerant, democraticsociety at odds with their narrow vision of harshconformity. Their propaganda seeks to radicaliseyoung Muslims across the world not by arcaneappeals to Habeas Corpus, but by twistedportrayals of Allied military actions againstcivilians in countries such as Iraq, Afghanistan,Pakistan and Somalia. If the prisoners currentlyheld without trial in Guantanamo Bay werereleased, they could untold damage to the USand its Allies. The risk of this occurring clearlyoutweighs the ethical issues concerning thesuspension of Habeas Corpus protections.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilppthwr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Global terrorism calls for aggressive responses.We cannot allow our respective nations to bebesieged by terrorists while we stand aside anddo nothing. Our enemies are well aware of thelegal framework in which the US authorities andtheir Allies operate, and will exploit it whereverpossible. Constitutional freedoms are extremelyimportant, but the security and continuedexistence of our nations must come first. The USand its Allies must make a stand anddemonstrate that terrorism will not be tolerated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilppthwr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Disregarding Habeas Corpus protections sets adangerous precedent for the treatment of thesoldiers and citizens of the US and its Allies whencaptured by foreign forces. If the US disregardsHabeas Corpus protections, it sets a dangerousprecedent for the rest of the world to follow. Ifother countries follow suit, the citizens andsoldiers of the US and its Allies abroad could alsobe indefinitely detained and denied legalrecourse if captured by foreign forces. This isespecially relevant when considering journalistscovering foreign conflicts, such as thosecurrently occurring in the Middle East. [1] [1]Staff reports, ‘USA TODAY writer, 3 otherjournalists captured in Libya’, USA Today, 8 April2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilppthwr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Suspending Habeas Corpus makes it easier forterrorist organisations to demonise the US andits Allies, and thus to recruit more terrorists in itsfight against the West. By suspending HabeasCorpus, the US is playing into the hands ofterrorists and creating more would-be terroristsfor the future. Enemies of the West aim todemonstrate that the US is an oppressive statein order to make its model less attractive toothers. In particular, they wish to show thatAmerica is at war with Muslims in order toradicalise young Muslims both at home andoverseas. The US should take heed of theprecedent in Northern Ireland, where widespreadinternment without trial radicalised manyCatholic youths in the 1970s and drove them intothe arms of the IRA.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilppthwr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Suspending Habeas Corpus undermines themoral high ground of the US and its Allies, andstrengthens the cause of the terrorists whichthese nations are fighting against. Restrictionson Habeas Corpus undermine the war againstterror and put national security further at risk.Giving terrorist suspects the protection ofHabeas Corpus legitimises the war against terrorby ensuring that US actions against suspectedterrorists have a legal basis, and are not incontravention of the rule of law. The momentthat the US and its Allies show the rule of law thedisrespect that typifies the regimes which theWest seeks to overthrow, the fight for ‘heartsand minds’ will be lost. This effect can easily beseen in the results of the suspension of HabeasCorpus in the UK in order to arrest suspected IRAactivists in 1971 – rather than suppressing theIRA as intended it increased support for theterrorist organisation. [1] [1] Wilkinson, Paul,Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal StateResponse, 2nd ed., Routledge, 2006, p.82,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilppthwr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The necessity of the measures, and the size ofthe terrorist threat which faces the US,outweighs the possible problems posed in theopposition argument.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilppghsuta-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Even the best Truth and Reconciliation processcan only arrive at a partial version of the truth.This may take so many years that politicaldevelopment is halted while society relives thetrauma through commission proceedings. Truthand reconciliation commissions also impose aparticular form of morality upon both theirparticipants and the post conflict society theyserve. This moral perspective draws uponspecifically Christian traditions of confession,absolution and forgiveness that may be alien tovictims and perpetrators alike. Even in an almostcompletely Christian South Africa, many victims'families rejected the process for this reason; it iseven less well suited to other societies andcultures. It is no coincidence that the truth andreconciliation process is so heavily promoted byEuropean and American think tanks, governmentand NGOs. It fits into a decidedly Christian nicheand presents western donors and aid givers withan image of progress that they can understandan easily approve of. However, without closer", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilppghsuta-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Truth and reconciliation are more important thanretribution following violent and long termconflicts It is important to uncover the real truthof what happened during periods of violenceand/or repression. Uncertainty as to the fate ofloved ones, the identity of informants or themotives for certain actions can maintain the gripof a conflict over the minds of its victims formany years [i] . The unreason andcapriciousness of certain actions can underminean individual’s identity and capacity to trust. Avictory is supposed to bring rapprochement,reason and stability to a conflict zone – but it isunable to have this effect on individuals withoutsome method of rationalising a conflict [ii] . Thisresult can only ever be achieved with thecooperation of those responsible; the individualswho had access to relevant documents or evenparticipated in violent acts [iii] . Without thiscollective revelation of grief and guilt, thefamilies of the victims will never know the truthabout their suffering, and so will not be able to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilppghsuta-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The reconciliation process provides access tojustice in post conflict states Countries emergingfrom violent pasts, involving repression, civil warand political violence may attempt to come toterms with their histories in three ways. Firstly,they can attempt to ignore the past, allowingthose guilty of atrocities to go unpunished andperhaps even prosper under the new system.This approach leaves victims' families bitter andcommunities divided, entrenching resentmentsand potentially distorted accounts of individuals’involvement in violent activities. Such a situationmakes renewed violence all the morelikely. Secondly, post conflict states can set upwar crimes courts (as in the Balkans, Rwandaand Sierra Leone), but these may be seen asvictor's justice, or as an imposition by a distantopaque international body. Those threatened bysuch courts may refuse to lay down their arms,jeopardising any chance of a lasting peacesettlement - as with Joseph Kony's long-runningrebellion in Northern Uganda. Finally and often", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilppghsuta-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Terrible crimes deserve appropriatepunishments. Ignoring the past may not be agood idea, but war criminals (especially theleaders of violent groups) should be brought tojustice in public trials. This approach is the onlyway to ensure that dangerous men are notallowed to continue to act in and influencevulnerable societies. Such individuals are oftenopportunistic, using periods of peace to re-armand refresh political sympathies, beforeresuming campaigns of violence. Indeed, thenotorious Ugandan warlord Joseph Kony tookadvantage of peace negotiations initiated in early2008 to rearm his followers and to forciblyrecruit child soldiers for communities in southSudan and Congo [i] . Adversarial justice alsoallows punishment to be proportionate,distinguishing between individuals who plannedviolence and repression, and those who followedtheir orders, rather than granting all the sameamnesty. Most importantly, treating communaland political violence as a crime sends a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilppghsuta-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Financial compensation was only part of theSouth African Commission's work. Although ithas been slow to arrive it is continuing to bedistributed. More will be done over time, and theimpact of reconciliation on polls is also along-term process. The economies of statesrecovering from war and dictatorship aretypically unproductive and undeveloped, so it isunreasonable to expect immediate results in thisarea. Lengthy war crimes trials deal with only afraction of the abuses committed, and typicallycost tens of millions of dollars (mostly in legalcosts, mostly obtained from foreign donors)more than a Truth and Reconciliation process, sothey are even harder to justify.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilppghsuta-con01b", "title": "", "text": "A Truth and Reconciliation process provides anational forum for facing up to the past. It placesresponsibility for resolving the tensions latent inpost conflict scenarios in the hands of the partiesto that conflict [i] . The ICC, by contrast,represents an international intrusion into themoral discourses of post conflict societies. Warcrimes tribunals for the Balkans and Rwandahave taken years to achieve a very small numberof convictions. They can often appear to havebeen hijacked by international bodies such asNATO or the UN, in an attempt to impose asolution from outside (to salve consciences in thewest) without providing a real understanding ofthe particular circumstances of the individualnation. [i] “The voice of ‘Prime Evil’”, BBC NewsOnline, 28 October 1998.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilppghsuta-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Reconciliation can be used to conceal politicalcorruption and patrimony Truth andReconciliation commissions are a mask, behindwhich political bargains can be made that allowthe guilty to go free [i] . Power is traded inreturn for amnesty. People may be required toconfess to their crimes (although in South Africamiddle-ranking bureaucrats were the mainscapegoats, while their political masters mostlyescaped close scrutiny), but they will not bepunished for them [ii] . South Africa is a uniqueexception to the rule that reconciliationcommissions do nothing more than legitimatisedealings between equally dubious andunaccountable elites where violence was oftencommitted by agents of the state for purelypolitical reasons, and where the end ofrepression was negotiated rather than broughtabout through victory for one side. Elsewherepolitical and criminal or economic violence arehard to separate (e.g. Sierra Leone, Cambodia),and violence was ended by victory for one party,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilppghsuta-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The South African reconciliation commission hasproven itself to be ineffective Frequently cited asthe most successful post conflict restorativejustice programme in recent history, SouthAfrica's Truth and Reconciliation process hasfailed in a number of ways. Polls show thatdifferent races are more polarised after its work,rather than less [i] , so reconciliation seems tobe failing [ii] . As the journalist Peter Storeycomments, “some have decried the absence ofrepentance in many amnesty applications [madeto the South African Truth and ReconciliationCommission]. Apart from the fact that this is afurther damning judgment on perpetrators, thelegislation does not require repentance, only thetruth.” Storey notes that “The issue of amnestyhas been… controversial. Some victims’ familieschallenged these provisions in South Africa’shighest court[s].” [iii] The South AfricanReconciliation Commission also promisedfinancial redress for victims and their families,but this has largely failed to appear. [i] Ubu and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilppghsuta-con01a", "title": "", "text": "International and inter-governmental bodies arebetter able to secure justice for the victims ofwar crimes The United Nations, the ICC andother international bodies have great experienceand expertise in dealing with post-conflictsituations, including running war crimes trials.They can draw upon the lessons to be learntfrom other countries and apply them inpartnership with local politicians andlawyers. The involvement of inter-governmentalbodies is important because conflicts are rarelyentirely domestic, often spilling over intoneighbouring states, as in the Balkans,South-East Asia and West Africa. Internationalcourts can also avoid the suspicion of bias andcorruption which an entirely national process cansuffer. Post conflict societies are often lack astable professional class. Access and cooperationwith lawyers, clergy and academics is oftennecessary to ensure that a reconciliationcommission can run effectively and can verifythe testimony that it hears. The international", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilppghsuta-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Compromise is essential to achieving peace andstability after years of conflict. This often has tobe negotiated, as in South Africa, and has tosurvive for long enough for trust to grow. A Truthand Reconciliation process allows for suchcompromises to be made, favouring no side overanother and helping a move to peacefuldemocratic politics. It does not seek retributivejustice but restorative justice, which gives valueto the victims of conflict and requires theiroppressors to address their sufferings. Theamnesties offered by truth and reconciliationcommissions are not easily obtained, but have tobe applied for individually, through a completeand truthful disclosure of past crimes. Ifinformation is withheld, or the crimes are foundnot to be politically motivated, then prosecutionand punishment are still possible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There is a fundamental difference betweensomeone’s actions directly resulting in anotherperson’s death and the case of bullying. In thecase of manslaughter, the victim never had achoice. The perpetrator is solely responsible forwhat happened. But some victims of bullyingtake a decision to kill themselves, while othersdo not. The bully cannot be held responsible forsomeone else’s decision and action, only for herown.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The bully's intentions are irrelevant In criminallaw, the establishment of culpability does notalways depend on the intentions of theperpetrator. If, during a fight on a train platform,I shove someone and that person falls on thetracks and is killed by a train, I will be guilty ofmanslaughter, whether I intended to kill theperson or not, because the harm caused by myactions is so great [1] . The same applies tobullying. Bullies try to hurt their victims throughtheir actions, either physically or psychologically.Whether the bully intended for the victim to dieor not, is irrelevant. The bully’s actions wereresponsible for the victim taking her ownlife. [1] Ashworth, Andrew. Principles of CriminalLaw, Chapter 7.5. Oxford University Press. 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "We should always focus on stopping thebehaviour before it escalates to the point of thevictim’s suicide. Bullies should be held to accountearly on. We shouldn’t wait until someone diesbefore they are punished. If victims know therewill be early intervention, they will be far lesslikely to even consider suicide. If they know thebullies won’t be punished until after their death,it might even encourage some distraught victimsto kill themselves in the hope of exact vengeanceon their tormenters. Early intervention is a muchbetter outcome for everyone.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The law should always punish actions that inflictserious harm - whether physical orpsychological Bullying can inflict seriouspsychological harm on its victims, especially inthe case of young people. It leads to lowself-esteem, depression, and for some kids itleads to suicide [1] . Bullied children are almost6 times more likely to think about or attemptsuicide [2] . This phenomenon has been termed‘bullycide’ and the law should recognize it. Manyforms of behaviour that result in the death ofanother person are criminal, from murder tonegligence. It is the duty of the law to brandsuch behaviour as unacceptable, deter futureincidents, punish the perpetrators, and offercomfort to victims: in this case, the families ofthose who lost their life to bullying. [1] O'Moore,Mona, “Understanding School Bullying: A Guidefor Parents & Teachers”, Veritas, 1, Dublin,2010 [2] Kim YS, Leventhal BL, Koh YJ, BoyceWT “Bullying Increased Suicide Risk: ProspectiveStudy of Korean Adolescents”. Arch Suicide Res.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The law should only punish people for their ownactions, not those of others. It’s fine to punishbullies for their bullying behaviour, if it is againstthe law. But ‘bullycide’ implies the bully bearsindividual responsibility for the death of thevictim, just like in the case of murder ormanslaughter. But the bully did not pull thetrigger, the victim did. While the bully may haveintended to harm or berate the victim, she madeno attempt on the victim’s life, and cannot betreated like a murderer, who intentionally tookthe life of another.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The laws are inadequate because it is very hardto define bullying. Almost any act or gesture canconstitute bullying depending the victim’ssubjective experience of it. Criminalizing bullyingwould lead to criminalizing behaviour that wouldbe considered normal by most standards.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The damage wrought by bullying iscumulative Bullying is truly dangerous when itbecomes persistent. Any one incident of it, whileunpleasant, may be entirely tolerable for thevictim. But being unrelentingly subjected to thistreatment for months on end can make life trulyunbearable and lead that person to suicide. Inthe case of Phoebe Prince, an Irish immigrantwho was bullied at her US high school, she wascalled expletives, threatened, and even hit with abeverage container before she finally took herlife [1] . She may have survived any one of thosetaunts, but it was their cumulative effect thatwas too much to bear. Conversely, punishing herbullies for any one act will fail to acknowledgethe much greater extent of the overall harm. Adifferent, special offence is needed to recognizethe magnified level of harm caused bybullying. [1] Eckholm, Eric; Zezima, Katie.“Documents Detail a Girl’s Final Days ofBullying”. The New York Times. April 8, 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The current legal regime is not able to prevent oradequately punish bullying Even when bulliesare sometimes prosecuted, they are chargedwith offences that constitute individualcomponents of the bullying behaviour, likeharassment, stalking, causing bodily harm [1] ,or invasion of privacy [2] . But these offenceswere not designed with bullying in mind and failto capture its overall impact and the harm itcauses. While bullies may be charged withseveral of these offenses this will still not capturethe kind of harm being done and would not be aseffective as a specifically tailored offense. Weneed laws that recognize that harm and whichpunish those who inflict it adequately. [1]Eckholm, Erick. “Two Students Plead Guilty inBullying of Teenager.” The New York Times. May4, 2011. [2] Foderaro, Lisa W. “Private MomentMade Public. Then a fatal Jump.” The New YorkTimes. September 29. 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Of course there will always be ambiguous cases.That is why we have trials, and rights for thedefendant. The weight of the evidence presentedin court should establish what degree ofculpability, if any, the bullies had. If theprosecution does not have a solid case topresent, it may even choose not to prosecute.But the law should be in place for those caseswhere it is needed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Under this law, bullies would be held accountablefor their own actions, not those of the victim.The law wouldn’t have to equate them withmurderers, punish them as harshly, or suggestthey bear sole and full responsibility for thevictim’s death. But it would make it clear theybear some responsibility for the outcome, andthat they should be punished for their role. Ifthey are children, they can be prosecuted asjuvenile offenders and given less harshpunishments, like community service.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Conduct offence Defining bullying would benearly impossible. Spreading rumours, givingsomeone the silent treatment, inviting all yourclassmates but one to a party, expressing areligious belief about someone’s sexuality, eyerolling, making faces, these can all be hurtful andperceived as bullying [1] . Yet this is perfectlylegal behaviour. Criminalizing bullying wouldamount to criminalizing these acts. They may beoffensive, they may even be hurtful, but thesegestures should never, ever constitute criminalbehaviour in any society that is concerned withhuman rights, freedom of speech, and ofexpression. Throwing someone in prison forspreading rumours or eye rolls might be worthyof a totalitarian state, but not a liberaldemocracy. [1] Bolton, José, and Stan Graeve.No Room for Bullies: from the Classroom toCyberspace. Boys Town Press. 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Bullys are frequently as disturbed and victimisedas those they target According to studies, bulliesare often children who are plagued by their ownproblems: a troubled family situation, feeling ofinadequacy, depression, or pressure to fit in [1] .Their bullying behaviour might just be a copingmechanism and a cry for help. These childrenmight need as much support and care as thosethey bully. Putting them through the harrowingexperience of a criminal trial, and potentiallythrowing them in prison will further damagethem. Destroying one young life as retributionfor another is a model of justice that should findno place in a compassionate society. [1] Carroll,Linda. ”Kids with ADHD may be more likely tobully”. MSNBC. 29 January 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Making bullying a legal issues does notincentivise robust enforcement of anti bullyingrules by schools Schools are educationalestablishments that parents trust to protect andeducate their children. Teachers and schooladministrators are those who should be keepinga watchful eye on the students in their care andintervene before harm comes to them. If bullyingoccurs at school, then that school has failed in itsduties. In fact, in cases where suicides occurred,it has often later come to light that a bullyingculture was widely tolerated at the school, andthat school staff that knew about it did nothingto prevent it, with tragic results [1] . Toprosecute the bullies would shift responsibilityfrom the woeful failure of the adults aroundthem, who should have known better and donemore than the children in their care. [1]Bazelon, Emily. “What Really Happened toPhoebe Prince? Entry 1”. Slate. July 20. 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con03a", "title": "", "text": "It is difficult to make a direct, legally sound linkbetween a bully's behaviour and a victim'ssuicide Many of the children and adolescentswho take their own lives allegedly as a result ofbullying have a far more complicatedbackground. Some already struggle withdepression, and have unstable family situationsthat make it hard to turn to their parents for helpwith their problems. Phoebe Prince, for example,was taking anti-depressants, was devastated byher parents’ divorce, was self harming, and hadalready attempted suicide after a break up. Andthat was long before she was allegedly bullied todeath [1] . She was a very troubled youngwoman, and anything could have pushed herover the edge. It would be hard to find thebullies criminally responsible for her death. [1]Bazelon, Emily. “What Really Happened toPhoebe Prince? Entry 2”. Slate. July 20. 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con05b", "title": "", "text": "Bullies are often children, most of them in theirteens. However, they are at an age where theydo know right from wrong and can, therefore, beheld accountable for their actions. Neither theiryoung age nor their own suffering can justifybearing responsibility for someone else’s death.Most criminal justice systems recognize thatchildren are liable for their behaviour, byallowing children as young as 10, in the UK forexample, to be charged with criminal offences.Their age and personal situation can,nevertheless, be taken into account in decidingwhat punishment they should receive (prison,community service, a fine, etc.). And there is noreason why rehabilitation and education cannotbe part, or even the focus, of that punishment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Individuals should only be held responsible forthe consequences of their own actions In anyfree and democratic society, criminal law shouldonly hold people accountable for the things theydo, not for the actions of others. We are allautonomous, moral agents who make decisionsand have to live with their consequences and theconsequences of our actions. While it might bejustified to punish bullies for their bullyingbehavior, if it breaks the law, we cannot holdthem accountable for another person’s decisionto commit suicide.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Prosecutions of bullies responsible for suicides,and improved safety in schools are not mutuallyexclusive goals. Programmes need to be set upthat stop bullying early on, give victims support,and people to turn to when they are in need.Schools and their administrators can and shouldalso be held accountable to their boards, and thecommunity. But in those cases where tragediesstill happen in spite of such measures, theculprits should be held to account.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ueegllghwhsl-con02b", "title": "", "text": "We criminalize behaviour when it is trulyharmful. Especially when it is so harmful that itleads to someone losing her life. Eye rolling andgossip are not harmful enough to be criminaloffences. Nor would they be under this law. Whatwould become a criminal offence would be thesustained and prolonged torment of anotherperson to the point of pushing her to committingsuicide, whatever forms that torment takes,whether it’s gay slurs, or physical threats andinsults. It has also long been established thatthere are limits to the freedom of speech orexpression we enjoy, if that can result in thedirect harm of others. For example, we don’tallow people to incite violence against others.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Market mechanisms are inappropriate for theexchange of some goods, such as children,medically needed bodily substances or organs,and sex. These are precious goods, and weshould not allow citizens to alienate these goodsfor payment. Instead, the terms of alienationshould protect the critical interests of allinvolved. While sexual relationships servelegitimate needs, it does not follow that weshould be able to purchase them. Havingchildren serves legitimate needs, but we do notthink that people should be able to buy children.Buying sex robs the provider of dignity and theright to sexual autonomy. Moreover, people arenot entitled to some goods simply because theyhave money. If we allow money to determinewho can have children, donated organs, orsexual intimacy, then this will lead to unfairdistributions. Market mechanisms may eclipseother forms of exchange, and deprive thosewithout significant wealth of the means tohappiness.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Markets in sexual services can serve legitimateneeds While many societies have attempted torestrict sex to marriage, few (if any) havesucceeded. In contemporary, secular liberalsocieties, adults are no longer punished forpursuing sex outside of marriage. Many adultsfind non-marital sex satisfying, healthy, andfulfilling, whether it occurs in the context of anongoing romantic relationship, a casualfriendship, or a market exchange. While manypeople will never seek the services of a sexworker, those who do are often seeking sensualcomfort, companionship, entertainment, andfantasy fulfilment. While the latter goods areoften obtainable in non-market relationships,some people prefer the convenience andefficiency of market mechanisms for securingthese goods. In a liberal society, individuals arefree to pursue their own vision of happiness, aslong as they respect the moral and civil rights ofothers. Markets that provide sexual servicesenable some individuals to secure goods", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "No person would sell sex unless they weredesperate. To have sex with someone forreasons other than sexual attraction, desire, andaffection is repulsive to any sane and mentallycompetent adult. People who sell sex are notexercising sexual autonomy, but are giving uptheir right to sexual autonomy in order tosupport themselves and their families. Instead oflegalizing sex markets, societies should provideother means of employment and a basicstandard of living to all members, so that no onehas to resort to prostitution to survive.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Legalization would free up resources that couldbe devoted to eliminating sex trafficking Somemarkets in sex should be blocked. Markets thatinvolve child labor, forced labor or sex, andforced migration and detention, should bestopped and those who organize and profit fromsuch markets should be prosecuted. As with anyservice, it is critically important that no one isforced to work or to continue working, eitherthrough the threat of harm or through fraud anddeception. It is also critically important thatchildren are protected from sexual predators,and are excluded from all aspects of sexbusinesses. Forced labor and child sexual abuseinvolve violations of basic human rights that allsocieties are expected to protect. Voluntary,adult sex work is significantly different fromtrafficking, and law enforcers need to distinguishmarket exchanges involving consensual sexamong adults from market exchanges involvingforced sex among adults or involving minors. Bylegalizing voluntary, adult sex work, law", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Prohibition does more harm thangood Criminalizing the acts of selling and buyingsexual services does not protect those who sellor buy such services, but rather pushes theseactivities underground. While market exchangesof sexual services involve some risk-taking, therisks are increased and compounded when suchmarkets are prohibited. When selling and buyingsex is illegal, those participating in theseexchanges cannot, or simply do not, seek theprotection of the law when their rights areviolated. Because crimes against sex workers ortheir clients are often unreported, and whenreported often not investigated, predators andrights violators can take advantage of otherswithout fear of arrest and punishment. Moreover,because criminalization forces sex work intoremote and invisible corners of society, sellersand buyers are less able to insure their safetyand protection. For these reasons, lawscriminalizing sex markets amplify the riskssellers and buyers face when they participate in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that prohibition cannot preventprostitution is not an argument againstprohibition. We have laws prohibiting murder,and yet murders happen. Our laws deter somemurders and they express our society’s moraloutrage regarding murder. Similarly, lawsprohibiting prostitution deter some prostitutionand express our society’s moral condemnation ofsex for hire. These laws do not create harms,rather prostitution itself creates harms, byrobbing those who participate of self-respect,and contributing to the spread of sexuallytransmitted diseases. It is inevitable that lawsprohibiting prostitution will make it riskier toengage in prostitution, as this is the purpose ofsuch laws: to provide disincentives to those whomight otherwise engage in this activity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "While some sex market transactions are moreconsensual than others, all sex markets treatpeople like objects to be used and exploited byothers. Sex should not be turned into work or abusiness from which some people profit, evenwhen the labor is allegedly voluntary. Moreover,it is not evident that the proliferation of legal sexbusinesses would involve the proliferation of sexbusinesses that acted ethically and responsibly.If sex businesses could operate in a more lax andpermissive environment, many abuses would goundetected. Because of the already noxiousaspects of this industry, abuses such as fraud,deception, and coercion are intolerable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Legalizing prostitution would unleash forces thatexploit vulnerable women and men for profit.People with the means to buy sexual access toothers would be able to exploit those who arepoor, young, or inexperienced. By legalizingprostitution, society endorses impersonal andpromiscuous sexual relations that damageindividuals and families. The resources weallocate to protect vulnerable citizens fromsexual exploitation, and to uphold the values ofsexual commitment, loyalty, and responsibility,are well spent, and the foundation of a healthysocial order.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Markets in sexual services can respect sexualautonomy Sexual autonomy means being ableto control when, where, and with whom one hassexual relations. It also means that, at anymoment, one may withdraw from a sexualrelationship or encounter. Spouses, lovers, andalso strangers have the right to sexualautonomy. If an adult chooses to engage in sexwith other adults who offer material benefits, herright to sexual autonomy is respected as long asshe has control over when, where, and withwhich clients she has sexual relations, and aslong as she is mentally competent and is allowedto terminate the agreement at any time. Ifmarkets in sex were to become legal, the rightsof providers (and clients) to sexual autonomywould need to be respected. This means that sexworkers would maintain the right to refuseservice to any customer, and to discontinueservice or employment at any time and for anyreason. Like other workers, sexual serviceproviders would have the right to a safe and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Legalization has benefits for society Removingcriminal penalties from the sale or purchase ofsexual services, and regulating sex markets sothat they protect participants and non-involvedthird parties, would be socially beneficial. Inparticular, sex enterprises and businesses couldbe made safer for workers, clients, and thecommunities in which they operated. By allowingsex businesses to operate openly, providers,clients, and business owners can becomelaw-abiding, productive citizens, who contributeto their communities. Sex businesses andworkers would pay taxes, and other licensingfees. Business owners would be expected tocomply with standard business laws andregulations. Moreover, the government couldenact special regulations appropriate to thisindustry, such as age restrictions on workers andclients, and mandatory condom use. Theresources that are currently allocated to arrest,prosecute, and incarcerate sex workers andclients could be reallocated for better uses. For", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "In market sexual transactions, each partypursues the satisfaction of her/his desires. Theservice provider is typically pursuing her desirefor income, while the client is typically pursuinghis desire for sensual enjoyment and intimatecompanionship. As long as each party respectsthe terms of the exchange, they are treatingeach other as beings with ends of their own, andtherefore morally.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Sex exchanged for money may not have thesame value and meaning as sex exchanged as agift among lovers. Yet, it does not follow fromthis that paid sex is without value. The value ofpaid sex is clearly subjective, and may bederived from its ability to provide sensualpleasure, sex education, and relief from stress,boredom, or loneliness. It may be lessmeaningful and enjoyable than sex with aromantic companion, but when the latter is notan option, paid sex may be an acceptablesubstitute. Since people have differentexpectations from paid sex than non-marketromantic sex, they are not likely to sufferemotional and psychological damage from theformer. Individuals who are not in monogamousrelationships, and who have multiple sexualpartners must take special precautions to protecttheir physical health, whether money isexchanged or not. Sex work does not poseadditional health risks that are not otherwisefaced by sexually active but non-monogamous", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Markets in sexual services undermine the valuesof commitment and loyalty Sexual relationshipsinvolve crossing ordinary social boundaries thatexist between people, and exposing aspects ofourselves that normally remain private. Thisaspect of sexual relationships renders the partiesvulnerable emotionally and socially, andtherefore sexual partners often extractcommitments from each other of sexual fidelityand exclusivity. These commitments allow peopleto engage in sexual relationships while treatingeach other with decency and respect. Marketsare public and involve exchanges amongstrangers. In markets, goods are exchanged withthe highest bidders and not with those to whomwe are committed and loyal. For this reason,markets in sex undermine the ideals of sexualcommitment, loyalty, or exclusivity, whichmakes decent and respectful sexual relationshipspossible. Markets are for exchanging shoes andcars, or services that we can separate fromourselves without leaving us emotionally and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Markets in sex would corrupt non-market sexualrelations, turning women and girls intocommodities Markets in sex are shaped byvalues that differ from non-market sexualrelationships. Market sexual transactions are notstructured by the ideals of fidelity and exclusivitybetween social intimates, but rather by the endsof profit maximization and mutual benefit amongstrangers. The goods exchanged in a market areinterchangeable with other goods, in ways thatmaximize profit and mutual benefit. When thesegoods include sexual services, the sexualservices of one provider will be interchangeablewith those of another. The position of seller orbuyer in a particular market is often determinedby one’s gender, class, race, and nationality. Insex markets, sellers are typically female, andbuyers are typically male. Race, class, and othersocial hierarchies also shape one’s position in asex market. Because the sellers in sex marketsare often people who are disadvantaged by theirgender, class, race, or nationality, the existence", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Moral sex requires more than informed consent,and society should uphold moral values Moralsex requires treating others not merely as ameans to our own ends, but as beings with endsof their own. This means that we are morallyrequired to consider the needs of our sexualpartners and not only our own selfish desires. Inmarket sexual transactions, the client merelypursues the satisfaction of his own desires, andtherefore treats the service provider as a meansto his own ends. Because prostitution inevitablyinvolves the instrumental and immoral treatmentof others, toleration of prostitution involves thetoleration of immoral behaviour. Society shoulduphold moral values by banning prostitution.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Prohibition prevents harm by substantiallycurtailing markets in sex The good of sex whenoffered as a gift is not the same good when it isbartered. Taking or offering money cheapens anddeforms the good of sexual intimacy, which whenshared with many on the open market diminishesits value. Moreover, while the benefits ofcommoditized sex are questionable, the harmsare significant. Those who engage in suchexchanges diminish their capacity for genuinesexual intimacy, while damaging their physical,emotional, and mental health. Moreover, theharms of market sexual transactions often affectnon-involved third parties, such as the spousesor lovers of sellers and buyers. Because theharms of market sex are long lasting, thoughsometimes distant, it is appropriate for society tointervene to prevent these harms. Markets in sexpose a public health threat, just like markets indangerous drugs. Prohibition will reduce thenumber of people who engage in market sexualtransactions, and for those who do participate,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Consumers can access the healing capacities ofhealth care providers without coming to regardthe people who provide health care asreplaceable market goods rather than uniquehuman subjects. Consumers can access thecooking talents of chefs without coming to regardthe people who provide good food as replaceablegoods rather than unique human subjects. Sexmarkets may differ in that the position ofconsumer and provider is often shaped bygender and other social markers. But if this iswhat causes the degradation of the provider intoa replaceable and exploitable good, then whatneeds to change is how positions in this marketare shaped by one’s social identity, rather thaneliminating sex markets. All markets arestructured by social hierarchies. As illegitimatesocial hierarchies based on gender, race, class,and so on, are dismantled, then this will havebeneficial effects on all markets and not just sexmarkets.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgsghwlp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "People who engage in market sexualrelationships and other forms of casual sex cantreat their partners with dignity and respect. Thisinvolves respecting the boundaries that sexualpartners communicate to each other, regardingwhat parts of their lives and themselves they arewilling to share. With different sexual partnerswe open up in different ways, and people whoengage in casual, market sexual relationshipsmight draw different emotional and sexualboundaries in these relationships than in others.While casual sexual relationships are unlikely toinvolve commitments of fidelity and exclusivity,they are compatible with the decent andrespectful treatment of others if persons in theserelationships respect their partners’ rights toprivacy, autonomy, and other basic interests.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The overriding objective of the justice system isto ensure that the innocent go free, not that theguilty are punished, and the system should beorientated around that objective. Ex post-factoconfessions do not make someone ‘clearly guilty’as false confessions can arise for a number ofreasons, from boasting to an innocentmisstatement. It is also wrong to assume thatnew evidence is better evidence. The longer atrial takes place after a crime the less strong theevidence gets; memories get weaker, people gomissing, evidence can be damaged etc. There isalso the problem that in a re-trial any tacticaladvantage of ‘ambushing’ a witness incross-examination is lost because they know thatthe ambush is coming. There are therefore amultitude of reasons why retrials are less likelyto achieve convictions than a well prepared firsttrial.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Abolishment of double jeopardy would ensurethe guilty do not escape punishment Theproblem with the 'double jeopardy' rule is thatpeople who are clearly guilty - because newevidence has emerged, because they'veconfessed - are not being punished for crimesthey have committed. We believe that guiltypeople should be punished for their crime, andour justice system should be tailored to allowthat. In 2009, a footballer in London confessedto murdering his ex-girlfriend at a re-trial afterfresh evidence was found to overturn the originalverdict1; under previous double jeopardy laws inBritain, the murderer would have remained free.We have as great a duty to ensure miscarriagesof justice are not perpetrated on victims as onaccused. An offence committed ten years agodoes not cease to be an offence because timehas passed, or because the perpetrator hasmanaged to evade justice in the past. Thecriteria by which the decision to charge anindividual is taken ought to be likelihood of guilt,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Such restrictions on double jeopardy would notbe effective in practice, for they attempt to put avalue on the relative importance of crimeswithout using either the prospect of re-offendingor the impact on victims. As QC GeoffreyRobertson noted in response to the LawCommission's finding, it is irrational to confinethe possibility of re-trials to 'serious crimes'alone and exclude \"repetitive, professional\"crime like armed robbery. If the intention of therepeal is to bring both offenders to justice andprevent further crime, it is exactly the 'repetitive,professional' criminals who should be targeted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The rules and laws that protect the accused willremain at retrial All the rules and laws thatprotect the accused at the first trial will be inplace at a second - it's not as if the rule of lawsuddenly disappears. The presumption ofinnocence, proof beyond reasonable doubt, theright to a fair hearing and competent counsel,the judge's duty to appropriately direct the jury,etc. will all continue to apply and preventmiscarriages of justice from occurring. Nor is thesystem likely to be overwhelmed with retrials.Much of the current push for the end of thedouble jeopardy rule comes from the widespreaduse of DNA testing, which has allowed many oldcases to be revisited with compelling newevidence of guilt or innocence. Mark Weston, forexample, was convicted at a re-trial after specksof the victim's blood were found on Weston'sshoes, justifying the re-opening of the case1.After a few years, the impact of DNA testing onsolving similar cold cases will be expended andthere will be very few retrials. 1 Bate, S. (2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Juries will know this is a retrial – becauseevidence will have to be ‘read’ from the first trialwhere witnesses have died, because notes from‘last time’ will be available to advocates and theaccused, because the legal procedure of the lasttrial will be subject to discussion in this one. If ajury knows a case has been brought again, therewill be a presumption that the accused is guiltybecause a higher court has already decided thatthe new evidence makes the acquitted defendantnow look guilty after all, and so granted a retrial.The presumption of innocence will no longerexist. And unless the system is going to beoverwhelmed with retrials like this, in which caseit would be unworkable, then second trialcapacity can only (and rightly) be directedtowards ‘exceptional’ cases. Such cases are wellknown - like that of the murder of StephenLawrence 1. How could individuals face trialagain on the same charges, when in the glare ofmedia attention it has been declared they shouldhave been convicted at the first trial? How could", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Faith in the justice system is derived from itbeing been to be fair and even-handed. It is notmerely faith on the part of victims that offenderswill be found guilty, but faith on the part ofinnocent defendant that they will be foundinnocent. The double jeopardy rule reinforcesfaith in the justice system because it forces theprosecution service to make the best possiblecase that they can – because they only get oneshot to make it. It also means that defendantscan feel secure in submitting themselves to trialon the basis that an acquittal representscomplete security from futureaccusations. Abolishing the double jeopardy rulewould actually undermine confidence in thesystem – overturning an acquittal is an explicitstatement that the system produces falsenegatives. If it becomes widely accepted that anot-guilty verdict is meaningless then theprinciple of the presumption of innocence losesits force.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Double jeopardy could be abolished by statelegislatures for all serious crimes whereby fresh,compelling evidence emerges The scrapping ofthe double jeopardy would be practicable if itwas permitted for serious crimes, like murderand rape, and only when fresh, compellingevidence of guilt emerges that calls into questionthe original acquittal. Such restrictions on anyscrapping of the rule would not tie up courts inre-trials, for they could only be called for certaincrimes in certain, restricted conditions. TheBritish Law Commission in a 2011 reviewconcluded that whilst the ancient rule of doublejeopardy is of 'fundamental importance', itshould be possible to \"quash acquittals in murdertrials where there is 'reliable and compelling newevidence of guilt'\". In practise, this wouldpreserve the traditional advantages of the law,whilst ensuring that those who are guilty, andcan be proved so, do not remain free.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Abolishment of the rule would restore faith in thejustice system When we see people stillunpunished for offences in society they've clearlycommitted, it damages our faith in the justicesystem. Our bargain with the state entails thestate's right to judge the individual because thestate protects the individual: if our attackersroam the streets because an arbitrary legal ruleexempts them from prosecution despite clearguilt, then that system has broken down. WhenJennifer McDermott witnessed her daughter'smurderer get convicted at a re-trial, shedescribed it as a 'victory for everyone who feelslet down by the justice system.'1 Victims deservesuch justice and it is an insult to them, and all ofus, to see their persecutors go free. As a HomeOffice spokesman stated when Englandoverturned the double jeopardy ban, 'it isimportant the public should have full confidencein the ability of the criminal justice system todeliver justice.'1 Justice is only applicable whenthe perpetrators remain within the arm of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Vast improvements in the technology ofcrime-solving have occurred in recent times toensure that defendants brought to trial are doneso appropriately. DNA testing, voice identificationtechnology, facial mapping techniques thatreveal faces beneath masks - all can now solvecases and show guilt in individuals whose escapefrom punishment occurred only because of a lackof satisfactory evidence. For example, In 1963when Hanratty stood trial for the A6 murder (agruesome offence where the abused victim wasshot in her car and left to die on the motorway),semen stains on the victim's underwear couldnot be investigated using the technology of theday1. He was convicted anyway on the facts, butif he hadn't been, and thanks to advances intechnology the sperm turns out later to be his(as it has), shouldn't we use that evidence toobtain justice for those concerned? Someevidence couldn't possibly have been used at thetime of trial, because the technology doesn'texist. Looked at now, it could demonstrate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The rule of law, by its very nature, serves thecause of justice. In doing so, it is oftenoverturned, but only in order to ensure thatjustice is delivered and offenders punished.Protection from the state therefore is a principlethat is relinquished by those who commit crimes;it is the protection of the state from such peoplethat thereafter becomes paramount. The doublejeopardy rule enshrines in law that the key factorin any trial is the quality of police work up to thatpoint, rather than the actual guilt of thedefendant. If abolished, vindictive policemen willnot affect the integrity of the justice system, thecase will still be judged by the quality of theevidence whilst the defendant will have recourseto protest their innocence. The potential forinnocent people to go through the stress offurther trials is a price worth paying to ensurethe guilty do not walk free.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Double jeopardy protects the acquitted from thethreat of constant harassment by thestate We’re not just protecting ‘evil people’. Thedouble jeopardy rule protects everyone from thedanger of constant harassment from the state.The opposition would rather see a guilty manoccasionally go free than see the resources ofthe state trained on individuals again and againand again, ‘until the state secured (the) popularresult’ 1. The double jeopardy rule providesclosure for both defendants and the prosecution;if the prosecution regret their case in the future,the fault lies not with the double jeopardy ruleitself, but their decision to go to trial based oninsufficient evidence. Citizens should not beforced to go through the stress of multiple trialsdue to the incompetence of the state. ‘If aperson accused of a serious crime is acquitted,they are entitled to have some certainty in theirfuture’2. That certainty can only be guaranteed ifthe prosecution is granted one attempt at aconviction, and one only. 1. The Independent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Double jeopardy ensures defendants are notbrought to trial on weak grounds Theimplications of this should be looked at carefully.This would grant police and the prosecution theright to prosecute an individual if the evidenceagainst them can be ‘reanalysed.’ Surely almostall cases could see such ‘improvement ininvestigatory techniques,’ allowing the state topursue individuals at will. Presumably this‘generation’ of techniques isn’t the last; whywon’t the same logic hold in asking for a thirdtrial? A fourth? A fifth?…Subsequently, if the‘double jeopardy’ rule is scrapped, police workwill be sloppier, because police detectives willknow that the insurance of a second trial exists.The ‘one-shot’ rule forces investigations andprosecutions to be of as high a quality aspossible. The abolishment of double jeopardywould be ‘merely a shortcut to prosecutorsseeking unlimited re-trials until they get theverdict they want’ 1. Courts cannot be permittedto be tied up in such cases, nor can prosecutors", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The rule of law means less if it is beingconstantly overturned Respect for the law willdiminish if criminal verdicts exist in a perpetualstate of uncertainty. We need to be protectedfrom the state in other ways, too - from thevindictive or obsessed policeman that will pursuea case because he 'knows' the accused, properlyacquitted in a court of law, to be guiltynevertheless. The nature of our police forcemeans that these instances are inevitable as itimparts a strong cognitive bias onto ourpolicemen to look for guilt - so unless wemandate a rule determining when a line ofinvestigation has to end, police will continue tofocus on their chosen 'perpetrator' until they getthe result that they have decided is correct. AsMatthew Kelly QC notes, removing doublejeopardy restrictions could 'lead to prosecutionsroutinely seeking a second bite of the cherry, if acase flopped first time for good reason.'1 Giventhat we are talking about a tiny proportion ofcases, it is better to have the principle of finality", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwsdjr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The people who are protected by this rule are theguilty who are wrongly declared innocent; themurderer whose voice couldn’t be identified onthe tape; the rapist who couldn’t be identifiedbecause DNA testing wasn’t sufficientlydeveloped at the time; the robber who couldn’tbe identified because facial mapping technologydidn’t exist to show their face beneath the mask.People may in unguarded moments confess tocrimes for which they have been found notguilty. Why would the state be in their favourand against the victims that so deserve justice -why should victims suffer because evidencedidn’t emerge until later? The test for guilt willstill be 'reasonable doubt' - defendents who aregenuinely innocent have no need to fear becausethey will still be found innocent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "While they undermine the court, they are aninevitable quid pro quo of part of diplomaticrelations with the US, the last remainingsuperpower. While impunity is not ideal, it isbetter than not signing and taking part ininternational criminal justice at all. Creating BIAsdoes not mean that the countries in question willabsolve their own citizens of wrongdoing insteadthey are likely to be tried at home and in somecases may still be handed over to the ICC.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The rationale for the BIAs is flawed The BilateralImmunity Agreements that these states haveentered in to undermine the court that thesestates have signed up to. BIAs invalidate theintention for the ICC that any person who issubject to the jurisdiction of the court (whichonly triggers when an individual is a citizen of astate that has ratified the Rome Statute, or inthe territory of a Rome Statute state) andcommits the horrific acts covered by the RomeStatute should be brought to trial by providing aget out clause for the powerful. A proliferation inBIAs could potentially render the ICC a court thatcan only try nationals of small states that do nothave the leverage to get others to agree to BIAs,already the ICC is accused of bias in puttingAfricans on trial and ignoring the rest of theworld, such agreements make this worse. [1]BIAs by one state, the United States, creates aprecedent for other states to use and as they doso the field that is available for internationalcriminal justice will become smaller and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The United States is not under any form ofresponsibility to other states to provide themwith military and other aid. Aid has always beenprovided with strings attached to those whosereceipt of aid is considered beneficial. It is withinthe purview of the US to decide who they giveaid to, based on their own priorities. This issimply part of the diplomatic process. If the USwishes to provide aid to countries that sign up totreaties then this is its right, it is perfectlynormal to provide a sweetener to encouragestates to sign up while punishing those thatdon’t. This then is a good reason why theseEuropean states should not pull out of their BIAs.To do so would mean losing the financial benefitsbeing provided. At the same time it would alsoshow that these states are not to be trustedwhen they sign up to international agreements.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The BIAs are at best bad faith compliance, andworst a blatant violation of the RomeStatute The European states have signed andratified the ICC Statute and should honour it, todo otherwise makes a mockery of the ICC whichthose states supported throughout its genesisand at least claim to continue to support. Article98(2) was only intended to be a factor wherethere are other agreements such as status offorces agreements (an agreement entered in tobetween two states, one having military forces inthe other voluntarily, such as British troops inGermany). It was not meant as a broad-brushway for states being able to grant selectiveimmunity to citizens of non-member states whohave committed genocide or crimes againsthumanity inside the jurisdiction of an ICCmember state. Signing an Article 98 Agreementis at best accepting foreign instigation of theabuse of process of a treaty. At worst it isaccepting an illegal attempt at circumventing thetreaty.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The text of the Rome Statute is clear. Article98(2) is unspecific as to the variety ofinternational agreements that it covers, unlikethe narrower Article 98(1) covering diplomaticimmunity. Article 98 Agreements are a tool thatis a legitimate method of the US ensuring thatUS citizens are not subject to trial andpunishment by a court which the United States isnot a part of. This would run against the principlethat a treaty only affects states that have signedand ratified it, rather than any others.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The BIAs were only granted following bullytactics from the United States The United Stateshas been accused of using bullying tactics in thepursuit of gaining Article 98 Agreements by,amongst others, Human Rights Watch [1] . Thishas included significant reductions innon-military, development aid, including tocountries such as South Africa, the Bahamas [2]and Peru [3] , as well as making threats toaccession to NATO in the case of Croatia. [4] Bysigning up to Article 98 Agreements, Europeannations help contribute to a climate wheresmaller nations can also be strong-armed in toharming the International Criminal Court bysigning them, even if they were not subject toblackmailed in to it themselves. [1] Roth,Kenneth, “Letter to the US Secretary of StateColin Powell on Bully Tactics against theInternational Criminal Court”, Human RightsWatch, 2003 [2] Roth, Letter to Colin Powell,2003 [3] Keppler, Elise, “The United States andthe International Criminal Court: The Bush", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Theoretical impunity is still impunity. Theconcept that any entity should be given specialtreatment by the law runs contrary to principlesof the rule of law. If such immunity is not goingto be needed then there is very little reason forthe agreements in the first place and thereshould be little objection to getting rid of them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The Rome Statute itself does not bind any stateto be put on trial – it binds individuals.Individuals violating the criminal law of a state(the Rome Statute also integrating theinternational criminal law in to the nationalcriminal law) have always been subject to trialand punishment by that state, barring cases ofdiplomatic immunity or other separate cases.This is nothing new – the Rome Statute respectsthe sovereignty of a nation within its territory. Ifanything, it is the use of coercive tactics by astate to give its citizens immunity from theordinary law that is the violation of nationalsovereignty. Even without the BIAs it would onlybe possible to prosecute Americans if theycommit an international crime in the jurisdictionof another state. When this occurs due to theprinciple of territoriality it has traditionally beenthe case that the state upon whose territory theact was committed is able to try those whocommitted the act. It is not a violation ofsovereignty to allow the ICC rather than the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Withdrawal from Article 98 agreements wouldhamper relations with the US Many of the statesin Europe that have signed up to BIA’s areapplicant to NATO which leaves them in adifficult position when it comes to withdrawingfrom such a treaty. While NATO members areexempt from the punitive provisions aimed atstates who do not have Article 98 agreements, inorder to join NATO the state will need thesupport of the United States. Such support willbe less forthcoming if that country hasabandoned an agreement with the United Statessuch as a BIA. Linking issues is not unusual ininternational relations whether it is linkingmultiple issues in a single larger negotiation orblocking progress in joining an organisation as aresult of a single issue. Perhaps the bestexample of this occurring is Turkey and the EUwhere Turkey’s membership has been held up byits dispute with Cyprus over the northern half ofthe island. [1] Even if the United States were toallow an application to NATO to proceed despite", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Article 98 Agreements are unlikely to beneeded The prospect of an Article 98 Agreementactually being relied on is slim. It would requirethe International Criminal Court to prosecute anAmerican for a crime against humanity, orgenocide, that takes place in ICC member state.There is next to no chance of the UN SecurityCouncil referring a case against America to theICC as the US has a veto as a permanentmember. The ICC already makes only a highlylimited number of prosecutions per year, inobvious cases, and so far all of these have beenfocused on the developing world. While Article 98agreements may be unsavoury, the chance ofthem actually being used to grant someoneimpunity is low.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Article 98 Agreements are a crucial tool inmaintaining American national sovereignty As akey part of its national sovereignty, the USshould not be required to have its citizenssubject to the ICC if it does not ratify the treatyitself of its own choice. It is an acceptedprinciple, as enshrined in Article 34 of the ViennaConvention on the Law of Treaties, [1] that atreaty only binds the states that have consentedto it. Binding citizens of states who are notparties, who may be acting under the orders of astate arm, such as a military, when in theterritory of state parties, violates that state’ssovereignty. There have been attempts to put USsoldiers on trial. Italy for example put MarioLozano on trial for the killing of an Italian agentin Iraq, the US maintained he was doing his jobat a checkpoint and provided warnings while theItalians considered it murder. In this case theUnited States was able to refuse to hand thesoldier over but BIA’s ensure that such actionswill not be a concern whenever troops are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilhwpoa9apus-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The US is not focusing on encouraging existingNATO members to withdraw from the ICC.Existing NATO members are not subject to theaid-cutting provisions of US law (before and afterthe Presidential waiver was created), neither aremajor non-NATO allies – indeed, all EU memberstates in NATO are ICC members, with theexception of Romania none have signed anArticle 98 agreement. Much of the USantagonism to the ICC came during the Bushadministration, when the ICC was an unprovenorganization in its infancy. Since then, US Policytowards the ICC has softened, as can beevidenced by the US voting in favour of referringthe situation in Libya to the ICC (compared toabstaining in the referral of Darfur), so it wouldbe unlikely to do much harm to bilateral relationsif other states were to expand their co-operation.No EU member state other than Romania hasentered in to an Article 98 Agreement with theUS. [1] [1] Barbour, The International CriminalCourt, 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The police should not be reacting in such a waythat they exacerbate those problems. Byroutinely arming its police officers, the stateeffectively legitimizes the weapon as a symbol ofauthority. Whether or not this is pragmatic, it isan implied affirmation of the criminalsub-culture, which will accordingly bestrengthened. The argument about a rapidincrease in gun crime in the UK depends upon avery limited and selective use of crime data.Recorded gun crime did indeed rise by close to105% between 1998 (when handguns werebanned in the UK after the Dunblane tragedy)and 2003, but a large proportion of that increaseis attributable to air weapon misuse andnon-firing replica weapons. [1] Since then theincrease has largely stabilised and even fallen. Atemporary trend, now brought under control, isnot necessarily a strong argument for changing,for ever, the nature and character of Britishpolicing. By this policy—especially in theabsence of a Constitutional right for citizens to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The police should be equipped to react tocontemporary social problems The old-fashionednotions of friendly neighborhood unarmedpolicing reflect the aspirations of a different age.As armed violence has increased sharply in partsof the developed world, the police need toredefine their role so that it is a moreappropriate response to contemporary problems.In the UK, for example, gun crime almostdoubled in the decade to 2008, [1] while the risein London gun crime has tripled, the police needto be able to respond to this. [2] There is alsodanger in being a state with unarmed policewhen others states have armed police forces.The unarmed nation may be seen as a “softtouch” compared to other regional nations. Thiscan encourage an importation of criminality. [1]Whitehead, Tom, 'Gun crime doubles in adecade', The Telegraph 27 October 2009, [2]Bamber, David, ‘Gun crime trebles as weaponsand drugs flood British cities’, The Telegraph, 24February 2002, , accessed 20 September 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "When a police officer carries a weapon, she facesthe risk of having that weapon turned on her bya criminal. It is also more obvious to a criminalthat they need to shoot first against an armedofficer whereas against an unarmed one theymay be more open to listening and less likely totry and pre-empt being shot. So arming thepolice can sometimes make the police morevulnerable, rather than more protected. If, asthe opposing argument suggests, legally ownedguns are part of the risk profile facing the police,measures ought to be taken to reduce the riskand restrict levels of gun ownership. The policehave had a National (legal) Firearms Databasesince 2006 allowing them to assess whethersomeone they will be dealing with is a gun owneror whether the premises they are attendingcontains licensed firearms. Criminal misuse ofillegal firearms is a different matter although, ashas been argued, protection and safety are notthe same as ‘armed’ and more armed police willprobably mean more shootings and, equally", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Arming the police is a necessary step Policeofficers are routinely armed already in a varietyof situations. This is a small step, as policeofficers are routinely armed already in a varietyof situations, e.g. at airports and when providingsecurity for political leaders or institutions. Asmentioned earlier armed police have even beenused before on routine patrols in areas wherethere has been gun crime. [1] Alreadyrapid-response units of armed officers areavailable to deal with armed criminals, but theseneed to be specially summoned and authorised.Often, they arrive too late to do any good. Thenext obvious step would be to have many morepolice armed so as to make this response muchfaster. [1] BBC News, ‘Armed police patrolswithdrawn’, 7 February 2003, accessed 20September 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "An armed police force will deter criminalbehaviour Most countries in Europe and NorthAmerica have armed police forces, in part todeter criminal acts, but also to protect officersworking in an armed or dangerous environment’. Armed criminals operate in at least some areasof virtually every jurisdiction. Given this reality, afailure to routinely arm the police gives armedcriminals a strong advantage in terms of theirability to threaten and commit violence, withoutany corresponding risk to themselves. [1] InBristol in England where police are not routinelyarmed the deployment of armed police ininner-city areas in 2003 defused gang tensionsand reduced crime enough to allow the armedpolice to be withdrawn again. [2] Only puttingarmed police in for brief periods will only have ashort term impact, having permanently armedpolice is the only way to keep this deterrence ineffect. A world-wide ‘meta-study’ of armed policepatrols found some evidence that in highviolence areas, targeted armed police patrols", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Arming the police can lead to a spiral of violence.In places where the police are not routinelyarmed, a portion of criminals will not armthemselves (since, for example, armed robberyoften carries a higher sentence than robbery).Once the police are armed, criminals who do notmatch their capability operate under a strongdisadvantage. Therefore, when the policebecome routinely armed, the criminal world fullyarms itself in response. [1] The mere fact ofincreased weapons possession (by both policeand criminals) will in itself result in higher use,since in circumstances where arms may not becurrently used (e.g. a police chase), either sidecarrying weapons will mean that they considershooting an option which they did not formerlypossess. A study comparing police disputeresolution in Norway and Sweden (the formerunarmed, the latter armed) [2] tended toconfirm that where police have guns, they aremuch more likely to use them – the Swedishpolice shot significantly more suspects. Thus gun", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The large majority of policewomen and men gothrough their whole career without handlingfirearms. The numbers in the firearms authorisedofficers are low, only 6780 in 2007-8 out of morethan 100,000 police, [1] and even these havebeen criticised by SAS officers who stated “Whenthe tension starts to rise and the adrenaline isflowing, the ‘red mist’ seems to descend onarmed police officers who become verytrigger-happy. This has been shown time andagain in training exercises.” [2] Any expansion ofthe numbers of police carrying firearms couldresult in many more unsuitable police carryingguns. [1] Coaker, Vernon, ‘Statistics on policeuse of firearms in England and Wales 2007-08’,Home Office, 2 March 2009, , accessed 20September 2011 [2] Winnett, Robert, ‘SAStrainers denounce ‘gung ho’ armed police’, TheSunday Times’, 18 September 2005, , accessed20 September 2011 (original article is no offlinebut the quote was not picked up by othernewspapers)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Arming police would negatively impact therelationship between the police and thecommunity – this is especially so in relation tosome communities which feel that they bear thebrunt of heavy, enforcement-led policing (forexample young men in urban areas, ethnicminority groups). [1] Arming the police mightdelegitimise their role as community standardbearers. Many law-abiding citizens who have noconnection to the criminal underworld arehorrified by armed police, whom they regard asalien to their cultural frame of reference. Gunspotentially place a distance between the peopleand the police and impact the relationship in anegative way. It impacts not only those whowould perform potentially criminal activity, buteven day to day police interaction such asbreathalysing and spot checks on vehicles. Thepolice would no longer be viewed as ‘upholdingthe peace’ but rather enforcing throughthreat. Even worse than the distancing effect,lethal weaponry is also a potent symbol of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Policing is a dangerous job. Police officers shouldbe allowed to arm themselves There is a globalincrease in gun ownership, even in countrieswhich did not traditionally think of themselves ashaving a large criminal gun culture. Presently 1.8million legally held guns are accounted for in theUK. [1] This increases the risks to frontline policeofficers of being the victims of gun crime. Policeofficers should have a right to protectthemselves. Fewer officers may die on duty ifthey were better able to protect themselves.Arming the police is essentially a matter ofself-defence rather than being actively involvedin regular firearms incidents. This is shown bythe fact that most routinely armed police neverfire their weapon on active duty in their wholecareer. [2] If being a police officer is a safer job,then there will be a larger applicant pool tochoose from, and thus better, more qualifiedpolice forces. [1] Legal Community AgainstViolence, ‘Large Capacity AmmunitionMagazines’, 2011, , accessed 20 September", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Arming the police makes communities feelsafer Armed police reassure law-abiding citizensat a time when gun-related crime is increasing inmost European countries and parts of NorthAmerica. In the UK 28 gun crimes are committedevery day. [1] Much public opinion holds thatsomething must be done to tackle this. [2] Thesight of armed police officers patrolling thestreets will not only deter gangs from harassingresidents, but will instil in communities aconfidence that they are being properlyprotected. Gangs are not interested in fightingthe police; they are more concerned aboutattacks from other gangs in their area who arewilling to break the law and attack themunprovoked. People feel safer when they seearmed police, especially if they perceive them asa response to a heightened risk. Thus, forexample, police officers at British airportsroutinely carry sub-machine guns, althoughthere is no evidential pattern to suggest that thishigh-visibility weaponry offers any situational", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Violence is already escalating and we need arobust response. Many communities arevulnerable to postcode gangs comprised ofyoung people aged 14 and upwards who arearmed and dangerous and making their areasunsafe to live in. Only a robust and proactiveresponse from the police such as patrolling suchterritories with firearms so as to protectthemselves and innocent civilians will addressthis problem.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The police themselves are calling for moreroutine arming in the United Kingdom, throughboth the unions that represent rank and filepolicemen, and the bodies which speak for thesenior officers. If we want them to uphold lawand order, we should trust the police'sjudgement about the tools they need to carry outtheir task. To the contrary, recruitment will alsosuffer if police officers are seen as toovulnerable, as easy targets for criminals becausethey have no proper means to defendthemselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-con02a", "title": "", "text": "When the police are armed, mistakes will lead toinnocent people getting shot Even with thespecial selection measures and intensive traininggiven to firearms officers, mistakes sometimesoccur, and innocent people are shot. This canhappen either by mistake because the armedofficers are acting on inaccurate information, orbecause they are bystanders caught in thecross-fire of a shoot-out. Arming all policeofficers would mean ditching the currentstringent selection methods for who is armed,and would inevitably result in less training beingprovided, so mistakes would become much morecommon and more people would be wounded orkilled. Such as the Amadou Diallo shooting inNew York in 1999, or the shooting of JeanCharles De Menezes at Stockwell undergroundstation in 2005. [1] Squires and Kennison, intheir 2010 book, detail a number of case studiesof mistaken police shootings, further details canbe found on the IPCC Inquiry reports website.[2] [1] The New York Times, ‘Amadou Diallo’, ,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Arming the police does not deal with the causesunderlying violence The real issues that causecrime usually lie in societal issues and a lack of aproper rehabilitation effort in the justice system.The root problems are therefore not being solvedby arming the police. This policy only masks theproblems societies face. Governments need tomake more long-term, sustainable investments.They should be attempting to change the culturethat creates violence, providing jobs for thosewho are in poverty making sure that everyonefeels they have a stake in society, rather thanrely on a “quick fix” plan that tackles none of thereal issues.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Arming the police will cause an escalation incriminal violence The British Crime Surveymaintains that gun crime is very rare throughoutthe UK. The reason communities are so afraid isthat the over-zealous media continually hype upindividual incidences of gun crime in order toattract more readers. The statistics show thatknife and gun crime are overrepresented in thenews, with 25% of newspapers stories onaverage being dedicated to crime. [1] Because ofthis exaggerated coverage, there is a moralpanic in which people think that if they areattacked it will be by a knife-wielding maniac.This is simply not true. There is more chancethat you will be in a car accident than beattacked on the street. Introducing guns ontothe streets, even in a legal and well-intentionedmanner is a trigger for increasing the number ofguns that gangs and organised crime groupsbring onto the street. [1] Media AwarenessNetwork, ‘TV Crime Facts – TeachingBackgrounder’ , accessed 20 September 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Recruitment will be adversely affected if thepolice are armed The police are split on thisissue at all levels, so it would be wrong to listenonly to the loudest voices. The police should alsobe held firmly under civilian control. Policy areassuch as the carrying of firearms orstop-and-search procedure should be subject topolitical decisions and accountability.Recruitment may well be adversely affected ifthe police are armed; many current officersopposed to this measure may leave, and otherslike them will not apply to join the force in thefuture. Do we want a police force largelycomposed of people who want to carry a gunevery day? Japan’s police force are trained incombat without weapons and they some of thelowest crime rates in the world. The country hasa steadily decreasing crime rate, with this yearalone, overall crime has decreased by 1.4%.[1] [1] Eguchi, Arichika, and Kanayama,Taisuke, ‘Japan’s Challenge on the Increase inCrime in the New Century’, Police Policy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Arming police is not mutually exclusive withother policies that could deal with the wholespectrum of crime-related issues. This debate isnot suggesting that other issues related to crimewill not be dealt with. Rather that in order tofacilitate a reduction in crime the criminal justicesystem will be served by police who are armed.It is untrue to suggest that simply because thepolice are armed, other integral parts of crimereduction will be ignored.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwap-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Armed police already exist in a number ofsituations and a rise in mistaken shootings thatthe opposition fear is not evident in these areas.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Treatment programs can address the problemsof those who are addicted, and many casinosoffer “Self-Exclusion Programs”, whereindividuals can effectively “ban” themselves fromcasinos. This could be the initiative of either thegambler or their family or friends.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Gambling leads to the disintegration offamilies Gambling can have a devastating effecton families. The most obvious effect is financialas one partner uses all their money on gamblingthe other needs to support the whole family orthe gambler may even gamble away jointsavings. Psychologically there is a relationshipbetween gambling and various psychiatric andalcohol disorders. This is also an impact onfriends, who do not want to be tied intosupporting gambling financially or even justemotionally. Lesieur and Custer estimated thatfor each problem gambler there were 10-15other people adversely impacted by the gamblingof that person.1 As with drugs, it is harmful tothe individual concerned and their family andfriends, and it is better to ban gambling to stoppeople getting started in the first place. 1 Shaw,Martha C. et al., ‘The Effect of PathologicalGambling on Families, Marriages , and Children’,CNS Spectrums, Vol. 12, No. 8, 2007,pp.615-622.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "Gambling is associated with other forms ofaddiction and harmful behaviour Gamblingmakes people concentrate of winning money.Religious leaders of all denominations seegambling as eroding family values1 because itimplies that material goods should be valuedabove other things like friendships and families.It also sends out the message that successshould not necessarily be the result of merit andeffort. As a philosophy, ‘gambling culture’ isincredibly dangerous. Those in society who mostneed to self-improve, never do. Instead, they tietheir hopes and dreams to the lottery. There maybe the possibility of winning a big prize, but theoverwhelming likelihood is that a gambler willlose money. Instead, governments should bepromoting values like thrift, hard work andself-reliance rather than encouraging or evenallowing gambling to promote its own negativevalues. 1 Holahan, Catherine, ‘Online GamblingStill in the Cards’, Bloomberg Businessweek, 3October 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Internet gambling is in fact less dangerous thannormal gambling. It is free from the pressures togamble that casinos can create through free foodand entertainment, glitzy surroundings and peerpressure. And as children can’t get credit cards,they should not be able to gamble onlineanyway. Stolen credit cards can be used tocommit fraud in any number of ways - onlinegambling is not a specific problem here. It is alsoin the interest of internet gambling sites to run atrustworthy, responsible business. Whateverthey are looking for online, internet users choosetrusted brands that have been around for awhile. If a gambling site acts badly, for exampleby changing its odds unfairly, word will soon getaround and no one will want to use it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Gambling affects poor peopledisproportionately Poor people are more likely togamble, in the hope of getting rich. In 1999, theNational Gambling Impact Commission in theUnited States found that 80 percent of gamblingrevenue came from lower-income households1.It is immoral for the state or charities to raisemoney by exploiting people’s stupidity andgreed. Taxing gambling is a regressive tax (thismeans that the poor pay a greater proportion oftheir income in tax than the rich), and regressivetaxation is deeply unfair. Gambling attractspeople with little money who are desperate for awindfall. These are the people who can leastafford to lose money. 1 Mark Lange, TheGambling Scan on America’s Poor, Allnet.com,May 3 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Gambling is addictive and psychologicallyharmful Gambling can become a psychologicallyaddictive behavior in some people. According tothe Emotional Neuroscience Centre inMassachusetts, “Monetary reward in agambling-like experiment produces brainactivation very similar to that observed in acocaine addict receiving an infusion of cocaine.”1Because of this addictive nature, many peopleend up gambling to try to recover money theyhave already lost. This is known as ‘chasinglosses’. It results in people staking more andmore money, most of which they will lose, andsinking deeper and deeper into debt. People startto gamble without thinking that they will becomeaddicted. Once that happens, it is often too late.A gambling addiction, in addition to the longterm effects it has, can result in financial ruin ina few short hours. 1 Johannes Hedwig,Hypersensitivity to Reward in Problem Gamblers,Biological Psychiatry, April 15 2010. .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Unlike drugs, gambling is not physically ormetabolically addictive. Most gamblers are notaddicts, simply ordinary people who enjoy theexcitement of a bet on a sporting event or cardgame. Only a small percentage of gamblers havean addiction. Many more get enjoyment fromgambling without problems. The risks ofgambling addiction are well known. People canmake a conscious choice to start gambling, andare aware of the risks of addiction.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Gambling effects every person in the same way,everyone have the free will to decide to gambleand each may win or lose despite of their wealthor position in society, thus gambling cannotaffect poor people to a greater extent. Gamblingis only regressive because more poor peoplechoose to gamble. Gambling does also havegood effects on all member of society- Gamblingis often used to raise money for the state orgood causes. Many governments tax gambling.Some even run their own lotteries. Charities useprize draws to raise funds. Because people willgamble anyway, the best that governments cando is to pass rules to make it safe and try to getsome social good out of it. If the governmentuses the revenue to help people onlower-incomes, it is not necessarily true thattaxes on gambling are regressive and target thepoor.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "There is no evidence that gambling makespeople not care about others. People do notgamble because they expect to win lots ofmoney. Most gamble as a form of entertainment.Also, there are many areas of life where successis not the result of merit or hard work. Someoneborn to well-off parents may get manyadvantages in life without merit or hard work.There are therefore no grounds for thinking thatgambling promotes these undesirable values.The desire for wealth one that stems fromsociety as a whole, not casinos.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "People committing crimes should be prosecuted.The existence of criminals does not make nearbybusinesses (including casinos) immoral. It isperverse to punish people who just want togamble (and not take drugs or use prostitutes)by taking away their chance to do so.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Online gambling has increased the incidence ofgambling addiction Someone can becomeaddicted very easily – they don’t even need toleave their home, and online gambling sites areavailable at all hours. This also means that theyare gambling in private. They may therefore beless reluctant to wager very large sums theycannot afford. In the United States in 1999 theNational Gambling Impact Study stated \"thehigh-speed instant gratification of Internetgames and the high level of privacy they offermay exacerbate problem and pathologicalgambling\",1 and it is estimated that 75% ofinternet gamblers are problem gamblers,compared with 20% of those who visitcasinos. It is very hard to know the identity ofan online gambler – there have been severalcases of people (including children) using stolencredit cards to gamble online. Online gamblingsites can also get around government regulationsthat limit the dangers of betting. Because theycan be legally sited anywhere in the world, they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Casinos are often used to mask criminalactivity Casinos are often associated with crime,particularly organized crime. When it comes tolocal crimes a study has found that onlylarceny(theft) liquor violations increasedsignificantly with a small increase inprostitution.1 But comparing statistics probablydoes not show the real harm; drug dealers andprostitutes operate near casinos – they knowthat there are a large number of potential clientsin the area. Moreover when a gambler is in debtand wishes to continue gambling due to itsaddictive nature, he or she often turns to loansharks as no bank would lend to them. Casinoscan therefore be devastating to neighborhoods.It would of course be wrong to assume allgamblers are criminals, although there is anincreased possibility that gamblers in debt couldturn to criminality through illegal borrowing.These loan sharks themselves usually have linksto organized crime, in some cases are actuallyrun by organized crime,2 and use brutal methods", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The economic benefits of casinos areexaggerated.1 They generally only createlow-paid jobs for local people – the casinocompanies usually bring in managers fromelsewhere. The problems associated with casinos(e.g. crime, gambling addiction) outweigh theeconomic benefits. In any case, an immoralindustry is not justified by the fact that it createsemployment. 1 John Warren Kind, \"TheBusiness-Economic Impacts of Licensed CasinoGambling in West Virginia: Short-Term Gain butLong-Term Pain\", PBS, 1994", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Gambling is a harmful activity and could haveharmful effects on not only to individuals but alsoon their friends and family. Gamblers may winmoney from time to time, but in the long run,the house always wins. Why should governmentsallow an activity that helps their citizens lose themoney they have worked so hard to earn? Surelyit is the responsibility of the government toprotect its citizens from harming themselves,just as harmful substances are illegal, gamblingshould also be illegal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "It is impossible to effectively bangambling When gambling has been banned,people have just found a way round the ban.They use internet sites based in other countries.A good example being the Ukraine, who in May2009 made gambling illegal, this includedinternet gambling. By July 2009, over 500 illegalgambling operations were established, where6,000 slot machines were confiscated and 216criminal charges were made in connection toillegal gambling.1 This illustrates how banninggambling can creates a thriving undergroundmarket. It is better to legalize and regulateonline gambling than to drive gamblers topoorly-regulated foreign operators. Regulationcan reduce the problems identified by theproposition. For example, online gamblers can berequired to give personal details whenregistering (e.g. occupation, income). If thisinformation suggests he or she is spending morethan they can afford, the company can blocktheir credit card. 1 Kyiv Post, ‘Governmental", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Many activities directly comparable to gamblingare already legal and regulated What is thedifference between gambling and playing thestock market? In each case people are puttingmoney at risk in the hope of a particularoutcome. Gambling on horse-racing or gamesinvolves knowledge and expertise that canimprove your chances of success. In the sameway, trading in bonds, shares, currency orderivatives is a bet that your understanding ofthe economy is better than that of otherinvestors. Why should one kind of onlinerisk-taking be legal and the other not?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Casinos create positive economic effects in thecommunities that host them Casinos can reviveentire areas and regions. They create jobs andcause money to be spent on transportinfrastructure. The jobs are not just in the casinoitself. More jobs are created in hotels and otherparts of the tourism industry. In an article fornwjob.com Sandra Miedema, ‘Snoqualmies’employment coordinator is quoted saying that atany one time there are an average of 20vacancies, from chefs to table dealers.1 In theUnited States commercial casinos employedmore than 350,000 people in 2003.2 Casinoshave helped to regenerate many places thatpreviously had considerable poverty and socialproblems, e.g. Atlantic City, New Jersey5. 1Libraryindex.com, ‘Casinos: The Effects ofCasinos – Employment’ 2 Associated Press,Atlantic City to be transformed by 2012,November 20 2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Gambling is simply a leisure pursuit People havefree will and should be allowed to spend theirmoney on which ever leisure pursuits theychoose. Gamblers know that, overall, they arelikely to lose money. They gamble because it is aleisure pursuit that they enjoy. There is nothingirrational about this. Some people get anenjoyable thrill from the remote possibility thatthey might win a huge prize – even if he or sheloses, they enjoy the experience. Some forms ofgambling are highly sociable. For example, manypeople are involved in ‘social gambling’ and go tobingo halls (or equivalent) to spend time withfriends, and some types of gambling areinterlinked with other leisure pursuits such ashorse racing.* Society accepts people spendingmoney on other leisure pursuits with no materialbenefits (e.g. cinema tickets, watching sport) –gambling should not be any different. It ispatronizing to suggest that people should not beable to choose how they spend their money ortheir leisure time. 1 The General Education", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ucgllghwbg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Gambling is not impossible to ban, although itwill not be easy such examples of states thathave banned it show that it is possible andalthough illegal activity may arise from the banthis can also be stopped by though rules. Ifgovernment did not ban activities where somemay find a way around it, nothing would bebanned at all. Making an activity more difficultto pursue will still reduce the number of thosewho take it up. It is not impossible to puteffective deterrent steps in place, such as therecent US ban on American banks processingcredit card payments to internet gambling sites.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This would be an argument in favour ofpreventing countries from developing anydeterrent at any time, because it would makethem easier to invade. It presumes, firstly, thatit would be a good thing for the United States tobe able to invade countries that do things it doesnot like at will, and secondly that it assumes thatdeterrence will not deter the initial invasion inthe first place. The main reason why greatpowers involve themselves in wars, is becausemany smaller countries are not able to fight offlarger ones using their own resources and so thegreat power expects an easy victory assuming itcan avoid intervention by other great powers.Jammu and Kashmir could not stand up to theIndian army in 1947 and Kuwait could not standup to Iraq; Georgian was unable to mount armedresistance against a Russian incursion andneither was Chechnya. Nuclear Weapons are agreat equalizer, and if one consequence of Irandeveloping Nuclear weapons is that all of herneighbours do so as well, then war will become", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The possession of nuclear weapons by somestates drives others to militarize, creating armsraces. er, the government possesses nuclearweapons it can threaten to use them, andthereby deter a counter-invasion or prevent theInternational community from being able tointervene to depose it. This can be seen in therelative coddling Pakistan has received both fromits political and territorial opponent India, andfrom the United States since its development ofNuclear Weapons. [3] Actions that previouslywould have led to sanctions or worse, such as aidto the Taliban, assistance to the NuclearPrograms of Rogue States – most famouslythrough the A.Q. Kahn network that suppliedLibya, Iran and North Korea, [4] and complicityin terrorist attacks in India are brushed off withempty words [5] and meaninglesssemi-sanctions, India itself is deterred frommaking any response. [6] Indeed, US policy inrecent years has been to try to buy off Pakistanrather than to coerce it. [1] Morgenthau, Hans", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "[Iran specific] Others, particularly Israel, wouldact if the United States did not A failure of theUnited States to act would motivate Israel to doso. [1] Israel is under much more pressure to actas it would be the most affected by Iran goingnuclear. The result would be catastrophic, asIran would be able to portray itself as a victim ofIsraeli aggression, leading to a massiveoutpouring of pro-Iranian and anti-Americansentiment in the middle east and central asia. Itcould easily spark a regional war across themiddle east as Iranian proxies strike backagainst Israel and U.S. forces around the region.[2] The US would get all the harms of directintervention with none of the benefits, andefforts to fight Hezbollah and Hamas, both withinPalestine and elsewhere, would be underminedby their newfound sympathy in the region andthe need of Arab governments to pander toit. [1] Ravid, Barak, ‘Report: U.S. preparing foran Israeli strike on Iran’, Haaretz.com, 14January 2012, [2] Benhorin, Yitzhak, ‘Attack on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Preventing nuclear weapons from falling into thehands of terrorists is a serious concern, butterrorists tend to be stronger in weak states thanstrong ones. That is one reason why Pakistan hasfigured so prominently in weapons sales in thepast. Invading a country like Iran would bemore likely to destabilize things than stabilizethem. This argument is underlined by analysis ofthe second Iraq war. Al Qaeda and Shi’ainsurgent groups became a far stronger presencein Iraq following the coalition invasion thanbefore the arrival of American and British troops.[1] As a consequence, it is unclear if invadingthese countries is a better way of preventingtransfers of nuclear technology than sanctionsand other methods of coercing theirgovernments. [1] Mazzetti, Mark, ‘Spy AgenciesSay Iraq War Worsens Terroism Threat’, TheNew York Times, 24 September 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "[Iran specific] Iran has threatened to destroyIsrael Iran has explicitly threatened to destroyIsrael, President Ahmadinejad described Israel asa \"disgraceful blot\" that should be \"wiped off theface of the earth\". [1] Such a prospect would bedisastrous, not just in its initial consequences,but for the entire region. Even an unsuccessfulattack on Israel would provoke a counter strike.The US would take much of the blame for thecasualties of such a strike even if it counselledIsrael against it. The United States must preventIran from ever being able to put such threatsinto action which may mean having to engage inmilitary action to prevent Iran gaining thecapability. [1] MacAskill, Ewen, and McGreal,Chris, ‘Israel should be wiped off map, saysIran’s president’, The Guardian, 27 October2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The United States has an obligation to protectinternational stability due to its unique militarystrength. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty isone of the lynchpins on which the currentWestern-led international political and diplomaticorder is dependent.1,2 Just as any normal legalsystem requires laws that are predictable andenforceable, so too does the internationalsystem. The Non-Proliferation Treaty providesthis level of consistency and control over states’nuclear assets. In particular, one of those keyprinciples is the assumption that once a countryenters a treaty it will abide by its terms. If acountry can leave a treaty at will, it means thatno policy can be made with any degree ofpredictability. States are not able to formulateplans for future policies and developmentstrategies if analysts and politicians areprevented from making reliable predictions aboutneighbouring state’s behaviour, economicpolicies and territorial ambitions. This isparticularly important with treaties relating to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The reality is that it makes far more sense forthe United States to legitimatise actions it mighttake to prevent a state like Iran from developingnuclear by making reference to the uses thatmight find for a nuclear device, rather than thefact that they are have breached the terms ofhighly tenuous body of law. While it may be truethat the development of nuclear weapons isbanned by international treaty, and that thistreaty is recognised as a valid international legalinstrument, it is far from clear whether it is inthe United State’s interests to embrace eitherthis specific version of International Law, orwhether it should be the enforcer even if it does.For one thing, the current international legalsystem bans Iran from developing Nuclearweapons, but also bans Brazil from developingthem. Consistency would obligate the US toactively prevent Brazil from developing a nucleardeterrent, by using threats and sanctions similarto those that have deployed against Iran.However,– common sense would argue that this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Ahmadinejad’s words were mistranslated, [1]and Iran’s position has been clarified by SupremeLeader Ali Khamenei, who has repeatedKhomeini’s exhortation that Islam prohibits theuse of nuclear weapons. [2] On the Presidentialside, Esfandiar Mashaei, formerly Vice Presidentin Ahmadinejad’s first term and now PresidentialChief of staff, suggested in 2008 that Iran is afriend of all peoples including Israelis.[3] Furthermore, Iran needs Israel to provide abogeyman they can use to divide theiranti-Iranian governments from their anti-Israelipeople. Anti-Israel sentiment has allowed Iran topush anti-Persian sentiment in the Arab world tothe backburner, something that would disappearalong with Israel if Iran were to act on theseideas. [1] Bronner, Ethan, ‘Just How Far DidThey Go, Those Words Against Israel?’, The NewYork Times, 11 June 2006, [2] BBC News, ‘Iranleader Khamenei brands US ‘nuclear criminal’, 17April 2010, [3] Cohen, Dudi, ‘Iranian VP: Weare friends of the nation in Israel’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "Forcing Israel to act would remove the UnitedStates from direct responsibility for theconsequences, and allow the US to strategically“condemn” Israel’s actions. Iran and Israelalready have a terrible relationship, so a lot ofthe harms here are already sunk costs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "This is in fact a good thing. Nuclear weapons area great equalizer between large and smallcountries. [1] One of the great problems ofhistory for tiny nations like Georgia or the Balticstates is that they have consistently been at themercy of Russia. Nuclear weapons will allowthem to fight the Russians on an equal level, andtherefore deter the Russians from intervening asactively as they have in the past. In the case ofIran and its neighbours, Iran’s position wouldactually be weakened if everyone in the regionacquired nuclear weapons as the United ArabEmirates or Bahrain cannot compete with Iranconventionally, but could compete in a nucleararms race. Wider uptake of nuclear arms wouldreduce Iran’s power and influence. Moreoverthere is little evidence that this domino effect willhappen. North Korea detonated its first nuclearweapon in 2006 but there has been no responsefrom other countries in the region even thoughSouth Korea and Japan could have rapidly gonefor nuclear breakout. [2] [1] Buchanan, Patrick", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear weapons can fall into the wronghands. Even if states do not use nuclearweapons themselves, or attempt to threatentheir neighbours, they can sell their technologyto other, less savoury states andindividuals. This was a particular problem withPakistan. The former head of the Pakistaninuclear program, AQ Khan, sold technology ondetonation mechanisms and Uranium enrichmentto North Korea and Iran. [1] Iran is also likely tobe willing to pass on its own nuclear informationto other states, particularly Assad’s Syria.[2] Such weapons could also find their way intothe hands of terrorists. Iran has close links toHezbollah and Hamas which it fundssubstantially, and a strong desire to hurt Israel.[3] North Korea has close links to a number ofnasty groups ranging from drug cartels toIslamist terrorists. [1] Kerr, Paul K., and Nikitin,Mary Beth, ‘Pakistan’s Nuclear Weapons:Proliferation and Security Issues’, CongressionalResearch Service, 30 November 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The development of nuclear weapons creates aself-perpetuating cycle of proliferation amongother states. The development of nuclearweapons encourages other countries to developthem as well. Rationally governed states withouta nuclear deterrent are unlikely to allowthemselves to be placed in a position where anuclear armed neighbour can mount attacksagainst them with impunity. They therefore feelthat they too need nuclear weapons in order toprevent the new nuclear power from takingadvantage of their new capability. For instance,the presence of an Iranian weapon wouldimmediately threaten the Gulf States. Alreadyunable to compete with Iran on a conventionallevel due to the vast disparity in size andpopulation, states like the UAE would have everyreason and motive to develop nuclear weaponsas a deterrent. [1] A Saudi Prince actually floatedthe idea in 2011 that if Iran developed NuclearWeapons, Saudi Arabia might follow. [2] Asmore countries develop Nuclear weapons, the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Not all states are inherently rational, either byour standards or generally. North Korea is axenophobic state based on the belief that theyare racially and ideologically superior to all otherstates. [1] A government that does not considerits enemies fully human in its official propagandais unlikely to blanch at the prospect of nukingthem, even at their own expense. Evenseemingly rational states make tactical mistakes,like Saddam Hussein did when he invadedKuwait. Nuclear Weapons raise the stakes, andhave the potential to make the consequences ofthose errors far more serious anddeadly. Furthermore, MAD does not operatesolely due to the possession of Nuclear Weapons,but rather it requires that a state possess a“Second-Strike” ability. A “second Strike” abilitymeans that a country has the capacity to nukeanother country after it has already beenattacked, whether through hardened silos orsubmarine launched warheads. Without such anability, a state like Israel would risk losing its", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Regardless of its origins, the NuclearNon-Proliferation treaty is the cornerstone of aninternational system that has prevented therapid proliferation of Nuclear weapons for nearlyhalf a century. The dangers of Nuclear weapons,especially in the wrong hands, mean that theownership of nuclear weapons is an issue whichtranscends moral standards of “fairness”. It maybe true that the treaty should be revisited in thecase of say India or Brazil, but this debate is notabout the nuclear ambitions of fundamentallystable, democratic states that would willinglycomply with all of the terms of thenon-proliferation treaty if they were permitted tobecome signatories. Rather, the question ofAmerica’s right to act to enforce the treatyshould focus on rogue states that present asignificant danger to their neighbours, andwhose acquisition of such weapons is likely todestabilize regional balances of power, and makethe entire world less secure. Iran, Syria andPakistan’s use of the language of anti-colonialism", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "No country has an inherent right to invade or useaggression against another. Given the moralbankruptcy of the NPT, and existing views of theUnited States in much of the developing world,[1] any move by the United States to preventother nations from developing nuclear weaponsby force will be seen for what it is: an act ofneo-colonialism. This would be the case with anyact to enforce a treaty that is considered unfairtowards most of the world. This is especiallytrue in areas where there is a long history of USsupport for regional actors who are less thanpopular. In moving against Iran, the UnitedStates will be perceived as a stalking horse forIsrael, whilst any efforts to invade North KoreaWould cause great alarm in China as well as inneighbouring South Korea despite being a U.S.ally where some Koreans believe the US is moreof a threat to the nation than the North. [2] Inboth cases, the image of the US in the region willbe badly damaged, and the United States willface a hostile insurgency within the countries", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "[Iran specific] Iran has not invaded any othercountry in three and a half centuries; the samecannot be said for US allies including Israel,Pakistan, etc. For all the censure Iran has facedas a rogue state, it has not, in fact, invadedanother country for more than three centuriesand despite internal aggression against westernembassies the Iranian revolution seems to havemade little difference. On the other hand, it hasfaced invasion on numerous occasions, whetherfrom Russia, Britain or Iraq. Both Britain – whomthe Iranians are still extremely suspicious off dueto events such as the 1953 coup against PrimeMinister Mosadeq [1] – and Russia – whotogether with Britain occupied Persia duringworld war II [2] - are nuclear weaponsstates. Iran therefore has legitimate defensivereasons for developing Nuclear weapons. WhileIran’s current government has pursueddestabilizing policies in Lebanon andIsrael/Palestine, the presence of Russia on itsnorthern border and tensions with the United", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The principle of Mutually Assured Destructionmakes war less likely. States are fundamentallyrational, and as such, nuclear proliferation hasgenerally made war less likely, by promulgatingthe principle of mutually assured destruction(MAD). States go to war with other states whenthey think they can win the conflict they willprovoke. By making victory impossible, MADmakes wars unprofitable, and thereby preventsthem from beginning in the first place. The ColdWar never turned hot partially for this reason,and it is possible that the Israeli-Iranianrelationship could be stabilized by both statespossessing a nuclear deterrent. North Korea maywell desire to Nuke the United States and Japan,and may well feel that there would be no moralissues with doing so, but they have refrainedfrom doing so. As they have refrained frominvading the South since 1950. There issubstantial evidence that even the mostirrational regimes can be deterred. No matterhow dictatorial and authoritarian a state", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Existing international treaties that grant nuclearweapons to the US and other countries no longerreflect the changing global balance ofpower. The Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty isinherently unfair, in that it prevents countriesthat did not have nuclear weapons as of 1964from developing them, but makes no effort toforce those who already possess nuclear devicesto disarm. The result is that the list of countrieswith such weapons, the United States, Russia,Britain, France, and China, represents thebalance of power as it existed at the time thatthe non-proliferation treaty was drafted.Countries that have entered the clubsubsequently, like India and Pakistan, did so inviolation of the treaty and international law. Anysort of treaty that seeks to limit access tonuclear arms has to provide opportunities forcountries like Brazil to enter the “club” as theygain political or economic power. In the absenceof any such mechanism the current treatysystem is nothing more than a tool of Western", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "What is not at issue is whether Iran will invadeanyone. No one expects that, at least notimmediately. Rather, the harm of Iranianpossession of nuclear weapons is that they willprovide Iran with immunity from retaliationwhich will encourage it to escalate its Cold Waragainst Saudi Arabia in the Gulf, and increase itsassistance to Hezbollah and Hamas. As notedabove, Pakistan has in fact behaved in exactlythis manner. Safe behind its nuclear shield, ithas provided increasingly blatant backing toanti-Indian terrorist groups and opp is right tonote that there is little that can be done aboutthat. The best bet is not to allow Iran to do thesame thing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-ilpwhbujufp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The United States would ideally move with thebacking of the world community, but even if thatis not present, we think that the United States ismore than capable of making clear that it is notanyone’s puppet and that it is intervening solelyto uphold international law. Any military actionwhether justified or not will cause resentment,but this not a reason to let genocide run amok ordictators get away with invasions nor is it areason to let the same dictators get their handson nuclear weapons, security is a vital interestwhereas being liked by the rest of the world isnot.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Through their actions, career criminals and drugoffenders often subject their families to miseryfar in excess of the temporary absence of a lovedone, or transient financial hardship. Thedamaging processes of taking drugs andsupporting a habit are normalised for childrenliving with addicts; children exposed to drugs inthis way are much more likely to develop anaddiction themselves. Criminals who make abusiness out of thievery may use the familyhome to store acquisitions. Wives and membersof an extended family may be coerced intotrading stolen goods. Offenders who trade drugsor store stolen goods in leased or social housingrisk eviction if their activities are discovered.This, in turn, would lead to their families beingdisplaced or left homeless. Siblings and parentsof gang members can often be the targets ofviolence resulting from feuds and \"territorialdisputes\". As noted above, rehabilitation doesnot offer an immediate \"cure\" for criminality.Neither can it protect families who, through", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Imprisonment punishes offenders' families Eventhough liberal democratic systems of justicecontinue to place an emphasis on punishmentrather than rehabilitation, sentences are stillrequired to be proportionate to the crime thatthey punish. Further, a sentence must onlypunish those judged responsible for the crime.Collective punishment and guilt by associationare not tolerated within rational, liberal systemsof criminal law. Imprisoning or fining anoffender often places an intolerable burden onthe offender's family. If the offender is abreadwinner, the family is denied the incomethat he would otherwise provide. They may beforced to use inadequate benefit systems. Othermembers of the family may be forced to take upa second job, adversely affecting childcarearrangements. Any fines that an offender isordered to pay are often impact upon his family,damaging household budgets and forcing otherfamily members into debt. The negative effectsof a custodial sentence extend beyond the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Rehabilitation programmes are not a panacea –nor are they instantly or reliably effective. Therisk of an individual committing crime can onlybe reduced by long-term engagement withreform schemes. In 2009 violations of parole-the rules, conditions and schemes offenders arerequired to engage with on being released fromprison- led to a third of all state prisonadmissions in the United States [i] . This beingthe case, the best location in which torehabilitate offender is prison. Prison serves, insome cases, to separate prisoners from povertyand desperation, and to help them access thestructure and routine that was missing from theirlives. Moreover, contrary to the proposition’sargument, offenders are less likely to originatefrom stable family environments, to have secureemployment, or to have the skills that will letthem seek employment in thefuture. Additionally, it does not seemproportionate for a white collar fraudster, whoseactions could affect the livelihoods of thousands", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Flogging harms offenders less thanimprisonment The criminologist Peter Moskos [i]observes that most of us, if given the choice,would opt to receive ten lashes rather thanspend five years in prison. Paradoxically, asignificant number of us would condemn corporalpunishment as barbaric and inhumane. Ifimprisonment is a more rational response tocriminal behaviour, why would so many rationalindividuals opt to receive corporalpunishment? Contemporary prisons are theresult of a failed utopian experiment. They serveno useful rehabilitative purpose, and exist only tofulfil a common desire to punish deviantbehaviour and to segregate criminals from thepublic at large. Prisons harm inmates andobstruct attempts to reintegrate them intosociety. It may be necessary to incarceratecertain compulsive and habitually violentcriminals, but for a majority of offenders, prisononly serves exacerbate underlying social,economic and psychological problems that lead", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "What pretends to be an argument in support ofthe resolution is in fact an argument in favour ofreforming the prison system. It is true that in analarming number of prisons the rehabilitativeobjective of incarceration has been forgotten. Inmany other prisons, however, innovativerehabilitation programmes are flourishing. Theprison system is not a monolith – it is a networkof different institutions, each serving a specificpurpose, each subject to different standards ofmanagement. Schemes such as the HOPE(Honest Opportunity Probation) drug offencesentencing programme in Hawaii [i] should beused as an example of best practice,communicated to other prisons and replicated inother jurisdictions. Doubtless, knowledgesharing, professional standards and levels ofaccountability could be improved in manyprisons. However, this does not mean that aprison sentence will inevitably lead to anoffender suffering harm. Moreover, if anincrease in the prison population has failed to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "While the conservative press may advocate thereintroduction of corporal sentences, an equallyvocal section of society would condemn anyattempt to use flogging as a means ofpunishment. The inherently pragmatic politicaldiscourse that prevails in most liberaldemocracies would be as reluctant to replaceprison with the lash as it currently is to reduceprison populations and confrontunder-investment in rehabilitation schemes. Itshould be noted that corporal punishment wasinitially abandoned as a result of the activities ofpenal reform campaigners in the early eighteenhundreds. These thinkers, politicians andprofessionals were able to convince members ofa much more conservative political class of thewisdom of sentences focussed on rehabilitation.Moreover, they sold the idea of penal reform to apublic who lacked the robust defences againstdisorder and criminality (the police, electronicsurveillance, cheap insurance) that we take forgranted today. Victorian-era citizens had much", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Custodial sentences make recidivism morelikely A custodial sentence is capable ofdestroying the relationships and livelihood of anoffender. Imprisonment means that an offenderwill be unable to work and will lose his job, if hehas one. Statistics sourced from the PewFoundation indicate that a criminal record canreduce the likelihood of a black, male Americansecuring a job by up to 57%1. The isolationinherent in imprisonment can lead to thebreakup of marriages and to the decay ofrelationships between parents and children. Thestigma associated with a custodial sentence mayresult in an offender being shunned by hisfriends, his family and his community. He will, ineffect, be left with no sources of support once heis released. A former inmate will be left with noincentive to adjust his behaviour and disengagewith criminality2. The Pew Foundation notes that43% of offenders in the United States werereturned to prison within three years ofrelease1. The long-term damage done to an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Prison reform is politically unachievable Thefailures of the prison system are tolerated withinpolitical culture and by the public, partly becausethe privations of the prison environment areseen as a suitable punishment for criminalbehaviour. Deprivation of liberty and theemptiness of criminal life are seen as retributionfor criminals' dishonest or violentactivities. Politicians dare not confront thedamaging effects of imprisonment for fear ofbeing labelled as \"soft\" on crime. There isgreater political cache to be gained fromintroducing policies that prolong prison terms,and remove judges' discretion to order noncustodial sentences. Novel approaches to theproblem of criminality are seen as signs ofpolitical weakness. The use of monitoredcorporal punishment will keep offenders whohave not committed serious crimes out of theprison system. At a nominal rate of five lashesfor every year of incarceration, flogging willserve as a clear demonstration of societal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The opposition is unable to conclusively provethat the growth in the prison population and thereduced effectiveness of rehabilitation is a directresult of over-criminalisation. It may be truethat the list of non-traditional crimes isexpanding, but the harm that the resolution isseeking to address arises in the prison system,not in politician’s manifestos. The majority ofoffenders imprisoned in the USA and the UK havecommitted genuine crimes, albeit of a petty ornon violent nature. Once exposed to the prisonsystem the criminal tendencies of theseindividuals are entrenched, rather thaneliminated. The prison system does nottransform unwitting and harmless offenders intocriminals – it makes criminals out of desperate,poorly socialised or ignorant offenders. Theprison system harms those placed in its carebecause it is no longer able to carry out itsrehabilitative objectives. The failure torehabilitate those convicted of “ordinary��criminality impacts on the prison system itself,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "As distasteful as debaters, moral philosophersand constitutional lawyers may find it, societystill has a need to punish criminals. Although itseems to lack logic or reason (inflicting sufferingon a criminal cannot be recompense for what hehas taken, and may even prevent him fromproperly compensating his victim), a criminaljustice system which does not punish will notcommand the confidence of the public. If acriminal justice system is unable to commandthe confidence of the public, alternative methodsof addressing criminal behaviour will be sought.Eliminating the role of punishment in criminaljustice would put our entire judicial system atrisk. The resolution calls for a minimal andcarefully controlled use of force by the state. Thisuse of force is necessary in order to provideprotection for the state’s citizens in the long term– by leaving the prison system free to treat andcontrol offenders who are truly violent anddangerous, and by preventing the socialexclusion of non-violent offenders. While a state", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Flogging will be over-utilised, rehabilitation willbe under-utilised The “packaging” of floggingwith a revitalised approach to rehabilitation thatproposition suggests may be a feasible responseto some crimes, but politicians are much morelikely to treat the lash as a panacea for anyactivity or trend that affects the public’sconfidence in the justice system. The public andthe mass media are not inclined the probe thedepths of criminal sentencing. Criminals are hardto sympathise with, and public confidence restslargely on the visible aspects of a sentence – hasa criminal been locked away? Will they be closelymonitored on release? Has a criminal received asufficient number of lashes? As a consequence,as with custodial sentences, cutbacks to reformprogrammes can be achieved with littleobjection, leaving only the empty and brutalgesture of flogging itself. Political reality willneutralise the aspirations of theproposition Lawmakers are currently too keen toinvoke imprisonment as a response to crime.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Poorly constructed laws are not an excuse toabandon the prison system The proposition doesnothing to address the root cause ofovercrowding in prisons and “over-inclusive”penal codes. The problems inherent in the statusquo are not solved by flogging. The strain placedon penal institutions and systems of sentencingoriginates in a political culture that cynicallyexploits public fear of crime and socialbreakdown to win votes and project power. Asnoted above, many law makers frequently setout to “discover” or “invent” new forms ofcriminal offence, in order to appear proactive inreducing criminality or protecting communitiesfrom state or corporate graft [i] . Dogmatic andover-zealous responses to existing problems canalso transform civil or disciplinary issues intocrimes. A case in point is Indian anti corruptioncampaigners’ insistence on the use of a broadand open definition of “bribery” in a proposedopen-government law. Under the “three strikes”implemented in the US state of California,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "States' duty to avoid the use of force whensolving social problems How will the severityand legality of flogging be monitored? How will itbe reconciled with existing liberal democraticvalue sets? The majority of western liberaldemocracies are party to inter-governmental andsupranational agreements that expressly forbidstates from using torture or degrading orinhuman punishments in any capacity. The markof a modern, liberal state is that it uses authorityand engagement rather than raw power toprotect its citizens. The use of force or power bythe state and its agents is harder to regulate andcostlier to compensate when it is misapplied.Liberal democracies, apart from being agents ofrealpolitik, are also aspirational bodies thatshould strive to reflect and adhere to the valuesthey were created to defend. Arbitrary, coerciveforce and violence is one of the core harms thata state must guard against. Violence is said to bethe preserve of criminals and those actingagainst the values of society. Therefore, as an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-apslpsyhwbbc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is political capital to be gained fromadopting a hard line stance on law and orderissues, but there is also political capital to begained from showing that a particular policy hashad a positive effect on reoffending. The PewFoundation report cited above has alsodetermined that some 90% of US voters were infavour of reducing the length of prison sentencesand \"strengthening\" probation and parolesystems1. The opposition assumes thatpoliticians are interested only in cheap, hollow,short term solutions to problem. However, alarge number of policy makers are genuinelypublic spirited, with a sincere interest in solvinglong-standing social problems. The adversarialnature of politics tends to prevent politiciansfrom seeking elaborate or novel solutions to suchissues. Spending money on intangiblerehabilitation programmes will always provokemore criticism than spending money on trainingmore police officers. The resolution allowspoliticians to engage with the novel solution to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcpao-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Prison reform is politically unachievable Thefailures of the prison system are tolerated withinpolitical culture and by the public, partly becausethe privations of the prison environment areseen as a suitable punishment for criminalbehaviour. Deprivation of liberty and theemptiness of criminal life are seen as retributionfor criminals’ dishonest or violentactivities. Politicians dare not confront thedamaging effects of imprisonment for fear ofbeing labelled as “soft” on crime. There isgreater political cache to be gained fromintroducing policies that prolong prison terms,and remove judges’ discretion to order noncustodial sentences. Novel approaches to theproblem of criminality are seen as signs ofpolitical weakness. The use of monitoredcorporal punishment will keep offenders whohave not committed serious crimes out of theprison system. At a nominal rate of five lashesfor every year of incarceration, flogging willserve as a clear demonstration of societal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcpao-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Flogging harms offenders less thanimprisonment he criminologist Peter Moskos [i]observes that most of us, if given the choice,would opt to receive ten lashes rather thanspend five years in prison. Paradoxically, asignificant number of us would condemn corporalpunishment as barbaric and inhumane. Ifimprisonment is a more rational response tocriminal behaviour, why would so many rationalindividuals opt to receive corporalpunishment? Contemporary prisons are theresult of a failed utopian experiment. They serveno useful rehabilitative purpose, and exist only tofulfil a common desire to punish deviantbehaviour and to segregate criminals from thepublic at large. Prisons harm inmates andobstruct attempts to reintegrate them intosociety. It may be necessary to incarceratecertain compulsive and habitually violentcriminals, but for a majority of offenders, prisononly serves exacerbate underlying social,economic and psychological problems that lead", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcpao-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Through their actions, career criminals and drugoffenders often subject their families to miseryfar in excess of the temporary absence of a lovedone, or transient financial hardship. Thedamaging processes of taking drugs andsupporting a habit are normalised for childrenliving with addicts; children exposed to drugs inthis way are much more likely to develop anaddiction themselves. Criminals who make abusiness out of thievery may use the familyhome to store acquisitions. Wives and membersof an extended family may be coerced intotrading stolen goods. Offenders who trade drugsor store stolen goods in leased or social housingrisk eviction if their activities are discovered.This, in turn, would lead to their families beingdisplaced or left homeless. Siblings and parentsof gang members can often be the targets ofviolence resulting from feuds and “territorialdisputes”. As noted above, rehabilitation doesnot offer an immediate “cure” for criminality.Neither can it protect families who, through", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcpao-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Custodial sentences make recidivism morelikely A custodial sentence is capable ofdestroying the relationships and livelihood of anoffender. Imprisonment means that an offenderwill be unable to work and will lose his job, if hehas one. Statistics sourced from the PewFoundation indicate that a criminal record canreduce the likelihood of a black, male Americansecuring a job by up to 57% [i] . The isolationinherent in imprisonment can lead to thebreakup of marriages and to the decay ofrelationships between parents and children. Thestigma associated with a custodial sentence mayresult in an offender being shunned by hisfriends, his family and his community. He will, ineffect, be left with no sources of support once heis released. A former inmate will be left with noincentive to adjust his behaviour and disengagewith criminality [ii] . The Pew Foundation notesthat 43% of offenders in the United States werereturned to prison within three years of release[iii] . The long-term damage done to an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcpao-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Imprisonment punishes offenders’ families Eventhough liberal democratic systems of justicecontinue to place an emphasis on punishmentrather than rehabilitation, sentences are stillrequired to be proportionate to the crime thatthey punish. Further, a sentence must onlypunish those judged responsible for the crime.Collective punishment and guilt by associationare not tolerated within rational, liberal systemsof criminal law. Imprisoning or fining anoffender often places an intolerable burden onthe offender’s family. If the offender is abreadwinner, the family is denied the incomethat he would otherwise provide. They may beforced to use inadequate benefit systems. Othermembers of the family may be forced to take upa second job, adversely affecting childcarearrangements. Any fines that an offender isordered to pay are often impact upon his family,damaging household budgets and forcing otherfamily members into debt. The negative effectsof a custodial sentence extend beyond the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcpao-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The opposition is unable to conclusively provethat the growth in the prison population and thereduced effectiveness of rehabilitation is a directresult of over-criminalisation. It may be truethat the list of non-traditional crimes isexpanding, but the harm that the resolution isseeking to address arises in the prison system,not in politician’s manifestos. The majority ofoffenders imprisoned in the USA and the UK havecommitted genuine crimes, albeit of a petty ornon violent nature. Once exposed to the prisonsystem the criminal tendencies of theseindividuals are entrenched, rather thaneliminated. The prison system does nottransform unwitting and harmless offenders intocriminals – it makes criminals out of desperate,poorly socialised or ignorant offenders. Theprison system harms those placed in its carebecause it is no longer able to carry out itsrehabilitative objectives. The failure torehabilitate those convicted of “ordinary”criminality impacts on the prison system itself,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcpao-con03a", "title": "", "text": "States’ duty to avoid the use of force whensolving social problems How will the severityand legality of flogging be monitored? How will itbe reconciled with existing liberal democraticvalue sets? The majority of western liberaldemocracies are party to inter-governmental andsupranational agreements that expressly forbidstates from using torture or degrading orinhuman punishments in any capacity. The markof a modern, liberal state is that it uses authorityand engagement rather than raw power toprotect its citizens. The use of force or power bythe state and its agents is harder to regulate andcostlier to compensate when it is misapplied.Liberal democracies, apart from being agents ofrealpolitik, are also aspirational bodies thatshould strive to reflect and adhere to the valuesthey were created to defend. Arbitrary, coerciveforce and violence is one of the core harms thata state must guard against. Violence is said to bethe preserve of criminals and those actingagainst the values of society. Therefore, as an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-lgpcpao-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is political capital to be gained fromadopting a hard line stance on law and orderissues, but there is also political capital to begained from showing that a particular policy hashad a positive effect on reoffending. The PewFoundation report cited above has alsodetermined that some 90% of US voters were infavour of reducing the length of prison sentencesand “strengthening” probation and parolesystems [i] . The opposition assumes thatpoliticians are interested only in cheap, hollow,short term solutions to problem. However, alarge number of policy makers are genuinelypublic spirited, with a sincere interest in solvinglong-standing social problems. The adversarialnature of politics tends to prevent politiciansfrom seeking elaborate or novel solutions to suchissues. Spending money on intangiblerehabilitation programmes will always provokemore criticism than spending money on trainingmore police officers. The resolution allowspoliticians to engage with the novel solution to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Migrations for economic reasons is part of themodern global economy. Tibet in 1950 wasmassively underdeveloped with very low literacyrates, and little modern economic infrastructure.Given the determination of the Chinesegovernment to modernize Tibet, the importationof workers was vital. Educated Chinese wereneeded to run the administration in the absenceof qualified local elites willing to work with them,while Chinese teachers were needed to run theschools. In turn, they brought their families, anda host of businesses followed. By the sametoken, teaching Mandarin is not an issue. Thereare 6 million Tibetans surrounded by 1 billionChinese who speak Mandarin, teaching thelanguage of commerce is an effort to integratethe Tibetans. And integration is what theChinese are after, as while no exact figures arepublished, it is overwhelmingly clear that Tibet isa net loser financially for them, and has beenconsistently since the 1950s. The costs ofsubsidizing a largely unemployed populous along", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Tibetans are rapidly becoming a minority in theirown country Due to systematic campaign ofSinocization, millions of Han Chinese have beenencouraged to settle in Tibet, and with thesupport of the government they now dominatethe economy and upper echelons of theadministration. Demographically Tibetans arerapidly becoming a minority within their owncountry, and administratively this has alreadytaken place. While short of open genocide, theintent of the Chinese government is quite clearlythe elimination of the Tibetan people as a distinctnational, cultural and linguistic group. Not onlyare they attempting to drown them throughsettlement, but Tibetan students are forced tolearn Mandarin in the schools and are beingtaught that they are Chinese. While there maywell have been past periods of Chinesesovereignty, the policies of the current Beijinggovernment seem designed to produce anoutcome far more permanent than those pastefforts which respected Tibetan identity and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "On the contrary, this situation almost ensuresthat the Tibetans will become a puppet of one oranother foreign power. Weak states almostinvariably need allies to maintain theirindependence. An independent Tibet, especiallyone that has inherited the history of the last sixtyyears would likely be dominated by politicianswho are militantly anti-Chinese, but would be tooweak to defend itself against China. It wouldalmost certainly become an Indian proxy, as itsonly hope of survival would be to attempt to gainthe support of the United States and Indiaagainst China. In effect the creation of anindependent Tibet, rather than avoiding conflict,would make it more pressing by moving theeffective frontline hundreds of miles northward.Right now China and India may not like eachother, but the Tibetan-Indian border issufficiently mountainous as to make militaryaction difficult if not impossible. By contrast, itsnorthern border is much more easily crossed asthe Chinese themselves showed in 1950. An", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Tibet is a distinct nation with a distinct historythat China illegally invaded Tibet has a longhistory of independence going back more than1500 years. Even in times of Chinese“domination”, Tibetans largely governedthemselves independently of the small number ofChinese officials in Lhasa. [1] Tibet at most wasa tributary of China, and was no more part of itthan Thailand, Myanmar or Korea. And from1911 until 1950 it was entirely independent andconducted its foreign relations as such, forexample remaining neutral in World War IIdespite both its neighbours the Republic of Chinaand the British Empire being on the side of theAllies. Tibet’s annexation by China occurredunder the guns of 40,000 Chinese soldiers, andthe precedent begun by the invasion stands asone of the few post-1945 cases in which thenational principle was abandoned and the onlyone in which a fully independent state vanishedfrom the map. When one notes that Tibetanshave their own language, and a history that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "In order for Tibet to have traditionally beenviewed as part of the Chinese nation, there is norequirement that it have been under Chinese rulecontinuously. Like many other parts of “China”, itwas ruled by China during times of imperialstrength, and when governments weakened, sotoo did central authority. In this sense Tibet hasa lot in common with Manchuria, another regionthat tended to drift towards autonomy duringtimes of dynastic weakness. One thing howeverhas been clear – the variation in sovereignty inTibet has been between autonomy and Chinesesovereignty. Even in the 9th century whenTibetan armies were outside the gates of theTang Dynasty Capital of Chang’an, the Tibetansremained nominally the Emperor’s subjects asproclaimed by a monument from 823 stating“their territories be united as one”. [1] Tibet’sindependence between 1904/11 and 1950 wasconsistent with this cycle. Tibet gained autonomywhen China weakened, and this autonomy wasas much a product of British influence as it was", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Everything is comparative. The major reasonwhy China does not face more serious domesticunrest is that its international and economicprogress have allowed it to appeal to Chinesenationalism. Withdrawing from Tibet would beviewed as an act of weakness, one which woulddo far more to undermine the Communist party’slegitimacy and support base than remainingthere. Secondly, attacks on China’s HumanRights record matter less and less each year astrade with the PRC becomes more and morevaluable to the West. It barely affected theOlympics and increasingly it is viewed as aneffort by the West to divide China. Thirdly, thecost of the province has to be compared againstthe potential security risks an independent Tibet,especially one under anti-Chinese leadership,would pose to Chinese security.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "An independent Tibet would serve as a bufferstate between India and China, reducing thechances of a regional clash An independentTibet would serve a useful purpose as a neutraland demilitarized buffer state between India andChina. Given the rising economic and militaryclout of both powers, a future conflict isbecoming ever more likely, and they alreadyfought one war against one another in 1962. Anindependent Tibet would mean that the twonations would no longer have a common border,making their rivalry less practical and far lesspressing. This would reduce military obligationsfor both, and prevent the Tibetans from beingcaught in the middle of a future conflict.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Tibet presents an explosive domestic politicalissue for China which the latter would benefitfrom eliminating Tibet, and the resistanceTibetans continue to show to Chinese rulepresents a toxic domestic and internationalpolitical problem that costs far more than itworth. Domestically, violence in Tibet is themost serious domestic disturbance facing theChinese government, and the fact that there isnearly constant violence between Han Settlersand Tibetans forces the Chinese to alienateeveryone in order to contain it. Furthermore, theeconomic and political disenfranchisement of theTibetan people is an enormous domesticproblem, as it has led to large numbersbecoming unemployed and moving to other partsof China where they form anunderclass. Internationally, the Tibetan issuekeeps China’s Human Rights record in the newsand almost torpedoed the 2008 Olympic games.Given that China is already losing money on theprovince, it may well be worth it for China to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While of obvious interest, it is hard to see howChinese opinion is of vital relevance to whetheror not Tibet should enjoy independence. Serbianopinion was almost certainly overwhelminglyagainst Kosovar claims in 1998, and it can beassumed that Southern Sudanese Secession mayhave been less than popular on the streets ofKhartoum than Juba. Furthermore, a large partof the reason for the reaction of the ChinesePublic is that the Communist Party hasconsistently encouraged nationalist sentiment inan effort to deflect its own population from theirlack of human and political rights. Anindependent Tibet would serve as a beacon offreedom in the region and might well inspireChinese citizens to begin to make demands oftheir own for political and social freedoms.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Such progress has been self-serving, with manyof the economic gains made by Han Settlers.Secondly it has come at the cost of Tibetanculture and the very national identity thatTibetans hold dear. It is also absurd to suggestthat these gains would disappear uponindependence. Tibet would likely seek tocontinue to trade with China, and if that is notpossible, there would be opportunities to gaininvestment from India or the West. The benefitsof such trade could then be used to help theTibetans themselves rather than Han settlers. AsTen Zin Samphel, a leader of the Tibetancommunity in Britain remarks \"At the moment,the economic development is for the benefit ofthe Chinese… If Tibet were free, we coulddevelop it ourselves.\" [1] [1] McGivering, Jill,‘China’s quandary over Tibet’s future’, BBCNews, 20 March 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Tibet is almost 50% Han Chinese and theydominate the economy. Expelling them would becatastrophic Whatever the reasons or the morallegitimacy behind the move, Tibet is a verydifferent place today than it was in 1950.According to the 2000 census, 2.3 million ofTibet’s 7.3 Million citizens are Han Chinese, andif temporary residents are added the numbersnearly double. In the event Tibet achievesindependence it is likely that these Han residentswill face discrimination if not open pogroms.Already they are a constant target of riotslaunched by Tibetan Nationalists, events thatoften end in the destruction of Han businessesand property. Such an outcome would not onlybe morally abhorrent – it would also becatastrophic for Tibet’s economic and politicalposition. This minority plays a key role in theTibetan economy, and their departure wouldcreate a vacuum that could lead to an economiccollapse. Furthermore, any mistreatment of theHan Minority would likely push Chinese opinion,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Tibet could never be a viable independent stateand would either become a Chinese puppet or alaunching pad for American and Indian poweragainst China. Given the realities of geography,Tibet has little prospect of real independence.Landlocked, with few natural resources, and noclear way to get any resources it does have out,Tibet would be poor, and overshadowed by itsmuch larger neighbours, China and India. Itwould be faced with the choice of eitherbecoming a prize to be fought over betweenthose two powers or aligning itself with one orthe other, most likely India given its difficultrecent history over the last few decades. Theconsequence would be that rather than givingthe Tibetans greater freedom, independencewould render them pawns, and rather thanreducing tensions in the region, it would likelyincrease those between India, Pakistan andChina. Tibet would be in the same position it wasat the end of the 19th Century when it was aweak power at the mercy of the British and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-con03a", "title": "", "text": "China has viewed the last century and a half asnon-stop efforts by Westerners to divide China.This looks like another. The last century and ahalf of relations between China and the Westhave from the Chinese perspective been one longperiod of national dismemberment. In 1842 theBritish took control of Hong Kong after the firstOpium war, and after its sequel, China lostcontrol of Shanghai and its own customs service.Efforts were made to sever Manchuria, Taiwanfrom China in the 20th, and Korea and Vietnamwere fully removed from Chinese authority. As aconsequence the Chinese are quite paranoidabout outside efforts to divide Chinese territory,and support for the Tibetan Independence, dueto the fact that the West has no clear interests inthe region, is interpreted chiefly as an effort todivide and weaken China. [1] As a consequence,western condemnation tends to becounterproductive, leading to public sentiment inChina turning far nastier towards legitimateTibetan demands. These sorts of views on the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Tibet has made enormous strides under Chineserule Contrary to the impressions forwarded bythe proposition, Tibet has made enormousstrides under Chinese rule. The urban populationhas increased seven-fold since 1950, [1] literacyhas increased from the teens to being as high as95%, [2] and the average life expectancy hasincreased from the low 30s to the60s. Furthermore, with few natural resourcesand the economy in Han hands, there is a needfor investment capital, and that capital can onlycome from China. Even the Dalai Llamaacknowledged this in 2006, suggesting that arelationship with China similar to that betweenEU countries would be ideal. [3] [1] EuropeanSpace Agency, ‘The Himalayan region’, esa.int,18 February 2010, [2] Literacy rate amongyoung people climbs in Tibet, People’s DailyOnline, 31 July 2008, [3] Liu, Melinda, ‘Fearsand Tears’, Newsweek, 19 May 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Simple geography makes a general conflict overTibet unlikely. Located on some of the mostmountainous terrain in the world, moving largearmies would be next to impossible in the region,with the consequence that conflicts like theSino-Indian war of 1962 were contained by thesimple inability of the combatants to bringsupplies and reinforcements to the front. MakingTibet a neutral buffer state would simplyexacerbate these challenges by denying thelikely combatants a common border behindwhich to build up military infrastructure. It maywell be that China and India would become rivalsfor influence in Lhasa, but this would be adiplomatic war of shadows rather than a physicalone, just like the current competition forinfluence in Myanmar which is in a similarposition, [1] and it would be a conflict whichwould provide Tibet with the opportunity to playthe rivals off against each other in a way thatwould safeguard its independence as well aspeace in the region. [1] Kuppuswamy, C.S.,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-railhbtsbis-con02b", "title": "", "text": "First of all it is worth noting that the Chinesesettlers are themselves the product of deliberatecampaign of cultural genocide on the part of theChinese government. While individually they maybe innocent, by their participation they havebecome targets. In this sense there is littledifference between them and Israeli settlers inthe West Bank or the former French settlers inAlgeria. But even granting that, there is noreason to assume this violence would continue ifTibet became independent and the major causeof conflict, namely the Chinese occupation, wasremoved as a major issue of contention. It couldbe expected that a new Tibetan governmentwould have an incentive to avoid all of the harmsoutlined by the opposition. Symbolic of this isthe Dalai Llama’s remarks that Tibet’s future islinked to China’s and that an independent Tibetwould benefit from a close relationship withChina.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This simply shows a need to either expand thelaw enforcement agencies or else have localswho are deputised. There is no need to turnschools into an armed environment in order toensure that someone who is responsible who isarmed is close enough to respond to any crisis ata school.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Not all schools have police available to protectthem. All schools and schoolchildren need to beprotected yet not all schools are anywhere near asource of protection. Arming some teachers ismost urgent in areas police provision is scarcedue to diminished funds. Places like Harroldcounty in Texas have a sheriff’s office situated 17miles away, and unlike more urban areas theycannot afford to hire district police officers. Withthe law enforcement officers so far away a lot ofchildren could be killed before there could be anypossibility of response from any police of lawenforcement agencies. Arming teachers inpredominantly rural areas of the USA is thereforea logical and necessary step to protect schoolsthat do not already have dedicated protection.[1] [1] McKinley, James C., ‘In Texas School,Teachers Carry Books and Guns’, The New YorkTimes, 28 August 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Why shouldn’t they carry guns if teachers can?Surely in such uncertain situations as Columbinethey should also carry the right to protect theirclassmates? Even if children aren’t legally meantto carry them anyway then what’s to stop moralgray areas from occurring in situations ofself-protection for an entire class/school? Takingthis to its natural conclusion, what is to stopteachers’ guns simply falling into the wronghands? A child could steal a teacher’s gun anduse it against a classmate, causing unintentionalor intentional fatalities, arming teachers simplymakes such events possible rather thanprotecting against them. [1] The logic of tryingto make schools less vulnerable to violentattacks by introducing more firearms is hugelyflawed. [1] McKinley, James C., ‘In TexasSchool, Teachers Carry Books and Guns’, TheNew York Times, 28 August 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Arming teachers would mean safer schools Ifschool teachers, as people in positions ofauthority over vulnerable groups, were permittedto carry arms then it would guarantee greaterprotection for children. Incidents in recent yearssuch as the massacre at Columbine High Schoolhave proven that a significant risk exists ofschool children gaining access to guns and usingthem against their classmates. The carnagecould have been prevented if the teacherspresent had been able to defend themselves andthe children in their care as teachers would beable to act as a first line of defence. [1]Furthermore, having schools as arms-freeenvironments specifically makes them a target,those looking for targets are more likely tochoose schools because they are less likely tomeet armed resistance. Incidents include aschool in Lincoln, Nebraska where a 17-year-oldshot his vice-principal before killing himself.Lawmaker Mark Christensen, who had previouslybeen opposed to teachers carrying arms,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The logical fallacy here is the assumption thatteachers will always have pupils’ best interests atheart. There’s little to stop children frombecoming extremely vulnerable if they are underthe supervision of someone who could turn onthem. Gun attacks like Columbine and VirginiaTech are often by people whose potential forviolence was not spotted by anyone until it wastoo late. People in positions of authority are notalways reliable or rational, and no amount ofsafety checks can guarantee that some teacherswill not abuse the powers they have. Thismeasure would simply increase the potentialthreat from those who have been authorised tocarry guns in schools.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "That teachers may also sometimes needprotection does not alter the debate. They couldequally be protected by having better policeservices and officers closer to schools. If teacherneeds a gun for protection from someonethreatening them then they are putting thechildren they are responsible for in danger. IfJane Doe’s ex husband had come after her andboth had been armed her students could veryeasily have been caught in the crossfire.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The Second Amendment When it comes down toit, the right to bear arms is enshrined in theAmerican constitution. This right applies just asmuch to teachers as it does to anyone else.Having a right to bear arms means there isalways going to the threat that one person candraw and use a weapon against another. Thebest way to counter-act such a danger is to meetit with equal means, as the culture ofarms-bearing in the USA is too entrenched to trymethods that involving scaling back gun-usageor enforcing much stricter arms control. Anyattempt to do so would likely be struck down bythe United States Supreme Court just as itdeclared the restrictions on handguns that werein place in Washington DC. [1] Therefore thebest way to protect the most vulnerable in USsociety is to deploy the means that areencouraged and protected by theconstitution. [1] Supreme Court of the UnitedStates, ‘District of Columbia et al. v. Heller’, 26June 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Teachers need protection just as much asstudents An incident in Medford, Oregon in 2007illustrated how teachers need to be able toprotect themselves as well as their students. Gunlobbyists claimed teacher Jane Doe’s reasons forwanting to be armed while teaching were basedon the restraining order against her ex-husband,who had made threats against her and herchildren. Although local laws dictated that onlylaw enforcement officers could brings guns ontoa school campus, she challenged it on thegrounds of her own personal safety. [1] In acountry like the USA where ordinary civilians canown guns, people often feel the need to carryarms for the sake of self-protection. If people areallowed to do this in their own homes, then if thethreats persist while they are at work byextension they should still be allowed to exerciseself-protection. [1] Knickerbocker, Brad, ‘Shouldteachers be allowed to pack a gun?’, ChristianScience Monitor, 18 September 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Teachers in places where the scheme has alreadybeen piloted have received training from privatesecurity firms. In Harrold county, teachers havealso been provided with special ammunition thatavoids ricocheting and therefore minimises thethreat of students being caught in crossfire. [1]Other schools in more urban parts of states likeTexas, particularly those suffering a high level ofgang violence, already have their own policeforces. Many American schools are thereforeused to having an environment where armsusage is the norm. It is therefore hard to arguethat introducing armed protection in a differentform, aka through teachers rather than policeofficers, would result in an increased level ofrisk. [1] McKinley, James C., ‘In Texas School,Teachers Carry Books and Guns’, The New YorkTimes, 28 August 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Schools such as those in the county of Harrold,TX [1] have already introduced laws allowingteachers to carry pistols, but largely in aconcealed fashion. This therefore leaves childrenunawares and thus not distracted by seeingteachers prominently carrying guns.Furthermore, with teachers carrying concealedarms, any would-be attackers would be thrownby not knowing who to shoot first, which wouldnot be the case if police officers were the first onthe scene. [1] McKinley, James C., ‘In TexasSchool, Teachers Carry Books and Guns’, TheNew York Times, 28 August 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Guns in schools might be used in circumstancesother than defense. Having guns in theclassroom will more than likely increase thechances of gun related violence in schools. Itwould increase the chance of gun relatedaccidents; although only a very small chancethere would previously have been no chance. Itmay well also increase the number of shootings;people who carry guns are 4.5 times more likelyto be shot, [1] although there is no way ofknowing if the effect would be the same in theclassroom as on the street. Finally it is ignoringthe possibility that those who are to carry gunsfor the school children’s protection may at somepoint turn the gun on their charges. Teachingcan be a very frustrating job and the teachermay get very angry with individual students,allowing teachers to carry guns would greatlyincrease the risk of an unpremeditated shootingagainst on a schoolchild. [1] Callaway, Ewen,‘Carrying a gun increases risk of getting shot andkilled’, NewScientist, 6 October 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con04a", "title": "", "text": "How could arming teachers be regulated? Ifteachers can bear arms, then what’s to stopother people in the school environment incontact with children, such as janitors, fromdemanding they should too, or even getting holdof them illicitly? Many of them won’t have beencertified or checked, and as such there is noguarantee that the system of only allowingteaching staff to carry them could be fullyregulated. This is particularly the case if janitors,cafeteria workers or cleaning staff have privategun licences of their own. The result is thatchildren could be in an environment where thosenot licensed to carry arms around them wouldhave greater opportunities to do so, therebyincreasing the threat to children. It would bedifficult to monitor which staff are bringing gunsinto school without a lot of investment insearches and detectors – money that could havepaid for professional security. It is thus arguablethat the proposition’s mechanism does not stand.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Children would be caught in the crossfire Weneed to remember that we’re most likely dealingwith threats to young people by other youngpeople here. If teachers were granted the rightof ���shoot to kill,’ as the mechanism would imply,of anyone they found threatening, theconsequences to completely innocent people in acrossfire, or merely troubled youngsters thatcould be rehabilitated if simply subdued, couldbe tragic and fatal. Ultimately, teachers are notpolice officers and are thus not equipped to takeout an armed criminal in the same way. As thelegislative director of the Houston Association ofTeachers out it, “We are trained to teach andeducate – not to tame the Wild West.” [1] [1]McKinley, James C., ‘In Texas School, TeachersCarry Books and Guns’, The New York Times, 28August 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Children are impressionable Allowing teachers tocarry arms in school could mean that very youngchildren could easily become acclimatised to theidea that carrying a gun and ultimately gunusage is ok. Surely the way to prevent incidentslike Columbine from happening is to teachchildren about the potentially destructive andfatal consequences of gun usage? Forelementary/primary school-age children, it wouldbe difficult to separate the idea that it’s ok forteachers to always carry guns but not for anyoneelse.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The opposition’s point is a rather speculativeone, as you could apply this argument toteachers in general, or anyone in positions ofpower over more vulnerable groups, such asnurses or doctors. Just because a minoritychoose to abuse (such as with the paedophilescandals in reported in some public US highschools) [1] that does not mean everyone in theteaching profession should have the right toprotect those in their care revoked. [1] Irvine,Martha, and Tanner, Robert, ‘AP: SexualMisconduct Plagues US Schools’, The WashingtonPost, 21 October 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-aegtlcpsyhwa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The chances of accidents would be miniscule asteacher would be trained to carry the gun andwould keep it with them at all times when in theclassroom so there would be no chance of thestudents playing with the gun. The deterrenceeffect of having guns in school is likely to meanthat the number of shootings will go down ratherthan up. Finally if it was an armed teacher whoperpetrated the shooting then they would havebeen able to commit that atrocity regardless ofwhether s/he was allowed to carry a gun inschool.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Victims of any form of crime, regardless of theirlife choices, are free to come to the police forprotection and will be provided with the sameprotections as anyone else. The fact that peoplewho commit crimes may feel less comfortablegoing to the police to avoid self-incrimination isnot a reason to remove those laws.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Decriminalisation will protect practitioners ofsadomasochism The criminalisation of S&Mremoves legal protection from individuals whosuffer an abuse of consent while submitting tosadistic practices. Where a dominant partnerignores safe words or pushes a session too far,the criminal status of S&M may lead to avictim being prosecuted alongside a perpetrator.Alternately, victims may be disincentivised fromapproaching the police altogether. Although it isnot possible to be prosecuted for being thevictim of a crime, individuals who are harmedduring sadomasochistic sex many not be able toengage in a rational assessment of their owncriminal liability. Even though laws againstsadomasochistic acts pin liability only on thesadistic partner, they also serve to criminalizethe act itself. Victims of abuses of consent maytherefore become wary of informing the policethat they have participated in such activity, forfear that they will be publicly stigmatized orsubjected to police investigation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The notion of consent cannot apply to a practicein which participants lack the ability to withdrawat any given time. Rape cases are easier toprosecute as it is clear and evident that thevictim did not consent to the activity. Thelegalization of sadomasochism would createsituations in which consent has been givenbeforehand but cannot be withdrawn during theactivity. There may be genuine confusionbetween participants in a situation where oneparty wishes to withdraw their consent but isunable due to the activities already underway. Inthat case, it would appear unreasonable toprosecute despite the victim’s anguish. To sparesuch horrible situations arising, the practice mustremain illegal. Finally, a number of criminalcases, including the English case of R v Dica,have held that intentionally or recklesslyexposing a partner to a sexually transmittedinfection by refusing to wear a condom can be acriminally action. Where an individual is awarethat certain sexual interactions carry a risk of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The criminalisation of sadomasochism infringeson individual liberty Control of one’s own body isthe most fundamental of human rights. Nogovernment should be permitted to define howits citizens can express themselves. Thedistinction between the permissible and theimpermissible should be drawn at the line ofconsent. This is not a novel distinction. Yourproperty cannot be stolen from you if you agreeto give it away. You have no legal remedy if yourproperty is damaged by another with yourconsent, or if you damage it yourself. Whyshould there be a moral difference when thisproperty is flesh and blood? Paternalism in thisinstance only protects those who do not want tobe protected. The prohibition of sadomasochismis simply inconsistent with the liberty thatgovernments already permit their citizens toexercise to injure each other and themselves.When people are entitled to risk pain, seriousinjury, or even death in sporting activity, whyshould they not also be permitted to suffer some", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Every government has a duty to protect themoral and physical health of all its citizens.Firstly, the defining characteristic ofsadomasochism is that it does harm to others.The activity has a victim. It is not a simplequestion of one individual being permitted toharm himself. Secondly, the fact of the victim’sconsent is immaterial. The use of seatbelts ismandatory because citizens should not beallowed to risk their bodies for such a nugatoryfreedom. Citizens are allowed to lose orjeopardize their material assets throughfoolishness, since the assets are replaceable, orat least not critical to survival. Paternalism existsto protect people from themselves. As notedbelow, governments are able to exercise varyingdegrees of regulation over potentially harmfulactivities according to the contexts that theyoccur in. Under these circumstances, thebeneficial aspects of contact sports, riskyperformance arts and non-essential medicalprocedures can be balanced against the harms", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "When less painful but equally effective variationson existing beauty treatments enter the market,they quickly assume a position of dominance.Women and men who want to enhance theirphysical appearance do not automatically seekout the most painful way of doing so. Theproposition conflates a means of achievingsexual gratification with the gratifying act itself.A masochist finds erotic pleasure in beingsubjected to pain, irrespective of the ultimatepurpose of that pain. Likewise, a sadist will inflictpain to achieve pleasure, without feeling that hisactions require further justification orpurpose. A surgeon will design his procedures sothat a patient will suffer an absolute minimum ofpain and discomfort. A medical professionalwould likely be subjected to professionaldisciplinary measures if it were to becomeapparent that he derived gratification from theunavoidable pain sometimes endured by hispatients. The consequences of a medicalintervention sometimes mean that a patient will", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Sadomasochistic practices should be legalbetween informed, consenting adults. It issufficient for the decriminalization ofsadomasochism that each participant is aware ofthe hazards inherent in the fetishes they will beexploring and consents to them. No law prohibitspeople from refusing to wear a condom duringsexual intercourse, notwithstanding the peril ofinfection. Furthermore, all cases where anindividual withdraws their consent for the activitycan be arbitrated and prosecuted like every othersituation of consensual sex where an individualwithdraws consent and their partner does notrespect that wish. The police and courts willinvestigate it in the same way and will prosecutethose who commit rape under the guise ofS&M just as they prosecute those whocommit rape under the guise of consensualintercourse.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Western ideals of beauty already permitindividual to endure intense physical pain inorder to achieve sexual gratification Theidealization of physical beauty within Americanand European culture has created a demand forincreasingly interventionist forms of cosmeticenhancement. Women and men are prepared topay hundreds of thousands of pounds to havetheir faces, breasts and genitals maimed andmodified by surgeons, to have their skinbleached or their facial muscles temporarilyparalyzed by “beauticians” and to be badgered,bullied and blackmailed into complying withrestrictive diets and extensive regimes ofphysical exertion by domineering personaltrainers. Except in the most extreme and obviouscases of emotional or psychological disturbance,adults are automatically assumed to be capableof consenting to these acts. Further, thewestern ideal of physical beauty is closelyassociated with the cultural norms that influenceand control sexual attraction, compatibility and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Where should the line between sadomasochistcand “conventional” sexual activity be drawn? TheEnglish appeal case of R v Slingsby [i] concernedthe accidental death of an individual who hadconsented to an inherently risky sexual act (theinsertion of her partner’s fist into her anus) thatwas considered “vigorous” but not masochistic.As noted above, conventional sexual interactionis just as susceptible to subversion as S&Mencounters, and can just as easily collapse into anon-consensual act. In effect, “normal” sexualexpression is as difficult to regulate, and as likelyto incorporate violence (or “vigorous activity” asthe judge in Slingsby would have it) and to causeharm, as sadomasochism. Society at large doesnot demand that all private sexual activity is astightly regulated as professional sport, nor doesit attempt to outlaw sexual activity. Instead, it isacknowledged that personal freedom outweighsthe occasional harms that private sexualrelationships produce. Existing legal safeguardsare seen as providing victims of abusive", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The state has no right to decide what is “moral”or “immoral” for society. Each and everyindividual through their freedom of conscience isallowed to determine for themselves what amoral act would be as the government has noway of determining that with anycertainty. Moreover, there is no evidence thatsuggests any link between S&M andpropensity or escalation of criminality. Simplybecause someone enjoys the infliction or thefeeling of pain does not mean that they willbecome a criminal who inflicts pain on other,un-consenting people in the future. Further, itcould be argued that allowing people aconsensual outlet for such urges reduces theprobability that such escalation and criminalitywill occur.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-con02a", "title": "", "text": "It is not possible to meaningfully consent tosadomasochistic sex Meaningful consentrequires both that the person is informed and ofage when consenting, but also requires theability to withdraw consent at any point in time.Sadomasochism does not afford this crucialrequisite of consent to the individual, andtherefore no individual can legitimately and fullyconsent to the act. Safe words are ludicrouslyimpractical. Their utility is dependent upon theiractually being agreed and committed to memoryin advance and their declaration being heeded bythe individuals who are under the influence ofintense sexual desire. The passive ‘victim’ mightbe subject to the physical constraints,characteristic of bondage, that make speech oreven flight impossible. It might be difficult todistinguish between an injunction to cease andan exclamation of pain, which presumably is arelatively regular occurrence. Even where anumber of individuals are able to demonstratethat their sadomasochistic encounters are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The right to privacy counterbalances the state'sobligation to ban sadomasochistic sex y theproposition, those who want to engage in violentsexual activities will do so, irrespective of laws tothe contrary. Without undermining core liberalconcepts of privacy and freedom of association,the state will be unable to regulate private sexualinteraction. This being the case, when is violentactivity most likely to be detected andprosecuted under the status quo? When suchacts become too visible, too public or too risky.When the bonds of trust and consent that (as theproposition has agreed) are so vital to asadomasochistic relationship breakdown. Liberal principles of privacy andautonomy allow individuals to engage inconsensual activities that may fall outsideestablished boundaries of social acceptance. Inthis way individual liberty is satisfied, while therisk of others being exposed to harmfulexternalities is limited. In the words of theanthropologist and lawyer Sally Falk-Moore, “the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The state permits individuals to risk harmingthemselves only where such risks can beindependently scrutinised and regulated Adistinction should be made between sociallylegitimatized recreational violence- such asrugby or boxing- and stigmatized recreationalviolence- such as S&M [i] . Rugby, icehockey or motor racing must, of necessity, occurin public. Each of these events incorporates largenumbers of competitors and is regulated by areferee. It is not possible for a Rugby player tobe forced to play a match against his will, nor willhe be prevented from leaving the field if he isinjured or feels threatened. Indeed, referees canforce players to withdraw if they believe they areat risk. Where violent sports events take placewithout any form of official sanction or oversight,their size makes them easy to detect, and legalprinciples such as negligence and ineffectiveconsent make them easy to prosecute. Societypermits violent public events such as rugby,while condemning violent private entertainments", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The pursuit of pain for the purpose of achievingpleasure is an immoral act Not only does thestate have the right and obligation to uphold themorals of society and stop deviant behavior, butit also has an obligation to prevent escalation ofdeviance. Acts such as sadomasochism are goodindicators of the propensity for escalation tofurther deviant acts. With the passing of theAnti-Social Behaviour Act 2003 [i] in the UK, alegal precedent has been established where thegovernment has the right and obligation to tackleminor deviant behavior as it can be a precursorto larger and more harmful deviance in thefuture. Even if S&M was “victim-less”, itdemonstrates a propensity to inflict pain to gainpleasure and thus indicates high risk fordeveloping a craving for infliction of pain ofhigher magnitude and scope in the future, whichcould be even more damaging to society. [i]Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003.\"legislation.gov.uk. The National Archives, n.d.Web. 20 Jun 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It should first be observed that accidents andinadvertent harm can befall S&Mpractitioners irrespective of the level of cautionthat they exercise. It is unacceptable to requireresponsible adults to run the risk of prosecutionwhenever they engage in a consensual act ofsexual expression. Further, relationships, evensadomasochistic relationships, can break downand become acrimonious. There is a risk that anembittered partner who formerly consented toprohibited S&M activity might try to usethat fact to blackmail or persecute his or herex-lover. The opposition state that the freedomto dissent from laws regulating one’s privateconduct begins to break down when the numberof people engaging in a “private” activity grows.Why should the freedom to engage in aparticular sexual activity imply a trade offagainst the freedom to choose how many peoplewe engage in that activity with? Interacting withmultiple sexual partners is not, in itself, illegal inthe majority of western liberal states, but it does", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-tllgrhwds-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Sadomasochism need not be renderedcompletely free of risk. It is sufficient that eachparticipant is aware of the hazards and consentsto them. Moreover, no government can legislatefor the most reckless of its citizens. If anindividual is so disturbed as to place a plastic bagover his head for the purpose of sexualstimulation, the contrary opinion of the law willnot be a great deterrent. [i] Nevertheless,Sadomasochism can be rendered relatively freeof physical risk for its participants. ‘Safe words’can be agreed in advance, and then announcedto end an S&M session immediately. Whereparticipants are restrained or prevented fromspeaking, movement signals or the dropping of amarble held in the hand can be used to indicatewithdrawal of consent. This simple deviceensures that participants continue to agree tothe terms on which their encounters takeplace. It is patronizing to assume thatparticipants in S&M scenarios have notconsidered the possibility that expressions of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Although it is true that Bashar al-Assad has verystrong entrenched powers of control in Syria,there are less risky and damaging ways toundermine this to help support the domesticopposition movements if this is your aim. Thecrux of this case comes down to the capacity ofthe government to outspend the oppositionmovements, international sanctions and freezingof state and personal assets of high-rankingleaders in Syria combined with funding of theopposition movements in Syria would gain thissame end without involving Western troops onthe ground.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Success depends on military intervention. Thereis no reasonable chance of success for theopposition movement absent substantial militaryre-enforcement by the West. The Syriangovernment is uniquely placed for severalreasons to be able to quell any oppositionmovement and to rule by fear and force for anindefinite amount of time. Bashar al-Assad’slegitimacy is and never has been based on anytype of democratic mandate or popular support.He rules based on control and, as such, has builtup many institutions to entrench this capacity tocontrol the Syrian public over the years. Oilrevenues are high and Assad has very deepmonetary reserves that allow him to buy loyaltyfrom his military and equip himself beyond thecapacity of any domestic opposition group couldfeasibly do. Due to these two factors, the onlyway that Assad will fall is by force and by forcethat is far greater than can be attained withoutthe support of the West. Therefore, for thehumanitarian situation to be solved, the West", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "We have a duty to launch a humanitarianintervention in Syria. Widespread indiscriminatekilling of human beings is something thateveryone in the world has an obligation to end.Mass killing of people is something that affrontsthe very basic meaning of what it is to behuman. It denies the basic empathy and valuewe afford to each person on the basis of simplepersonhood and its occurrence is a black markon all human beings who allow it to occur whenthey hold the power to end it. In Syria today,the government forces are making their peoplelive in fear of death and are routinely taking thelives of innocent people in order to control theirpopulation through fear. This week alone, 33people were slaughtered by government forcesinclude 6 children [1] . The West has the moralobligation to intervene in Syria to protect thelives of the innocent people and end the reign ofterror of Bashar al-Assad. [1] \"Syria: UN HumanRights Committee Condemns Crackdown.\" BBCNews 23 Nov 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Even if we do have an obligation to end masssuffering and indiscriminate killing, invasion isnot the way to do so. Western intervention willinevitably increase the collateral damage byescalating the conflict into a full-scale war.Moreover, there is no guarantee thatintervention will solve this conflict in the long-runinstead of simply causing another endless warlike the one in Afghanistan or Iraq. Therefore,even if we have an obligation to intervention,invasion is not the way to do it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is no obligation to try every other option ifthe other options are unlikely to work. People areunjustly suffering now, and we have anobligation to end that suffering as quickly and asefficiently as possible. Sanctions andasset-freezing are notoriously ineffective onoil-producing countries like Syria. Going throughthe motions of attempting to pass authorizationfor these actions through the United NationsSecurity Council, attempting to get the entireworld to comply with the sanctions and thenwatching these actions not help anything. All thiswill do is prolong the suffering of the Syrianpeople.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The nature of the opposition movements makesthis an unwinnable war. The lack of coherentand unified opposition in Syria means that aWestern invasion force will have very lowchances of meaningful success. Westernintervention always carries the risk of fracturinga conflict by splintering opposition movementsinto those who do and those who do not supportWestern involvement in achieving their cause.This is problematic at best. With Syriaspecifically, this issue is augmented further stilldue to already existing lack of coherence andunity in the opposition movements. Absent aproper hierarchy and structure the oppositionmovement is going to be near impossible tocooperate with and will quickly splinter into aninsurgent-style conflict. There are multipleissues with this. First, there is very low chance ofsuccess in such a situation. Second, this set-up isthe type that is most likely to lead to a long,protracted conflict that does not serve theinterests of the West or the people of Syria.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Invasion is not yet justified. Invasion is anoption of very last resort, especially whendealing with a country of such strategicimportance such as Syria. Invasion is an optionof last resort because of the collateral damage itnecessarily leads to, the impediment onsovereignty it entails and the escalation ofconflict it entails. It’s the nuclear option that isreserved for the very last resort due to theseverity and unpredictability of its results. Withregards to Syria, we simply aren’t at the point oflast resort yet. The UN hasn’t even leviedsanctions against the Syrian government yet [1], never mind frozen Assad’s assets, triednegotiations or mediations, assisted domesticopposition groups or applied strong diplomaticpressure beyond a general condemnation. Thedanger you expose the citizens of Syria tocombined with the unknowable outcome of aninvasion means that it simply isn’t justified toeven consider invasion until all other means havebeen exhausted, which they haven’t been. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-rgmelhrpwhbw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The disunity of the opposition movements is theexact reason why we need to invade Syria. Theother measures that are usually used to avoidwar to aid opposition movements in oppressivedictatorships such as Syria, as outlined inOpposition Argument One, will not work. Theonly way we can end the slaughter of the Syrianpeople is through an invasion for this veryreason. Although it may be messy, we have avery real obligation to invade. This is one of thereasons that underpinned the decision of theinternational community to authorizeintervention in Libya, an intervention that can beseen to be broadly successful in ending thebrutal oppression in Libya [1] . [1] Clark, David.\"Libyan Intervention was a success, despite theaftermath's atrocities.\" Guardian 28 Oct 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "ASBOs offer a wide flexibility to the sentencingauthority as they are not only a punishment forpast actions but also a form of restraint toprevent future misbehaviour. They permit thejudge or magistrate to forbid the offender to goto a certain place, avoid a certain person, andban them from participating in a particularactivity. Without such powers, our courts willnever be able to deal with the rising tide ofyobbish behaviour that is, whilst not criminal,hugely damaging our communities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ASBOS encourage antisocial behavour ASBOsare explicitly intended to deal with bad juvenilebehaviour. But they encourage rather than dealwith such problems. They are viewed as badgesof honour that boosts street credibility amongstyoung gangs – the ‘naming and shaming’ justincreases this. [1] They push people that couldbe helped by social work or proper attention intoan unenviable category of ‘offender’ – theycriminalise people for behaviour that isn’tcriminal. [1] BBC News, ‘Asbos viewed as ‘badgeof honour’, 2 November 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The problem of service and enforcement ofASBOs is identical that of all other court ordersand can be solved the same way – in theproposition example the obvious solution wouldbe to ensure that the youth in question had hadthe order fully explained to him on service. AnASBO can only be made after a court hearingwhere both sides have the opportunity to havetheir say. The burden of proof remains on theperson seeking the order to show why it isnecessary. An impartial magistrate oversees thehearing. People subject to ASBOs are typicallyallowed to breach it several times before seriousenforcement action is taken against them. Thefact is that the system of ASBOs is perfectly justand a much more liberal alternative to simplycriminalising minor anti-social behaviouraltogether", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "ASBOs do not address the real problem ASBOsaddress the symptom, not the condition. Theirpowers are wide and undefined – too wide,meaning that Judges and magistrates can dopretty much whatever they like. Certainly thereare problems in the way people conductthemselves – but if such behaviour isn’t criminal,then it’s up to families and communities to fix it.The ASBO is the latest example of excessivestate interference in the lives of citizens. Eitherconduct is criminal, or it is not. The law ofnuisance exists. Restraining orders exist. ASBOsaren’t intended to deal with that kind of problem:they’re the tool of the state controllingbehaviour. Just because a problem exists,doesn’t mean it’s the job of the state to try andfix it. The powers granted to the state in itsefforts are disproportionate to the problemsconcerned. Indeed, the current trend is againstsuch interference both as shown by the potentialreplacement of ASBOs and by court decisionssuch as one that people should not be punished", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Something meaningful has to exist to punishactions that don’t merit criminal punishment, butdamage the quality of life of others, especiallythrough constant repetition. The ASBO is such atool. It is intended to be the primary weapon in a‘zero tolerance’ environment. ASBOs allowcommunities to take back their streets andestates from intimidating and out of controlyouths, and to establish proper norms ofbehaviour. In this way a slide into more seriouslawlessness and criminality can be prevented,and the rights of the law-abiding majority towalk the streets and live peacefully with theirneighbours can be secured.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The wackier examples of ASBOs are actuallydemonstrations of what the order can do andother laws cannot. The woman who has an ASBOrestraining her from jumping into rivers showsthat the order can help with the thorny problemof actions that aren’t illegal, but place hugeburdens on the emergency services and placethe police and other citizens at risk.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "ASBOS breach basic principles of justice “Ayouth recently appeared in Court in Manchesterfor breach of his ASBO. The Order had beenmade in the youth's absence without his beingable to give his side of the story (one of the mainconcerns about ASBOs and one that can lead tomisuse). The day after the Order was madesomeone came to his house to \"serve\" it on him.This consisted of his being handed a copy ofwhat was a fairly bulky document running toseveral dozen pages with no attempt to explain itor even to ascertain if he was literate enough toread it. The Order included an restrictionpreventing him entering a particular estatenearby and another preventing him fromassociating with certain others. Unfortunately, hewent out before reading the Order and beachedit twice that day. The next day he went out againand breached it three times by mistake as hehad not read the part covering the particularrestriction. He now faces possibly custodyalthough he has never been convicted of a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "There is no respect among the population forASBOS Newspapers are full of examples ofabsurd ASBOs. They make an ass of the law andshow that the nanny state is overreaching.People trying to kill themselves really aren’tgoing to be put off by the prospect of breachingtheir ASBO. [1] Other examples include aprostitute who was prohibited from carryingcondoms in an area that included her drug clinic,a prohibition on mobile soup vans that fed thehomeless and a deaf girl who was banned fromspitting in public. [2] [1] BBC News, ‘Suicidewoman banned from river’, 25 February2005, [2] Select Committee on Home Affairs,‘Anti-Social Behaviour Orders – Analysis of theFirst Six Years’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Criminal behaviour ought to be dealt with by theordinary criminal law – not through variousforms of civil order. While much discussed,criminality is criminality, and non-criminalanti-social behaviour, while anti-social, shouldnot be criminalized directly or indirectly.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Sentencing shouldn’t be affected by suchconsiderations. If we need more prisons, weshould build them. The point is that offendersshould get the punishment they deserve. If theyonly need light punishment, fine – but don’targue that those who should otherwise go toprison must get ASBOs for economic reasons –this is an affront to victims and to society anddilutes the disincentive to offend.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-con02a", "title": "", "text": "No system is perfect Of course, some ASBOsfail. But no aspect of the justice system has a100% success rate, and by their nature ASBOsare more likely to be abused because (unlikeprison) the offender remains in his ownenvironment. Should more in breach of ASBOsbe punished? Sure. That’s not an argumentagainst ASBOs though, is it? Neither is the factthat not enough are handed down. Although theuse of ASBOs around the country is still patchy,some authorities have made very effective use ofthem to improve life in many local communities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Useful tool to combat anti-socialbehaviour ASBOs are a useful tool in thearmoury in order to combat anti-socialbehaviour. Anti-social behaviour is a seriousproblem in the wider community (76% thinking itis a moderate or big problem in 2006 [1] ) –abolishing them would send out a message thatsuch behaviour is acceptable. [1] Weaver, Matt,‘UK ‘has worst behaviour problem in Europe’’,theguardian.com, 9 May 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-con01a", "title": "", "text": "We need to imprison fewer people The prisonpopulation is soaring, to 87749 on 5th November2011 in England and Wales, and we have to findways to keep it down, or at least slow the speedof its rise. Talking about crushing sentences forall may arouse the passions of a certain type ofvoter but we have to have a pragmatic look atthe pressures on the system. The UK has thesecond highest incarceration rate in westernEurope and 63% of prisons overcrowded inSeptember 2011 and several times over the fewyears the prison population has come close togoing over the capacity of the prison serviceresulting in having to use cells in police stations.[1] ASBOs are one way to punish offenders whilestill ensuring they have continuing access toeducation, family support, job opportunities,etc., and they are much cheaper than thealternative of prison. [1] Berman, Gavin, ‘Prisonpopulation statistics’, House of CommonsLibrary, 7 November 2011, www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN04334.pdf", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplgpsyhwsas-con02b", "title": "", "text": "58% of ASBOs have been breached, [1] withlittle resulting punishment. Only 2% of thosewho breach their ASBO are currently punishedwith a prison sentence. [2] This brings thejustice system into disrepute. It doesn’t seem tomatter if they’re breached – so people don’t careabout getting them. Furthermore, they’re notgranted in anything like the proportions neededto have an effect: 5,000 were supposed to beimposed every year, but instead only 3,800 wereused in the first five years. [1] ‘StatisticalNotice: Anti-Social Behaviour Order (ASBO)Statistics - England and Wales 2012’, gov.uk,2013, [2] ‘No prison for Asbo-breaching yobs’,Metro,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhshsi-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Many of these so-called “stunts” may actually belegitimate accusations that deserve to be heardin a court. If an accusation is unfounded, chargeswill not be brought (or not confirmed at the ICC,for example), or a verdict of not guiltyreturned. Just because a person is high profiledoes not mean that they are innocent ofwrongdoing. In the Livni case she as ForeignMinister may have been the wrong target. Amore appropriate one would be the Defenseminister or Prime Minister but it isunderstandable that there should be an effort tomake ministers accountable for military actionsthey initiate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhshsi-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Helps avoid political stunt trials Heads of stateand senior politicians are targets for politicalstunts. This could be seeking to get a politicalopponent locked up so as to benefit from theremoval of an opponent. Alternatively it may beas part of a publicity stunt to highlight their ownissue of concern or organisation. In both casesthe trial does not need to convict as the figurebeing in a trial will be enough to damage themand provide publicity. In 2009, following arequest by supporters of Palestine, an arrestwarrant was sought at Westminster magistrates’court for the arrest of Tzipi Livni, who wasForeign Minister of Israel during Israel’s2008-2009 invasion of the Gaza Strip, alsoknown as Operation Cast Lead. At the time of theattempted arrest Livni was no longer in office butthe action was clearly a stunt. Livni was notarrested in the end, because she cancelled hertrip to the UK, and the warrant was dropped bythe Director of Public Prosecutions, Kier Starmer[1] . However, a needless diplomatic incident", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhshsi-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "That’s equally an argument against internationalcriminal law as head of state immunity. Whilethere may be instances where the head of stateor government has to take decisions that mightbe criminal for the greater good – for exampleordering the abduction or assassination of aterrorist – these instances are rare and most ofthe time the courts will take into account thegood as well as the bad. However there areequally times where it is good that someonefears prosecution, if they do it is a sign that whatthey are doing is wrong. Bombing of Germanycould have ended when all military targets hadbeen hit, it need not have involved incendiarybombing of civilian targets. In Japan there was athird option of accepting a conditional surrender– one that guaranteed the position of theEmperor, since the Allies ultimately agreed thisanyway there would have been little loss.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhshsi-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Necessity for diplomatic relations Internationaldiplomacy involves visits by both diplomats andgovernment figures to other states. This caneven include states where relations are tense oreven hostile. India and Pakistan, who have avery tense relationship and share one of themost fortified borders in the world, the line ofcontrol that divides Kashmir, have embassies ineach other. Even throughout the Cold War, theUSA and Soviet Union had a full and normaldiplomatic relations. Just as diplomaticimmunity prevents politically motivated arrestsof diplomats, head of state immunity isnecessary to “grease the wheels” of internationaldiplomacy to allow international summits to takeplace without campaigns for the arrest and trialbefore domestic courts of foreign politicians. If ahead of state were to be arrested for trial beforea foreign domestic court, it would causeimmense damage to diplomatic relationsbetween those two countries, Russia recently gotinto a row over the arrest of one of its diplomats", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhshsi-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Whatever the justification, impunity isunacceptable. It is a key part of the rule of lawthat everyone is subject to the law. To grantindividuals impunity for whatever reason isunacceptable. Even if diplomatic immunity isaccepted, diplomats are less likely in their role tocommit international crimes that a head of stateor government is because diplomats do not haveaccess to the coercive machinery that enablethese crimes. Diplomatic relations can carry onvery well without senior government figuresbeing able to travel wherever they want to.Summits are a luxury not a necessity and mostof the deals they make have been hammered outby the diplomats beforehand.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhshsi-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Greater good – fear of prosecutionproblematic Sometimes people will do badthings in order to achieve good and necessaryresults. For example, the Allied bombingcampaigns in the Second World War would behighly likely to amount to a war crime under theRome Statute if they were done today. Theywere indiscriminate, they targeted civilians, andadditionally even at the time were recognised ashaving little military value. Instead the idea wasto terrorise the civilian population. [1] Yet theywere considered to be necessary as showing theallies were doing something to aid the SovietUnion. The same might be the case with thedropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima andNagasaki, they clearly targeted civilians, yet ifthey helped end the war without a groundinvasion of Japan then this war crime might havebeen for the greater good. [2] Head of stateimmunity allows individuals to take unpopularand difficult decisions that are necessary for agreater good in government without fear of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhshsi-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is no evidence as a whole to suggestinternational criminal law as a whole is adeterrent. Risk of prosecution or no risk ofprosecution, there will always be leaders whocommit horrible acts. Those who reachleadership positions where they can carry outacts that are considered to be heinous enoughthat they are prosecuted internationally clearlydon’t believe that they will ever be brought totrial so likely consider whether or not they haveimmunity to be irrelevant.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhshsi-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Even though it does effectively create impunity,this is not a unique phenomenon. Decisions onwho to prosecute will always happen, and someform of bias against prosecuting powerful peopleis to some extent inevitable. So in practice noteveryone is equal before the law. The ICCspecifically builds in a way of deferringprosecutions if needed in Article 16 of the RomeStatute. This shows that the ICC accepts theneed to postpone cases, possibly indefinitely.The ICC therefore in practice accepts it cannotprosecute in every case where there may be acase to answer.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhshsi-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Legal precedent for prosecution of heads ofgovernment The prosecution of high rankinggovernment officials is part of the Nurembergprecedent that international criminal law largelydates back to. Hideki Tojo, the Prime Minister ofImperial Japan in the Second World War, wastried, convicted and executed as part of theTokyo trials for Japan’s acts of aggression ingoing to war. Karl Doenitz was prosecuteddespite having briefly been Germany’s head ofstate; that position did not nullify the crimes hecarried out as commander of Germany’sunrestricted submarine warfarecampaign. Following that, the ICTY triedSlobodan Milosevic, who died before the trialfinished, and the Special Court for Sierra Leoneconvicted Charles Taylor. It is nothing new thatinternational criminals can be prosecuted. Whileleaders have, and often still are, able to preventthemselves from being tied in their own countrywhile they are in charge this should not apply theworld over.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhshsi-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Head of State immunity reduces the deterrenteffect of international criminal law Internationalcriminal law, like any other form of criminal law,is supposed to be a deterrent. By giving a classof individuals impunity, these people cannot bedeterred by International Criminal Law fromcommitting some of the worst crimes known tohumanity, including genocide. It is plain thatmany people who reach the heights of politicalpower will use any method to remain in power –thus the resort to intimidation where it can beused to affect the vote, or in the case of SilvioBerlusconi the attempt to put in place animmunity law to prevent himself from beingprosecuted for corruption. [1] Immunity willenable both large and small criminal acts, neitherof which should be allowed. [1] Kennedy,Duncan, ‘Berlusconi immunity law overruled’,BBC News, 8 October 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhshsi-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Impunity is repugnant to the rule of law A keyprinciple of the rule of law is that everyone issubject to the law – even the agents of states [1]. It must apply equally to the most as well as theleast powerful. This must apply to internationalcriminal law as well as the domestic criminal law.It would be unjustifiable for one individual to beable to face prosecution as a private citizen forgenocide, but not a head of state who has muchgreater capacity to engage in such acts. Iteffectively would allow genocide, which isprohibited by a convention the vast majority ofstates have signed and ratified, as an expressionof national sovereignty. [1] ‘What is the rule oflaw?’, United Nations Rule of Law,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-hrilhshsi-con02b", "title": "", "text": "No head of state was successfully prosecuted bya partially international court until Charles Taylorwas convicted by the hybrid Special Court forSierra Leone, the first to go on trial was in 1994.None of the post WW2 Allied trials featured asignificant head of state; Hitler was dead and theentire Japanese imperial family was not charged,including emperor Hirohito, who continuedserving as Japanese head of state until his deathin 1989. The charges against Doenitz allpertained to his actions prior to him taking theleadership of Germany so they cannot be said tobe actions taken in the role of head of state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The reason why the death penalty is soexpensive – 13 executions since 1978 inCalifornia costing around $4bn [1] - is the “superdue process” that is necessary in capital cases,especially with the large flaws in the US justicesystem. Blacker makes no coherent proposal onhow he would modify the appeals system.Removing or reducing it would make it verylikely that more innocent people would beexecuted. To accuse people who want toprevent criminals deaths of wasting money ismore or less victim blaming. [1] Alarcon, Arthurand Mitchell, Paula, “Executing the will of thevoters? A roadmap to mend or end the Californialegislature’s multi-billion dollar death penaltydebacle”, Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review,2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Could be cheaper While budget should not bethe primary concern of the justice system, Thedeath penalty, when applied properly, can becheaper. A lethal injection, or a few bullets, costsfar less than keeping a person incarcerated for along time, especially if they need long termhealth or other care in old age. The longersomeone is in jail the greater the cost to thestate. The costs of the implementation of thedeath penalty are driven up by anti-deathpenalty activists using the appeals system. Sincethe death penalty would only be applied to theworst of the worst when there is absolute moralcertainty there would be less need for extensiveappeals because there would be less marginalcases.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "While Blecker proposes a three step test in adraft statute, it does not feature much legalcertainty – it features a large amount of jurydiscretion, which was deemed to be a violation ofthe US constitution [1] . Any such elasticdefinition would allow prosecutors to make anargument that pretty much any case is withinsuch a category. It also continues due use of“death qualified juries”, exclusively made up ofdeath penalty supporters [2] , which are raciallyskewed toward being whiter. Would this then endup really being for the worst of the worst? [1]See Furman v Georgia, 408 US 238 (1972) [2]See Witherspoon v Illinois, 391 US 510 (1968)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Necessary for punitive justice The concept ofpunishment is inherently based on retribution.“We don’t punish to prevent crime or remakecriminals. We inflict pain-suffering, discomfort-tothe degree they deserve to feel it.” [1]Retribution can be distinguished from revenge –retribution does not always seek to imposepunishment that is the same as the original act,and never more. The punishment must fit thecrime so capital punishment is therefore anappropriate punishment for the worst of theworst – an eye for an eye. [1] Blecker, p.28", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "By keeping a person locked up for life, whichmay well be appropriate for the “worst of theworst”, they are incapacitated for life. It similarlysatisfied any retributive instinct, providing a totalpunishment, a form of internal banishment andtotal civil death – if one considers retributivejustice desirable. Moreover this is inconsistent.If we are inflicting an eye for an eye becausethey deserve it then why should the deathpenalty reserved for the worst of the worst?Should it not be exactly proportional – whichwould mean all murderers should face the deathpenalty.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Those who are murdered are not some publicresource – they are not our relatives. We mayfeel sorrow for the victims and their family butuninvolved members of society have no reasonto demand punishment on account of them beingmembers of ‘our family’. What of all those whodo not feel such resentment, should societyenact a death penalty simply to gratify a part ofthe population that feels this way. This is not arational grounds for a death penalty even for thevery worst. In order to claim that the societywants the criminals' blood, you have to makesure that a)everyone does; b)the person killeddeserves to be avenged.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Can be reserved for the worst of the worst Forthose who are concerned about some of thepractical objections to the American deathpenalty, it is possible to restrict the deathpenalty to those most deserving of it: “the worstof the worst”, those like Anders Behring Breivik,Charles Manson and Harold Shipman. The deathpenalty should not be for people who areconvicted as a result of three strikes - in 2004,someone was convicted of first degree murderwith a whole life sentence for lending a friend acar [1] – it should not be a default sentence.[2] [1] Liptak, Adam, “Serving Life for ProvidingCar to Killers”, The New York Times, 4thDecember 2007, [2] Blecker, p.210", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Killers must die to satisfy society Those whohave damaged society by robbing it of one of itsmembers must pay for their crime. Adam Smithargued “We feel that resentment which weimagine he ought to feel, and which he wouldfeel, if in his cold and lifeless body thereremained any consciousness of what passesupon earth. His blood, we think, calls aloud forvengeance.” [1] It is not just the wrongedindividual who needs there to be retribution butsociety as a whole. Everyone in society iswronged by particularly heinous crimes asBlecker says of two horrific crimes “Those weremy children, my wife that Coker raped andmurdered, my sister Speck killed”. [2] [1]Smith, Adam, ‘The theory of Moral Sentiments”,MetaLibri Sixth Edition, 1790, p.62 [2] Blecker,p.30", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This is not a higher discrepancy thanimprisonment, meaning the problems may wellbe socio-economic rather than justice related. Areason for this discrepancy may be the felonymurder rule – that any death caused by a felony,even if it would normally amount tomanslaughter, constitutes murder (in somecases, first degree murder) – if that is the case,the felony murder rule should be abolished. Ifcapital punishment were reserved for the worstof the worst then this racial bias would be almosteliminated. [1] [1] Blecker, p.237", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The state using the legal process being trusted todo something is different between an individualdoing so. The state executing people is the onlyway that justice can be achieved; there is amoral difference between execution in support ofsociety and murder against society. There is animmense difference between a murder and alawful killing by the state. If the death penaltymakes the state no better than a murderer thena soldier is one too. In a more absolutist view, ifcapital punishment devalues life, do fines fortheft devalue property?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Too many innocents killed Capital punishment inthe US kills too many innocent people. Over 143people who were innocent were exonerated fromdeath row since 1973 [1] . One person executedis too many – it has already happened in the US,with Carlos DeLuna [2] . It is likely that manyinnocent people have been executed in the US –it is a price not worth paying. [1] Death PenaltyInformation Centre, “Innocence list”, DPIC.org,2013, [2] Pilkington, Ed, “The wrong Carlos:how Texas sent an innocent man to his death”,The Guardian, 15 May 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Who are the worst of the worst? Killing theworst of the worst is essentially arbitrary. Evenwith a list of aggravators balanced by mitigationsthe death penalty is hardly going to be left tojust the very worst. In the case of Daryl Holtonwho killed his four children Blecker decides “Iremain convinced, but not morally certain, thathe deserved to die.” [1] This shows there willalways be cases that are borderline. Moreovereveryone’s views of the worst of the worst aredifferent. Is Holton the “worst of the worst” orshould that category be reserved for Hitler andPol Pot? [1] Blecker, p.197", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The death penalty is racist Like the rest of theAmerican criminal justice system, capitalpunishment in America is institutionally racist:black men make up 6% of the US population as awhole but 40% of those on Death Row [1] . Inthe US, African-Americans and White people aremurdered in almost equal numbers, but 80% ofthose executed since 1977 were convicted of themurder of a white [2] . [1] Blecker, p.237 [2]Amnesty International, “United States ofAmerica: Death by Discrimination – thecontinuing role of race in capital cases”, AmnestyInternational, 2003,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Hypocrisy Suggesting the death penalty shouldbe used as a deterrent is nothing other thanarguing that people should be killed to show thatpeople killing people is wrong. There is littleevidence that it works; when Canada abolishedthe death penalty nationally in 1976, thehomicide rate fell from 3.09 in 1975 to 2.31 in1980. [1] In that sense, imposing the deathpenalty makes the state no better than themurderer, and a murderer in itself by killing aperson in such circumstances. If we are usingthe death penalty to punish the murderer thenwhat should we use to punish the state for itsactions? [1] Amnesty International, ‘Document– The Death Penalty, Questions and Answers’,accessed 3rd January 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Regardless of the categorisation there are somewho are worst of the worst. It is up to individualstates and societies to determine who qualifiesas the worst of the worst for them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsdpww-con02b", "title": "", "text": "As in any activity in life, a risk will exist in anyjustice system – many innocent people are inprisons. But there are also risks inherent in beingtoo lenient and letting the worst of the worst outagain in the future. However, capitalpunishment can be used less, and a higherstandard of proof can be used in capital cases.“In the end, we must risk a minuscule possibilityof error for the near certainty of justice.” [1] [1]Blecker, p.275", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwhcdd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The database is immaterial to the acquittal orexclusion of non-offenders. Where a primarysuspect has been identified, a DNA profile oughtto be created and compared to the crime scenedata. Likewise, where suspicions persistconcerning the guilt or innocence of a convictedindividual, a sample of DNA can be taken. Thedatabase has predominant application in'non-suspect' cases, and not the circumstanceswhere the suspect or felon is already identified.It is also important to keep claims regarding theefficacy of DNA matching in context, ChiefConstable Sims of the British Metropolitan Policestated that of '4.9 million crimes reported eachyear, of which 1.3 million are 'detected' (lead tocharges)' only 33,000 involve DNA matching1. 1Home Affairs Committee. (2010, March 4). TheNational DNA Database. Retrieved May 19, 2011,from UK Parliament:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwhcdd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "DNA evidence would reduce the risk of wrongfulconviction The increased use of DNA evidencewill minimize the risk of future wrongfulconvictions. An FBI study indicates that since1989 DNA evidence has excluded the primarycandidate in 25% of sexual assault cases1. Thisnot only saves valuable police time, but ensuressuspects are not called in for unnecessary andstressful questioning. Moreover, forensicallyvaluable DNA can be found on evidence that hasexisted for decades, and thus assist in reversingprevious miscarriages of justice. There havebeen a number of recent, high-profile cases ofdeath row inmates being released on thegrounds of DNA evidence, unavailable when theywere first convicted. A DNA database would notmerely render wrong verdicts right, but preventsuch verdicts ever being made. 1 U.S.Department of Justice. (1996, June). Convictedby Juries, Exonerated by Science. Retrieved May19, 2011, from U.S. Department of Justice:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwhcdd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There is no such guarantee that a DNA databasewould have such an effect. In fact, there is aserious risk that genetic evidence will be used tothe exclusion of material that might prove theinnocence of the suspect. It is further likely thatmore crimes will be prosecuted on account oflargely circumstantial evidence. Moreover, thereis the possibility that not only the police, but alsothe jury, will be blinded by science. It seemsunlikely that juries will be able to comprehend,or more importantly, to question, the geneticinformation that is yielded by the database. Theirony is that forensic evidence has beeninstrumental in establishing the miscarriages ofBritish justice in the 1970s, but might now serveto create miscarriages of its own.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwhcdd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A DNA database would lead to more convictions,particularly in cases of violent crime Althoughoverall levels of crime in England and Wales havedecreased over the previous decade, the numberof violent crimes against the person hasmarkedly increased. These are the offenceswhich raise most grave public concern and whichare unlikely to leave conventional fingerprints.The National Commission on the Future of DNAEvidence estimates that thirty per cent of crimescenes contain the blood, semen, or saliva of theperpetrator1. DNA detection will be bestequipped to identify the guilty. A full databaseought to allow the use of DNA as an investigativetool where no suspect has yet been identified.Studies support this assertion; 'the overalldetection rate for crimes of 23.5% rises to 38%where DNA is successfully recovered'2.Furthermore, in the United States, the number ofreported rapes dropped to its lowest level in twodecades due in large part to the use of DNAevidence3 1 Weathersbee, F. (1999, March 1).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwhcdd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The most serious violent crimes, notably theoffences of rape and murder, are mostcommonly committed by individuals known tothe victim. When the suspects for thecommission of a crime are obvious, DNAdetection is superfluous. Moreover, it is invidiousto propagate the belief in the public that crimescan be solved, or criminals deterred, bycomputer wizardry; evidence collected by a UKParliamentary Commission suggests DNAmatching led to crime detection in as little as0.3% of cases1. Ultimately, unless the DNA isused to identify a genetic cause for aggression,violent crimes will continue to be committed 1Home Affairs Committee. (2010, March 4). TheNational DNA Database. Retrieved May 19, 2011,from UK Parliament:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwhcdd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "A DNA database would reduce the time spenttracking down suspects A DNA database is notintended to replace conventional criminalinvestigation. The database ought to identify thepotential suspects, each of whom can then beinvestigated by more conventional means.During 2008/09 in the United Kingdom, 'almost 6in 10 crime scene profiles loaded to the NationalDNA Database were matched to a subjectprofile'1. There is no possibility of escaping theprovision of technical evidence before a court.Doctors, ballistics experts, forensic scientists arealready a common feature of the large criminaltrial. The jury system is actually a bastionagainst conviction on account of complicatedscientific facts. The British jury is instructed toacquit a defendant where they find reasonabledoubt. If the genetic data and associatedevidence is insufficiently conclusive, or presentedwithout sufficient clarity, the jury is obliged tofind the defendant not guilty. 1 NDNAD. (2009).National DNA Database: Annual Report 2007-09.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwhcdd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The use of a DNA fingerprint can scarcely beregarded as an affront to civil liberties andtherefore requiring consent. Firstly, as a BritishHome Office spokeswoman noted, 'before aperson's profile can be added to (the database),the person must have been arrested for arecordable offence. That is a significantthreshold'2. Furthermore, the procedure fortaking a sample of DNA is less invasive than thatrequired for the removal of blood. The policealready possess a vast volume of informationrelating to the citizenry. The National CrimeInformation Center Computer in the UnitedStates contains files relating to fifteen millionAmericans and receives approximately sevenmillion queries each day2. The availability of aDNA fingerprint to the police should be seen inthe context of the personal information that isalready held by outside agencies. Insurancebrokers commonly require an extensive medicalhistory of their clients. Employers subject theiremployees to random urine tests for drug and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwhcdd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Retaining the DNA of unconvicted suspects is notunlawful, only retaining it indefinitely. NewBritish proposals to meet the requirements of theEuropean Court of Human Rights' judgment areto ensure the DNA of the unconvicted remains onthe database for just 6 years. The law has to belaid down in a set manner rather than impreciseterms. Loopholes are often found but in the longrun, they are what create a fair and just legalsystem. We cannot have loose laws, everythingmust turn on the wording. The ruling stated thatthe DNA of the innocent could not be savedindefinitely, so the British government isproposing that this DNA only be kept on thesystem for 6 years. They have done what theCourt has asked them to do, to take away thepermanency; a DNA database remains.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwhcdd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "DNA testing is fallible, and therefore should notbe used as the basis of convictions AlthoughDNA detection might have advantages overfingerprint dusting, the test is neverthelessfallible. Environmental factors at the crime scenesuch as heat, sunlight, or bacteria can corruptany genetic data. Any DNA evidence must bestored in sterile and temperature controlledconditions. Criminals have been suspected ofcontaminating samples by swapping saliva.There is room for human error or fraud incomparing samples taken from suspects withthose removed from a crime scene. The accuracyof any genetic profile is dependent upon thenumber of genes examined. Where less than fouror five genes can be investigated, the PCRtechnique serves only to exaggerate any defectsor omissions in the sample. In 1995 an 18 monthinvestigation was launched into allegations thatthe FBI Crime Lab was 'dry-labbing' or fakingresults of DNA comparisons1. Furthermore, inthe United Kingdom, the company used by police", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwhcdd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Having a DNA database should require individualconsent The invasiveness of the databaseresides in the information being maintained onfile, rather than in the procedure for obtainingthe genetic data. The decision to pass personalinformation to mortgage or insurance agencies isgoverned by individual consent. When the citizenreleases information to outside agencies hereceives a service in return. In being compelledto give a sample of DNA the innocent citizenwould receive the scant benefit of beingeliminated from a police investigation. Moreover,medical records are already subject to asignificant degree of statutory protection frominvestigation. The use of genetic tests byinsurance companies remains highlycontroversial. There is considerable potential forabuse of information that is so private, theperson giving the sample will probably not knowits contents and they will certainly not know thepossible ways the information may be used1.Finally, there is a subtle yet significant difference", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwhcdd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Retaining the DNA of unconvicted suspects isunlawful The European Court of Human Rightswas quite clear when it stated that retainingindefinitely the DNA and fingerprint records ofunconvicted suspects is unlawful1. TheStrasbourg court made a unanimous decisionthat the UK keeping the DNA of the unconvictedon a database permanently was contrary tohuman rights and therefore illegal. They statedthat due to the high level of disruption to humanrights, on this issue the court would not havemuch \"margin of appreciation\" or leeway.Subsequent attempts to justify the databasehave been dismissed by the Commission asfailing to provide 'clear, justifiable reasons forholding on to the DNA data from people who hadnot been convicted of a crime'2. The Commissionalso felt the retention of DNA profiles 'failed torecognise there were a disproportionate numberof young black men, vulnerable people andchildren on the database'2 1 BBC News. (2007,September 5). All UK 'must be on DNA", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cplghwhcdd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "DNA fingerprinting has considerable advantagesover conventional means of forensic crimedetection, advantages that render any slightfallibility irrelevant. Conventional fingerprintsattach only to hard surfaces, can be smeared, oravoided by the use of gloves. Even a clear printrequires a significant degree of interpretation byinvestigating officers. The standard technique ofcomparing fourteen points between the printtaken at the crime scene and the print of theaccused has been subject to severe criticism.The novel 'polymerase chain reaction' (PCR)amplification technique facilitates an accurateDNA profile from very small amounts of geneticdata. The fingerprint can be constructednotwithstanding contamination from oil, water oracid in the crime scene environment. Theinnocent and the accused should appreciate anovel fingerprinting technique that is bothobjective and accurate. Lastly, fears of wrongfulconviction are misguided, a 2002 study foundonly 'two cases worldwide'1. 1 Phillipson, G.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Although protecting children domestic abuse is ofvital importance curfews are not the mostappropriate way of doing so. Problems at homemay be the reason the young person spends somuch time out on the streets in the first place. Ifthat is the case, it could be dangerous to forcethem to stay where they may be at risk of abuse.Also, curfews infringe upon the rights of parentsto bring up their children as they choose. Simplybecause we dislike the way some parents treattheir children should not mean that we interveneto stop it; should we intervene in families whereconservative religious beliefs are preached? 1 1Hidden Hurt", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Curfews also have an important role in theprotection of vulnerable children The use of childcurfews can help to protect vulnerable children.Although responsible parents do not let youngchildren out in the streets after dark, not allparents are responsible and inevitably theirchildren suffer, both from crime and in accidents,and are likely to fall into bad habits. Sir Ian Blairformer chief commissioner of the Metropolitanpolice argued that curfews were aimed atsafeguarding youngsters and stopping gangscausing trouble.1 Society should ensure thatsuch neglected children are returned home safelyand that their parents are made to face up totheir responsibilities.2 1. Rosie Cowan, 2004, 2.Ward, 2000,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Curfews are not enforceable even if they are wellknown by residents and anyone can report thosebreaking curfew. It simply means that youngpeople are trying to avoid the police so that theydo not get fined. The police are only ever likelyto catch a small number of those who areviolating the curfew resulting in there being littledeterrence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "It is best for children to be at home in theevening. There is no good reason for children tobe out unaccompanied late at night, so a curfewis not really a restriction upon their liberty.Where the child does have good reasons to beout they can be covered by the exceptions. Theywould be better off at home doing schoolwork,schools often set more than an hour a nightwhich the children should be doing. The timewould also be better spent interacting with therest of their family.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The main objective of curfews is usually crimeprevention. Youth crime is a major and growingproblem, often involving both drugs andviolence. Particularly worrying is the rise of youthgangs who can terrorise urban areas and createa social climate in which criminality becomes anorm. Imposing youth curfews can help to solvethese problems, as they keep young people offthe street, and therefore out of trouble, andprevent them from congregating in the hours ofdarkness. Police in Philadelphia have foundcurfews effective in the prevention of gangviolence: ‘the measure has been successful inhelping to curb violent attacks by teen mobs thathad severely injured several people in recentmonths, city officials said.’ 1 1. AssociatedPress, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Curfews are largely ineffective in preventingcrime. Curfews do not target the right times ofday as most juvenile crime appears to take placebetween 3 p.m. and 8 p.m., after the end ofschool and before working parents return home,rather than in the hours covered by curfews.There are many reports providing evidence thatjuvenile curfews do not have a significant effectupon crime figures. In addition, although societydoes have a problem with youth behaviour,although it is not as bad as the newspapersmake out. What is often labelled anti-socialbehaviour today was considered normal for kidsin the past – things like playing football in thestreet, going around in groups without an adultin charge, making a bit of noise sometimes, etc.We need to be careful to draw a line betweenthings that some people don’t like, and actualcrime.1 1 Adams, 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Children in their mid-teens have many legitimatereasons to be out at night without adults. Manywill have part-time jobs, for example in fast-foodrestaurants or delivering newspapers. Others willwish to participate in activities such as churchgroups, youth clubs or school trip. Whilst thereare clauses for allowing such activity, the fear ofnot being believed would be a serious chillingeffect on uptake. Requiring adults always to takethem to and from such activities is unreasonableand will ensure that many never take place inthe first place, either because adults areunwilling, or are unable to do so.1 1. NYRA,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "A number of alternative strategies exist whichare likely to do more to reduce youth crime. Forexample, rather than a blanket curfew coveringall young people, individual curfews could beimposed upon particular trouble-makers,perhaps involving electronic tagging, breaking upgangs without labelling an entire age-group ascriminal. A Scottish scheme puts plenty of policeofficers on the streets at night with a brief toengage with young people, deterring crime whilesteering them towards a range of youth activitiesavailable at clubs set up by the local council.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "A curfew is practical. Very few children aregoing to be out late at night without an adult orvery good reason. This helps make curfewsenforceable as the police will be patrollinganyway, and any responsible adult can reportchildren who are out after curfew. The curfewcould therefore be for all young people, definedas those under the age of 18, beginning at 10pmon both weeknights and weekends and ending atsunrise, with the exceptions like those noted inthe introduction. Curfew violations arepunishable by fines and penalty assessments. InLos Angeles these total $675, and violations mayalso result in community service and driver'slicense restrictions. The amount can vary withPhiladelphia only having a $250 fine. 1 1.Findlaw", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Curfews are most effective when used ashort-term aid to other policing measures. Otherschemes aimed at reducing youth crime arehighly effective but work best in conjunction withcurfews. As the National Crime PreventionCouncil states: ‘A curfew alone won’t stop crime.More preventive measures, including recreationalactivities and job opportunities, are needed toreach out to young people and keep them fromcommitting crimes.’ 1 In areas with a wholeculture of lawlessness a curfew takes thebasically law-abiding majority off the streets,allowing the police to engage with the mostdifficult element. Curfews are a tool in thestruggle to improve lives in run-down areas;they often used for relatively short periods of afew weeks or months in order to bring a situationunder control so that other measures can be putin place and given a chance to work.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Child curfews are an important form of zerotolerance policing, showing that a community willnot allow an atmosphere of lawlessness todevelop. Paul McKeever, Chairman of the PoliceFederation in England and Wales, argues that:‘“It would send out the message that we areserious that the criminal justice system has thepower to impose immediate sanctions for badbehaviour and that “no” will mean “no”. At themoment no is negotiable.1”The idea of zerotolerance comes from the theory that if low-levelcrimes, like graffiti-spraying, window breakingand drug-dealing (all common juvenile offences)are not acted against swiftly and effectively bythe police, then a permissive atmosphere iscreated where violence and other serious crimesflourish and law and order breaks downentirely. 1. McKeever, 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Curfews are easy to police compared to otherforms of crime prevention, and are thereforeeffective. Child curfews can help to the police toestablish a climate of zero tolerance and tocreate a safer community for everyone.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Curfews compromise children's rights. Youthcurfews infringe upon individual rights andliberties. Children have a right to freedom ofmovement and assembly which curfews directlyundermine, by criminalising their simplepresence in a public space. They are also subjectto blanket discrimination on the grounds of ageand the underlying assumption that all youngpeople are potential law-breakers. It has beenestablished in US law in the 1976 case ofMissouri v Danforth that everyone has fullconstitutional rights regardless of age. Thus,curfews violate the fifth amendment whichguarantees a right to free movement and dueprocess. Comparable legal principles exist inmost liberal states, and there is no reason totreat children as having less substantive rights tofree movement. 1 Youth curfews have greatpotential for abuse, raising civil rights issues.Evidence from U.S. cities suggests that policearrest far more black children than white forcurfew violations. Curfews will tend to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Positive engagement would be more effectivethan curfews. Other successful schemes aim towork individually with young troublemakers, inorder to cut their reoffending rate, for exampleby requiring them to meet with victims of crimeso that they understand the consequences oftheir actions, and by pairing them with trainedmentors. Overall, governments need to ensuregood educational opportunities and employmentprospects in order to bring optimism tocommunities where youngsters feel that theirfutures are pretty hopeless. Rather than tryingto scare kids into good behaviour, why don’t weoffer them a better life? Most areas withanti-social behaviour problems are poor, withbad schools, few jobs and little for kids to dowith themselves. With little hope for the future,no wonder some kids go off the rails. So insteadof threatening punishment, we should invest inbetter schools, places for kids to play andsocialise, and the chance of a job.1 1. TheObserver, 2004", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Curfews are counter-productive. Imposing childcurfews would actually be counter-productive, asit would increase juvenile offending by turningmillions of generally law-abiding young peopleinto criminals. The Executive director of D.C.Alliance of Youth Advocates argues that ‘\"Thistells young people they're the problem, not partof the solution\".’ 1Already in the USA, morechildren are charged with curfew offences thanwith any other crime. Yet once children acquire acriminal record they cross a psychologicalboundary, making it much more likely that theywill perceive themselves as criminal and havemuch less respect for the law in general, leadingto more serious forms of offending. At the sametime a criminal record harms their opportunitiesin employment and so increases the socialdeprivation and desperation which breedcrime. 1. Dvorak and Greenwell, 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Curfews are ineffective. Curfews are not aneffective solution to the problem of youth crime;research in the USA suggests that there is no linkbetween areas that achieved a reduction injuvenile crime and areas with youth curfews.Paul McKeever, Chairman of the PoliceFederation in England and Wales points out thatcurfews are an unrealistic scheme: ‘It is fantasyto believe the police could impose an immediatesanction for somebody to stay in their home forfour weeks without any kind of due process.’1Although some places did see a reduction inyouth crime, this often had more to do with otherstrategies, such as zero-tolerance policing. 1.McKeever, 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Child curfews can help to change a negativeyouth culture in which challenging the law isseen as desirable and gang membership anaspiration. Impressionable youngsters would bekept away from gang activity on the streets atnight and a cycle of admiration and recruitmentwould be broken ‘in the hope that we can stopthem from getting so far into trouble that theyend up in the criminal justice system.1’ Byspending more time with their families and inmore positive activities, such as sports and youthclubs, which curfews make a more attractiveoption for bored youngsters, greater self-esteemand discipline can be developed. 1. BBC News,2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cppfmyhwicc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Curfews do not harmfully restrict childrens’ rightsto participation in activities and actually supportstheir right to a safe home and neighbourhoodenvironment: ‘The curfew law has severalexceptions. Youths can be out after hours if theyare with a parent or guardian or doing errands ata parent or guardian's direction. They also canbe at work or attending an official school,religious or recreational activity.’ 1If familybreakdown means parents lose control, and incases where parents can’t be bothered, then thepolice should step in. If the state has the right totake children away from cruel parents to protectthem, then it also has the right to protecteveryone else from dangerous youths. Mostimportantly, we can trust the police not to abusethis power. Our police are sworn to uphold thelaw and protect people, and trained to respecteveryone’s rights. 1. Dvorak and Greenwell,2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpshbsdcc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "While it seems defendable that we learn moralvalues at a young age, the proposition argumentdoes not look with the factual evidence about theindividuals who are most likely to get involved incriminal activity. Criminologists came up with the‘age-crime curve’. [1] This reveals that theprofile of the average criminal is a male betweenthe ages of 15 and 25. After the age of 25, themajority of criminals desist. Presuming that thispressure of social deprivation affects everyone insociety in the same way, more steps need to betaken in order to explain why predominantlymales between the ages of 15 and 25 seem torespond to it in this manner. This further goes tosuggest that perhaps social deprivation is not aprimary cause, but that factors such as age andgender play as much of a part in the likelihood ofcriminal activity. [1] Bottoms, Professor SirAntony E., ‘Crime prevention for youth at risk:some theoretical concerns’, Resource MaterialSeries, No.68, 129th International SeniorSeminar Visiting Experts’ Papers, pp.21-34.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpshbsdcc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "We acquire our knowledge of what is right andwrong through education. We are not born withan innate sense of right and wrong, a priorknowledge of what is legal and illegal. Weacquire it through education, both at home andat school. The internalization of these socialnorms is a crucial part of becoming a law-abidingcitizen and acquiring the respect toward the lawour society demands. Children from poorbackgrounds are more likely to be raised inenvironments where such distinctions areblurred, where they are exposed to negative rolemodels within their family or community. Theymay also experience very erratic or low-qualityschooling, This may be because the schools haveinadequate levels of funding or supplies, theclasses are more likely to have disruptivechildren or that better teachers are more soughtafter and thus go to other schools. As a result,they might become desensitized to crime, orviolence as a result of being exposed to it on aregular basis. They might then start to view", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpshbsdcc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The opposition to this argument is that nothingcan or should be gained through crime. Thereare many ways of making voices heard withoutresulting to criminal activity. None-violentmeasures such as bus boycotts, freedom rides ,sit-ins and mass demonstrations were usedduring the African American Civil RightsMovement . This movement succeeded inbringing about legislative change, and makingseparate seats, drinking fountains, and schoolsfor African Americans illegal. Another example isthe 2003 Women of Libya mass Action for Peace,[1] or the more current (2011) uprisings inSyria, Egypt and Tunisia. To use an example ofthe Tunisian uprisings, the people spoke outagainst huge unemployment and governmentcorruption. Thus though many of the protesterswere from poor socioeconomic backgrounds,criminal acts were not taken and yet they stillachieved the freedom that followed from the24-year-ruling president Zine al-Abidine Ben Alifleeing the country a month later. [2] Therefore", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpshbsdcc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "People who are destitute are more likely to turnto crime in order to satisfy basic livingnecessities. In some impoverished families thereis simply no possibility of work and in manycountries where there is no welfare benefits thismeans that the family cannot afford food, shelteror healthcare. Even in some places where thereare benefits, this is often not enough to coverthe family’s way (for example healthcare is thenumber one cause of bankruptcy in the US) [1]and thus some members of the family may bedriven to desperate measures in order to be ableto afford provisions. If no other options are opento them this desperation can result in measuressuch as theft, drug dealing or blackmail (Seeappendix). Furthermore often extreme poverty islinked to substance abuse, often as a respitefrom these terrible conditions. This in turnbreeds more crime as people have to fund theiraddictions. However in this case it seems clearthat it is the desperation of poverty that causesthese people to commit crimes. Many people", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpshbsdcc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Some people counter this argument by claimingit is not that people who are in extreme povertythat are more likely to take drugs, but those whotake drugs are more likely to be in extremepoverty, as drugs are expensive and many drugusers are unstable and therefore unable to keepa job. This could be taken to suggest thatpoverty is not a cause of crime in itself, butmight merely be associated with other factorswhich cause it. Therefore to tackle the crime ofdrug use, we do not need to tackle socialdeprivation, but the drug use itself. Furthermorethe argument that poverty increases thelikelihood of racism or racist crime can be refutedif we acknowledge one of the most famous casesof racist crime, apartheid in South Africa. Thisevent is now considered a crime againsthumanity, \"committed in the context of aninstitutionalized regime of systematic oppressionand domination by one racial group over anyother racial group or groups and committed withthe intention of maintaining that regime\". [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpshbsdcc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "People feel crime is the only way to get theirfrustrations heard. Some people, particularlythose from deprived social or economicbackgrounds may feel that their government isnot helping them or listing to/care about theirproblems. When this happens to a large group ofpeople, they may feel crime is the only way theycan have their frustrations heard. One exampleof this would be the Brixton riots in 1981 (SeeAppendix). [1] In some states wheregovernment criticism is itself against the law,breaking the law is in fact the only way to haveyour feeling heard. However, this is of particularimportance to those from socially deprived backgrounds for three reasons, firstly they are oftenthe ones most ignored by their government andsecondly they are the ones who would benefitmost if society were to change. Finally, for somepeople from poor social or economicbackgrounds, crime is the only outlet they haveto vent their anger or frustration as all otheroptions have been blocked for them. [1] BBC", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpshbsdcc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This is ridiculous. Why is the drug dealer a drugdealer? Because he is poor and has few otherprospects. He is not poor just because he is acriminal as something had to get him in to crimein the first place. In many cases that initialmotivating factor was poverty or a lack ofprospects. If it was true that the causation wasreversed then there would be much more socialmobility because those who started poor anddeprived but wanted to work and werefundamentally honest would be socially mobile.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpshbsdcc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "While the figures demonstrated in this argumentclearly illustrate that these large scale crimes aremore often committed by those who are notsuffering from social deprivation, tax evasionconstitutes a small percentage of the world widecrime rate, and thus should not be taken toprove that social deprivation is not the primarysource of crime.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpshbsdcc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "In an age of consumerism, the primary cause ofcrime is a greed or desperation to ‘fit in’, or ‘haveit all’. We live in a culture where success andpersonal achievement is measured on a materialscale - what you own, how much you make,what car you drive, what clothes you wear. Thismeans that it is the way society is structured tomake us crave material objects which is theprimary cause of crime. As society values wealthand material goods over everything else peoplemight turn to crime in order to acquire thesemuch-vaunted markers of personal achievement,to which they feel entitled. Seeing no otheravenue for personal and financial success, theymight easily choose to get involved in illegal butsomewhat profitable activities — like drugdealing, theft or burglary, running prostitutionrings, racketeering, etc. However if society wasto value traits such as honesty, hard work orloyalty over personal holdings then perhaps thelevels of crime would not be so high.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpshbsdcc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The statistics about poverty and crime showcorrelation, not causation. While it is true thatcrime is correlated with people coming frompoorer socio-economic backgrounds this does notin itself prove that poverty itself is the cause ofcrime. A lack of education or bad parentingmight be equally, if not more convincingexplanations for both phenomena. The causationmay even be reversed, with those who indulge inviolent behaviour and who seek illegal short-cutsto success rather than being prepared to holddown a steady job being more likely to end uppoor. For example, recent studies have foundthat street-level drug dealers make less than theminimum wage. [1] So poverty is not a cause ofcrime in itself, but might merely be associatedwith other factors which cause it. In order totackle crime, therefore, we don’t need toeradicate poverty, but improve people’sinternalization of social norms through lawenforcement and education. [1] Levitt, StevenD. and Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, ‘An Economic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpshbsdcc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Some of the biggest crimes that affect societythe most are committed by huge multinationalcompanies or wealthy individuals. Tax evasion iscosting the developing world around $160 billiona year [1] to those who most need it(incidentally this is more than the entire globalaid budget). These are huge, global crimes thathave effects of billions of people. It does not takea stretch of the imagination to illustrate howsome of the tax evaders can cause poverty,illness and even death to others; as the moneythey do not pay in tax can therefore not be usedfor road safety, pensions, healthcare, world aidor many other institutions (that the tax evadersare still able to make use of). This illustrates howthe crime of tax evasion can have seriousconsequences. In the US the most common taxevader is a male, under 50 and of the highestearning bracket. Globally the most common taxevaders are large multi-national companies. Thisillustrates that these large scale crimes are notbeing committed by those from deprived", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cpshbsdcc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This opposition argument two is not as clear cutas it seems. While it is true that societyencourages us to value material goods, and thatthis encourages crime, it is also clear that thiseffects those from socially deprived areas muchmore than those from stable or wealthybackgrounds. In many socially deprivedsocieties, the lack of education and resourcesinvested in the younger generation mean thatthe poverty cycle continues to define how wellthese young people will do as adults. The familythey are born into is still the biggest predictor ofa person’s life trajectory. If social mobility is nota truly viable option for young people fromimpoverished backgrounds to succeed, they maysee crime as the only way to reach the materialgoods that so commonly are associated withpersonal achievement. One current example ofthis is the riots that occurred in major citiesthroughout the UK in 2011. Perhaps one of themost notable acts of the riots was the looting,particularly as the majority of looting was from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Minimum sentences have only a theoreticalimpact on crime rates; in reality they make nodifference. The pro makes two majorassumptions; first, that criminals havereasonably accurate perceptions of the legalcode. Second, the pro assumes that harshpenalties have a psychological impact onpotential criminals. Interviews with convictedfelons found that a mere 22% even thought theyknew what the punishment would be. Another18% did not know at all, and more than a thirdreported that they had not thought aboutpunishment at all at the time of the crime. [1]Thus minimum sentences are not sufficiently wellpublicized to have a significant deterrent effect.Furthermore, substantial evidence demonstratesthat additional severity has a relatively smalldeterrent effect. Criminals respond much moreto the chance of getting caught rather than theconsequences that occur if they get caught; if acriminal’s chance of getting caught is 10%, thedeterrent effect is virtually zero. [2] Thus", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory minimum sentences increasedeterrence. Deterrence works through severalmechanisms; likelihood of getting caught,severity of punishment, and perceived publicdisapproval. Mandatory minimum sentencesincrease the effectiveness of severity as adeterrent. If potential criminals know a mildsentence is possible, they are more likely tocommit crime in the hopes that they may charma judge into sympathetically lowering theirsentence. By establishing a set minimumpunishment, a potential criminal with anyknowledge of the penal code knows that, ifcaught, he/she will face a substantialpunishment for his/her crime. The pro need notdemonstrate that every, or even a strongmajority, of would-be criminals will be deterredby mandatory minimum sentences; so long asthe mandate has a reasonable deterrent effect, itwill reduce crime and therefore improve theoverall standard of living.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Safety valves are simply a reflection of theproblem with mandatory sentencing. Safetyvalves are proof that the inflexibility of minimumsentencing leads to injustice. Safety valves are astep in the right direction, but are themselves aninflexible form of relief. For example, safetyvalves often do not apply if the defendant has ahistory of more than one very minor offense,such as passing a bad check. [1] The better wayto reduce the injustice of mandatory minimumsentences would be to eliminate the system andallow judicial discretion. [1] “Federal MandatoryMinimum Reforms: Improve and Expand theFederal ‘Safety Valve,’” Smart on Crime:Recommendations for the Next Administrationand Congress, 2008. [", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory sentencing increases consistency inthe justice system. Former Supreme JusticeSandra Day O’Connor once said, “liberty finds norefuge in a jurisprudence of doubt.” [1] Withoutmandates, judges may have radically differentideas of just sentences. Michael Simons gives theexample of Mutt and Jim- two criminals ofidentical background who commit the samecrime. Judge Lenient sentences Mutt, whileJudge Harsh sentences Jeff. Mutt might receiveone day in prison while Jeff receives a sentenceof twenty-five years. [2] While such an extremeis unlikely, it is noteworthy that the legal systememphasizes the importance of consistency.Consistent precedent is essential becausecitizens need to be able to make decisionsknowing the legal consequences of their actions.Mandatory sentencing need not be overly harsh,but there should be some sort of rigidity toestablish reliability in the legal system. [1]Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 505 U.S. 83,(1992). [2] Michael A. Simons, “Departing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory minimum sentences remove unduejudicial discretion. Discretion allows for bothintentional and unintentional bias. The U.S.Supreme Court recently heard a case concerningalleged corruption when a West Virginia judgeruled in favor of a plaintiff that had donated over$3 million to the judge’s election campaign. [1]Though this case is not directly linked tominimum sentences, it demonstrates thatjudicial corruption is an issue in the legal systemtoday; mandatory sentencing reduces thediscretion that allows unethical judicial action.Furthermore, judges may attempt to beimpartial, but data shows that humans areinclined to be more sympathetic towardsparticular groups. For example, femaledefendants are less likely to receive a deathsentence than male defendants, whiledefendants in general are seven times morelikely to receive the death penalty if the victim isfemale; scholars suggest that these disparitiesare caused by societal perceptions that women", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory sentences do not eliminate unduediscretion; they merely shift the power fromjudges to prosecutors. Prosecutors may decidewhether or not to charge defendants forviolations other than the main charge. Forexample, a prosecutor may add weaponspossession to a charge for drug sales- thisadditional count can drastically increase thedefendant’s sentence. In the United States,defendants often cooperate with prosecutors andprovide information in order to avoid such heftysentences. Michael Simmons explains, “[…] Acooperation departure is usually the onlysignificant sentencing factor over which adefendant has any control and– because theaverage cooperation departure cuts adefendant’s sentence in half- it is often adefendant’s only hope for a reduced sentence.Thus, it is not surprising that cooperationdepartures have fundamentally changed federalprosecutions.” [1] Prosecutors may wield thispower to coerce defendants into accepting a plea", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Judges are capable of delivering consistency.Judges are trained professionals and mustdemonstrate competence in order to beappointed- they are unlikely to administercompletely random sentences. In order to furtherreduce inconsistency, the Con supportsgovernment-issued sentencing guidelines so thatjudges are aware of the precedent concerningsentencing for a particular crime, so long asthese guidelines are not compulsory. In theunusual occurrence that a judge administers anunjustly harsh sentence, defendants may appealtheir case to a higher court. Thus judicialdiscretion is unlikely to result in widespreadinconsistent sentencing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Imprisonment only yields the benefits ofincapacitation if the offenders are a likely threatto society. If the criminal that is given anextensive prison sentence was unlikely tocommit another crime, then his/herincapacitation did not actually protect society.Studies within prison populations demonstratethat most offenders commit relatively littlecrime, while a core group commits a largeportion of the crime. For example, a RandCorporation survey found that half of all burglarscommitted fewer than six crimes per year, whilethe top 10% committed over two hundred. [1]Thus society is not particularly well serve whenthe bottom half of burglars face long prisonsentences; few burglaries are avoided, and thesecriminals will now have more difficulty rejoiningsociety. [1] Bruce Western, Punishment andInequality in America, Russell Sage Foundation,NY, 2006, 178.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory minimum sentencing can be designedto avoid injustices. The negative side effects ofminimum sentencing guidelines can be avoidedvia “safety valves.” The U.S. federal governmentintroduced safety valves in 1994; mandatorysentencing is suspended if the defendant meetscertain criteria, such as being a low-levelparticipant or having no prior criminal history.The safety valve allows flexibility so that low-riskoffenders do not receive excessively harshpunishment. Thus mandatory sentencingguidelines have enough flexibility to recognizevarying circumstances, while retaining enoughrigidity to deliver consistent punishment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Minimum sentences increase the effectiveness ofincapacitation. Incapacitation is one of the 4basic reasons for punishment. Mandatoryminimum sentences keep criminals out of societyfor a longer period of time than they mightotherwise be in jail, thereby reducing theirwindow of opportunity to commit crime. Thecriminal justice system is obligated to refrainfrom cruel or unusual punishment, but its mainpurpose is to protect society from law-breakersthrough various means of preventing andpunishing illegal activity. Mandatory minimumsentences should be proportionate to theseverity of the crime, thus satisfying therequirement of humane punishment. Thusmandatory minimum sentencing is a just methodof protecting the public.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory sentences need not be excessivelyharsh. The Pro supports mandatory sentencesthat account for a criminal’s prior history and theseverity of the crime; mandatory sentences canbe proportionate to the scope of the crime. Acrime such as murder, which poses a seriousthreat to public safety, should have a greaterminimum punishment than petty theft. But byarguing that we should not have minimumsentences for low-level criminals, the con isessentially arguing that we should not imprisonoffenders unless they singlehandedly pose a direthreat to society at large. All crimes areviolations of the law; if the government ignorescrime on the basis that the offense is “not thatserious,” it signals that laws against suchoffenses are not legitimate and may be ignored.Thus mandatory minimum sentences arerelevant and beneficial to reducing low-levelcrime.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory sentencing does not provideprosecutors any additional power to do anythingunethical. “Stacking charges” is another way ofsaying the prosecutor charges the defendant foreach crime he/she committed, meaning that thedefendant is being held accountable for all ofhis/her actions. The Con fails to demonstratewhy this is problematic. Furthermore, havingdemocratic checks ensures that the prosecutionwill not bring trumped-up charges. First, a jurywill dismiss such charges, and possibly dismissall charges if they feel the prosecutor is beingabusive. Second, the public is unlikely to respondpositively to a district attorney that wastes timeand resources on putting low-level criminals inprison for long sentences rather than focusing onserious threats to public safety. Thus the abilityto “stack charges” is unlikely to have an adverseimpact on justice.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory minimum sentences make juriesreluctant to convict guilty defendants. The mostpublicized form of jury nullification is in the caseof the death penalty, wherein jurors are reluctantto sentence a person to death. However, NancyKing of the University of Chicago finds that juriesare increasingly likely to acquit if a defendantmight receive an unduly harsh sentence undermandatory sentencing laws or “three-strike”laws. [1] This kind of jury nullification has twoimplications. First, it is harmful becausedefendants that are guilty and ought to go toprison (albeit not for the term demanded bysentencing laws) are not held accountable fortheir actions at all. Second, jury nullification (acontested practice in and of itself) is a signal in ademocratic society that the public considerscurrent legislation to be unjust. Thus the jurynullification demonstrates public opposition tothe unintentionally unjust consequences ofmandatory sentencing. [1] Nancy King,“Silencing Nullification Advocacy Inside the Jury", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Minimum mandatory sentences are unjust. Inthe United States, federal minimum sentencesfor narcotics-related offences have forced judgeson countless occasions to deliver sentences of 20year, 30 years, or even life imprisonment tooffenders that were tangentially connected to theoffense. Often, such offenders are low-incomeyoung adults that turn to drug sales for a monthor two out of desperation. [1] Sometimesdefendants find themselves entangled in drugbusts because they are living with familymembers that are involved in the drug trade. [2]In a well-publicized case, Weldon Angelos wassentenced to 55 years in prison for sellingmarijuana because he was also in possession ofa firearm. [3] All criminals are not the same;there are significant differences in the level ofthreat that individuals pose to society, as well asthe likelihood of rehabilitation. Rigid mandatorysentences are unjust because they inevitablylead to numerous cases of disproportionatepunishment. These harsh punishments", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Minimum mandatory sentences reduce thechance of rehabilitation. Minimum sentencesforce minor criminals to spend more time inprison, thereby increasing their exposure tomore hardened criminals. This exposure reducestheir chance of rehabilitation- other inmates actas a “bad influence.” [1] Furthermore, studies oflabor market participation demonstrate that themore time a person spends outside the laborforce, the more their human capital (i.e.marketable skills) deteriorate; their chance offinding well-paid work decreases with more timeoutside the labor force. [2] Longer prisonsentences keep people from working, therebykeeping them in a cycle of unemployment thatleads them back into crime. [1] Craig Haney,“Prison Overcrowding: Harmful Consequencesand Dysfunctional Reactions,” Vera Institute ofJustice, 8. [2] Francine Blau, Mariannne Ferber,and Anne Winkler, The Economics of Women,Men, and Work, 5th Edition, Pearson, NJ, 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory sentencing fills the system with “smallfish.” As noted above in response to the Pro,most convicts are not high-repeat criminals; astudy similar to the one mentioned above foundthat in a sample of a cohort of teenage boys inPhiladelphia, 33% had engaged in delinquentbehavior at some point, but 60% of the crimewas committed by a group of recidivists thatmade up only 7% of the population. [1] Harshpunishments for all offenders have led to anovercrowded prison system; overcrowdingdecreases safety within prisons and reduces thechance of rehabilitation because prisons havefewer resources per prisoner to provideeducational and work training. [2] By filling thesystem with “small fish,” the Pro reduce theprison system’s ability to address serious threatsto society. [1] Bruce Western, Punishment andInequality in America, Russell Sage Foundation,NY, 2006, 176. [2] Craig Haney, “PrisonOvercrowding: Harmful Consequences andDysfunctional Reactions,” Vera Institute of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-con05b", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory sentences are fairer than judicialdiscretion. The Con assumes that individualjudges will deliver fair and proportionatepunishment. However, as is discussed in the Proarguments, judges are susceptible to manyforms of implicit and explicit bias. For example,studies consistently show that minorities receivelonger sentences than whites in the U.S. forcomparable offenses. Mandatory sentencingeliminates the danger of individual partiality andreplaces it with consistent standards. The Proadvocates a well-defined set of sentencingstandards that account for factors such as priorhistory and cooperation so as to avoid theinjustices discussed in the Con’s argument. ThePro acknowledges that sentencing standards maybe imperfect, however, the flaws of theseimperfections are outweighed by the eliminationof personal judicial bias.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Mandatory sentencing gives prosecutors unduepower. Prosecutors can stack charges, whichthey can use to scare a defendant into acceptinga plea bargain. Prosecutors are part of theexecutive branch; they are directly answerableto elected officials (and are often electedthemselves), whereas judges are generally moreremoved from political influence. Politicians oftenpromote themselves as being “tough on crime.”[1] In order to make good on this claim, theymay pressure prosecutors to increase convictionrates, get longer sentences, etc. Thus politicalpressure may lead prosecutors to handle cases ina way that makes them more popular with thepublic, rather than one which gives the criminaltheir fair due. Because judges are lesssusceptible to public pressure, it is safer toentrust discretion to them. [1] Michael A.Simons, “Departing Ways: Uniformity, Disparity,and Cooperation in Federal Drug Sentences,”Villanova Law Review, Vol. 47, Issue 2, 2002,923.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Minimum mandatory sentences increase thechance of rehabilitation. If a person receives alight punishment for his/her action, he/she seesthat the action has a low cost. Conversely, if aperson has firsthand experience with strongpunishment for an action, they will be morereluctant to take that action in the future.Furthermore, prisons have literacy and worktraining programs to benefit criminals; themajority of (American) prisoners are functionallyilliterate. [1] If these criminals are in prison for ashort period of time, they will not be able to reapthe benefits of these rehabilitating programs.Thus longer sentences (within reason) canactually be beneficial to inmates. [1] CraigHaney, “Prison Overcrowding: HarmfulConsequences and Dysfunctional Reactions,”Vera Institute of Justice, 85.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-phsms-con02b", "title": "", "text": "1) There are checks against jury nullification.The judicial system can reduce the impact of jurynullification by explaining to juries that theirresponsibility is to determine the guilt of thedefendant. The judge can explain thatnullification is not a legally acceptable form ofdissenting from a law that one perceives asunjust. While King makes the observations notedby the Pro, she also notes that prosecutors maydismiss potential jurors that admit they willconsider the severity of the punishment. [1] (2)A careful jury is a good jury. When juries arereluctant to convict because of the deathpenalty, they are often asking themselves, “am Iso sure that this person committed this crimethat I am willing to bet their life on it?” Suchhesitation is beneficial to the justice system- itreduces the number of wrongful convictions.Similarly, mandatory minimum sentences makejuries realize the significance of their decisions.While this may allow some lucky criminals toevade justice, it also prevents innocent civilians", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The Second Amendment was not designed foronly self defense and hunting. The idea that thecommon man should be reasonably able toprotect themselves from tyranny, foreigninvasion, and insurrection is a reasonable andjust cause. But even if we were to accept thatself defense and hunting are the only legitimatereasons for owning a gun then why should thestate get to decide what weapons someoneshould use when hunting or defendingthemselves? That a gun may not be the bestchoice for these activities does not mean that itshould not be a possible choice.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Assault weapons are not necessary for selfdefence or hunting. As New York Mayor MichaelBloomberg argues \"We've got to really questionwhether military-style weapons with bigmagazines belong on the streets of America inthis day and age.” [1] Police chiefs such as RalphGodbee of Detroit argue \"We're talking aboutweapons that are made for war… you can shoot50 to 60 rounds within a minute.” [2] In a selfdefense scenario the person defendingthemselves need to have enough ammunition toprovide deterrence, however they would have tobe unwise to take on several assailants so thereshould be little need to have more than 10rounds in the magazine. Law enforcement expertLeonard J. Supenski has testified “because ofpotential harm to others in the household,passersby, and bystanders, too much firepoweris a hazard” as in self defense, the defenders willoften fire until they have expended all the bulletsin their magazine. To use an assault weaponwould to spray an assailant with bullets from an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Banning assault weapons is an infringement onAmericans freedom to protect themselves; whatminor civil liberties advances may be gained paleby comparison to this. It is also unlikely that thepolice and the FBI would recognise the linkagebetween fewer guns in the civilian populationand reducing the firepower of the police.Similarly the FBI is unlikely to monitor civiliansless simply because there is one less reason. Thejustification of “preventing homegrown attacksbefore they are hatched” will still remain just asstrong as before they will simply be looking fordifferent things.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A ban would save lives Put simply assaultweapons are designed for assault, therefore theirproliferation should be prohibited in law. To putthings into the general context of gun crimewithin the United States every year 17,000people are killed, 70 percent of them with gunsand nearly 20,000 people commit suicide byshooting themselves [1] . Murder by gunfireparticularly affects children, in total well over amillion Americans have died in this manner and80 people continue to be shot in the states everyday. So some form of gun control is necessaryand a ban on assault weapons is a good startingpoint. Out of 62 mass murders since 1982almost half the weapons used, 67 out of 142,were semi-automatic handguns and more than30 were assault weapons. [2] The period of theFederal Assault Weapons Ban from 1994-2004with the exception of 1999, the year of theColumbine massacre (which notably involved asemi-automatic produced before the ban), wasalso a peaceful period in terms of numbers of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is exactly correct that deaths as a result ofassault weapons are a tiny portion of the totalfirearms deaths. There is also no way to know ifthose who were killed by these weapons wouldhave been saved or whether their assailantwould not simply have killed them with ahandgun instead. Therefore to ban only certaintypes of guns does not address the issuesatisfactorily because it does not take intoconsideration that any gun can kill.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Black plastic on a gun does not make it any morelethal than other guns with wood stocks.Stopping the manufacture of such guns wouldhand over a lucrative market to the Russians andChinese rather than reducing the number ofassault weapons in the world. [1] Drugs cartelswould simply find new routes to get the weaponsthey need, after all they are already dealing inillegal activities making the guns they wantillegal on both sides of the border rather thanjust one is unlikely to stop them. [1] Falconer,Bruce, ‘Semiautomatic for the people’, MotherJones, July/August 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Banning assault weapons increases liberty andsecurity Many who are pro guns argue that itwould be illegitimate for assault weapons to bebanned while the police have them. Police forces,however, are going to be much more likely, andable to give them up when a ban is in place. Thepolice don’t want to be involved in an arms racewith criminals to have the biggest guns; just lookat the British police force where there is little guncrime and few shootings of police officers it is notfelt that there is the need to have police armedwith more than a taser or even truncheon. [1]Put simply a ban on assault weapons can helpreverse the arms race between police andcriminals. Civil liberties would also be enhancedas law enforcement agencies would not need todevote so many resources into monitoringassault weapons purchases and those who havedone the purchasing. Instead they would be ableto simply target all assault weapons purchasesas needing immediate attention. [2] Finally wemust remember that this ban enhances the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "An assault weapons ban would stop themanufacture of many of the deadliest guns. Yesa ban would not immediately take assaultweapons off the streets but there would besignificant long term benefits as highlighted byConnecticut Senator Joe Liberman \"We ought torestore the assault weapons ban -- not to takeanybody's guns away that they have now, but tostop the manufacturing of these weapons.\" [1]The ban would stop manufacturers from makingthe weapons and with the legislation improvedfrom the 1994 version it would be possible toprevent the cosmetic changes that were made tokeep guns on the market. [2] This would meanthat prices both in the USA and globally wouldincrease as there would be less supply. Onepositive result might also be help to change theUnited States’ position on the arms trade treatywhich would further restrict global supply. [3]This would answer Mexican calls to cut off thesupply of guns into the country that helps makethe drugs violence in the country so deadly both", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is a rational basis for banning assaultweapons as they are a firearm of choice amongcriminals. In a study of young adult purchases ofhandguns in California buyers with minorcriminal histories were twice as likely to purchaseautomatic pistols as those with no criminalhistory. This was even higher at five times aslikely for those who had been charged with twoor more serious violent offenses. [1] This meansthose purchasing assault weapons intend forthem to be used for violent ends. It is true thatassault weapons are used in a small percentageof crimes, although 1% is disputable in Miami forexample 15 out of 79 homicides in 2006 involvedassault weapons, [2] but the opposition ignorethat large capacity magazines are used in amuch higher percentage of crimes; between 14and 26% before the 1994 ban. [3] [1] Koper,Christopher S., et al., ‘An Updated Assessment ofthe Federal Assault Weapons Ban: Impacts onGun Markets and Gun Violence, 1994-2003’,Report to the National Institute of Justice, United", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Supreme court rulings have been overturnedbefore. This is an area where the bill of rights isclearly outdated and out of touch; today’s militiais clearly the standing army and so this shouldjust be interpreted as only granting members ofthe army the right to carry arms. Themaintenance of “the security of a free state”clearly is not something that today is donethrough the citizenry having access to guns,whether assault weapons or not. Moreover it isdifficult to see why if there is a right to beararms that is unconnected with the security of thestate these arms should be these particularassault weapons rather than types of weaponthat we are not looking to ban. Would a rifle notbe as useful in the event of invasion as asemi-automatic? The Bill of Rights was written atthe end of the eighteenth century when theweapons were muzzle loading muskets it was notconceived with powerful, accurate, modernweapons that are capable of mass murderwithout reloading.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "It is incoherent to ban some guns It isincoherent to attempt to ban assault weaponswhile allowing other weapons to remain on thestreets. As professor Jacobs from New YorkUniversity argues “Pistols are dangerous becausethey are easily carried and concealed; shotgunsbecause they spray metal projectiles over a widearea; certain hunting rifles because they firelarge calibre bullets, and certain \"sniper rifles\"because they are accurate over great distances.Assault rifles are not remarkable by any of thesecriteria.” [1] Indeed the previous ban simplyused a list of guns that were banned rather thana specific definition that could then be applieduniversally showing the difficulty of classifyingthese weapons. [2] It should also beremembered that this will not affect assaultweapons that are already legal in the UnitedStates so this would not even be banning allassault weapons so would leave millions inprivate hands, while it might be argued there issome slight difference between an assault", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "A ban on assault weapons would not work, it willsimply encourage a black market It has alreadybeen demonstrated that most crime alreadytakes place using other guns or even withoutfirearms at all so it is illogical to think that thisban would make any difference to crime. For astart as the ban would not be retroactive largenumbers of assault weapons would remainlegally in the United States. It would create ablack market in the weapons which would enrichorganised crime which would simply mean thatthose who are intending to use those guns for illhave access to them while those who want themfor self defense don’t. [1] As a response toObama’s reelection some gun owners are alreadypurchasing more guns and bullets, in some caseswith the intention of selling them on the blackmarket should a ban come into force. [2] It isclear therefore that the ban would do little toreduce the number of assault weapons in theUnited States and would likely even do little toimpact on their availability. [1] Wohlferd, Clark", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Assault weapons are not used in mostcrimes There is little point in banning a type ofweapon that is not used in most violence; assaultrifles are used in fewer than 1 percent of allviolent crimes in the united states at a timewhen gun violence is falling. [1] If assaultweapons are not used in most crime then thereis no rational basis for banning them. When theprevious assault weapons ban expired in 2004far from there being an increase in crime aspredicted the number of murders declined by3.6%. [2] [1] La Jeunesse, William, ‘Debateanswer on assault weapons ban could causeproblems for Obama’, Fox News, 1 November2012, [2] Lott, John R., ‘The Big Lie of theAssault Weapons Ban’, Los Angeles Times, 28June 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "An assault weapons ban would violate the secondamendment The Second amendment “A wellregulated Militia, being necessary to the securityof a free State, the right of the people to keepand bear Arms, shall not be infringed” [1] wouldbe violated by a ban on assault weapons. Thisright clearly does not limit what arms a citizenmay bear. The ruling of District of Columbia v.Heller clearly reaffirmed that the governmentcan’t ban certain classes of arms and also thatthis right is not connected with service in amilitia. [1] ‘Second Amendment – BearingArms’, Findlaw,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Of course a ban will not completely eliminatethese weapons but it would reduce the supplyand make it much easier for the police to seizethe weapons so taking them off the streets. Itwould also be a step in the right direction inattempting to change public perceptions andamend the American attitude. It is understatedjust how relaxed American laws are incomparison to the rest of the world, even statessuch as Switzerland and Israel that are oftenhighlighted by the NRA as being model statesthat allow gun ownership with few resultingshootings are much more restrictive than theUSA. [1] There is no reason to think that a blackmarket is somehow going to result in more ofthese weapons being available so the fact that itwill exist after a ban is not a reason not to goahead with the ban. It is not ideal that a ban isnot retroactive so leaving a large number of suchguns in private hands but this number will slowlydiminish over time rather than continuing to riseas it would under the status quo. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-law-cphwusbaw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The point of an assault weapons ban is not tocompletely ban guns but to ban guns that canfire large numbers of bullets rapidly and have nopurpose other than to shoot people. The bantargets those weapons that are not useful for selfdefence or hunting. The opposition argument isessentially that because some guns are legal allguns should be legal; the line has to be drawnsomewhere and there is little reason why the lineat assault weapons is less logical than a line thatallows some grenade launchers and shotgunswhile banning others? [1] Since this line isclearly arbitrary then we should move to the onlynon-arbitrary line, a full ban, a move towardswhich this ban is a step towards. [1] Laurence,Charles, ‘Semi-automatics and grenadelaunchers are legal again in US’, The Telegraph,19 September 2004,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-udfakhwst-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "While the world is globalizing, it is still in theinterest of states to retain their relativecompetitive advantages. After all, the first dutyof a state is to its own citizens. By translatingthese works and offering them to academics,students, and professionals, the developed worldserves to erode one of its only advantages overthe cheaper labour and industrial productionmarkets of the developing world. The developedworld relies on its advantage in technologyparticularly to maintain its position in the worldand to have a competitive edge. Giving that edgeup, which giving access to their information morereadily does, is to increase the pace at which thedeveloped world will be outmatched.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-udfakhwst-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Translation gives access to students to learnvaluable information and develop their humancapital and to become academically andeconomically competitive The ability to accessthe wealth of knowledge being generated in thedeveloped world would greatly impact the abilityof students and budding academics in thedeveloping world to develop their human capitaland keep abreast of the most recentdevelopments in the various fields of academicresearch. Lag is a serious problem in anacademic world where the knowledge base isconstantly developing and expanding. In many ofthe sciences, particularly those focused on hightechnology, information rapidly becomesobsolete as new developments supplant the old.The lag that occurs because developingcountries' academics and professionals cannotreadily access this new information results intheir always being behind the curve. [1] Coupledwith the fact that they possess fewer resourcesthan their developed world counterparts,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-udfakhwst-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This translation effort does not pave the futurewith gold. Intellectual property law still persistsand these countries would still be forced to dealwith the technologies' originators in thedeveloped world. By instead striving to engageon an even footing without special provisions andcharity of translation, developing countries'academics can more effectively win the respectand cooperation of their developed worldcounterparts. In so doing they gain greateraccess to, and participation in, the developmentsof the more technologically advanced countries.They should strive to do so as equals, notsupplicants.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-udfakhwst-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Translation allows greater participation byacademics in global academia and globalmarketplace of ideas Communication inacademia is necessary to effectively engage withthe work of their colleagues elsewhere in theworld, and in sciences in particular there hasbecome a lingua franca in English. [1] Anyacademic without the language is at a severedisadvantage. Institutions and governments ofthe Global North have the resources andwherewithal to translate any research that mightstrike their fancy. The same is not true for statesand universities in the Global South which havefar more limited financial and human capitalresources. By subsidizing the translation ofacademic literature into the languages ofdeveloping countries the developed world canexpand the reach and impact of its institutions'research. Enabling access to all the bestacademic research in multiple languages willmean greater cross-pollination of ideas andknowledge. Newton is supposed to have said we", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-udfakhwst-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Translating academic work for the developedworld will not succeed in creating a dialoguebetween developed and developing worldbecause the effort is inherently unidirectional.The developing world academics will be able touse the translated work, but will lack the abilityto respond in a way that could be readilyunderstood or accepted by their developed worldcounterparts. The only way to become a trulyrespected academic community is to engage withthe global academic world on an even footing,even if that means devoting more resources tolearning the dominant global academiclanguages, particularly English. This is what iscurrently happening and is what should be thetrend for the future. [1] So long as they rely onsubsidized work, the academics of thedeveloping world remain subject and subordinateto those of the developed world. [1] Meneghini,Rogerio, and Packer, Abel L., ‘Is there sciencebeyond English? Initiatives to increase thequality and visibility of non-English publications", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-udfakhwst-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Translation expands the knowledge base ofcitizens to help solve local problems It is oftenthe case that science and technology produced inthe developed world finds its greatest applicationin the developing world. Sometimes newdevelopments are meant for such use, as wasthe case with Norman Borlaug's engineering ofdwarf wheat in order to end the Indian foodcrisis. Other times it is serendipitous, asacademic work not meant of practical use, ortools that could not be best applied in developedworld economies find ready applicationelsewhere, as citizens of the developing worldturn the technologies to their needs. [1] Bytranslating academic journals into the languagesof developing countries, academics andgovernments can open a gold mine of ideas andinnovation. The developing world still mostlylacks the infrastructure for large scale researchand relies heavily on research produced in thedeveloped world for its sustenance. Havingaccess to the body of academic literature makes", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-udfakhwst-con03b", "title": "", "text": "In the status quo there is already sometranslation, due largely to current demands andacademic relationships. Even if translation of allacademic work the world over could not betranslated into every conceivable language,expanding the number of articles and number oflanguages is certainly a good thing. While costwill limit the extent of the policy, it is still worthpursuing to further open the world of academicdiscourse.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-udfakhwst-con01b", "title": "", "text": "If it is true that people cannot easily get jobs inthe developed world for lack of language skillsthen there will surely still be a pressure to learnthe language or languages of internationaldiscourse. What this policy offers is access by amuch wider audience to the various benefits thatexpanded academic knowledge can offer. It willexpand the developing world's knowledge baseand not in any way diminish the desire to learnEnglish and other dominant languages. It shouldbe remembered that it is not just academics thatuse academic papers; students do as well, as doprofessionals in everyday life. Clearly therecannot be an expectation that everyone learnsEnglish to be able to access research. Whilethere may be fewer languages in academic usethere is not such a narrowing of language foreveryone else.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-udfakhwst-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The West has no particular obligation to undergosuch a sweeping policy Governments andacademic institutions have no special duty togive full access to all information that theygenerate and publish in academic journals toanyone who might want it. If they want to maketheir research public that is their prerogative, butit does not follow that they should then beexpected to translate that work into an endlessstream of different languages. If there is a desireby governments and institutions to aid in theacademic development of the developing world,there are other ways to go about it thanindiscriminately publishing their results andresearch into developing world languages.Taking on promising students throughscholarships, or developing strategicpartnerships with institutions in the global southare more targeted, less piecemeal means ofsharing the body of global knowledge forexample the National Institute of EnvironmentalHealth Sciences funds junior scientists from the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-udfakhwst-con03a", "title": "", "text": "It is prohibitively expensive to translateeverything and difficult to prioritize what totranslate Ultimately any policy of translation ofacademic work must rely on a degree ofprioritization on the part of the translators sincethere is no way that all academic work of anykind could be translated into other majorlanguages, let alone into all the multitude oflanguages extant in the world today. In 2009, forexample, the number of published researchpapers on science and technology exceeded700,000. [1] That is a gigantic amount ofresearch. Translating all of these articles seemsto be an obvious waste of time and resources forany government or institution to pursue andincreasingly so when one considers the morethan 30,000 languages in current use today.Translations today currently exist for articles andresearch that is considered useful. Any blanketpolicy is infeasible. The end result will be only asmall number of articles translated into a finitenumber of languages. This is the status quo.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-udfakhwst-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It is better to have fewer languages in commonuse in global academic and economicinterrelations A proliferation of languages inacademia will serve to fracture the interrelationsof academics, not unify them. As more and moreacademics and innovators interested in newacademic developments find it possible to obtaininformation wholly in their native languages,then the impetus toward unification in a primarylanguage of academia and commerce will beslowed or entirely thwarted. Through historythere have been movements toward this sort oflinguistic unity, because it reduces the physicaland temporal costs of information exchange; forexample scholars throughout Early ModernEurope communicated in Latin. [1] This policyserves only to dampen this movement, whichwill, even if helpful to people in the short-run,serve to limit the capacity of developing worldacademics to engage with the developed world.Today English has become the definitivelanguage of both international academic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-udfakhwst-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Wealthy states do feel an obligation to lessfortunate countries, as is demonstrated throughtheir frequent use of aid and loans to poorergovernments. This is a way to help countriesstop being dependent on aid and hand-outs andinstead develop their own human capital andlivelihood by being able to engage with thecutting edge of technology and research.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egsrsla1j-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The cost of extending the period of compulsoryeducation is just too high. The increase innumbers would require a huge investment inteachers, books, new school buildings,computers, etc. As well as these direct coststhere is also a huge amount of losses that acountry would face. Young people who leaveschool and enter the workforce contribute to theeconomy through taxes and contributions topensions which the country would no longerreceive if people remained in school. It isimpossible to spend more while also earning less.This means that raising the school leaving age isnot something that countries can afford to dobecause they won’t have the money to cover theshort term cost even if there are some long termgains.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egsrsla1j-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Raising the school-leaving age is a crucialinvestment in society’s future Increasing theschool leaving age means that society willproduce a workforce that is higher skilled,attracts more investment to the country, andearns more money. A study for the UKgovernment estimated the economic benefit was£2.4billion for each year group that has 18 asthe leaving age rather than 16[4]. When there ismore money in the economy more taxes arepaid, this means the extra cost of keeping peoplein school will be covered by these taxes. In somecountries the cost of keeping young people inschool will, at first, be difficult to manage.However, in many countries a large majority ofpeople voluntarily choose to remain in educationlonger than they have to. In the UK for example84% of pupils in year 10 stated that they wouldremain in education after the age of 16 [5].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egsrsla1j-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Unfortunately equality in the job market isunlikely to emerge simply because everyone nowstays in school for the same amount of time. Asnoted above not everyone will get the same outof school just because they are there for thesame amount of time. Those who achieve thebest exam results will still be the mostemployable, especially if they go to universitybefore finding a job.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egsrsla1j-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "More Education Brings More Opportunities Moreeducation allows young people to developgreater skills so provides more options whenthey do leave education. It has been shownmany times that those people who have moreeducation find jobs easier and are more likely tofind work that is satisfying. Extra education foryoung people also has a positive effect for theeconomy of a country. The impact of longereducation is higher levels of productivity andearnings in later years. This is because longer ineducation helps workers to become morespecialized, in todays ‘knowledge economy’analytical thinking is highly valued and this issomething that is increasingly taught from 16 to18. Raising the leaving age has in the past had asignificant impact on grades. The previousincrease in the school leaving age in England, bya year to 16 in 1972, resulted in an improvementworth one grade higher in two subjects. Theresult is many fewer people leaving with noqualifications. [3]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egsrsla1j-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "If schools are failing to teach children basic skillsby the time they are 16 it makes no sense tomake them stay at school for an extra two years.If the children are forced to sit in the classroomfor longer it does not necessarily mean that theresults of education will change. Forcing youngpeople to remain in school against their wishes isa reinforcement of the failure of the educationalsystem. If climbing a mountain on your handsand knees is not working then simply doing it forlonger makes no difference. The same is true ofeducation: there is no point in keeping studentswho are failing in schools for longer periods whenthere is no evidence to show that they willsucceed, instead something new needs to betried.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egsrsla1j-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Raising the school leaving age promotes equalopportunities Making sure that everyone getsthe same amount of time at school promotesequality. At the moment leaving school early islinked to economic and social disadvantage:those from poorer areas and families are morelikely to leave school early than those fromwealthier families. Parents who left school at ayoung age are also more likely to have childrenwho leave school early (only 60% of thosechildren stay in education past 16) [6]. Forcingall children to stay in school longer will helpbreak this cycle of disadvantage.[7]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egsrsla1j-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Leaving school early is not necessary. Instead,what is needed is government help to ensurethat if young people remain in school then theycan afford to do so. If children are unqualified at16 then there is a real need to use the extrayears to teach them the basics. There could alsobe certain people who have specialcircumstances which mean they do not need tostay in school. For example, in Britain, under18’s that are caring for parents, relatives areexempt from extra schooling. [13]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egsrsla1j-con01b", "title": "", "text": "UK statistics show “There is no evidence thatraising the minimum school leaving age madepeople who had not intended to leave school atthe minimum age raise their educationalstandard. This is consistent with the view thateducation raises productivity and not with theview that productive people get more education.\"[9]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egsrsla1j-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Not All Skills are Best Learnt in a ClassroomEnvironment Practical skills (for example,carpentry, cookery, gardening etc.), are oftenbest learnt ‘on the job’ or through anapprenticeship. Both of these routes place youngpeople into contact with professionals in theseareas and give them access to a wider range oftools, materials, and experiences than theywould have access to in school. For many youngpeople who want to work in these areas there isno need for them to stay in school for extra time.Forcing those who would rather learn on the jobto remain in school is simply wasting their timeby depriving them of taking that route for a fewmore years. This means that it will take muchlonger to produce highly skilled workers in thesepractical areas. This is why the UK along withraising its school leaving age allowed the optionof taking an apprenticeship as an alternative tocontinuing in school.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egsrsla1j-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There Are Cases Where Leaving School Early isNecessary Working at an early age can be anadvantage in certain circumstances. Manyfamilies, particularly in countries with littlewelfare, need their children to bring income intothe household. Working at an earlier age canhelp these families to survive. Furthermore,anyone who is having difficulties gettingeducational qualifications can gain an advantageby leaving school and gaining work experience. Ifthey are forced to stay in school then they willsimply lose two years. The British governmentrecognized this and introduced 21 000 extraapprenticeships in 2009. This was an attempt tomake sure that those who are not suited toschool learning do not fall behind when it comesto finding a job and a sustainable income. [12]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egsrsla1j-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Forced Education Achieves Little Being in schooldoes not guarantee that a student is actuallylearning. If the student lacks interest or abilitythen the extra time spent in school is unlikely tobenefit them, especially if they would not havechosen to be there. This applies even more tothe problem of how to deal with those who aredisruptive. If they are excluded from school thenthey are disadvantaged for a longer period oftheir life. However, if they are included then theycontinue to disrupt the learning of otherstudents. As Henry Phibbs argues: “Increasingthe school leaving age will not result in morebeing learned – just more broken windows in thelocality of the school. Children fed up with schoolneed an escape route, not an extension of theirsentence.\" [8]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egsrsla1j-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Practical skills can be taught in school. Manyschool systems have practical skills schools. Forexample, in Germany, ‘vocational schools’(schools which teach practical skills) have beenaround since the 19th century. In these schoolsstudents spend part of their time in practicaltraining and part of their time ‘on the job’. Theseschools are attended until the age of 18[10], andhave been lauded for training highly skilledworkers for German manufacturing[11]. It istherefore possible to create a system which isflexible and gives students the option to train indifferent ways while still staying in school until18.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "On the contrary, poetry is helpful to teachingEnglish. Learning poetry involves chanting,exploration of syllables and vowel sounds. As thepupils chant the syllables, they read the lettersthat go into making that sound and so spellingwill be improved. Reading poetry aloud improvesreading ability because the student is vocalisingthe building blocks that form certain sounds tomake words. Public speaking ability will also beimproved from a vocal exploration of poetry.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "In schools where many pupils are failing thebasics of English language, they cannot beexpected to progress to a more complex level ofEnglish study like poetry before the basics havebeen mastered. It is like asking a student whocannot count to solve a highly complex algebraicequation; completely impossible because thegroundwork remains a nemesis. If the pupilscannot understand the basics of reading, writingand grammar, they will certainly struggle to withmore complex concepts fundamental to thestudy of poetry such as similies, personifications,metaphors and extended metaphors. Let us takethe UK as an example, for it is a country in whichmany students do not make progress in basicEnglish. A report in 2011 voiced concern at thenumber of school children struggling with Englishand the published some horrifying statistics;\"Hundreds of thousands of pupils are fallingbehind in the basics after starting secondaryschool, official figures suggest … three in 10 arenot making enough progress in English,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Musicians have for some time been awarded poetstatus. The artist and their personal lifestylechoices can and must be regarded equally. BobDylan was originally described thus; \"He soundedlike a lung cancer victim singing Woody Gutherie.Now he's a Rolling Stone singing EmmanuelKant\" (page 36, Uncut Legends [magazine] #1:Dylan, September 2003). In 1992, he wasdescribed as \"as good as Keats\" (Ibid). If BobDylan can graduate from folk to electric to poetstatus, modern day musicians must also beallowed to follow suite; to gain the recognitionthey deserve and become similarly promoted.The poet and their personal lifestyle choices isseparable from the poetry they produce. DylanThomas, Wales' national poet who is greatly andproudly upheld was an adulterer and analcoholic. However, this does not make hisimpressive poetry any less credible. We must notsanitise all the great artists, but accept that thegreat art they offer as artists forgives them theirwrongdoing as people. If we applied the policy of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Poetry is a notoriously difficult concept. It is ahighly challenging subject to teach, for itsidentity as an art form is constantly changingand being debated If top academics and thosehighly informed about the subject take issue withpoetry, school pupils cannot be expected tofathom it. On December 7th, 2007, TheGuardian, a British newspaper affiliated to theLeft, noted that this ambiguous identity of poetryrenders it very difficult to teach;\"But untileducation theory asks itself what poetry itself is,and therefore what the teacher is trying to getacross, poems will continue largely to figure asteaching aids, exercises and - for teenagers -increasingly tedious, somewhat arbitrarypuzzles\".1 The canonised poets and their poetryare concerned with adult life experiences, e.g.love, life, work, history and politics, solitude,loneliness, etc. For this reason, widely acclaimedpoetry is deep and requires an adult mind andmature emotional depth to understand, or atleast draw something from, this famous poetry.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While great poetry may deal with adultexperiences there is poetry that targets ayounger audience and methods available toteach this type of poetry. Children’s poetry, forinstance, is not complex or dark in subjectmatter and uses very regular rhythm and rhymeschemes, which young students will enjoy. Ifage-appropriate poetry is taught in schools thenit gives young people the chance to develop anappreciation for poetry and its varioustechniques. This means that in later years youngpeople will have the skills necessary to properlyunderstand great poetry. Poems that requiremore mature minds to understand can, andshould, be used to stretch students to teachabout these contexts as well as about the kind ofimagry and analogy used in the poems. Usingmore difficult poems to stretch puplils will ensurethey keep improving.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "It is unthinkable that a school pupil does notknow who his/her national poet is. English schoolpupils should be familiar with WilliamShakespeare, Scottish school pupils with RobertBurns and Welsh pupils with Dylan Thomas, Irishones with James Joyce. Familiarity with one'sown national poet is a basic.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The future of poetry teaching looks dismal. It isfalling into disrepute by citing rappers as modernday poets. Given that the highly respected RoyalHolloway University of London is one suchinstitution that supports this, the future of poetryeducation and even poetry itself does not lookhopeful. Sir Andrew Motion, Professor of Creativewriting at Royal Holloway, University of London,specified that; \"Poetry is a house of manymansions. It does pupils a disservice only to tellthem things they already know. Rap has its ownchallenges and opportunities - but so do manyother kinds of poetry, many of which areneglected in schools\".1 Eminem has causedmuch offence and controversy over the yearswith his homophobic lyrics. This is just oneexample of why rap is not to be encouraged atall, let alone awarded a label of (so-called)\"poetry\". Rappers like him must not be promotedas great artists in the classroom. It isunthinkable that rappers who promote guncrime, drugs and degrade women should be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "In countries where students are failing basicliteracy, new measures to improve basic literacyskills in schools are required as a matter ofurgency. In such cases, schools cannot justifywasting time by teaching poetry. In the UK, TheLabour Party introduced The Literacy Hour, aprogramme that meant schools were obliged todedicate more time to basic literacy (andnumeracy) upon their election in 1997. However,as the aforementioned statistics have shown, allthat has increased is the number of pupils failingin this basic subject. There are 5 million illiteratepeople in Scotland alone. All we know is thatmore time does need to be spent learning thebasic literacy and numeracy. Appreciatingliterature and poetry, the artistic side of theEnglish language, cannot be addressed untillearners have fully understood and grasped thetools of reading, writing and vowel sounds thatallow for fiction and poetry to be produced. Weneed an educational programme that recognisesreading and writing as a matter of urgency and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "In failing schools, it IS justifiable to separate artfrom education. When a high number of studentsare struggling with basic literacy and numeracy,this is what needs to be addressed. Artisticstudies will simply have to take a backseat whileteaching of the basics is improved. This is atemporary measure, once teaching and abilitiesin basic literacy and numeracy improve, schoolswhich have previously been failing can expandback into artistic studies. If this is not the case,and art and poetry continue to have a highprofile in failing schools, what will result is amass of very cultured high school leavers (notnecessarily graduates) unable to add up in theirhead and with poor vocabulary, able to quoteShakespeare effortlessly but no idea how to spellhis name.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Learning the basics of literature and language isnot designed to be fun or enjoyable, it is anessential requirement. It is important thatstudents can get to grips with the basics of theirhome language and a standard 'look, cover,write, check' method for learning spelling andexpanding vocabulary is effective, for it requiresthe learner to write the words themselves.Simply reading them is not enough, especiallynot in the context of a poem- unconventional,even strange concepts typical of poetry may wellbe too demanding for the pupil, whose priority isto learn writing and reading. They can still learnreading through the cultural means of readingnovels, in which the extended prose used by theauthor is far easier to follow.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "It is important to honour the memory of the menwho fell in the wars in the defence of theirnation. War poetry is a fundamental tool to thisend. War poetry, although foreign to our ownexperiences of peacetime, enables us as readersto gain insight into the minds of the terrified menwho fought for our freedom. Wilfred Owensuffered from shellshock as a result of fighting inthe war. In his poem Mental Cases, he describeshis time and experiences at Craiglockhartpsychiatric hospital in Scotland, where he andSiegfried Sassoon (another WW1 poet) weretreated for the condition; \"Who are these? Whysit they here in twilight? Wherefore rock they,purgatorial shadows\" (lines 1-2)1In our time ofpeace, we will never be able to fully empathisewith their terrifying experiences, or successfullydecode every observation, but we must readsome of their poetry in order to appreciate thetrue and full horrors of war. We must do this outof respect for those who died for our freedom,and as such war poetry must be taught in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Not teaching poetry in schools opens the gate toeradicating all artistic and creative subjects fromthe curriculum, which means the entirepopulation would be Spartan and philistines. Wewant cultured people to graduate from highschools. It is undesirable that all high schoolgraduates, who are an educated group of people,will have no knowledge of art and no desire toever immerse themselves in anything culturalsuch as a museum, or art gallery. This is whatwill happen if poetry and other art subjects arenot respected in schools. As it is, Englishliterature is the only cultural subject that iscompulsory at GCSE level. Because it is the onlyobligatory cultural GCSE subject, as muchculture must be channelled into it as possible i.e.novels and much poetry.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Poetry is art, art is inseparable from education;art is what makes us human, and that whichmakes us human is certainly to be taught inschools. It is fundamental that educationteaches students about the human condition inorder to enable an understanding of humanity.High school students must therefore gainawareness of not only human ideas but also anawareness of how humans choose to expressthese ideas, which means they must learn aboutart. One of the ways in which humans choose toexpress their emotions is through literature,language and speech- poetry. For example,many Victorian poets such as WilliamWordsworth and Sir Walter Scott, who spentmuch time in the Lake District, turned to writingnature poetry, such as Wordsworth's famouspoem Daffodils, because they wanted to \"seeinto the life of things\",1 and the best way to bothinvestigate and express this was through naturepoetry. 1 Lefebure, Molly, The Illustrated LakePoets, Windward, 1987, p. 144", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "If any art is to be taught in schools, it has to bePoetry, for poetry is the only artistic form of acore subject. It is an enjoyable way to teach thecore subject of home language and literaturewritten therein; interesting and obscure conceptshold the learner's interest when studying theirhome language and its landmark literature, whilesimultaneously expanding vocabulary andimproving spelling. Poetry offers a fun method ofteaching subjects that can otherwise easily beexhaustive and repetitive For examples; ShirleyHughes' poems for young readers such as Bestfriends introduce young readers to the vowelsounds of their home language. The Charge ofthe Light Brigade by Alfred, Lord Tennysonteaches the reader about a great historicallandmark. The war poetry of Wilfred Owen,Siegfried Sassoon et al teaches students aboutthe First World War and the horrors thereof.Zoe's Earrings by Kit Wright teaches pre-GCSEstudents about accents.1 1 Wright, Kit, \"Zoe'sEarrings\", BBC Learning Zone, accessed 1", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "We must be realistic in education; we need toprepare our students for the difficulties of thereal world. It is those subjects that arevocational in nature and/or life skills, homelanguage (not literature), maths and science andmodern languages, business studies, law thatmust take priority in schools. We must equip andtrain the new generation to successfully gainemployment. Therefore, art subjects like poetryare no priority.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-testlchbp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "An appreciation for the true horrors of war canbe gained through factual reading. Factual booksabout the horrors of the First World War offerbetter understanding the true extent of theatrocities than poetry. Firstly, they are factualand not based upon opinion. Secondly, they aremore modern and have been written in theaftermath of the First World War. Therefore, theytell its full story and provide a panoramic view ofthe Greta War. Thirdly, many of the men whowrote war poetry went mad with shellshock.Trying to find sense in the nonsensical lyrics ofpoetry by those poor men sent mad is animpossible task; knowledge of and research intoshellshock is a relatively new development.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghhwmvc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Compulsory vaccination is an example of thetyranny of the majority even if it is made by ademocratic government. And in a communitythat praises itself as democratic and respectful towishes of others it is in no way acceptable thatthe rights of some get abused by the wishes ofothers. John Stuart Mill has set philosophicalbasics: “the majority… the people, consequently,may desire to oppress a part of their number;and precautions are as much needed againstthis, as against any other abuse of power… Inthe part which merely concerns himself, hisindependence is, of right, absolute. Over himself,over his own body and mind, the individual issovereign. [1] The state (or the majority) canonly dictate to the individual is if that individual’sactions adversely affect the collective. Thereforethe question is ‘what is the purpose of thevaccination?’ if it is to provide individuals withtheir own protection then autonomy ofdecision-making and individual liberty shouldpredominate as guiding principles. Under these", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghhwmvc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Duty to protect the child As article 24 of theUnited Nations Convention on the Rights of theChild states, “State parties shall strive to ensurethat no child is deprived of his or her right ofaccess to health services.” [1] Each yearmillions of children worldwide die of preventablediseases before the age of five. The argumentpresented here is that the state needs to protectthe child and immunize him or her frompreventable diseases as obviously the child doesnot have the capabilities at this stage to makeinformed decisions of their own. The UnitedNations Right to Liberty and Security of thePerson treaty, article 6.2 supports this view -State Parties shall ensure to the maximumextent possible the survival and development ofthe child. [2] It is up to the State to decide if achild is to be immunized, as overall it will be theState who would benefit from having the vastmajority of its citizens vaccinated, and it will bethe State who will have to pay for any treatmentneeded to treat a preventable disease. Whilst a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghhwmvc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Vaccines themselves are expensive to develop inthe lab and to mass produce for widespreadcompulsory vaccination programs. In addition tothese upfront costs, organizing compulsoryvaccination programs across an entire countrycan be very complicated and expensive. Forinstance, mechanisms must be set in place toensure that the program is indeed compulsory,which means establishing a database of thosethat have and have not received the vaccine.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghhwmvc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "It is the state’s duty to protect its community Ifan age group is protected, that results in a betterhealth conditions for the whole society. In anindustrialized country such as the USA, thosechoosing exemption from statutorily compulsoryvaccination were 35-times more likely to contractmeasles than vaccinated persons; in developingcountries where these viruses are still endemic,the risk would be considerably higher [1]. Those who wish to opt-out of vaccination(often on behalf of their children, who have nosay in the matter) are classic free riders, hopingto benefit from the more responsible behavior ofthe rest of society. As it is assumed that most ofsociety see it as a responsibility and a duty toprotect others. After a scare about possible sideeffects of the MMR jab, in 2008 there was a dropin voluntary vaccinations in a part of London(Lewisham). In that part of London only 64.3 %of children were vaccine and in that year thedistrict accounted one third of all south-eastLondon measles cases. Unless there is a 95 %", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghhwmvc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "A great deal of health care and prevention ofdiseases is information and an informed decision.The United Kingdom does not have a system ofcompulsory health care, but disease outbreaksare still prevented due to the voluntary uptake ofimmunizations. The pediatrician MiriamFine-Goulden explains: “The risk of contractingthese infections is only so low at present becausethe voluntary uptake of immunizations has beenhigh enough (in most cases) to reduce thechance of contact with those organisms throughthe process of herd immunity.” [1] Also it canbe argued that measles, mumps and rubella (oneof the diseases vaccine against) are far fromharmful. They are relatively minor illnesses [2] .Measles causes a rash and high fever. Mumpscauses swollen glands, headache and fever.Rubella is usually mild and can gounnoticed. Just because medical advance hasbeen made in vaccinations it does not mean thatwe have to be immunized against every littledisease known to man. Bearing in mind the cost", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghhwmvc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Compulsory vaccines are a financial relief on thehealth system Commonly-used vaccines are acost-effective and preventive way of promotinghealth, compared to the treatment of acute orchronic disease. In the U.S. during the year2001, routine childhood immunizations againstseven diseases were estimated to save over $40billion per birth-year cohort in overall social costsincluding $10 billion in direct health costs, andthe societal benefit-cost ratio for thesevaccinations was estimated to be 16.5 billion.[1] Another aspect is also, that productivityrates remain high and less money is earmarkedfor social and health transfers because peopleare healthier. This is also supported by a WHOstudy, that claims: “We calculate that theaverage percentage increase in income for thechildren whose immunization coverage increasesthrough will rise from 0.78 per cent in 2005 to2.39 per cent by 2020. This equates to anincrease in annual earnings per child of $14 by2020. The total increase in income per year once", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghhwmvc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The argument of “bad vaccines” is a very popularone. However, scientifically seen this argumentsis flawed in many aspects. First of all many ofthe examples used in arguments suggestingvaccination is dangerous and therefore shouldnot be used, is very old. Many refer to examplesfrom the 60s or 70s, which in medicine is highlyflawed as science every few years significantlyadvances, improves the level of knowledge andreduces possible side effects. And even thoughmany believe in the damages caused by vaccinesretrospective studies disprove this point: 1.Autism Scientists at Columbia UniversityMailman School of Public Health's Center forInfection and Immunity and researchers at theCenters for Disease Control and Prevention,Massachusetts General Hospital, and TrinityCollege Dublin, evaluated bowel tissues from 25children with autism and GI disturbances and 13children with GI disturbances alone (controls) byreal-time reverse transcription (RT)-PCR for thepresence of measles virus RNA. Samples were", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghhwmvc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The problem with this is that those refusingvaccines on account of this effectively violate thesame right for other people if, and when, there isan outbreak of the disease against which thevaccine is protecting.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghhwmvc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "It is a parental right to decide about vaccinationsfor a child Through birth, the child and theparent have a binding agreement that issupported within the society. This agreementinvolves a set of rights and duties aimed at, andjustified by, the welfare of the child. Throughthat (according to texts from the StanfordEncyclopedia of Philosophy): parents owe theirchildren an “open future,” understood as onewhere they become adults capable of choosingtheir own conception of the good. As custodian,the parent is under a limited obligation to workand organize his or her life around the welfareand development of the child, for the child'ssake. Concomitantly, the parent is endowed witha special kind of authority over the child. [1] Ittherefore is the courtesy of a parent to decidewhat the best possible outcome is for a child. Ifthe parent believes the child will be safer andbetter off in society without being given vaccineit is the parent’s right to decide not to givevaccination to the child. Also the American", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghhwmvc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Vaccines have severe side effects Some of theused vaccines may have severe side effects,therefore we should let every individual assesthe risk and make choices on his/her own.Besides introducing foreign proteins and evenlive viruses into the bloodstream, each vaccinehas its own preservative, neutralizer andcarrying agent, none of which are indigenous tothe body. For instance, the triple antigen, DPT,which includes Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanusvaccine, contains the following poisons:Formaldehyde, Mercury, and aluminumphosphate, and that's from the Physician's DeskReference, 1980. The packet insertaccompanying the vaccine, lists the followingpoisons: aluminum potassium sulfate, a mercuryderivative called Thimersol and sodiumphosphate. The packet insert for the poliovaccine lists monkey kidney cell culture,lactalbumin hydrozylate, antibiotics and calfserum. The packet insert for the MMR vaccineproduced by Merck Sharp and Dhome which is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghhwmvc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Compulsory vaccination violates the individuals’right to bodily integrity In most countries anddeclarations, one of the most basic human rightsis the one to bodily integrity. It sets down thatyou have a right not to have your body or personinterfered with. This means that the State maynot do anything to harm your body withoutconsent. The NHS (National Health Service)explains: “You must give your consent(permission) before you receive any type ofmedical treatment, from a simple blood test todeciding to donate your organs after your death.If you refuse a treatment, your decision must berespected.” This comes from the principle, thatif a person has the capacity to consent totreatment and is making an informed decision(based on pros and cons of the treatment), thedecision must be respected. The NHS explainsfurther on: “If you have enough capacity andmake a voluntary and informed decision torefuse a treatment, your decision must berespected. This applies even if your decision", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghhwmvc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "An adult vaccine refusal and a parental vaccinerefusal are not the same. Parents do not haveabsolute right to put their child at a risk even ifthey themselves are willing to accept such a riskfor him or herself. Minors have a right to beprotected against infectious diseases and societyhas the responsibility to ensure welfare ofchildren who may be harmed by their parents’decisions. Counseling should form an integralpart of any such legislation, as often it is notconviction but laziness of the parents in takingtheir child to the clinic for immunization or theparents’ inability to make an informed decision.[1] Also the state has already protected childrenin cases, when their functioning later as an adultcould be compromised due to parental actions.For instance: in order to promote culturallyprescribed norms, parents may seek to removetheir child from school, or have their daughterundergo clitoridectomy; yet the state may claimthat such a decision violates the parents' trusteerelationship on grounds that the state has a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Correlation is not causation. The fact that anumber of individuals with JDs are working infields unrelated to the law does not, in and ofitself, imply that they gained those positionsbecause of a JD. A JD may help, but it has to befactored against the opportunity cost ofeverything else you could be doing over threeyears with the tuition money. A Harvard Lawdegree might impress the State Department –but spending a year and a half in South Sudanand writing a book on your experiences wouldimpress them far more. A UCLA degree mightimpress a movie studio, but producing your ownmovie, or gaining work in the field as aproduction assistant would likely impress themeven more. The fact is that for every individualwith a JD or GDL who occupies a senior positionin a non-legal field, there are many more highachieving individuals in similar fields who do nothave a JD, a BPTC or an MBAs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A legal qualification is a gateway to a number ofdifferent career paths. A JD is not simply agateway to the legal world. Lawyers work ascorporate executives, run movie studios, holdpolitical office, and teach academically. Holdingthe degree will increase your qualifications, andmake it far easier to move up the ladder inwhatever field you chose to enter even if it is nota legal one.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Side proposition assumes that the European andAmerican economies will eventually improve tothe point where the legal sector will begin togrow again. If it does not you may find just ashard to find a job as when you entered LawSchool. Furthermore, there is a good chancethat you will be in significant debt by the timeyou have completed your law degree, which willhave a major impact on your ability to seekflexible employment within the legal field. It isquite possible that you may be forced to forgopolitics or public interest law in favour of higherpaying positions in less desirable fields. And ifyou decide to pursue options outside of the legalfield, it is hard to see how there weren’t cheaperways to spend three years, since going to LawSchool actively requires you to pay people tokeep you unemployed. Even if you havereceived scholarships or training contracts, youroptions may be limited by the conditions of thoseoffers (mandatory public service, work for aspecific firm) which will also inhibit your", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Law school helps graduates to think more clearlymaking them more attractive to otheremployers. Law Schools teaches you to “think”more critically, and legal work offers theopportunity to engage in a largely intellectualpursuit with other highly intellectual individuals.Law students are likely to develop a wider rangeof intellectual skills throughout their careers, andwill be better able to transition in to differentjobs and different areas of the legal industry ifneeded. Moreover, the level of enjoyment thatindividuals derive from their jobs- and thus thenature of the hedonic calculus that they engagein when determining whether a particular job willfully account for their needs- is linked partly tothe variety and difficulty of the tasks they mustaccomplish. Law represents a sustained andengaging intellectual challenge, and a challengeideally suited to the skills of most humanitiesgraduates.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "You need a legal qualification to be a lawyer Alaw degree is first and foremost a requirement ofbeing a lawyer. Anyone with any interest inworking in the legal field, serving as a judge, oreven working in a number of governmental andnon-profit fields will quite simply need to attendlaw school at some point. If you are already arecipient of such a degree, it will increase theopportunities for advancement within yourchosen career.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This argument is simultaneously both a truism,and beside the point. While it is true thatsomeone will need a JD in order to become alawyer, individuals pursuing those degrees needto understand that they are investing a hugesum of money for an opportunity to take adifficult series of examinations, which if youpass, allows you to apply for a job in the legalfield. These positions are becoming far harder tofind, as each year the number of studentsgraduating from law schools increases, while thenumber of available positions either shrink orremain static. One has to take account of theentire field and its condition before making aleap.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "You will rarely get the chance to interact withthose intelligent individuals, either in LawSchool, where most of your time will be spent inthe library, or at a Law Firm, where anydiscussions will detract from your ability to billhours. The legal business model effectivelyincentivizes long-hours, with most of it going toresearch. You will rarely if ever see a courtroom,unless you work as a public defender and eventhere you will spend most of your time onresearch.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Pay in most fields is, to some degree or other,correlated with the cost of entry into thatprofession or occupation. Because becoming aLawyer requires up to seven years of education,it does tend to pay more than many other fields.But there are many lawyers who, despiteworking long hours, do not make vast amountsof money, and there are, furthermore, a dozenpart-time associates for every globe-trottingpartner at most major firms. Furthermore, it isunclear how correlated success within LawSchool is with pay. The highest paid lawyer inAmerica for most of the 1990s and early 2000swent to the University of Mississippi, rather thanan Ivy League institution, while softwaredevelopers and investment bankers regularlymake more than lawyers without having to payexorbitant tuition costs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Law School provides a safe haven from which towait out a bad economy. Law school is a goodway to spend your time and wait out the badeconomy. By the time a law degree has run itscourse, the economy will have improved, andyou will have a lot more options available,whether you still want to be a lawyer or not.Indeed, the UK based law school BPP haspreviously advertised its courses as a “recessionproof investment”, arguing that returns, in termsof wages, on an individual’s course fees couldpotentially be greater than equities or riskyfinancial instruments.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Admissions tests such as the LNAT exaggeratesmall differences in performance Lawyers areoften extremely high paid, and occupy aprestigious position in society. A law degree iskey to entry to the top tier of society and highincome earners.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "These arguments are less compelling if you havethe opportunity to attend a top Law School, inwhich case the sky is the limit in terms ofopportunities. Furthermore, these harms are farfrom unique to the legal field – they apply tofinance and consulting as well, where a gooddegree with open more doors than a lessprestigious one. But individuals still regularlyovercome it. One way they do is by going toprominent local schools. In the United States,prestige matters most in New York and Boston.Outside of the East Coast, many firms prefergraduates who attended local schools since theyare likely to be more familiar with the area andmore likely to be able to move and find housingand a social network in the area. A UCLA degreewill take you as far in Los Angeles as aGeorgetown one.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Applicants should of course carefully considerwhether or not they actually wish to becomelawyers, and afterwards should carefully considerwhere they wish to enrol. But it is absurd toclaim that individuals cannot decide these thingsfor themselves, and the fact is that manyindividuals do go to Law School with a clear ideaof what they want to do, and subsequently enjoya highly successful experience in theworkplace. In a lot of ways these criticisms arenot unique to the legal field. In fact the sameargument could be made for Universities, thenumber of which is driven by demand for aUniversity education and not by the demand ofemployers for University graduates. Nonetheless,University graduates almost uniformly makemore than non-graduates, and a large number ofjobs require degrees. No one could conceivablyargue that gaining a college education is eithernot worth it or a mistake. In addition, manyindividuals who have graduated from lessprestigious schools can benefit enormously from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The debt incurred in the pursuit of a law degreelimits options both within the legal industry, andoutside of it, by compelling recipients to seek outthe highest paying jobs. Legal Work is adog-eats dog world. Law students are forced intoa competition with each other for valuableinternships, and then in turn face a brutalcompetition for summer associate positions. Ofevery ten junior associates hired, one will belucky to make partner at a major firm, and therest will often be faced with a career dead-end at35 or need to switch careers. For those who domake partner, the opportunities to enjoy thebenefits will be limited by pressure to work evenharder.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Failing a law degree can be extremelycostly. Law School as a choice has to beweighed against its opportunity cost: what elsecould someone do with three years and$120,000? How might the long term benefits ofthis activity weigh up against the consequentbenefits of time spent at law school? This is anespecially important consideration for thoseinterested in careers outside of the legalprofession. Spending some of that tuitionsubsidizing an internship on Capitol Hill or with aThink Tank or Lobbying firm would be far morelikely to lead to later employment in politics thanearning a JD and likely offer a politicallyinterested potential law student a far moreentertaining and enjoyable experience. Joiningthe Peace Corp or working for an internationalnon-Profit would both impress the StateDepartment more and be far cheaper than a lawdegree.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The actual opportunities outside of the top tenlaw schools are quite limited. Because of thesupply and demand problems, the actualopportunities outside of the top ten law schoolsare quite limited. This is not in fact solely due totheir actual quality. It is more a consequence ofthe fact that the legal job market is so bad, thatFirms need to use a proxy for removingapplicants from the pool without furtherconsideration, and for many, schools workwell. US Supreme Court Justice Anthony Scaliahad admitted to not hiring Clerks from outside ofthe top ten law schools, suggesting that heprefers to trust that the admissions offices atthese schools did their job properly. He hasmaintained this policy despite admitting that itwould have prevented the hiring of the best clerkhe ever had, who had gone to Ohio StateUniversity Law School. While the qualitativeoutcomes are massively different, the pricedifferential between second and third tier lawschools and their first year counterparts is next", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "A stint at law school is of little value to thosewho are not pursuing a legal degree, butnonetheless many applicants treat it as a secondshot at an Undergraduate degree. Individualsincreasingly treat Law School as a second shot attheir Undergraduate degree. Applicants whofailed to get into Russell group or Ivy Leagueinstitutions the first time around competeobsessively to achieve their dreams on “secondchance” while many other applicants aresuckered into the image of rich, successful,attractive lawyers presented by the media. Manyuniversities in England, including Oxford, havebegun to offer accelerated undergraduate lawdegrees, which are highly appealing to thoseseeking to improve on grades received in scienceor humanities oriented degrees. The result isthat a large number of students are not actuallythinking about the role that law plays in theircommunities, or what they want to do with theirlife, when they apply. The result is that supplyand demand in the Law School sector is not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is true that there are opportunities that couldstand you in better stead down the road, butthose listed by the opposition are both involve agamble on the same odds as that entailed by alegal career. For every 10 interns in acongressional office or for a lobbying firm,perhaps one gets a job offer. By contrast you willreceive a Law Degree if you spend those threeyears on Law School. Furthermore, financial aidcan be provided for Law School whereas the jobslisted by the opposition would require a largeinitial investment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-ulghblqwc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Law School, especially at the elite level is anopportunity to enter an environment whereintellect is valued above all else. Whereas inschool or university athletic ability or othertalents sometimes trumped academics, in thelegal world, academic and mental skills are allthat matters. It is therefore an opportunity tosucceed or fail on one’s own merits, and to meetothers who are equally interested in intellectualor academic pursuits.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Yes history has to be edited as it could not all betaught but that does not mean that these are thebits that should be edited out. Rather as othernations consider these parts of Japanese historyimportant it is all the more important forJapanese students to study them so as to learnwhy South Korea and China react in this way", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "All history is edited To state the obvious there isan immense amount of history. There is muchmore history than could ever be taught in school.This means there needs to be some way to cutdown everything in history into a sensible sizedsyllabus. There are some obvious ways to cutdown history to a manageable length; such asconcentrating on the history of the nation,focusing on certain key events, focusing onthings of particular importance to today, orsometimes just on things that are considered funand interesting. In the UK there have beenaccusations, including by the current educationsecretary Michael Gove, that British history isneglected in favour of Nazi Germany and theAmerican west – something that then avoidsBritain’s less than comfortable imperial past.[1] It should therefore come as no surprise thatJapan does not highlight World War II and inparticular the bad parts of that conflict. DoesChina teach about its invasion of Tibet? [1]Vasagar, Jeevan, ‘Michael Gove accuses exam", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Critical thinking must not be at the expense ofobjective history that imparts knowledge of whatactually happened. We should not assume thatteachers will supplement what is in the textbookswith other books or subject them to criticalanalysis.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of Speech The Japanese government isnot forcing schools to teach Japanese history in away that whitewashes the Japanese record inWorld War II. In Japan the Ministry of Educationscreens textbooks and when they are approvedmakes them available. Schools are then allowedto select their textbook from a list of seven oreight textbooks that have been approved both bythe ministry. [1] By making this choice schoolsare exercising their freedom of speech indeciding what should be taught in theirclassrooms. In the case of the New HistoryTextbook (Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho) not asingle state run junior high school adopted thetextbook resulting in a mere 0.03% of juniorhigh school students using the textbook. [2] Bycontrast China’s textbooks and theirmisrepresentations are mandatory. [3] Thisshows that when the Japanese people are givenfreedom of information on the issue theyexercise this right responsibly. [1] Masalski,Kathleen Woods, ‘Examining the Japanese", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This is not and never can be a freedom of speechissue. In this case it is a teacher or school boarddeciding what others are to be taught so by itsvery nature even if that individual has freedomof speech the students do not. In a schoolfreedom of speech is limited; students cannotsay what they want when they want, and thesame is true with freedom of information; theycannot learn what they want when they want.This is because school is to give them a basicgrounding in everything they need to knowrather than it being a place where the studentcan pick and choose.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "While an official story or creation myth for anation may be a useful way of binding a nationtogether and when this is ancient history it isunlikely to cause much harm. However thisshould not be brought forward into the modernera where much more objective history isnecessary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The goal is to encourage students tothink History is not about learning all history, itis not about learning particular bits of history, itis not even necessarily about learning a nations’story, rather it is about encouraging students tothink critically. It has been regularly shown thatstuffing children with facts turns them off asubject instead there should be interaction,discussion, analysing texts from the time andanalysing bias. [1] The space in the textbookdevoted to the issues is very limited andtherefore what they mention does not matterparticularly much. What matters therefore is howthe teachers teach the issues as they will have tosupplement the textbooks with other works andthere is a wide range to choose from. [2] Whatmatters then is how the teachers expand on theissues within the textbook rather than thetextbook itself – the textbook could even beuseful at studying the subject by providing asource to study bias on WWII. [1] Savich, Carl,‘Improving Critical Thinking in History’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Nations should be allowed an ‘official story’ Tosome the idea of a national story may be ananachronism but history is one of the things thatbind a country together. As Benedict Andersonargues nations are ‘imagined communities’ asmembers of that nation will never know most ofthe members of that community or even hearabout them but despite this there is conceived tobe a comradeship between its members. [1] Thecreation of a national story from the history ofthe nation that helps create that common unit.French historian Ernest Renan went so far as toargue that ‘Getting its history wrong is part ofbeing a nation’. [2] South Korean President LeeMyung-bak himself has argued “A textbook ofmodern history should be written in a way thatdoes not hurt our national pride,” when criticisinga South Korean textbook’s interpretation of thedividing of Korea. [3] If this is the case it isdifficult to see how there can be any objection toJapan using the same principle. [1] Anderson,Benedict, Imagined Communities, Verso, 17", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con03b", "title": "", "text": "No one worries that Britain is going to attempt torecreate its empire because most school childrenare not taught about it; why should this be anydifferent with Japan? Moreover in the case of theJapanese constitution while a majority of theJapanese public is for changing the constitutionthey are not for changing Article 9, only 30% ofJapanese are in favour of changing it while 59%are against. [1] Such a change is thereforeunlikely in the near future. [1] Wallace, Corey,‘The Japanese Constitution in 2011’, JapanSecurity Watch New Pacific Institute, 3 May2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This dispute is obviously not just about teaching‘facts’. China which complains about themisrepresentation of the Nanjing massacre doesnot teach about the Tiananmen Square massacrein 1989. [1] Of course the facts should betaught but what facts? The New History Textbookat the center of the dispute only has 12 pages onthe whole of WWII, if the pictures are taken outthere are only 7 pages left, of which three aredevoted to the European theatre. [2] It shouldtherefore not come as a surprise that somethings are missed out. It should be noted that astudy by Stanford professors Daniel Sneider andGi-Wook Shin found that the main Japanesehistory textbooks are the least biased on theSecond World War out of textbooks used inChina, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and the UnitedStates. [3] [1] Bruhn, Judith, ‘The vital presenceof the past’, Free Speech Debate, 7 May2012, [2] Inkerd, Wes, ‘The Japanese HistoryTextbook issue’, Education in Japan communityblog, accessed 20 August 2012 [3] Sneider,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Excluding these incidents is offensive It isoffensive to the comfort women and the victimsof the Nanjing massacre to deny or omit thatsuch horrific events ever happened. For thesepeople it makes a full apology and closure amuch more distant prospect. Duk-Sook Choi, aKorean woman conscripted by the Japanese said\"My blood pressure shot up, and I couldn't sleepthe night I heard the news about the textbooks”and argued \"Not mentioning comfort women istantamount to insulting the women the worldover\". [1] Similarly in response to what the NewTextbook says on the Nanjing massacresurvivors argued \"Japanese rightists groupsdistort history and attempt to cover the truth ofNanjing Massacre. This makes me extremelyangry\". [2] [1] Kang, K. Connie, ‘ProtestersDecry Japan’s New History Textbooks’, LosAngeles Times, 18 April 2001, [2] ‘NanjingMassacre Survivors Protest Japan’s Approval ofDistorted History Textbook’, People’s Daily, 6April 2001,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The bad bits need to be taught so we canunderstand what others think of us For millionsof people around the world Britain is known forits Empire. In Britain itself this is sometimesgiven a positive spin, as indeed it was by theVictorian empire builders themselves, as openingup the world, bringing education, technology,and eventually democracy. Of course this didhappen but those outside Britain are more likelyto remember the British empire for its atrocities,for example the invention of concentrationcamps in the Boer wars; its destroying nativecultures such as Australia’s aborigines; or itsruthless forcing of trade on others like in theaftermath of the Opium Wars. Denying one sideof this history denies us the possibility ofunderstanding what others think of us. [1] It isoften touted that there should be a partnershipbetween India and Britain on the basis of history.[2] But Britain remembers the ‘good’ Empire didwhile India remembers the ‘bad’. So is the casewith Japan. South Korea and Japan are natural", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Schools should teach the controversy inhistory History lessons in school are not justabout providing children with some sanitisedversion of national history. Instead they areabout teaching points that are controversial orrelevant to the modern world. Both of which isthe case with the issue of comfort women andJapanese imperialist aggression. They mustteach why these actions were wrong and whythey are now controversial. If anon-controversial history is taught which glossesover bad actions this may lead to real politicalresults. In Japan there have regularly beensuggestions that the constitution should bechanged, and in particular that Article 9, theprovision that renounces war should be amendedor abolished. [1] If the Japanese are not taughtabout the actions that lead to this provision orare given a distorted view of it then the resultingchange in perception would make altering theconstitution much more likely. [2] Ultimately thismay well be a case of those who ignore [or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Schools should teach facts Quite simply if aschool in Japan is going to teach about WorldWar II then it should include the darker side ofthe Japanese involvement in the conflict. Japansacts such as the Nanjing bombing and theoccupation of Asian countries were horrific andmust not be glossed over. Not covering suchactions is quite simply misrepresenting the factsthrough omission. No one would considerteaching about Nazi Germany withoutmentioning the horrors it committed. Learningabout, for example the road to war may beinteresting, and potentially be useful in drawinglessons on how to prevent a war. Appeasementis still regularly used as an analogy ininternational relations discussion as meetingalmost any aggression with negotiations is seenas appeasing the enemy with Munich as theanalogy [1] for example in negotiations withNorth Korea. [2] It is however a pointlessexercise if the person learning knows nothing ofwhat happened in the resulting war. Why should", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It should be enough that students are taughtthat their countries did bad things as well asgood. There is no need to go into every casewhere a country has done wrong throughout itshistory. While the use of comfort women waswrong and tragic there is no reason why thisshould be used as an example of the sufferingcaused by Japanese imperialism. Students couldequally be taught that Japans actions werewrong through highlighting the treatment ofPrisoners of War or by showing that it wasJapanese aggression that lead to war after war.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-tfsdfkhwabvh-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The Japanese have no intention of offendingSouth Korea or China with their textbooks andthese countries should not be taking offense oversuch minor issues. While it is regrettable that atiny minority of students may get a biased viewof history from the New History Textbook theactual harm is miniscule. No individuals aredirectly insulted by a sin of omission, and no onecomes to physical harm. Even those who werevictims of the Japanese would probably be betteroff attempting to get formal apologies for theactual crime rather than attackingmisrepresentations that will be seen by sofew. For the most part this is an issue whippedup by the two governments who wish to useJapan’s WWII past to try and force concessionstoday and to direct nationalist ire away from thegovernment. In China according the EdwardFriedman, an expert on Chinese nationalism,“anti-Japan nationalism became a greatlegitimating glue to hold the society together”.[1] [1] Bajoria, Jayshree, ‘Nationalism in China’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Languages are not the only economicallybeneficial skills; sciences, law, humanities,creative studies are favourable. However, skillsalone are not enough; people with hands-onexperience in their field are needed to work astable economy. It is immoral that a governmentmakes its people take posts using languages thataid the country’s economy and not theindividual’s job satisfaction. At the same time interms of benefits to the economy of their homecountry those who have studied languages aremore likely to work abroad constituting a braindrain.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Workers with advanced language skills increasethe competitiveness of the economies theyparticipate in Languages are extremelybeneficial to the economy in two senses. Firstly,language skills improve a job candidate’schances of selection, which keeps unemploymentdown. The National Centre for Languages (CILT)reports on its website that “36% of employersrecruit people with languages”, “49% ofemployers are dissatisfied with school leavers’language skills” and that “95% of Londonemployers think that language skills areimportant for the London economy”. [1]Secondly, a high number of employees withlanguage skills enhance companies’ abilities toengage in trade and to expand their businessabroad, in turn enhancing exports. [1] CILT TheNational Centre for Languages, ‘Employers valuelanguage skills’, accessed 17 November 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "Students should be free to choose to play to theirstrengths. Students should have a fundamentalfreedom of choice when it comes to all but themost necessary subjects. If students want tospecialise in for example Science and dropforeign languages in order to be able to do thisthen they should have this option, a choice whichis likely to be beneficial for their chosen career.Students’ progress in their most successfulsubjects should not be hindered by the burden oflanguage learning. It is not the case thatstudents do not desire to engage in languagesbecause they are lazy, narrow-minded orblinkered. Rather, because they demonstratereal strength in other subjects they do not wishto be constrained in those subjects by oneswhere they do not excel. A standard complaintis quoted by Ehrman; “(learning languages)affects (all study) a lot! I’m finding it justdepressing to have to study, when my onlyreason for being here is to meet arequirement…it really annoys me to have to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Again, language is not the only skill thatgovernment officials are required to possess inorder to ensure that a state is able to adequatelyprotect its citizens and its borders from foreignthreats. Those with knowledge and experienceworking in different states of different culturescan use this to enhance knowledge available tothe government or officials. People of differentbackgrounds are also employed in order to gaininsight and for this reason a varied skill set ofexperiences and knowledge can work together insecuring a state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Learning languages promotes understanding ofother cultures To refuse to learn foreignlanguages is narrow-minded, ignorant andblinkered. Language is a means not only ofasserting identity but, more importantly of“heritage culture maintenance”. To refuse tolearn a foreign language is to disallow anyone’sculture apart from one’s own to be upheld. Whenthis happens, “the dominant groups force ethnicgroups into particular… niches”. [1] This isparticularly likely to be a problem in multiculturalsocieties or indeed any society that is nothomogeneous. By refusing to learn foreignlanguages, one refuses to recognise that othercultures even exist. For this reason learning aforeign language helps to tackle xenophobia.Negative stereotyping is sadly still prevalent inthe modern world. “American students in Maineview persons speaking standard French asshorter, less leaderlike (sic), less thoughtful, lessintelligent, less honest, less self-confident, lessdependable, less generous, less kind, less", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Language acquisition is no less vital thancompetence in mathematics and english A highnumber of students failing to succeed inlanguages is not a valid reason to make thesubject optional. This mentality opens the gateto making English and math options, simply toeradicate the effort of improving pass rates. TheBritish Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) reportsthat in the UK “A quarter of secondary pupils(aged 11 and over) fail to reach their potential inmath(s) and a quarter are making insufficientprogress in English”. [1] Still, optional Englishand math is unthinkable; these are coresubjects- languages should also be considered assuch. Those who want to transfer studentsenergies from foreign languages to English areignoring the possibility that learning a foreignlanguage may actually be useful for learning thefirst language. [2] Students failing in coresubjects must be helped to improve, not havethe subject eradicated. [1] BBC News, ‘Third ofEngland pupils fail to reach maths potential’, 9", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The overwhelming number of students whostruggle with reading and writing in their ownlanguage cannot be expected to acquire asecond, foreign one. The vast number ofstudents failing to master basic arithmetic andcompetency in their mother language is to beaddressed as a matter of urgency. This is aprimary concern for schools, not secondlanguage learning.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Learning its target language is not fundamentalto embracing any foreign culture. Many peoplecan be very open to foreign cultures withoutlearning their language(s). Indeed it may benecessary for most to keep the two separate. [1]No one can learn every foreign language andmany would not have the time to learn morethan a few but that should not prevent learningabout and enjoying that culture, its music, its artand even in many cases through translation itsliterature. If a student is forced to learn alanguage against his/her will, then the negativestereotype of the target culture will only bestrengthened, fuelled by ill feeling and negativeexperiences. In the words of Albert Einstein, “Itis easier to split an atom than break a prejudice”and realistically language learning will not helpcombat this sad truth. [1] Erlbaum,‘Understanding Second Language Difficulties,1996, p.140", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "Allowing students to study what they want orwhat they consider themselves to be good atwould be a mistake. The point of educationbefore university is to provide a good broadgrounding that provides all the necessary lifeskills. This has to include harder subjects thatwould not be the first choice of the students. Inthe UK it has been suggested that the high passrate for soft subjects like Media Studies of 98%has helped cause a decline in foreign languagelearning at A-level (16-18 years old). [1]Scientific research has shown how a secondlanguage can aid us past school years, forexample the American Association for theadvancement of science’s latest research showsthe symptoms of alzheimer’s to occur later on inlife in those who are bilingual in comparison tothose who speak one language. The ability tospeak more than one language enables people tocommunicate better and for longer. [2] [1] BBCNews, ‘Media Studies. Discuss’, 18 August2005, [2] Wheeler, David L., ‘Being Bilingual:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "It is still a mystery why, as Robert C. Gardnerputs it “that some people can learn a second orforeign language so easily and so well and whileothers, given what seem to be the sameopportunities to learn find it almost impossible?”[1] No audio-visual suite, no matter how hightech and expensive, will be able to raise thegrades of students who find it impossible to holdthe complexity of grammar rules in theirheads. [1] Gardner, R.C., Lambert, W.E,Attitudes and Motivation in Second-LanguageLearning, Newbury House Publishers,Massachusetts, 1972, p. 131", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Learning a language is a sign of gooddiplomacy. The call for students to learn aforeign language not only stems from economicneeds but also from the need of improvedsecurity and diplomacy, in particular a betterunderstanding of cultures and languages in orderto better understand threats to the state andimproved foreign services are needed. [1] Inmany Anglophone countries even in the role of adiplomat there are worrying numbers who do nothave the language skills they need, for examplein Canada “only 16% of the 180 foreign serviceofficers who were required to have advancedforeign languages skills for their positions, couldspeak the needed language.” [2] As a 2007National Academy of sciences report warns us“the pervasive lack of knowledge of foreignlanguages and cultures threatens the security ofthe united states as well as its ability to competein the global marketplace and produce anunformed citizenry”. [3] Since the increasedsecurity post 9/11 the government accountability", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The solution is more teaching of languages notless. The problems students face when learninglanguages are the fault of teaching methods, notlanguage ability. Madeline Ehrman observes thatthe root of this problem is that the “student is“out of sync” with the methodology, theteacher.” Therefore, the antidote is more modernlearning styles; “there are some quick fixes thatcan be made when adaptations are needed”. [1]Languages should not be abandoned whenstudents find them boring rather the curriculumand methods of teaching need to be changed tomake the learning more interesting and morerelevant. For example students struggle evenwith their own grammar so an emphasis onmaking themselves understood rather thancorrect grammar may be more useful. [1]Ehrman, Madeline E., Understanding SecondLanguage Difficulties, SAGE Publications,California, 1996. ISBN: 0-7619-0191-4. P.126", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This is once again down to the way languagesare taught. The quality of teaching needs to behigh so that those who struggle more aremotivated to overcome this divide. This is alsothe case with grammar, both learner and teacherneed to have patience and be willing to engage.[1] The critical age for learning a language mustalso be taken into consideration, it is believed bymany experts in the field that it is easier forpeople to learn languages at a very early age, asit greatly improves ones accent and their abilityto learn quickly. Thus the gap between thosewho progress and those who don’t will be greatlyreduced if all students had to learn anotherlanguage starting from an early primary schoolage. [1] Gardner, Attitudes and motivation inSecond-Language learning, 1972, p.135", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "A lack of people who could quickly becomequalified foreign language teachers is not aproblem. There are a high number ofunemployed language graduates, many of whomare already engaged in teaching, particularly asprivate tutors teaching languages. [1] [1]McElvoy, Anne, ‘The tutor trap: the rise and riseof private lessons’, London Evening Standard, 22January 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Not everyone will succeed in learning languageseven if compulsory. There are many people whowill never excel in languages whether they areforced to learn it or not, and if they are not goingto succeed then why waste all the time trying tomake them succeed. With learning foreignlanguages there is a problem of anxiety in theclassroom. This is particularly disabling asstudents must be able to speak up and be heard,usually by the whole class, in order to makeprogress. This anxiety is likely to be closer topanic than it would be in other subjects. [1] Thisnot only affects those who are anxious but holdsback those who are more able. This will be evenmore pronounced with dyslexic children. Theystruggle with the written word and so willnecessarily do even worse when studying foreignlanguages. Yet they can excel in other subjectssuch as mathematics. [2] It is therefore notsensible to make languages mandatory. [1]Ehrman, ‘Understanding Second LanguageDifficulties, 1996, p.149 [2] ‘Dyslexia and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "There is much less need to learn foreignlanguages for countries where English is the firstlanguage. For those from countries whereEnglish is not the first language English is anobvious language to study, it is a language whichis useful all over the world, not just in countrieswhere English is the native language because somany people speak it as a second language.There is not the same obvious second languagefor native English speakers. It is undeniable thatEnglish is increasingly a global language; it is thelanguage of technology and globalcommunication. English is likely to be used in aconversation between for example a GermanScientist and an Italian Politician. [1] It istherefore being realistic for English speakers tobelieve that any other language they learn willhave less utility than their own. [1] EnglishOnline Learners, ‘English the Global Language’,British Council,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There is a large gap between those who makeprogress in languages and those who donot. There is a gulf between people who domake progress in languages and those who donot. Those able in languages struggle todeconstruct the difficult concepts and explainthem to learners who cannot understand.Teachers cannot empathise with students whostruggle. Expecting students who have greatdifficulty in learning languages to be able to doso from those who cannot even explain linguisticconcepts successfully is far too much to ask. Thisone reason why in the UK Ofsted (Office forStandards in Education) considers languageteaching in secondary schools to be weak.[1] There are similar problems with grammarbetween those who are bilingual and those whoare not. People who are bilingual due to theirbackground do not think in grammar. If they donot know why certain grammatical constructionsare used when and why, how is an absolutebeginner struggling with languages supposed to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "In many countries it would not be practical tohave foreign languages as mandatory. It wouldnot always be practical to increase foreignlanguage teaching to being mandatory for allstudents. In the United Kingdom for examplethere is a shortage of foreign language teachersalready with 73% of Local Education Authoritiesstruggling to find teachers, particularly for Mathsand Languages. [1] At the same time in manycountries there are worries about theircompetitiveness in the world due to the successof East Asian countries in education. The PISAtests shows that East Asian countries,particularly China (Shanghai and Hong Kong),South Korea and Singapore far exceed countrieswhere English is the first language in Maths andScience leading to a need to improve thosesubjects first. [2] [1] MailOnline, ‘Teachershortage reaching crisis levels’, [2] PISA, ‘WhatStudents now and can do: Student PerformanceIn Reading, Mathematics and Science’, OECD,2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "While it is undeniable that at the moment Englishis the most used international language this isnot a reason to be complacent. Just becauseEnglish is currently dominant does not mean itwill remain so. In the 18th, 19th and into the20th Centuries French was the internationallanguage and before that Latin was in Europe. Itis as likely that the dominance of the Englishlanguage will decline as that it will continue toincrease. Students should be taught otherlanguages to take advantage of changes thatmay occur within their lifetimes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shwmlflcsp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Students not exceling in a subject is not a reasonfor not teaching that subject. Even a basicunderstanding of another language is useful.Anxiety is something the students will have towork through and may well be affected in othersubjects as well, students who are anxious aboutlearning foreign languages will never be willingto attempt to learn them if they are notcompulsory at school.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Teachers accept that marking student work is animportant part of their job. Well plannedhomework should not take so long to mark thatthe rest of their job suffers, and it can informtheir understanding of their students, helpingthem design new activities to engage and stretchthem. As for recruitment, although teachers dooften work in the evenings, they are not alone inthis and they get long holidays to compensate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Marking homework reduces the amount of timeteachers have to prepare goodlessons Irrespective of homework's educationalvalue, marking it takes up much of teachers'time. Australian teachers have complained that'homework marking can result in four extrahours of work a day and they are rarelyrewarded for their effort'.1 This leaves teacherstired and with little time to prepare effective,inspiring lessons. If the lessons aren't to thestandard they should be, the point of homeworkis lost as the students have little to practise inthe first place. The heavy workload also putsyoung graduates off becoming teachers, and soreduces the talent pool from which schools canrecruit. 1 Speranza, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "The ban on homework could be easily enforcedthrough school inspections In many countriespublic schools require regular school inspectionsto ensure students are receiving a relativelyequal level of education. In Britain for example,Ofsted is a public body that exists specifically toinspect public schools.1 A ban on homeworkwould thus not require a level of trust betweenthe state and individual school principals, forstate inspectors could very quickly work outwhether homework was being given out byasking the children themselves. Children, whodon't like homework at the best of times, wouldnot lie. 1 Ofsted, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Homework has not prevented students doingother activities; it takes very little time tocomplete. Recent American surveys found thatmost students in the USA spent no more than anhour a night on homework. That suggests theredoes not seem to be a terrible problem with theamount being set. Furthermore, British studieshave shown that 'more children are engaging insport or cultural activities' than ever before.1 Assuch, there is no clear evidence to suggest thatstudents are stuck at home doing theirhomework instead of doing other activities. Inaddition, concerns over how busy children aresuggest that parents need to help their childrenset priorities so that homework does not take aback seat to school work. 1 BBC News, 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Homework is about 'winning' on tests, notlearning Many governments make their schoolsgive students a national test (a test taken by allstudents of the same age). After the tests, theycompare schools and punish the schools andteachers whose students do badly. Becauseschools and teachers are therefore scared abouttheir students doing poorly, they give them morehomework, not in the hope they learn more butsimply to do better on the tests.1 As such,homework is not designed to help the student,just their teachers and schools who want them to'win' the test and make them look good, notlearn for the students' own benefit. 1 Sorrentino", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Homework has little educational worth, andtherefore is a waste of students' time Homeworkhas little educational worth and adds nothing tothe time spent in school. Some schools and somecountries don't bother with homework at all, andtheir results do not seem to suffer from it.Studies show that homework adds nothing tostandardised test scores for primary/ elementarypupils. As Alfie Kohn notes, no study has everfound a link between homework and better testsresults in elementary school, and there is noreason to believe it is necessary in high school.1International comparisons of older students havefound no positive relationship between theamount of homework set and average test scores- students in Japan and Denmark get littlehomework but score very well on tests.2 Ifanything, countries with more homework getworse results! 1 Sorrentino , 2011 2 Britt ,2005", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Homework has a lot of educational value, thereason it has not shown this is because teachersdo not set the right kind of homework or they setthe wrong amount of it. Some teachers believehomework is for reviewing material, others thinkit is better for learning new concepts. The resultis 'confusion for students'.1 If the homework wasconsistent however, and related specifically towhat is learnt in the classroom, it would have agreat deal of educational value by helping themremember their lessons and increase students'confidence in how much they arelearning. Furthermore, Professor Cooper of DukeUniversity has shown that by the high schoolsyears, there is a strong and positive relationshipbetween homework and how well students do atschool. There are two main reasons why thisrelationship does not appear in elementaryschool: 1) Elementary school teachers assignhomework not so much to enhance learning, butin order to encourage the development of goodstudy skills and time management;2 2) young", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Setting homework with the intention ofencouraging students to do well at tests isbeneficial to students as much as it is to teachersand schools. National tests are a way ofassessing whether students are at the level theyshould be, if they do well on the tests, that is agood thing. Therefore, a 'win' for the teachersand schools is also a great deal of learning forthe student, the two need not be separated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "Many states do not in fact have a structuredschool inspection system that could enforce sucha ban. The United States, for example, has oneof the largest student bodies in the world but thestate does not have a formal inspection systemthat could enforce a ban on homework.Therefore any ban would only prove arecommendation at best, and could not possiblyhope to be enforced. Furthermore, even in thosestates that do have inspection bodies, theregularity of inspections allows school principalsto prepare for their arrival. Students might beforced by their teachers to lie to inspectors,otherwise they would receive even morehomework. Furthermore, the school inspectionsare partly so that they can test the ability ofstudents – therefore teachers are encouraged togive their students homework so that they dobetter on these inspections.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "If homework puts students off learning, then ithas been badly planned by the teacher. As LindaDarling-Hammond, a professor of Educationnotes, 'many teachers lack the skills to designhomework assignments that help kids learn anddon't turn them off to learning' .1 The besthomework tasks engage and stretch students,encouraging them to think for themselves andfollow through ideas which interest them. Overtime, well planned homework can help studentsdevelop good habits, such as reading forpleasure or creative writing. The researchhowever suggests that homework is not in factputting students off learning. Rather studies inBritain indicate that 'most children are happy(and) most are achieving a higher level thanbefore'.2 Homework cannot be blamed for aproblem that does not exist. Poor children mayindeed lack support to do their homework, butthis just means that schools need to do more toprovide the help they need. 1 Strauss, 2006 2BBC News, 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Homework reduces the amount of time forstudents to do other activities Homework takesa lot of time up. In America, they encourage the'10 minute rule', 10 minutes homework for everygrade, meaning that high-school students are alldoing more than an hour's worth of homeworkeach night.1 Being young is not just about doingschool work every night. It should also aboutbeing physically active, exploring theenvironment through play, doing creative thingslike music and art, and playing a part in thecommunity. It is also important for young peopleto build bonds with others, especially family andfriends, but homework often squeezes the timeavailable for all these things. 1 Associated Press,2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Homework puts students off learning Homeworkputs students off learning. Studies have shownthat many children find doing homework verystressful, boring and tiring. Often teachersunderestimate how long a task will take, or setan unrealistic deadline. Sometimes because ateacher has not explained something new well inclass, the homework task is impossible. Sochildren end up paying with their free time forthe failings of their teachers. They also sufferpunishments if work is done badly or late. Afteryears of bad homework experiences, it is nowonder that many children come to dislikeeducation and switch off, or drop out too early.Teachers in Britain fear that poor children,because they lack the support to do theirhomework, will be turned off school 1. 1 BBCNews, 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Homework is a class issue. In school everyone isequal, but at home some people haveadvantages because of their family background.Middle-class families with books and computerswill be able to help their children much morethan poorer ones can. This can mean poorerchildren end up with worse grades and morepunishments for undone or badly donehomework. David Baker, a researcher, believestoo much homework causes parents and childrento get angry with each other and argue,destroying the child’s confidence 1. On the otherhand pushy parents may even end up doing theirkids’ homework for them – cheating and nothelping the student learn at all. 1 Britt , 2005", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Setting homework does little to develop goodstudy skills. It is hard to check whether thehomework students produce is really their own.Some students have always copied off others orgot their parents to help them. But today there isso much material available on the internet thatteachers can never be sure. It would be better tohave a mixture of activities in the classroomwhich help students to develop a whole range ofskills, including independent learning.Furthermore, if teachers want to developindependence in their students, students shouldbe given a choice in the matter of homework.Otherwise, they’re not using their judgement andtherefore they aren’t being independent at all1. 1 Sorrentino , 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Homework ensures that students practise whatthey are taught at school Having homework alsoallows students to really fix in their heads workthey have done in school. Doing tasks linked torecent lessons helps students strengthen theirunderstanding and become more confident inusing new knowledge and skills. For youngerchildren this could be practising reading ormultiplication tables. For older ones it might bewriting up an experiment, revising for a test andreading in preparation for the next topic.Professor Cooper of Duke University, has foundthat there is evidence that in elementary schoolstudents do better on tests when they do shorthomework assignments related to the test 1.Students gain confidence from such practise, andthat shows when they sit the tests. 1 Strauss,2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Homework is an essential part of education,allowing students to learn information beyondthat which they are taught at school. Homeworkis a vital and valuable part of education. Thereare only a few hours in each school day – notenough time to cover properly all the subjectschildren need to study. Setting homeworkextends study beyond school hours, allowing awider and deeper education. It also makes thebest use of teachers, who can spend lesson timeteaching rather than just supervising individualwork that could be done at home. Education isabout pushing boundaries, and the learningshould not stop at the entrance to the classroom– students should take skills learnt in theclassroom and apply them at home. Homeworkallows this to happen, encouraging students togo above and beyond what they do in school.Reading is the best example, students learn howto read at school, but in order to get better, theyneed to practise and that is best done at home,with the support of parents and at the right pace", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Homework provides a link between child, schooland the home Education is a partnershipbetween the child, the school and the home 1.Homework is one of the main ways in which thestudent’s family can be involved with theirlearning. Many parents value the chance to seewhat their child is studying and to support themin it. It has been described as the ‘window intothe school’ for parents, the area in whichschools, parents and students interact daily 2.And schools need parents’ support inencouraging students to read at home, to helpwith the practising of tables, and to give themopportunities to research new topics. 1 Walker,et. al, 2004 2 Gill & Schlossman, 2003", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Homework encourages students to work moreindependently (by themselves) Homeworkencourages students to work moreindependently, as they will have to at college andin their jobs. Everyone needs to developresponsibility and skills in personal organization,working to deadlines, being able to research, etc.If students are always “spoon-fed” topics atschool they will never develop study skills andself-discipline for the future. A gradual increasein homework responsibilities over the yearsallows these skills to develop 1. For instance, toread a novel or complete a research project,there is simply no time at school to do itproperly. Students have to act independentlyand be willing to read or write, knowing that ifthey struggle, they will have to work through theproblem or the difficult words themselves. DianeRavitch points out that a novel like Jane Eyrecannot be completed if it is not read at home –students have to work through it themselves 2.When given the choice of homework or no", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Homework is not an essential part ofinformation. If what was to be learnt fromhomework was that essential, it would not be leftto the child to learn on their own and away fromschool. In fact, many teachers admit to simplysetting homework because they are expected toset it, not because they think it will be helpful 1.The best environment for learning is in aclassroom, where the student is able to ask forassistance if stuck and the teacher is available tohelp. . 1 BBC News, 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-psthwbh-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Homework does not ensure that studentspractise what they are taught at school. Teachersoften give pupils the end of the exercise theywere doing in class to complete at home, it tendsto be the harder questions towards the end ofthe exercise and if a teacher or a tutor is notpresent to explain or help then it causes thepupil to doubt their ability. To practise what astudent has been taught requires the presence ofa teacher or tutor who can guide the student ifthey get something wrong. Homework, done bythe student on their own, offers little support andis only a source of stress. If confused, thestudent may only come to dislike the topic orsubject, which will only further reduce theirability to remember what they were taught.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-dgegihwbsvv-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The facts are against the premiseagain. Research does not support the idea thatyoung people who play violent video games havedecreased social ability. This is refuted mostnotably in studies by Anderson and Ford (1986),Winkel et al. (1987), Scott (1995), Ballard andLineberger (1999), and Jonathan Freedman(2002). More recently, Block and Crain (2007)claim that in a critical paper by Anderson (andhis co-author, Bushman), data was improperlycalculated and produced fallacious results.Additional meta-analyses (reviews of researchthat attempt to statistically combine data frommultiple studies for more powerful results) byother researchers, such as by Ferguson andKilburn (2009) and Sherry (2007) have failed tofind any causal link between video game violenceand aggression, as have recent reviews by theAustralian Government (2010) and the USSupreme Court (June, 2011). The question ofwhether violent games that only allow violenceas a solution to problems could negatively affect", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-dgegihwbsvv-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Violent Video Games Cause Social InteractionProblems Video games of a violent nature tendto fail to offer many solutions to a problem. Mostmilitary shooters have no form of negotiationwith enemies; players are asked to simply kill asmany nameless terrorists as possible. Given this,social interaction problems can be causedbecause people are presented with problems andthen told that they must be solved with violenceinstead of other methods. In other words,physical violence is portrayed as the first-choice(and often only-choice) solution to aconflict. This lack of portrayal of alternatesolutions can stifle growth of other skills,especially amongst children and adolescents,specifically skills important to making friends andengaging in negotiation in times of conflict orpressure. Further, it encourages children to seepeople who oppose them as “others,” and thuspresents them psychologically as enemiesinstead of as people who are simply different tothe player and thus might have other grievances.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-dgegihwbsvv-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The facts are strongly against the Proposition’sanalysis The proposition’s arguments fail tostand up in the real world. Several major studiespublished in The Journal of Adolescent Health,The British Medical Journal and The Lancet(among others) have shown no conclusive linkbetween video game usage and real-life violentbehaviour. The Federal Bureau of Investigationfound no evidence linking video game use to themassacre at Columbine (or other highlypublicized school shootings). [1] There is noevidence to support the idea that people exposedto violent video game (or other violent mediacontent) will then go on to commit crimes.[2] Further, if violent video games were causingviolent behaviour, we would expect to see ratesof violent crime increase as games with realisticportrayals of violence became more widelyavailable on popular game consoles. Instead,violent crime has decreased in recent years.Some economists have argued (based on timeseries modelling) that increased sales of violent", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-dgegihwbsvv-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Children See Violent Video Games Whilst itmight be agreed that violent video games in thehands of a person who is old enough to see themand be able to understand the context in whichthe violence is being wrought is acceptable, thismay not be true of younger people who acquiregames. Games with violent content are ofteneasily acquired by players too young to purchasethem. They may also gain access to them athome from older siblings. Because children donot have fully developed mental faculties yet,and may not clearly separate fantasy fromreality, exposure to violent games can have alarge impact upon children. This has a greaterimpact than children seeing films that featurerealistic violence because whilst a child might getbored with films owing to the lack of interactionwith the medium, this is much less likely to bethe case with, for example, a military shootinggame, which a child might play over and over Assuch, all violent video games should be bannedto prevent their acquisition by young children", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-dgegihwbsvv-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This is empirically false Again, the crux ofopposition counter-argument is that the evidencein this regard is strongly behind opposition. InApril 2011, the U.S. Federal Trade Commissionundercover shopper survey found that videogame retailers continue to enforce the ratings byallowing only 13% of underage teenage shoppersto buy M-rated video games, a statisticallysignificant improvement from the 20% purchaserate in 2009. By contrast, underage shopperspurchased R-rated movies 38% of the time, andunrated movies 47% of the time. Given thatchildren are able to easily access violent contentin other visual media, and there is no evidencethat video games are more harmful than othermedia, this argument falls. Further, there is along tradition of exposing children to extremelyviolent content in the form of fairytales. Further, with greater education regardingthe harms of videogames to parents (and withmore parents having played video gamesthemselves) many are becoming savvier about", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-dgegihwbsvv-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Violent Video Games cause ViolentBehaviour Video games exist as an interactivemedium. The player has control over theircharacter and many of their character’s actionswhereas in a book or movie, the audience doesnot. This means that the player can becomeinvested emotionally in characters to a greaterextent because of the autonomy afforded to eachcharacter. Given that this is true it becomesmore difficult to ensure dissociation between thereal world and the game world with which theplayer interacts. With the growing drive towardsrealism of videogame graphics, gameenvironments are able to look incredibly similarto real life, further blurring the distinction. Ifthis is the case, then a person who visits violenceupon another person within a game universefeels the same emotions as someone who doesso within real life, and therefore may bedesensitised to real-life violence. Whilst gameproducers would claim that is not their aim andthat their games do not cause this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-dgegihwbsvv-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Video games teach people to deal withfrustrations in the wrong way. In dealing withfrustrations and aggression by using videogames as an outlet, players of these games oftenassume that the problem is gone or dealtwith. This is often not the case, with manysources of frustration being ones which repeatday in and day out. Given that this is the case,video games prevent people from dealing withthe root causes of their problems and thus leavepeople more susceptible to frustration in thefuture. Further, playing back into the first pointon proposition, they teach players only onemethod of dealing with their problems, which isresorting to violence, so should they seek to dealwith their frustrations in the real world, often thesolutions they do engage with are ones which aresuboptimal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-dgegihwbsvv-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is a generation gap Children in this agehave grown up with computers and digital mediadevices where their parents have not. Whilstsome parents are able to readily adapt to newtechnology, there are a large proportion that areunable to do so. Even if parents have adapted tothe digital age, there are still lots of things theirchildren know about that parents simply cannotkeep up with. It is entirely feasible for a child tobe able to keep the presence of a violent videogame hidden from his or her parents through useof the various “Home” menus that all the majorgames consoles now possess. Further, on thecomputer, a user can simply Alt+Tab out of anyapplication they are in to avoid detection. Giventhere are many ways for children to avoid theirparents and given the generation gap, it seemsunfair to expect parents to be able to monitortheir children in this way.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-dgegihwbsvv-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Video games Improve Skills First, the claims ofharm caused by video games have not beenproven. The most criticised violent video gamesare generally military shooters. However, thesegames generally focus much more strongly onmultiplayer components of the game. Thesemultiplayer components often require significantlevels of teamwork in order for one side to besuccessful over the other. As such, many ofthese video games end up teaching players coreteamwork skills as well as often teachingleadership skills when players become part oforganised gaming groups. Further, numerousresearchers have proposed potential positiveeffects of video games on aspects of social andcognitive development and psychologicalwell-being. It has been shown that action videogame players have better hand-eye coordinationand visuo-motor skills, such as their resistanceto distraction, their sensitivity to information inthe peripheral vision and their ability to countbriefly presented objects, than non-players.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-dgegihwbsvv-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Violent Video Games Prevent ViolentBehaviour In most people’s lives there areinstances where they might like to react to asituation with a level of aggression. However,owing to a number of reasons such a solution isoften impossible and undesirable. It has beentheorised by psychologists that pent upfrustrations with the world are the root of manypsychological problems. Given that this is truethen, an outlet for frustrations is required insociety such that aggressive behaviour inindividuals can be avoided. Video games in thissituation provide such an outlet for aggressionand frustrations. Firstly aggression is dealt withthrough the simple act of defeating enemieswithin games and frustration is dealt withthrough the completion of goals within the videogames, allowing players a sense of satisfactionupon their completion. Hence, one could arguethat this may result in comparatively lower levelsof aggressive behaviour among video gameplayers. This is supported by research conducted", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-dgegihwbsvv-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The Responsibility Lies With Parents In thedigital age, young people are almost certain tobe exposed to violent media content, includingviolent video games, even if parents attempt torestrict children’s exposure to such content in thehome. Parents therefore have an obligation toeducate themselves about video games (manygovernment, industry and private websitesprovide such information) and to help theirchildren become “media literate” regarding thecontent and context of games. The state placesresponsibility on parents for the welfare of achild and in doing so the state can allow thingsthat would potentially be dangerous for children,anything from skateboards to R-rated films, aslong as parents can supervise their children.Parents need not know how to skateboard tosupervise such activity, but should know aboutpotential risks and safety equipment. This samelogic applies to video games. To not confer thisresponsibility on parents is to further underminetheir status as role models for their children, as it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-dgegihwbsvv-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The skills learnt within video games are skillsthat could be learnt elsewhere without thenegative problems that have been associatedwith video games. All of the benefits listed arethusly moot in this context because things suchas team sports are able to develop many of theskills team shooters do, whilst also improvingfitness and other areas of well-being. Moretactical sports can have a great impact onsomebody’s intellectual well-being as well astheir physical well-being. Additionally,videogames in general might be able to improvesome skills, but we are discussing violentvideogames in particular. There are other, muchless violent, videogames that allow people tofurther increase their skills.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "To only ask state-funded schools to acceptmilitary recruiters ensures that those enteringthe military out of school are disproportionallyfrom state-schools rather than privately-fundedschools, and therefore more likely to be middleand lower-class. Furthermore, there should be noquid pro quo regarding the funding of schools,conditions for further funding should be relatedto the success of students and the quality ofteaching, not whether the school has furtheredthe state's desire to see its militarysubstantiated. Schools should in fact protectstudents, not expose them annually to militaryrecruiters who can incrementally pressurize theminto a military career.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "All high schools accepting state funding shouldaccept military recruiters once a year Therelationship between the state and the schoolsthat it establishes and funds goes both ways; ifschools accept state funding, the state is entitledto use schools as a platform for the military toappeal to future recruits. All state-fundedschools, irrespective of location and studentdemographics but only high schools, would beexpected to accept military recruiters once ayear to speak to the entire student body. Theevent would be a condition of further funding forthe school, however there would be no limitsplaced on a minimum number of students thatneeded to enlist as a result.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "However it is dressed up, all the military isinterested in schools for is the chance to recruitstudents. The various educational materials (notalways clearly marked as coming from themilitary) and courses on offer are all intended tointerest students in a military career. Suchmethods are dishonest and should not beallowed in schools; Paul McGarr, a teacher inEast London, stated that 'only when recruitingmaterials gave a true picture of war would hewelcome them into his school'1. If students aregenuinely interested in joining the military, theycan go along to a recruitment centre outsideschool, potentially with their parents, and askthe necessary questions there. 1 Goff, H. (2008,March 25). Teachers reject 'Army propaganda'.Retrieved May 18, 2011, from BBC News:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The military is an all-volunteer force and needs apercentage of school-age recruits each year Ourmilitary is an all-volunteer force and must recruitopenly to keep up its numbers. The army, navyand air force need well-educated and motivatedrecruits; as the pool of potential recruits shrinks,efforts to attract young people must bepermitted to 'intensify and diversify' 1 Thealternative is a return to the conscription andnational service that offers those recruits littlechoice. Military recruitment in schools permitsthe recruitment of only those with an interest inthe armed forces, allowing those who wish topursue other endeavours that opportunity. Assuch, visits to schools are not about forcingmilitaristic propaganda on children, but aboutmaking sure that 16-18 year olds know aboutthe military as a potential career choice. After all,college representatives and local employers areallowed to make presentations to students, so itwould be unfair to keep just the military out. Ifyou accept that we need armed forces, then you", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Young people should hear of the opportunitiesavailable in the armed services whilst inschool School children are entitled, as part oftheir education, to a wide range of careersinformation, including potential roles in themilitary. It is a school's duty to offer not onlypaths to employment, but opportunities toengage with future employers like the military.With university places now increasinglycompetitive, schools must remain more vigilantthan ever that they do not encourage purelyacademic paths to future careers. Furthermore,nationalism is a powerful factor in schoolcurriculums worldwide, and permitting militariesinto schools to talk to students is not anextension of already-permitted activities like therecital of the Lord's Prayer in British stateschools or the Pledge of Allegiance in Americanschools. As such, it comes as little surprise thatthe predominant reason given for enlistment isservice to country1. If schools are asked toensure that such activities are carried out to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The armed services have no right to preach tothe youth, particularly when they are in atrusting environment like a school. To permit anyorganization to advertise to schoolchildren aboutjob prospects is misguided at a time when theircritical faculties are nascent and they areendowed with the belief that what is taught atschool is to be imbibed with little rebuttal.Mandated school activities like the Lord's Prayerand Pledge of Allegiance do serve to promotenationalism, but do not do so in such a way as tothreaten the lives or disrupt the career paths ofschool children. School children must beprotected from organizations that have thepotential to put pressure on them and guilt tripthem into signing away the rest of their youngadult life. If their choices are to be respected,they must be left to develop their criticalfaculties and then permitted to use informationavailable to the general public to make adecision.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The need for recruits, however genuine, does notnecessitate recruitment within schools. There willof course be certain students who would beattracted voluntarily to a role in the armedservices, however these students can be reachedthrough means other than their schools.Furthermore, if the motivation of recruits isparamount, then recruits can do no more toprove their motivation than actively andindependently seek out a role in the armedservices, rather than having it forced upon themthrough visits to their schools.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Young people are not aware and are, in manycases, deliberately misled as to the risks ofmilitary service. School children, conditioned bymodern television, film and video games as tothe heroism of military service, do not oftenponder the dangers inherent in conflict. Modernvideo games, in which war deaths are the normand immediate 're-spawning' dulls all sensitivityto death, do not serve to educate the youthabout the risks but downplay them to the pointof banality. Studies indicate that militaryrecruiters, whilst not actively seeking todownplay risks or obscure the truth, arereluctant to volunteer information that woulddissuade potential recruits 1. 1 Gee, D. (2008,January). Informed Choice? Armed forcesrecruitment practice in the United Kingdom.Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Informed Choice:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The purpose of the military entering schools isnot solely recruitment but awareness Militariesprovide a public service that too often goesunnoticed and underappreciated; school visitsraise the level of understanding for the importantjob they do. In the UK the army publicly statesthat it does not directly recruit in schools butdoes visit many each year \"with the aim ofraising the general awareness of the armedforces in society\"1They always visit by invitationof the Head teacher. Compared to the USA feweryoung people have local or family connectionswith the military, so it is important for them tolearn about the role the armed forces play in ourcountry. And in both the UK and the USA themilitary offers other services to schools, fromeducational materials to leadership courses andteam-building exercises. Sgt. Maj. JeromeDeJean, of the U.S. Army's 2nd RecruitingBrigade, describes their role as 'a partner ineducation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Young people are aware of the risks of militaryservice and therefore would not be easily misledby military personnel Young people are notstupid – they know that there are risks involvedin joining the military. In fact the media usuallyfocuses on the bad news coming out ofAfghanistan and Iraq, ignoring the good work ofour military there. A career in the military alsooffers young people a lot of benefits, and it isonly right that they should get to hear aboutthose as well. As Donald Rumsfeld noted, ‘forsome of our (US) students, this may be the bestopportunity they have to get a collegeeducation’1. In addition, no one is signed up onthe spot in the classroom; they always get thechance to think about it over a few months ormore, and to discuss the decision carefully withparents and peers. As such, military recruitmentin schools should be seen as no less unethicalthan the visits to schools of policemen, for whomthere is similar risk but little publicconjecture. 1Vlahos, K. B. (2005, June 23).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Military presentations in schools are not designedto be propaganda for their institutions, or thestate as a whole, but educate the school childrenas to the undeniably important role that theyplay. State survival invariably is dependent uponthe existence of a strong, well-trained armedforce filled with motivated volunteers.Furthermore, demonstrations of moderntechnology and smart uniforms do not paint anunfair or inaccurate image of contemporarywarfare. Such examples in fact illustrate thehonesty of militaries in their portrayal to schoolchildren of modern combat. They act as notmerely an educational tool, but a life lesson,demonstrating that the world of their videogames is, in conflict zones at least, very muchreal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "School children are not targeted for militaryservice; the intention is to raise awareness aboutthe work that the military do. A Ministry ofDefence spokesman in the UK stated that they'visit about 1,000 schools a year only at theinvitation of the school – with the aim of raisingthe general awareness of their armed forces insociety, not to recruit’. Furthermore, childreninterested in a military career are not instantlysigned up, they are granted the time until theyturn 18 to decide. In addition, before officialenlistment, all potential recruits are sent awayon a six-week camp to find out what a career inthe army will be like1 1 Goff, H. (2008, March25). Teachers reject 'Army propaganda'.Retrieved May 18, 2011, from BBC News:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Military recruiters downplay the risks of amilitary career, tempting schoolchildren into acareer they would not have chosen with honestinformation. Recruitment officers often makehighly misleading pitches about life in themilitary. They play up the excitement andchances to travel, as well as the pay and benefitssuch as college fees and training in special skills.They don't talk about the dangers of military life,the casualty rates in Iraq and Afghanistan, or thethousands of young soldiers who have lost limbsor been emasculated in recent years. And theydon't mention the impact of war on soldiers'mental health, or the lack of support when theyleave the military. If we must have the militaryin our schools, then they should be made to givea much more realistic view of military life.Evidence suggests that 'whilst staff are generallywilling to answer questions honestly, informationthat might dissuade potential recruits fromenlisting is not routinely volunteered'1. If we areto accept the military in schools, they must", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Military recruitment in schools isillegal Recruitment in schools is against parts ofthe UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. Aset of rules that the USA signed up to in 2002forbids the recruitment of children under the ageof 181. Despite this, the American Civil LibertiesUnion has found that US military recruiterstarget children as young as 11, visiting theirclassrooms and making unfair promises tothem2. Though the military would argue that itsschool visits do not constitute recruitment, ifrecruitment of those under 18 is wrong, thenadvertising to those under 18 should similarly beconsidered wrong. In order to live up to itspledge in 2002, the USA should stop trying torecruit in schools. 1 United Nations GeneralAssembly . (2000, May 25). Optional Protocol tothe Convention on the Rights of the Child.Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Office of theUnited Nations High Commissioner for HumanRights: 2 American Civil Liberties Union. (2008,May 13). Military recruitment practices violate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Military recruitment in schools is less educationthan propaganda Allowing members of themilitary into schools is a form of propaganda.They promote the military and make war seemglamorous. Soldiers in smart uniforms come intoclasses with specially-made videos and powerfulweapons, making violence and state-organisedmurder seem cool. A recent report into thepractice stated 'key messages are routinelytailored to children's interests: military roles arepromoted as glamorous…(and) warfare isportrayed as game-like and enjoyable.’1 Thisencourages young people to support aggressiveaction abroad. It also promotes an unthinkingloyalty to the state, whether its actions are rightor wrong. By allowing the military in, schools aresignalling to their students that these things areOK. 1 Gee, D. (2008, January). InformedChoice? Armed forces recruitment practice in theUnited Kingdom. Retrieved May 18, 2011, fromInformed Choice:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "School children are too young to target formilitary service School children should beprotected from targeted appeals for jobs they areunprepared for, both physically and emotionally.The army is short of manpower due to highcasualty rates and the unwillingness of currentsoldiers to reenlist. This means that they arevery keen to get into schools to sign up youngpeople. But it is not right to let them get atstudents who are too young to vote, or evendrive. 16 and 17 year olds are not grown-upenough to make life and death decisions, likejoining the army. They may not be able to seethrough exciting presentations or resist apersuasive and experienced recruitment officer.Under the No Child Left Behind Act, militaryrecruiters collect data on 30 million students.The act 'grants the Pentagon access todirectories of all public high schools to facilitatecontact for military service recruitment'1. A hugedatabase contains their personal details,including social security numbers, email", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Military recruitment in schools is not illegal in theUnited States for they have not signed therelevant documents. The USA has not signed theUN Convention on the Rights of the Childreferred to opposite, although it has signed theUN's Optional Protocol on the Involvement ofChildren in Armed Conflict (United NationsGeneral Assembly , 2000). However, the USmilitary does not recruit under-18s anyway, so itis keeping to it's agreement. In any case, neitherof these agreements stops recruiters visitingschools in order to make students aware ofmilitary career options once they turn 18.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egpeupdw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Recruiters do not minimise the risks of a militarycareer, rather the armed forces have a goodstory to tell and they don't prevent themselvesfrom saying so. Furthermore, it is policy forrecruitment staff to 'explain the recruits' rightsand responsibilities and the nature of thecommitment to the Armed Forces'1. There reallyare great opportunities for keen, talented youngpeople in the military, and almost all soldiers,etc. find it a very satisfying life. And comparedwith the past, soldiers today are much betterlooked after in terms of physical, medical andpsychological wellbeing. 1 Gee, D. (2008,January). Informed Choice? Armed forcesrecruitment practice in the United Kingdom.Retrieved May 18, 2011, from Informed Choice:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Dress codes are a half-way house that does notwork. It does not make students look at alluniform and it does not show what school theyare from. In the United States there has been amove away from allowing either no uniform ordress codes towards having school uniforms.[6]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Dress Codes instead of school uniform Ratherthan having school uniform, why not have adress code instead? This has all the benefits ofuniform without the many disadvantages. Whileuniforms force all children to wear the sameclothes, dress codes give students a lot of choicewhat to wear. Only a few unsuitable things arebanned - for example, gang colors, very shortskirts, crop tops, bare shoulders, etc", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "A lot of schools have a choice of uniform so thatchildren can wear what they feel mostcomfortable in. For example, in Australia, whichis a very hot country, schools often have asummer uniform of clothes that are morecomfortable in the hot weather [9]. This meansthat in summer, children might be allowed towear shorts instead of trousers andshort-sleeved instead of long-sleeved shirts. Ifchildren were allowed to choose their ownclothes to wear to school, instead of a uniform,they might choose impractical clothesthemselves, like baggy tee shirts or long skirts,or jeans with chains hanging from them. Tomake sure that children are all wearing sensibleclothes in which they will be able to take part inall their school activities, there needs to be oneuniform that all children at the school wear.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Individuality and creativity should beencouraged Article 19 of The UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights states that\"Everyone has the right to freedom of opinionand expression\"[18]. Children's freedom ofexpression is restricted by school uniforms,because children who have to wear the sameclothing as every other child in their school arenot able to express their individuality andcreativity. We should get rid of school uniform sothat all children can express themselves freely.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Students should be allowed to wear religiousdress If children are religious, they should beallowed to wear the clothes that express theirreligion, but school a uniform can often restrictthis. Religious beliefs can be extremely valuableand important to many children, giving their livesa great deal of meaning and structure andinspiring them to work hard and behavecompassionately in a school environment. Somereligions place a great deal of value upon wornsymbols of faith, such as turbans, headdressesand bracelets. When a school demands that achild remove these symbols, it inadvertentlyattacks something central to that child’s life. Thismay cause the child to see her school and herfaith as mutually exclusive institutions[1].Vulnerable young people should not be forcedinto an adversarial relationship with their school,as close, collaborative involvement with teachingand learning techniques will greatly effect achild’s ability to adapt, learn and acquire newskills in the future. For example, school skirts", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Some schools do have different rules for religiousstudents, so that those students can expresstheir beliefs. For example, a school might letMuslim girls wear some of their religious items ofclothing mixed with the school uniform (e.g.,Reading Girls' School)[2].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Schools can foster creativity and individualitywithout getting rid of school uniform. There aremany schools with a uniform which still supportcreativity and individuality with \"Child InitiatedIndependent Learning\", and other schemeswhich encourage children to think for themselves[19, 20]. Also, if children are participating increative activities like art, it is surely better forthem to wear sensible clothes, and it's easier tomake sure all children are wearing sensibleclothes if they all have to wear the sameuniform.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "In many countries, parents can apply for helpwith the cost of school uniform. For example, inthe U.K., parents who don't earn a lot of moneycan get money from the government to help payfor their child's school uniform[13] . In Australia,the Australian Scholarships Group, whichspecialises in helping parents save money whenit comes to their children's education, has tips forparents to get their child's uniformcheaper.[14] Also, parents would probably haveto spend a lot more money if their children didn'twear a uniform to school, because they wouldhave to buy them more casual clothes. Sincechildren don't like to wear the same thing toooften (in case they get bullied), parents wouldhave to spend a lot of money making sure theirchildren have lots of different outfits.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "School uniforms are often impractical oruncomfortable School uniforms are often notvery comfortable or practical. In state schools(schools for which parents don't have to payfees) in the U.K., for example, girls often have towear dresses or skirts, when they might feelmore comfortable in trousers, and boys oftenhave to wear button-up shirts and ties, whichcan also be uncomfortable for active children[7].In independent schools, uniforms are often evenmore impractical and uncomfortable, withblazers or even tailcoats for the children towear[8].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "School uniforms are often expensive If a schoolhas a uniform, parents are expected to buy it,and then buy a new one every time their childoutgrows the last. This can be expensive. It hasbeen reported that parents in South Africa[10],Australia[11], and the U.K[12]. have to pay a lotof money for their children's school uniforms,and it is probably the same in other countriestoo.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Researchers have actually found that having towear a school uniform does not make childrenbetter behaved. For example, Brunsma andRockquemore[22] looked at data for more than4,500 students and found that those who wore aschool uniform did not have fewer behaviouralproblems or better attendance. School uniformdoes not encourage discipline, so there is noneed to make children wear one.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There will always be teasing between children. Ifit's not based on what clothes the kids arewearing, it'll be because of their hair colour[4],or the fact that they wear glasses [5]. Childrenneed to learn from an early age that everyone isdifferent, or how can they learn to accept that?The differences between people should beembraced; in making students wear a uniform,schools are wrongly teaching children thateveryone should look the same. When it comesto the opposition's evidence it should beremembered that opinion polls themselves areslippery, depending on the question asked, as issomething like a belief in the benefits of schooluniforms. There is also no evidence to linkparent's belief that it promotes equality towhether it really does.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-con02a", "title": "", "text": "School uniforms contribute to the sense of schoolunity Schools that have a uniform often say thatthey do so because wearing a uniform helps theirstudents feel a sense of unity and pride in theirschool (e.g., Sacred Heart Catholic School,2010)[15]. The headmistress of Fulham CrossSchool in London, England, has been quoted assaying that introducing a uniform at her schoolgave students \"an incredible sense of pride\";after the introduction of a school uniform, GCSEpasses at her school rose from 42 to 53 percent[16]. This sense of unity is especiallyimportant on school trips, where teachers needto be able to tell which children belong to theirschool, so that no one gets lost.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-con03a", "title": "", "text": "School uniforms encourage discipline Having towear smart clothes encourages children torespect their school and their teachers andbehave themselves. This is because of theassociation between smart clothes and work.Casual wear at school can also make studentsfeel over-relaxed and 'at home,' meaning theydon't focus as much on work. A lot of schools arebringing back school uniform because they wantto improve discipline[21]. Moreover, schooluniform can actively encourage students to enterinto an adversarial relationship with thecurriculum and their teachers. Exercisingarbitrary control over children in the interests of“discipline” is likely to convince them that thevery sensible, rational principles of learning andcritical thought that they acquire during theschool day are equally arbitrary andmeaningless. By refusing to allow children toparticipate in enjoyable, beguiling processes ofdiscovery and understanding unless they complywith unjustified and meaningless rules about", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-con01a", "title": "", "text": "School uniforms create a sense ofequality School catchment areas are diverse andin private schools, some children are there on ascholarship. So, without uniforms there are clearindicators of wealth between what children wear.This makes poorer children stand out, (or evenpossibly the reverse). Children can then bebullied for being different, which diminishes achild's enjoyment of school. A study in New Yorkhas shown that 84% of parents think uniformspromote equality, and 89% of guidancecounselors think uniforms help teach children tobe more accepting of others who are lessfortunate[3]. This perception among parents willhelp create the same perception among theirchildren. This is also likely to translate to theteachers who will therefore treat their pupilsmore equally.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghwbsuj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "School uniforms might help improve the feelingof unity within schools, but pride in one's schoolis dependent on being distinct and different fromanother school. This can lead increase rivalrybetween schools (already present from schoolsports matches). There are many examples ofschool rivalry (often made worse by the fact thatchildren from different schools are made to weardifferent uniforms) leading to children beingbeaten up or worse. For example, in NewZealand, a boy was beaten up by boys from arival school; he said that the boys told him heshould be shot because he went to a differentschool, which they could see from hisuniform[17]. Because of this rivalry, it might bebetter for students not to wear school uniformson outings, where they might encounter childrenfrom other schools. Schools can use other thingsto make sure children don't get lost on schooltrips, like buddy schemes where each child has abuddy, and having plenty of teachers or assistantteachers. 1 TVNZ, 2007. Boy beaten as school", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Vocational training would not actually improvetraining in the skills which employers areconcerned about. When people complain about askills gap, there are two kinds of skills they areworried about: technical ones, in subjects likeengineering, and general ones, such as theability to present or to write clearly. This issomething which is already done in university;the best way to learn how to present and write isto practice presenting and writing. Picking asubject, such as history, simply acts as a usefulfocus for this work. As long as employers can besufficiently clear about what it is they wantgraduates to be capable of, we will be able toincorporate this into existing courses – so in fact,even supposedly non-vocational courses willteach the right skills. Technical careers likeengineering and computer science might indeedbenefit from the change, but it makes no senseto shape the whole education system around alimited set of jobs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Vocational courses produce betteremployees The courses which are generallyoffered at the moment are not serving studentswell when it comes to providing the skills foremployment. 65% of businesses complain ofbeing unable to hire people with the right skills.[1] Increasingly, universities are offering as aselling point the fact that they haveextra-curricular courses to teach people businessskills, but this is a tacit admission that they areselling people degrees which are not fit forpurpose. Solving this requires us to teach morevocationally. There are schemes underway inmany areas to do just that – to give oneexample, in Maine, USA, a bill has been passedto improve local colleges. [2] Our policy movesthese efforts from the fringes to the core of thesystem: isolate as far as possible the specificthings which make good employees and teachthose to people. This will help them get jobsmore easily, and also ensure that companies areable to operate effectively. The consequences of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The statement “universities can’t take everyone”is clearly true. But there is a big jump from thatto saying “we should stop people from applying,”for two reasons. Firstly, the more obviousconclusion would be to find a way to increase thenumber of places available, on the grounds thatmore students means a larger pool of knowledgeto draw from and therefore academia will bebetter. Secondly, for this to have the desiredeffect we would need the good people tocontinue to apply, and this is by no meansguaranteed – they may simply waltz off into jobsand be lost to academia, in which case we willactually end up worse off. The limited number ofplaces is a problem, but the proposed solutionmay make things worse.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Students are forcing themselves throughuniversity even when it is not right for them Noteveryone should be spending their time inacademic study. As well as requiring certainskills, it also requires that the personality of thestudent be suited to it. They must be capable ofmanufacturing a sustained interest in a subject,or they will not be able to drag themselvesthrough three or more years of thinking aboutlittle else. Some people are, by nature, not thatkind of person – they may think in a short-termway or simply not be curious about the world. Italso requires a level of intelligence which somepeople simply don’t have. These people will gainvery little from spending time at university. Infact, at some (typically less prestigious)universities, dropout rates can be as high as20%, meaning students will literally gainnothing. [1] Many people are puttingthemselves through university despite it notbeing right for them. Partial blame for this lieswith employers – the large number of graduates", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Everyone gains something from university,whether quantifiable or not. Simply getting out into the world and meeting more people – not justminorities and other social groups, but even awider variety of people within your own socialgroup – is an effective way to learn to think morebroadly. Many university students live away fromhome for the first time, forcing them to do thingsfor themselves and learn how things likepersonal finance work. It also allows them spaceto explore themselves and shape their ownprinciples. Non-academic activities withinuniversity can also broaden horizons and teachnew things such as joining student clubs orsocieties, such as the debating society. Althoughuniversity may not be the only way of doing this,it has proven effective over the years, so it’s nottrue to say non-academic people get absolutelynothing from it. Despite the problems associatedwith a degree culture, there are other problemswith a non-academic culture. Academia createsthings: products and inventions in the case of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "This is a mischaracterisation of how academicswork. No serious researcher cuts themselves offfrom the world to work: collaboration, exchangeof ideas and chatting by the water cooler areinvaluable. Often, a crucial insight into a problemcomes from a casual reference by a colleague.Every report into improving researchenvironments stresses the importance ofcollaboration, both within a discipline andbetween disciplines. Anyone who loves theirsubject will be happy to have more peoplestudying and sharing ideas with them, even ifthose people are not quite as committed as theyare. If those people then leave to do vocationalstuff, they will have at least been a positivepresence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Universities don’t have unlimited placesavailable Universities cannot take every studentwho applies. They have to balance the number ofapplications they get with both the number ofteaching staff they have and the time they needfor research. In the UK, almost a third ofapplicants do not get places as it is, [1] andthose that do often find they have less contacttime with staff than they had expected. [2]Simply put, if you want to have academics doinguseful research, you can’t expect them to teachall the time. If universities have a finite numberof places, it makes sense that they should beallocated to the people best suited for them.Currently, universities are so overwhelmed bydemand that it isn’t possible for them to test thisproperly – in most cases, they will take a cursorylook at predicted grades, and perhaps aninterview with the candidate. Discouragingapplicants would lower the stress on admissionsdepartments, making the process more accurate.It will also allow them more leisure to reach out", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Academia must be free of distractions The bestacademic departments are ones run with purelyacademic aims. Intensive study of a fieldrequires that you are given the resources,support, time and space that you need.Moreover, the best atmosphere is one in whicheveryone around you shares your love of study.It follows that departments should be allowed touse this as their top priority. This affectsundergraduate study in two ways: students mustbe free to spend time getting to grips with theirsubject properly, and lecturers must be allowedto teach the things they feel to be mostimportant for their subject. Neither of thesethings are possible when you are worrying aboutjobs. Every subject has certain parts which aremore or less relevant to their related careers, butthis may not be the same as the parts which areimportant to academic study of the subject. Forexample, maths students will invariably betaught Linear Algebra and Group Theory,normally in the first year, but 20% of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Clearly, more tolerance is a good thing, butputting people through an expensive, three-yearcourse with no career benefit is a sensible way toachieve this. As an example of an alternative,give more support to gap-year programmes andrun them in such a way as to get an equivalentmixing. People will learn just as much tolerancein one year as in three, will save time and caneven do useful volunteering while they’re on it.This is not mutually exclusive with our policy,which means that you get both benefits.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The importance of university to minority groupsderives directly from its importance to the rest ofthe country. It is seen as the key to things likehigher-paying jobs for low-income familiesbecause it is seen as the key to higher-payingjobs in general. Moreover, this is based on anattitude problem: there are plenty of jobs whichdo not require degree-level education and whichcan pay very well at the top end. [1] Under ourvocational system, this will all change, andacademic study will no longer be the benchmarkfor success. Alternatively, even under thecurrent system, what matters to people generallyis not the fact of university education alone, it isthe careers which it opens up – in particular,stereotypically middle-class careers such aslawyers and bankers. Vocational training wouldgive children just as many opportunities, if notmore, as they are not being forced through anacademic process of questionable utilityfirst. [1] Smith, Jacquelyn, ‘America’sBest-Paying Blue-Collar Jobs’, Forbes, 6th April", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Life experience is an essential part of personaldevelopment People gain much more than asubject from their time at university. Liferequires interpersonal skills, self-discipline andgeneral knowledge which must be absorbed overtime. There are distinct advantages to picking upthese skills before you start work. Firstly, it willmake you a more effective worker, whether youare working alone (self-discipline) or with otherpeople (interpersonal skills). Secondly, whileworking you are likely to have much less time forthat sort of thing. Thirdly, you will be to gothrough on-the-job training more easily if youalready know how to study. All of this can bedone very effectively at university. You areallowed time and space to learn planning,budgeting, finding and managing accommodationand a myriad other things which will help you inlife. So to say that people don’t gain anythingfrom non-vocational courses is misleading – evenif the study doesn’t help them, the lifeexperience does.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-con04a", "title": "", "text": "We must retain a respect foracademia Academia is important to society.Technical subjects have the obvious outcomes ofnew inventions, gadgets, medicines etc. – andalthough these applications are vocational, theyare inspired by academic study. Creative arts arealso a huge industry in their own right.Humanities are a source of ideas about society,happiness, social policy and culturalunderstanding, besides simply being interesting.[1] This is all activity which we shouldencourage. Emphasising vocational trainingwould damage the image of academia. Quiteapart from the fact that reduced governmentsupport for the sector is likely to damage it inreal terms, it is very likely that if people arebeing told by the whole government educationsystem that vocational training is more useful forthemselves and for society, they will come toregard non-vocational courses with suspicion.Pressure to conform is a real factor, especiallyfor schoolchildren at ages when they are unlikely", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Universities cut across class and social divides ina unique way University is a great equaliser.One positive side-effect of people going throughuniversity is that they are virtually guaranteed tointeract with people who are different from themin all sorts of ways – including ethnicity, whereminority groups are sometimes betterrepresented than they are in the generalpopulation, [1] and international studentsaccount for 17% of the university population. [2]The more this mixing happens, the easier it is forpeople to be tolerant and sensitive to otherpeople. While this isn’t necessarily a problemeverywhere, there are still places where thesedivides cause tension and violence, so the factthat our policy helps to tackle this makes itgood. Vocational courses are rather less likely tobe mixed. Certain careers are associated withcertain groups, and people studying for thatspecific career will be drawn largely from thatgroup. For example, the clients of anaccountancy course and a construction course", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "University education gives people something toaim for University education is something whicha lot of traditionally disadvantaged groups aspireto, for themselves or, more commonly, for theirchildren. Those who are accepted are seen ashaving “made good,” partly because of theprestige attached to intelligence and partlybecause of the correlation with highersalaries. However, this can be hard for them:they may be from lower-income families, wherethere is no family history of higher education, orthey may be from immigrant communities, whohave struggled to learn the local language. Thesechildren are therefore likely to encountersignificant barriers to getting to university. But apermanent lottery-of-birth, where only childrenof successful people can ever be successful,would not be fair. All children should be helpedto build their own futures regardless of theirbackground and broad access to university isnecessary for this. It is notable that most of thecountries with the most social mobility", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is entirely consistent to respect academiawhile insisting it isn’t appropriate for everyone.By way of analogy, consider that few people doserious sport, but almost no-one looks down onthose who do (thinking particularly of casualsport rather than professional sport). We areperfectly capable of seeing the value in thingswhich we don’t do ourselves. It is even plausiblethat under the new system academics wouldbecome an elite cadre of intellectuals whomschoolchildren would aspire to join and the statusof academia would be considerably enhanced.There is a well-known saying, “familiarity breedscontempt.” If fewer people were tempted tothink of themselves as amateur scientists,amateur historians etc., we might have morerespect for the real ones.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eguhwefpgu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "None of the above is unique to university. It ispossible to find something useful to do practicallywherever you are, including university. Thatdoesn’t make it the most important, efficient oreffective thing to do – or, indeed, the best placeto do it. Anyone on a vocational course will pickup the same general skills and study techniquesat least as well. We agree that there is anadvantage to knowing how to study before youstart job training, but we don’t think the rightanswer is to do other, random study first – theskills should ideally be taught at school, or as anintroduction to the job training.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "For whatever reason the treasures were firstcollected, we should not rewrite history. There isno reason to politicise this argument; museumshave no 'political' agenda but merely wish topreserve historical objects for their intrinsicvalue. Their reasons for keeping these items maybe financial, or in the interests of keeping theartefacts safe and accessible to the public;whatever they may be, they are not political.Don’t the nations who have expended resourcesprotecting and preserving these artefactsdeserve in return the right to displaythem? Additionally, not all artefacts held outsidetheir country of origin are the result of imperialor exploitative relationships. The originalMedieval Crown of England is held in Munich [1] .Artistic exchange has nothing to do with politicsanymore. [1] Bayerische Verwaltung derstaatlichen Schlösser, Gärten und Seen,‘Treasury (Schatzkammer)'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Retaining artefacts is a relic of imperialistattitudes to non-occidental cultures Display ofcultural treasures in Western museums may beseen as a last hangover from the imperial beliefthat “civilised” states such as Britain were thetrue cultural successors to Ancient Greece andRome, and that the ‘barbarian’ inhabitants ofthose ancient regions were unable to appreciateor look after their great artistic heritage.Whether that was true in the 19th century isopen to doubt; it certainly is not valid today andthe display of imperial trophies in institutionssuch as the British Museum or the Louvre is areminder to many developing nations of theirpast oppression. For instance, the BritishMuseum is refusing to return 700 of the BeninBronzes to Nigeria despite repeated requests bythe Nigerian government [1] . The Rosetta stonehas been the subject of demands by the Egyptiangovernment but remains in London. Theseartefacts become almost souvenirs ofImperialism, a way of retaining cultural", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Although some treasures may have beenacquired illegally, the evidence for this is oftenambiguous. Experts agree that Greece couldmount no court case because Elgin was grantedpermission by what was then Greece's rulinggovernment. Lord Elgin’s bribes were thecommon way of facilitating any business in theOttoman Empire, and do not undermine Britain’ssolid legal claim to the Parthenon marbles, basedupon a written contract made by theinternationally-recognised authorities in Athensat the time. The veracity of the document cannever be fully dismissed as it is a translation.And while some Benin bronzes were undoubtedlylooted, other “colonial trophies” were freely soldto the imperial powers, indeed some were madespecifically for the European market.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Cultural artefacts are enriched when displayed inthe context from which they originated Culturaltreasures should be displayed in the context inwhich they originated; only then can they betruly valued and understood. In the case of theParthenon marbles this is an architecturalcontext which only proximity to the Parthenonitself can provide. In the British Museum theyappear as mere disconnected fragments,stripped of any emotional meaning. It may alsobe useful for academics to have a culturalproperty in its original context in order to be ableto understand it, for example a carved door maybe a beautiful artefact but it cannot be trulyunderstood unless we know what the door wasused for, where it leads too something for whichit is necessary to see the context. Cultural andhistorical tourism is an important source ofincome for many countries, and is especiallyimportant for developing countries. If theirartefacts have been appropriated by foreignmuseums in wealthy nations then they are being", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The artefacts' place of origin has more often thannot changed dramatically since they were in situthere. It is therefore unconvincing to argue thatthe context of modern Orthodox Greece aidsvisitors’ appreciation of an ancient pagan relic.Too much has changed physically and culturallyover the centuries for artefacts to speak moreclearly in their country of origin than they do inmuseums, where they can be compared to largeassemblies of objects from a wide variety ofcultures. Similarly, a great many culturaltreasures relate to religions and cultures whichno longer survive and there can be no such claimfor their return. Technology has also evolved tothe point that Ancient Greece can be just asaccurately evoked virtually as it could be inmodern Greece [1] . Countries with culturalheritage retain the attraction of being theoriginal locations of historical events or places ofinterest even without all the artefacts in place.The sanctuaries of Olympia and Delphi in Greeceare a good example of this; they are not filled", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "In the case of the Parthenon marbles, LordElgin’s action in removing them was an act ofrescue as the Parthenon was being used as aquarry by the local population. [1] TheParthenon had already been destroyed by anexplosion in 1687. [2] Having been removed theresult was that the British protected thembetween 1821 and 1833 during the Greek War ofIndependence was occurring and the Acropoliswas besieged twice. [3] Furthermore, if they hadbeen returned upon Greek independence in1830, the heavily polluted air of Athens wouldhave caused extensive damage to such artefactsthat would be open to the elements and Greekattempts at restoration in 1898 were asdamaging as the British. [4] Today economicausterity lends new uncertainty to Greece’scommitment to financing culture. Similarproblems face the return of artefacts to Africanmuseums; wooden figures would decay in thehumid atmosphere. Artefacts in Northern Africaare at risk because of the recent revolts and civil", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Many artefacts resting in western museums wereacquired illegally. Western states have a duty toretain them. Artefacts were often acquiredillegally. Elgin, for instance, appropriated theParthenon Marbles from the Ottoman authoritieswho had invaded Greece and were arguably notthe rightful owners of the site; he tookadvantage of political turmoil to pillage theseancient statues. Doubt has even been cast onthe legality of the 1801 document whichpurportedly gave Elgin permission to remove themarbles [1] . The Axum obelisk was seized fromEthiopia by Mussolini as a trophy of war;fortunately the injustice of this action has sincebeen recognised and the obelisk was restored toits rightful place in 2005 [2] . UNESCOregulations initially required the return ofartefacts removed from their country of originafter 1970,when the treaty came into force, butdid not deal with any appropriations before thisdate due to deadlock in the negotiations for theframing of the convention that prevented", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Developing countries are able to guard andpreserve their own cultural treasures It mayhave been true that countries such as Greecewere not capable of looking after their heritagein the past, but that has now changed. Since197 5 Greece has been carefully restoring theAcropolis and Athens now has a secureenvironment to maintain the marbles. Thestate-of-the-art New Acropolis Museum, whichcost $200m, has now been completed to housethe surviving marbles [1] , and even contains areplica of the temple, thus the marbles wouldappear as being exactly the same as on the realtemple. Pollution control measures (such asinstalling pollution monitoring stationsthroughout metropolitan Athens and ensuringthat motor vehicles must comply with emissionstandards [2] ) have reduced sulphur-dioxidelevels in the city to a fifth of their previouslevels. At the same time the curatorship ofinstitutions such as the British Museum is beingcalled into question, as it becomes apparent that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Many people from an artefact's country of originnever get to see them because they cannotafford to travel to a foreign museum; as such thecost of access to that museum is a very smallpart of the total cost. These artefacts are part oftheir cultural history and national identity, and itis important that local people are given theopportunity to see them. It is not all aboutquantity of visitors; those closest to the artefactshave the greatest right to see them. For others,it should be a privilege not a right.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "If the artefacts are of sufficient historical andcultural interest, scholars will travel to anylocation in order to study them. Indeed, theproximity of artefacts in developing countriesmay even stimulate intellectual curiosity andincrease the quality of universities in there,which would be beneficial for world culture.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The historical significance of artefacts extendsbeyond their culture of origin Artefacts have ahistorical and symbolic meaning that transcendstheir origins; over the years they acquire aconnection with the place that they are housed.For example, the Egyptian obelisk that stands inthe Piazza di San Pietro in Rome was brought toItaly in the reign of Caligula. [1] It is no longermerely an ‘Egyptian’ artefact - it has become asymbol of Roman dominance in the ancient worldand the European Christian culture thatsucceeded it. During the Middle Ages it wasbelieved that the ashes of Julius Caesar werecontained in the gilt ball at the top [2] . Further,all artefacts are part of a world-wide collectivehistory. Olduvai handaxes (from countries inEastern Africa such as Tanzania) are held in theBritish Museum [3] - but the people who madethem are our ancestors just as much as they arethe ancestors of local people. Holding these inLondon encourages us to see the commonground we hold with people everywhere in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "In many cases, returning an artefact may proveto be unreasonably expensive Even with moderntransport links and technology, transportingevery artefact in a foreign museum back to itsoriginal location would be an impracticallymammoth task. The risk of damage to artefactswould be unavoidable, not to mention thepossibility of theft or sabotage en route.Important artefacts in transit would be an idealpublic target for acts of terrorism. Moreover, theinfrastructure of developing countries is probablynot sufficient to cope with that volume. Greecemay have spent $200m developing a newmuseum but relatively it is one of the morewealthy countries of origin for artefacts in theBritish Museum; places such as Nigeria areunlikely to put such emphasis on culturalinvestment. Museums all over the world do loanout their collections [1] . Just because they areheld in another country’s museum does notmean that the place of origin would not be ableto access artefacts. Creating a generous and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Artefacts should be made accessible to thelargest possible number of visitors Art treasuresshould be accessible to the greatest number ofpeople and to scholars, because only then canthe educational potential of these artefacts berealised. In response to a question aboutwhether museums have any social responsibility,Richard Armstrong, director at the Guggenheim,said “Absolutely, it began with the FrenchRevolution. It is the more than a 200-year-oldquest to have the most powerful culturalartefacts available to the greatest number ofpeople. One could say it is the project ofdemocratizing beauty” [1] . In practice thismeans retaining them in the great museums ofthe world. Further some of the world greatmuseums, such as those in Britain and theSmithsonian in Washington D.C. are free ofcharge. [1] Boudin, Claudia, ‘Richard Armstrongon the Future of the Solomon R GuggenheimFoundation’, 4th November 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Scholars will have better access to artefacts, andmore opportunities for study and collaboration, ifthey are stored in the west If the Rosetta Stonehad not been taken by the British in 1801, thedeciphering of the ancient hieroglyphic languageof the ancient Egyptian civilizations would havebeen near impossible. The British Museum iswithin just hours, and in some cases minutes, ofsuch world-renowned institutions as Cambridge,Oxford, UCL, and Edinburgh. The scientificresearch that occurs in stable developedcountries and scientifically excelling countries isof the highest degree, and parallels to this highlevel of study are simply non-existent in manyunderdeveloped countries.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Returning artefacts to their original locationswould in the past have been an unfeasibleproject simply because of the risk of transportingeverything. Now, however, transport is muchquicker and easier and we have improvedtechnology to make the transit less damaging tothe artefact; for instance, temperature-controlledcontainers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-aetuhwrcp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Artefacts often have unique religious and culturalconnections with the place from where they weretaken, but none for those who view them inmuseum cases. To the descendants of theircreators it is offensive to see aspects of theirspirituality displayed for the entertainment offoreigners. Meanings may have accumulatedaround artefacts, but their true significance isrooted in its origins.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The temporal linking argument itself cannot bedisputed, but the idea that this is what getsparents invested can again be questioned, asnoted above.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Collaborative Approach In order for a child’smisbehaviour to be successfully remedied, thechild must receive a consistent message on whatis appropriate both at home and at school. Inmany instances parents may condone behaviourthat schools and teacher find unacceptable. Inother instances, professionals at schools can aidparents in targeting specific behaviours to workon in a specific order in a program thatintegrates the child’s behaviour at both schooland home. Moreover, uniform and consistentrewards and negative reinforcements fromschool and home are tremendously useful forhelping rehabilitate a child’s behaviour.[1] When initiating such programs, the majorproblem is often that the parents give in and donot adhere to the agreed upon program, whichserves to teach the child that unacceptablebehaviour is sometimes condonable. It’sunderstandable that parents, who must be withthe children a majority of the time, sometimesmay find it easier to simply give in and pacify the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Authority aversion is a good counterargumenthere. (see op argument 4)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Individual Responsibility The philosophyunderling the proposition is one in which thechild is not solely responsible for his or her ownbehaviour. Even if the threats of parentalpunishment and involvement are successful inthe short term in modifying a child’s behaviour,the long term sequlae is that the child’s goodbehaviour is predicated not on an understandingof the consequence of their behaviour and aconsideration of their own long term interests,but merely out of fear and externalconsequences. In the long run, instilling thismessage is likely to lead to future misbehaviouras the external punishments, in this caseimposed on the parents, fall away. Once the childreaches an age at which the parents cannot bepunished or the child does not care aboutparental punishment, building an ethic aroundsuch external consequences will fail to deter thechild from misbehaviour. (See argument 4)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Parental Incentives Addressing the behaviouralproblems of children requires active parentalparticipation. However, in many cases, parentsare either not fully aware of their children’sproblems, or more importantly, delay the activedisciplining of their children. This is critical, asfor the cycle of negative and positivereinforcement to be effective in behaviourmodification, there must be a temporal linkbetween misbehaviour and any potentialpunishment. In a desire to avoid future fines, orwhatever the penalty the parents face, there isan active incentive to not only intervene in thechild’s misbehaviour, but also to do so in a timelyway, which is the most proven way to changechildren’s behaviour. Moreover, if there is anytendency for parents to overlook or avoid theproblems of chronically unruly children, thisserves as an impetus for keeping up withdiscipline notices and paying attention to thechild’s infractions. A lack of parentalinvolvement has for example regularly been cited", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The danger for abuse argument from theopposition side is a good counterargument.Moreover, one might analyse the probabilitiesthat this particular incentive will be a tippingpoint in the case of marginal parents (the onesthat are not already fully involved in theirchildren’s discipline for whom this might be thetipping point). Most caring parents will alreadybe quite invested and do the best they canbecause they care for their child. Those who dolapse likely have some sort of structural familialproblems, whether they hold many jobs andwork very hard to keep the family going, or aresimply bad parents. In these cases, is this likelyto be the factor that changes these parents’behaviours? Unlikely.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Children are too young to internalize andunderstand broad philosophies of responsibility.A small child refrains from stealing a cookie outof fear of being caught, not out of some grandregard for a morally just universe in which hisactions must be scrutinized. Later on, as thechild gets older, his/her understanding canmature.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The “unjust” argument is a good counter. Onecould cite some neurobiology evidence that lackof discipline is due to complex cognitive deficitsthat manifest through delayed braindevelopment even in otherwise normal seemingchildren, which belies the “parentalresponsibility/failure” view. To start with,cognitive deficits can be caused by geneticfactors or other things which started before birth,and can stop children being able to functionnormally. [1] [1] Tynan, W. Douglas, ‘CognitiveDeficits’, Medscape Reference, 3 June 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Children Held Accountable Often, children whohave been trapped in a cycle of lack of disciplineand disciplinary problems tend not to care abouttheir punishment. [1] Detention may be seen asa welcome respite from classes, and otherpunishments over time may cease to make animpression on the child. After all, there is only somuch that an institution can do to discipline achild. Using this mechanism opens up a far moreeffective repertoire of discipline. Moreimportantly, while the child may cease to regardany punishments handed down on him or her,often there will still be a desire to avoid activelyharming the parents, which occurs under thissystem. [2] The argument also extends in thecase of criminal punishments. In the psychologyof a child, he or she may not fully internalize theeffects on their future a shoplifting arrest mayhave. However, the thought of their parentsbeing punished in such an offense may lead tothe deterrence necessary to prevent suchactions. In effect, the argument is that when", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Parental Responsibility In most cases, in whichthe child is not subject to some sort ofconstitutional problem (genetic condition orotherwise), the disruptive behaviour of a child isa reflection of in adequate parental interventionover time. A normal child under normalcircumstances should be expected to conform tobehavioural expectations, and the failure to doso represents a partial inadequate job by theparents. The result is a cost that is transmittedto society. Children that are disruptive in schoolor in society via the criminal justice system costthe system extra money either in schoolresources and time or judicial-police resources aswell as in the more obvious costs such as fixingvandalism and graffiti. [1] Even worse; if astudent drops out as a result of his disciplineproblems the cost to society has been estimatedas $232,000-388,000. [2] Given that the parentis in part to blame for failing to control the child’sbehaviour, in the time during which the parent isthe primary custodian of the child, it is fair to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "One way to deal with this argument is by notingthat this would be one tool in a school’s arsenal.If it proves to be obviously counterproductive,then it will not be employed, in the same waythat other disciplinary tactics schools/society canimpose will not be used if they are seen to beadverse or ineffective.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The “parental responsibility” argument is a goodcounter here. An appeal to the fact that some laxparents clearly raise spoiled children can also beeffective in building intuition about the notionthat parents are imposing a cost through theiractions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Danger for Abuse Many children that haveconsistent behavioural problems at school comefrom dysfunctional families in which eitherphysical or emotional abuse and neglect iscommon. This has then resulted in behaviordisorders such as Oppositional Defiant Disorder.[1] While it would be nice to believe that parentswould respond to the stated incentives in ahealthy way, it must be considered that it is justas likely that in some of these householdsparents would crack down violently (again, eitheremotionally or physically ) on their children.Such actions by parental role models often leadto a vicious cycle in which the behaviour is thencontinued at school and in future generations. Itis difficult to say what proportion of householdsmay respond in this fashion, but if even a smallproportion of children are actively harmed by thispolicy, it is a strong argument against its uniformadoption. [1] ‘Behaviour Problems in Childrenand Adolescents’, Children’s Mental HealthOntario,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Authority Aversion A short argument, but apotentially powerful one. The assumption thatchildren will not act out even more under such aregime in a bid to lash out at parents isuntenable. Misbehaviour at school is often arebellion against authority anyway, and theultimate authority in most children’s lives is theparents. Therefore, as acting out against both ofthese institutions is consistent with themisbehaving mind set, it follows that tying schoolmisbehaviour to parental detriments is unlikelyto affect the child and may even serve toencourage their bad deeds.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Unjust There is an argument to be made thatthis form of punishment of parents is simplyunjust. The legal basis of punishment is based onthe principle that a sane individual is fullyresponsible for his or her actions. One canalways point to dysfunctional families or otherinfluences that may have had an effect on anindividual’s actions, but the level of influence isimpossible to quantify. Therefore, any level ofpunishment that is meted out to external sourcescannot be matched proportionally to actionstaken by these outside parties, therebyabrogating the principle of proportionalpunishment. As a result, any just system ofpunishment is bound by this constraint, andshifting responsibility to external sources is notconsistent with our principles. This argumentfunctions best in the criminal justice context, butapplies in the school context as well. Schoolsthat adopt this policy must examine the ethicalunderpinnings of the policy, and if the policyitself is immoral, then regardless of its efficacy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-eghbpsbhrt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "One could say that in cases in which abuse issuspected the program would be suspended forthat child, and that teacher’s always have anobligation to report abuse (in the U.S., anyhow).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egshwrsla1-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The cost of extending the period of compulsoryeducation is just too high. In many countries thenumber of students in the last two years offormal schooling would at least double, requiringa huge investment in teachers, books, newschool buildings, computers, etc. And this is justthe direct cost - there are also potentiallyenormous indirect losses to the state in terms ofthe taxes and pension contributions which itcurrently receives from young workers but wouldforego if the school-leaving age was raised.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egshwrsla1-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Raising the school-leaving age is a crucialinvestment in society's future Doing soincreases the economic potential of the futureworkforce, and so will bring increased taxrevenues in the long term to more than coverany initial costs. Although some countries wouldexperience a more dramatic change than others,it is worth noting that in many states a verylarge majority of young people voluntarily stay ineducation beyond the end of compulsoryschooling (e.g. France, Germany and Japan). Inthe UK 84 per cent of pupils in year 10 statedthat they had intentions to stay on in furthereducation. [1] If these countries can alreadybear the extra cost without economic collapse, itshould be possible for others to cope as well. [1]Office for National Statistics. Social Trends.2009, , ch 3", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egshwrsla1-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Unfortunately equality in the job market isunlikely to emerge simply because everyone nowstays in school for the same amount of time. Asnoted above, not everyone will get the same outof school for being there the same time. Thosewho achieve the best exam results will still bethe most employable, especially if they go intotertiary education before finding a job.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egshwrsla1-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "More education brings more opportunities Moreeducation provides the opportunity to acquiremore skills and therefore more options. It hasbeen shown many times that those with moreeducation find it easier to find work and that theyare more likely to find that work satisfying.Similarly, the level of education among thepopulation can have a positive effect on theeconomy as a whole as they can be moreefficient workers. The impact of extra years ofeducation on earnings and economic productivityis also disproportionately heavy at the lower end- that is, two more years at school for a 16 yearold will make a much greater percentagedifference to their later economic worth than twoyears of graduate work for a 22 year old. The UKhas recently raised the school leaving age to 18for the same reasons. [1] [1] Browne, Anthonyand Webster, Philip, ‘School leaving age goes upto 18’, 2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egshwrsla1-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This argument suggests that children whomBritain's state schools have failed to teach evento read and write should be compelled to stay atthose schools for an extra two years. It will notsuddenly bring new opportunities just becausechildren are forced to sit in a classroom forlonger. This is absurd. It is re-enforcing failure.It is an idea according to which, if climbing amountain on your hands and knees does notwork, then you should be made to go on doing it.[1] [1] Bartholomew, James, ‘Raising theschool-leaving age would be crazy’, 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egshwrsla1-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Raising the school learning age promotes equalopportunities Ensuring everyone gets educatedfor the same amount of time at school shouldpromote equality. Currently early-school leavingis linked with other indicators of socio-economicdisadvantage, such as low-income jobs or highunemployment. More importantly parents wholeft school young and as a consequence havelower-grade occupations are more likely to havechildren who leave school early (only 60% ofthose children stay in education past 16) [1] .Forcing all children to stay in school longer couldbreak this cycle of disadvantage. [2] [1] Ibid, ch3 [2] RTE News, ‘Early school leavers earn lowerwages’, 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egshwrsla1-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Leaving school early is not necessary. Simply ina few cases there is a need for more governmentintervention in order to make sure that everyoneis able to afford to remain in school up to the ageof 18. If children are unqualified at 16 then thereis all the more reason to teach them the basicsthat they have failed to grasp for two moreyears. There could also be some exceptions as inthe British system where there are exemptionsfor under-18s who are caring for parents orrelatives, and for teenage mothers. [1] [1]Browne, Anthony and Webster, Philip, ‘Schoolleaving age goes up to 18’, 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egshwrsla1-con01b", "title": "", "text": "UK statistics plainly show “There is no evidencethat raising the minimum school leaving agemade people who had not intended to leave atthe minimum age raise their educationalstandard. This is consistent with the view thateducation raises productivity and not with theview that productive people get more education.”[1] [1] Zhu, Y., & Walker, I. Education,earnings and productivity: recent UK evidence,2003,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egshwrsla1-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Not all skills are best learnt in a classroomenvironment. Practical skills (for examplecarpentry, cookery, gardening etc.), are oftenbest learnt ‘on-the-job’ or through anapprenticeship. Both routes place young peopleinto contact with professionals in the field as wellas giving them access to a wider range of toolsand materials than could possibly be available inschools. For many young people who would liketo work in these areas extra years at school willmerely be time ‘treading water’ before they canget on with learning the skills of their trade. Thisis even more alarming in the case of the UK withthe new tuition fees for universities, which arelikely to decrease the chances of certainsocio-economic categories of going to universityat all.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egshwrsla1-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There are cases where leaving school early isnecessary Working early can be an advantage insome circumstances. Many families need theirchildren to make an economic contribution to thefamily income, often for example on a farm or ina family business. Working early can help thesefamilies to survive. Similarly unqualifiedindividuals can gain equality or even anadvantage over their qualified peers by having afew years’ work-experience ‘on-the-shop-floor’.If they are forced to stay in school as long astheir peers they lose this advantage. Recognizingthis, the British government introduced 21,000extra apprenticeships in 2009 in an attempt toensure those who aren’t suited to school do notfall behind when it comes to finding a job and asustainable income. (Lipsett, 2009)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egshwrsla1-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Forced education achieves little Unfortunatelyjust being in school does not guarantee that astudent is learning. If they lack aptitude, abilityor interest the extra time in the classroom islikely to benefit them very little, especially whenthey have not chosen to be there. It also poses asharp divide on the question of disruptivechildren. If they are excluded from school theirdisadvantage is extended over more years whileif they are included, they damage the educationof others in their class for even longer. As HenryPhibbs argues “Increasing the school-leaving agewill not result in more being learned – just morebroken windows in the locality of the school.Children fed up with school need an escaperoute, not an extension of their sentence.”[1] [1] Phibbs, H., ‘Let them leave school at 14’,2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egshwrsla1-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Practical Skills can be taught in school. Manyschool systems have vocational schools. Forexample the German system vocational schools,Berufsschulen, have been around since the 19thCentury where students spent part of their timein vocational training in the school and part oftheir time as apprentices, these are attendeduntil at least the age of 18. [1] It is possible forSchooling to be flexible while still continuing to18. [1] Embassy of the Federal Republic ofGermany London, ‘Education’, 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Poetry should not be seen as something that onestudies after learning English but should,instead, be seen as a way to help students graspthe English language. Many aspects of Englishare improved through the study of poetry.Learning poetry involves repetitive reading andan exploration of vowels and syllables. Studentsalso explore a variety of sentence structures andare given the opportunity to explore thecreativity and flexibility available in language.Furthermore, by reading poetry students canimprove their reading ability and public speakingskills.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Students need to study the basics of languagenot a complex form such as poetry According toa report published in 2011 [3] a great number ofpupils in England are struggling after startingsecondary school and 3 out of 10 pupils are notmaking enough progress in English. If pupils arenot making the required progress in basic Englishthen it is difficult to understand the motivationbehind teaching complex poetry. If a student isunable to do basic multiplication it makes nosense to ask them to do complicated mathematicequations. The same is true in English: pupilswho struggle with things like grammar andvocabulary should not be expected to tacklecomplicated poetic structures.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Musicians have, for some time, been awardedpoet status. Early in his career Bob Dylan wasdescribed as being “as good as Keats [an early19th Century British poet].\" [7] Musicians mustbe allowed the chance to develop their poeticstyle and be recognized for their lyrical writingskills. Rap gives the listener an insight into theplight of the artist. It shows the harsh conditionsin which people live and gives a voice to thosethat we otherwise might not hear. WilliamBlake’s famous poem ‘London’ is often describeda social protest, a voice of discontent with theconditions of life in 1790’s London. Rap does thesame thing; social protest, put to music, anddesigned to describe the racial and economicinequalities that exist within society. Rap, evenwith its sometimes offensive lyrics reflects thesociety the artist sees and it should be acceptedas it is. We must not judge the poetry on thebasis of the poet’s life Dylan Thomas, Wales’national poet, was an adulterer and an alcoholic.However, this does not make his poetry any less", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Poetry is too difficult for school students Thereare people who dedicate their lives to studyingpoetry and still have trouble understanding itsmeaning. If these people constantly debate thenature of poetry how can school children beexpected to properly understand it? It is difficultto teach because poetry can have multiplemeanings; “[U]ntil education theory asks itselfwhat poetry itself is, and therefore what theteacher is trying to get across, poems willcontinue largely to figure as teaching aids,exercises and – for teenagers – increasinglytedious, somewhat arbitrary puzzles\" [2] andtherefore poetry will remain of little worth in theclassroom. The greatest poets write about adultexperiences, e.g, love, work, history, politics,solitude etc. As a result great poetry requires anadult mind to grasp its full meaning and teachingit in schools means that students develop adisliking for poetry before they are even fullycapable of appreciating it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While great poetry may deal with adultexperiences there is poetry that targets ayounger audience and methods available toteach this type of poetry. Children’s poetry, forinstance, is not complex or dark in subjectmatter and uses very regular rhythm and rhymeschemes, which young students will enjoy. Ifage-appropriate poetry is taught in schools thenit gives young people the chance to develop anappreciation for poetry and its varioustechniques. This means that in later years youngpeople will have the skills necessary to properlyunderstand great poetry.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Rappers; modern day poets Many people believethat rap is a form of modern day poetry and assuch it should be taught in schools [4]. SirAndrew Motion, Professor of Creative Writing atRoyal Holloway, University of London, said that:“Poetry is a house of many mansions. It doespupils a disservice only to tell them things theyalready know. Rap has its own challenges andopportunities – but so do many other kinds ofpoetry, many of which are neglected in schools.\"[5] However, many rappers use lyrics that arehomophobic, violent, sexist, and promoteviolence and crime. To teach rap in schools is togive a voice to these values and expose childrento views that education must not support. [6]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "We must be realistic in education; we need toprepare our students for the difficulties of thereal world. It is those subjects that arevocational in nature and/ or life skills, homelanguage (not literature), mathematics, science,modern languages, business studies and law thatmust take priority in schools. We must equip andtrain the new generation to successfully gainemployment. Therefore, artistic subjects likepoetry do not take priority.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "History books can tell us more about the horrorsof the First World War than any poetry can. Warpoetry is based on the opinions of one person’sexperiences whereas a history book can give anaccount of all the events and horrors thatoccurred. Because history books have beenwritten after the war they can gather accountsfrom many different people and can tell the fullstory of the war. Shellshock in the First WorldWar helped make many mad; Sassoon himselfwas nicknamed “Mad Jack” for near suicidalexploits. [10] War poetry may thus be anunreliable source, and it is only one among manythat should teach history.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Poetry allows people to express and understandthemselves Education should not just be aboutlearning basic skills but should, instead, be aboutexploring what it means to be human. Poetryteaches pupils to think deeply about themselvesand others and encourages them to explore theways in which their ideas can be expressed.Ideas help to change, and improve, the world welive in. Encouraging students to expressthemselves and their ideas is important becausethe heart of democracy involves the ability toexpress ideas. If individuals cannot expressthemselves they do not have a voice. Therefore,by teaching poetry we allow pupils theopportunity to express their own ideas on a hugevariety of subjects. Many poets, such as WilliamWordsworth, have written poetry about nature inorder to “see into the life of things.\" [11] Givingchildren the tools to express ideas about theworld in a variety of ways is crucial to thedevelopment of both the individual and societyas a whole.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con04a", "title": "", "text": "As an artistic form of a core subject poetry offersa creative method of teaching English Pupils inschools must learn English and poetry offers acreative outlet for a subject that would otherwisebe repetitive and boring. Poetry also introducesthe reader to new concepts which hold thelearner’s interest and improve vocabulary andspelling. Poetry offers a fun method of teachingsubjects that can otherwise be exhaustive andrepetitive. For example, Shirley Hughes’ poemsfor young readers such as ‘Best Friends’introduce young readers to the vowel sounds ofEnglish and Zoe’s Earrings by Kit Wright teachespre-GCSE students about accents. [8]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Education is about teaching culture, the arts, andcreativity We want cultured people to graduatefrom schools. It would be terrible if high schoolgraduates had no understanding of the arts andhad no desire to explore cultural places likemuseums and art galleries. The arts inspirelearning and encourage human curiosity;removing this cultural aspect from schoolsmeans that we produce people without thecreativity necessary for society to grow. Atpresent the only cultural GCSE subject that iscompulsory is English Literature; as such, it isimportant to include as much culture in it aspossible i.e. novels and poetry.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Poetry is cross-curricular Poetry has benefitsbeyond the English curriculum by teaching aboutother subjects. In History for example war poetryoffers the modern reader the chance tounderstand the horrors of war. Poet WilfredOwen suffered from shellshock as a result offighting in the First World War. In his poem‘Mental Cases’ he describes his time andexperiences at Craiglockhart psychiatric hospitalin Scotland where he and Siegfried Sassoon(another World War 1 poet) were treated:“[W]ho are these? Why sit they here in twilight?Wherefore rock they, purgatorial shadows[9]”While we might never be able to properlyunderstand the terrifying experiences that peoplego through during war we must read their poetryhelps bring us closer to how they related to andcoped with the experience in a way that simplylearning the history does not.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Learning the basics of literature and language isnot designed to be fun or enjoyable, it is anessential requirement. It is important thatstudents can get to grips with the basics of theirhome language. A standard ‘look, cover, write,check’ method is an effective way to learnspelling and vocabulary as it requires the learnerto write the words themselves. Simply readingthem is not enough, especially not in the contextof a poem which can be complex and difficult fora pupil whose priority is to learn writing andreading. It is much more effective to develop thepupils reading skills through standard literaturewhere the structure is easier to follow.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstpsnbtsj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Poetry is hardly the only way to teach peoplehow to express themselves; if we are interestedin self-expression for democratic purposes thenchildren should be taught politics. If they are toexpress their ideas about nature then other artforms are just as important. Unfortunatelypoetry as a form of self-expression can only becrippled as a result of students’ lack ofknowledge of the basics of language. The priorityof government should be to achieve a basic levelof literacy for all students; only then can theluxury of teaching art be introduced. There is nouse in children being able to effortlessly quoteShakespeare if they have no idea how to spell hisname.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Universities can't be guided by an \"invisiblehand\": the conditions in the higher educationmarket are not such that optimum results willobtain from this sort of \"free market\" idea. Thereare several reasons why. First, demand foruniversity courses fluctuates, and a low intakefor a course one year, and therefore decreasedfunding, could unfairly penalise other peoplestudying in that department, who are not free toleave (and take their money elsewhere) butsimply have to suffer the decrease in quality untilthe end of their degree course. Second,universities don't operate in a true free-marketsystem: the high start up costs (buildings,libraries) mean that it is very difficult for newuniversities to enter the market, even ifstandards in existing ones fall.Thirdly, there willalways be those students who are poorer andhave to go to the worse universities (if theycannot afford or do not want the burden of astudent loan). A poorer student will either get asecond rate education and waste valuable time", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The introduction of more private universitieswould increase the quality of education byallowing open competition In the rest of theeconomy, when consumers are allowed tochoose between goods or services, the higherquality products are successful and the bad onesfail. Similarly, when consumers can makeschoices between universities, and are puttingmoney on the line (thus taking a risk) they willchoose the good universities, and consider thebad universities as not worth wasting theirmoney on. As a consequence, the bestuniversities will expand, and the worstuniversities will either improve or fail. The NewCollege of the Humanities for example is aimingto rival Oxford and Cambridge1 so helping toprovide these two elite institutions with thenecessary competition to force up standards.This will result in a higher quality of educationbeing available to more people. 1 BBC News,\"Academics launch £18,000 college in London.” 5June 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "If more diversity is necessary, then governmentscan change the way in which they funduniversities, perhaps by giving a proportion offunding based on student numbers. However,for the large part so-called \"increased diversity\"would not constitute improvements on thequality of academic education, but rathergimmicks to make a university look moreattractive to the young people who apply – thereare incentives to make the university popular tosixth-form applicants, not to existingundergraduates.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Private universities are needed to increase thenumber of places for students. Britishuniversities are facing cuts in governmentfunding and as a result there will be no newplaces created to cater for rising demand.Professor Steve Smith, president of UniversitiesUK noted the fact that the budget cuts that couldsoar to as much as £950,000,000 over threeyears would decrease the quality of educationwhilst keeping the numbers of University placesstagnant. In 2009, 160,000 students whoapplied did not go to University. In 2010, 75,000more people applied.1 Governments in richcountries all over the world are facing squeezedbudged over the next few years and will beunable to increase funding for universities. Thisleaves private universities as the only way tomeet increasing demand for highereducation. 1Shepherd, 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Encouraging private universities will not increasethe number of university places available.Instead they will skim off the students who canafford to pay, but who would be going touniversity anyway. This will leave remainingpublicly funded universities having to pick up thestrain, often with less money and just as manypotential students without places.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "It is unfortunate that the current systemconstitutes taking from the poor and giving tothe rich, but this is justified as long as two thingsare true: first, overall, the government doesredistribute wealth in such a way as to take fromthe rich and give to the poor, and second, thefunding of universities from the public purse is ofbenefit to the poorer people in society. In thiscase publicly funding universities gives the poorthe option of going to university that they wouldotherwise not have, even if they fail to take thatoption up. (The opposition arguments explainwhy this latter condition is the case.)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The privatisation of universities encouragescourse-diversity and provides for students areindividuals, not cattle Privatisation ofuniversities allows for a greater range ofeducational provision: universities are no longerrestrained by government targets andbureaucracy, and are incentivised by possibleprofits to set themselves apart and provide\"unique selling points\" that will gain them morestudents: the current system does not providethis motivation because universities receive theirfunding regardless of student numbers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The current system constitutes taking from thepoor and giving to the rich The majority ofpeople in the UK have not benefited from auniversity education, and graduates earn more,on average, than the rest of the population.Further, universities accept a larger number ofricher people than they do poorer people. ANational Audit Office report claims\"Socioeconomic background remains a strongdeterminant of higher education participation.People from lower socioeconomic backgroundsmake up around half of the population ofEngland, but represent just 29 per cent of young,full-time, first-time entrants to highereducation.\"1 It is therefore wrong on principle touse tax-payers' money to subsidise universities,because when universities are subsidised from ageneral \"pot\" of taxation, a redistribution ofwealth occurs whereby the rich benefit at a costto the poorer people in society. This is wrong,because we should be using taxation to attemptto mitigate economic inequality, not to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The reason why people from poorer backgroundsare underrepresented at university is notbecause they perceive it as something only richpeople can do. Instead, it is because theirschools did not adequately prepare them: onaverage, they have fewer/worse qualifications,and are less likely to have performed the myriadextra-curricular activities that give people anadvantage when applying to universities1.Making university education private, then, doesnot disadvantage the poor: if the oppositionreally wants to help people from poorerbackgrounds it would address the deficiencies ofschool-level education instead. 1 Cassidy,Sarah, \"Quality of education still determined bywealth, says report.\" The Independent, 8 August2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Allowing market forces to control educationalopportunity is as legitimate at university level asit is at school level. Parents wanting the best fortheir children should be allowed to spend theresources that they have accumulated in anyway that they like, rather than have thoseresources taken from them by the state to createan education system that isn't as good as thatwhich those parents could have fundedthemselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Private Universities would risk reducing thequality of university degrees. New privateuniversities will not have a long standingreputation to keep up. They may not be as wellregulated and they will have no social interestbeyond simply getting money from theirstudents. This means that they may well offercheap and poor quality education in order to finda gap in the market. This could damage thereputation of other universities as Dr PaulGreatrix registrar of Nottingham Universityworries \"If there are entrants who are on theextreme end of cheap and cheerful, this willdamage our international reputation.\"1 Insystems that are both private and state fundeduniversities there is an immense divide betweena few very good elite institutions that chargeimmense amounts and a much larger number ofpoorer quality universities. Take the US system,it is well known for its world class Ivy Leagueuniversities. Its publicly funded universitieshowever do much less well with only the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Private universities would increase the dividebetween the rich and poor Funding universitiesthrough taxation rather than privately allowspoorer people in society to access universityeducation because the government can increaseaccess in three key ways. First, it can subsidiseuniversities to decrease the price, second, it canexert pressure on universities to increasediversity within their student populations (byincreasing numbers of people fromdisadvantaged backgrounds) and third, it caneasily control peripheral support structures suchas student loan schemes that become difficult tomanage under a privatised system.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "This will increase the perception that universitiesare just for the rich Treating universityeducation like any other commodity will increasethe perception that, like any other veryexpensive commodity, it is a luxury, and thattherefore those who can't afford it should justsee that as an economic reality, and not as anassault against their life chances. This will meanthat fewer people from less well-off backgroundswill go to university, even if they are very clever,and thus will decrease social mobility.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Allowing universities to be guided by an invisiblehand does more harm than good Universitydegree programmes, unlike other products liketelevisions or designer shoes, are tools of socialmobility: unlike a TV, a good degree will help youto get other good things later in life (like a highersalary). This means that it is important thatpeople have a fairly equal opportunity to accessthe best degrees. Market forces will make thebest universities more expensive than theothers, and mean that the best degree places areawarded not to the cleverest, but to those ableto afford it. Universities are already elitist despitebeing open to all and being publicly funded. Inthe UK class is a major determinant of where yougo to university. Oxford University only has11.5%, and Cambridge 12.6% of its studentscoming from a working class backgroundcompared to an average of 32.3%1. This is asituation that will only get worse as studentshave to pay for the best private universities. 1Davis, Rowenna, \"Does your social class decide if", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-con04b", "title": "", "text": "With regard to subsiding universities and thestudent loan schemes, both of these couldnevertheless be operated even if universitieswere privatised. For example, assistedplace-schemes,(which-School.co.uk) where thegovernment funded bright students to attendprivate schools are successfully run in theUK.With regard to pressure to increase diversityin the student population, this merely treats thesymptom and not the cause, which is theinadequate educational support given to somegroups in society at a lower level: this should bedirectly addressed instead.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-uhwecpuu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Far from reducing the quality of universityprivate universities would increase it. PrivateUniversities would go where most money is, andthis is most likely to be at the top where a lot ofmoney can be charged for the degrees. This iswhat Grayling's proposed New College of theHumanities is doing. The New College of theHumanities will charge fees of £18,0001. Withthe extra money they will be able to hire the bestprofessors and have a very good student teacherratio, better than 1:10, with the result that therewill be a lot of one to one tuition andstudent-staff interaction to increase the qualityof teaching2. 1 BBC News, “Academics launch£18,000 college in London.” 5 June 2011. 2 NewCollege of the Humanities", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Schools have significantly better facilities and amuch more appropriate and segregated learningatmosphere than the home. The state systempools facilities to allow access for all children tosports and science facilities1. Parents are veryunlikely to be wealthy enough to provide theplethora of things necessary to a well-roundededucation. Teaching within the home askschildren to switch between 'learning' and 'play'mode in the same environment which isconfusing especially for young children. Schoolsprovide a specific environment that is dedicatedto learning. Homes are more complexenvironments, ill-suited to teaching and theconcentration required to learn. 1 'The Cons andArguments against Home Schooling' in EducateExpert (2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The home is an ideal learningenvironment. Home schooling allows children tolearn in an environment that has the needs ofone or a very few number of students as thefocus of the educative process. Parents arewilling to invest in their children and can providetargeted provision that prioritises the learningneeds of those individuals1. Therefore, specifictextbooks that are tailored to the child's mode oflearning can be purchased. State schools, incontrast, are often very ill-equipped andunder-funded, leading to standardized text booksand teaching methods. The home also lacks themany distractions and disadvantages of schools:peer pressure, social stigma attached toachievement, bullying, show-offs and generalrowdiness. 1'Virtues in to Vices' in The Journal OfHome Education", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "Homeschooling allows for the accommodation offaith practices. The state constantly fails thosewith greatest faith needs in schools. There arenumerous examples of failure ofaccommodation: ignorant provision for prayertimes, banning of religious dress, unwittingsubjection of students to religious festivals thatare manifestly unsuitable1. If parents want toavoid such perils altogether, and teach their childwithin an environment that caters for theirreligious need then that is and should be theirright. 1'Rise in racism in the playground' BBCNews (2007)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Home-schooling is not the best option forexceptional students. The state does not ignoreor abandon individuals that have special needsand those with special needs are those that mostneed the state's enormous resources to focus ontheir requirements. Once a student has needs ofsuch a magnitude that demands it, they areeducated in special schools specifically intendedto help them, with staff trained to possess skillsbeyond that of a parent's instinct. Even if it werethe case that home-schooling is better for thespecific needs of exceptional students, thebenefits of education in a wider context overridethe objection to class-based education. Theexperience of growing up alongside less andmore able students produces individuals withgreater understanding of their society1.1'Teacher perceptions ofmainstreaming/inclusion, 1958-1995: a researchsynthesis' Scruggs, Thomas E. Mastropieri,Margo A. Exceptional Children (1996)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Parents should be permitted to home-schooltheir children provided they register the fact andsubmit to inspections Parents who take theirchildren out of school, or choose to home-schooldue to apprehensions over the quality of stateeducation, should be entitled to do so providedthe child is better off as a result. To ensure theyare not neglected, parents hoping tohome-school must both register the fact they arehome-schooling their child and submit to regular,state inspections of the child's progress. If thechild is deemed to be falling behind his agegroup, the parent may be forced to return thechild to a school. The parent should be givenstandards of teaching that they must adhere tobefore the inspections occur, and the standardsshould be sufficiently flexible to reflect childrenlearn at different speeds and that not allchildren's development reflects fairly on theirteacher.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Home schooling involves good communityinvolvement and socialinteraction. Homeschooling families do notoperate in isolation. There are extensive supportnetworks (particularly in the USA the nation withthe largest proportion of the populationhomeschooling) that exist to providecompanionship, promote sports events and socialfunctions. In addition, standard social provisionsfor children in civic society – scout movements,sports club – are open to homeschoolers.Homeschooling is not a removal from society butjust from state schools.1 Homeschooled childrenoften engage with their local community to agreater extent than their schooled peers. 1‘Home Schooling: From the Extreme to theMainstream’ Patrick Basham, Public PolicySources", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Interaction with other pupils is a crucial elementof a child's development and involvement inclubs is not a substitute for the social skills learntin school. Teaming building, working towardsgoals, being forced to confront problems withand live alongside individuals one might not like,or come from different backgrounds, is clearlydone best in a school environment1. Those thatseek to cocoon their offspring from the outsideworld merely delay the time when their childrenhave to deal with it. Education is about morethan academic teaching, it's about educating thewhole person, and that is best achieved byeducating them within a school with their peers.1 'School as a context of early adolescent'sacademic and social-emotional development: Asummary of research findings' RW Roeser, JSEccles, The Elementary School Journal (2000)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Merely ensuring the registration of a child asbeing home-schooled does not fulfill the state'sright to ensure that all children are given asatisfactory education. Inspections will help, butparents will nevertheless be unable to provide totheir children the opportunities present in aschool environment. The inspections shouldrequire that parents offer their children at leastan equivalent level of teaching to that he or shewould receive at a school, yet how is a parentgoing to teach practical science? How are theygoing to dissect animals? The inevitable result ofsuch a policy therefore would be the acceptanceof inadequate education. The only policy thatrespects and protects a child's right to educationis to ban home-schooling altogether.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "Those that wish to be educated in a religiousenvironment have the chance to send them to areligious school the quality of which can bemonitored by the state1. There are greatdangers involved in exclusivity of faith. Theadherents of all religions shouldn't shutthemselves away, but rather engage in societyas a whole, and understand other people'sbeliefs and points of view. 1'Gove defends faithschools', Riazat Butt, Guardian.co.uk (2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "A school education is not mutually exclusive withfamily bonding. Just because a child attendsschool does not mean that their parent loses allinfluence upon their moral development. It isimportant for children to have a variety ofdifferent role models around them1. There is alsono guarantee that the moral structure thatparents might be instilling in their children awayfrom any effective monitoring is beneficial. 1'Why a Positive Role Model Is Important forChildren', Caitlin Erwin, LiveStrong.com (2010)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Home schooling is often the best option forcatering for the needs of exceptional or disabledstudents. Classroom-based education must, bynecessity, cater for the needs of the group as awhole which leaves those the very brightunchallenged and those with special needs fallingbehind and unsupported1. The state often takesyears to recognise the needs of students andthey lose years of education in the process2. Inaddition, even if those needs are identified'special schools' are underfunded andstigmatised. For many students with identifiableproblems that affects their capacity to learnwithin mainstream schooling but is not severeenough to merit a place within the special needssector, homeschooling can benefit such studentsby shaping the learning environment to cater fortheir needs by being flexible to adapt. 1 'EveryChild is Special", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "COUNTERPOINT Home-schooling is not the bestoption for exceptional students. The state doesnot ignore or abandon individuals that havespecial needs and those with special needs arethose that most need the state's enormousresources to focus on their Family bonding is amassively important element of a child'sdevelopment and is prioritised by homeschooling1. The value of the family is constantlyundermined in modern society; positive parentalrole models are found less and less frequently. Ifa parent is judged by a state vetting process tobe good enough it is enormously beneficial forsociety as a whole to approve is an environmentthat cements both a positive role model andfamily bonding. 1'The Role of InterpretationProcesses and Parental Discussion in the Media'sEffects on Adolescents' Use of Alcohol' EricaWeintraub Austen, Bruce E. Pinkelton, YukiFujioka, Paediatrics, (2000)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Homeschooling is not mutually exclusive fromsocial interaction1. Interaction happens outsidethe classroom, where it belongs instead of actingas distractions to learning. In addition,homeschooling events involve children of alldifferent ages as well as adults and in this waychildren learn to interact with a greater range ofindividuals than they would come across in aclass just containing children of their own ageand often makes them more confident ininteracting with adults in a relationship that isnot just a simple teacher and pupil relationship2.Parents still select schools for their children onthe basis of common values, cultures andachievements - and even go as far as to movecloser to the school they want to fall into itscatchment area. 1Mike Fortune-Wood, ‘The “S”Word Socialisation’ from Home EducationUK 2‘Civic Involvement’ HSLDA", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Schools are often of poor quality and are failingthe children. Parents have the right to withdrawtheir children from bed state schools. If thequality of education is sufficiently low in theireyes, they are entitled to be allowed to make theconsiderable sacrifice involved in becoming a'home schooler'. It is reasonable that a parentshould want to reject such educational theoriesand if they pass the inspection process thenshould not be denied that chance. \"Homeschoolfreedom works. Homeschoolers have earned theright to be left alone.\"1 1 'Academic Statistics onHomeschooling', Home Schooling Legal DefenseAssociation, (October 22, 2004)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Most parents do not have any teachingqualifications. If parents are not trained orqualified teachers how can they provide a betteror equivalent quality of education than aprofessional teacher at a school. Even if a parentor tutor excels in one area, will they cover all thethings a school does? Even if they tried to, theywould not do so adequately due to sheer lack ofexperience and training. The point of acurriculum is that these are things we havedecided as a society that children need to learn,and in order to learn they require the support ofqualified teachers1. Support groups andeducational text books can help, but they alonecannot turn a parent into a good teacher. 1National Curriculum Website", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Danger of parents indoctrinating theirchildren. Homeschooling allows the possibility ofparents removing their child from wider societyand indoctrinating them with their own beliefs.State schools teach history and social interactionwithin a framework agreed on by w wide varietyof bodies within the social spectrum. If a parent'sworld view if so far detached from thatperspective that he wishes to remove his childfrom school it is likely that those alternative vieware questionable at best. These beliefs caninvolve can include gross intolerance forparticular minority groups supported by falseinformation. These ideas can still reach the childout of school, but the government has a duty toprotect children from a regressive upbringing byat least offering a more constructive perspective.'Andy Winton, the chair of the NationalAssociation of Social Workers in Education, said:\"School is a good safety net to protect children.\"'1 1'Get tough on home tuition to weed outabuse, says review' from Guardian website", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Diversity of school is necessary for socialdevelopment. Being forced to confront problemsand individuals from different backgrounds isvital as a preparation for the future as amicrocosm of the society they will later enter.Parents and children spending day after day athome re sometimes subject to a phenomenonsociologists call the 'hothouse' relationship thecloseness between them becomes exclusive, withreaction to outsiders almost aggressive byinstinct. This relationship makes it even moredifficult for the child to adapt to life in the widerworld.1 While there maybe attempts by parentsto socialize their children through other meansthese organizations and club are centred aroundsimilarity. School is a mixture that does not filterout students, and there is an inherent socialvalue to such a mix. 1‘The Cons and Argumentsagainst Home Schooling’ in Educate Expert(2011) www.educate expert.com", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The state operates a system of quality controlrun by experts. Hundreds of experts andresearchers ensure the quality of public schools.It is presumptuous for a parent to think theyknow how to teach a child better than thataccumulated wisdom. Just because the child is aproduct of that individual does not mean that theeducation knowledge of the parent surpassesthat of professionals in that field who have spentyears training1. Furthermore, even the bestteachers can be improved by the insight of athird-party; such evaluations are not accessibleto home-schooling parents. The danger is that'From the government's perspective, the world ofhome education is full of unknowns'; there arenot sufficient measures of quality control in placeto protect the child and their right to acomprehensive education. 1'Home truths: do weneed yet another inquiry into home education?'from Guardian website", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The state education curriculum offers only a verylimited view of history and as such is itself a formof indoctrination. For example, in the UK, aproud history of achievement and creation goesuntaught whilst the sins of colonialism and thefaults of class structure are emphasised to pupilsyear after year. Parents do not necessarily haveto have extreme or radical political views to wantto home school their child and indoctrinate them.They often actually want to allow them to havebroader historical and political education thanoffered by the narrow curriculum1. If parents aredetermined to prejudice their children it isunlikely that being in school will prevent that.And these parents who wish to teach toleranceshouldn't be penalised by a minority.1'Prescriptive national curriculum restrictsteachers', Jessica Shepherd, Guardian.co.uk(2009)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-egtyhshs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is wrong to assume that home schooling willnecessarily be of poor quality. Many parents willbe fantastic teachers with or without a formalqualification. One parent says that it is oftenteacher themselves that recognise that teachingqualification are not necessarily the mostimportant factor: 'the more people– mainlyteachers – we spoke to, the more it began toseem like school could actually be a damagingplace to be.’1 In addition, there are extensivesupport networks that are capable of providing arange of skills and knowledge that a parentmight be lacking. The internet makes theseconnections increasingly viable as well asproviding better research facilities than anyschool library had ten years ago. 1 ‘Honey, Ithink we're home-schooling the kids’ from theGuardian website", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "What is taught in history will never be 100%accurate, but it is possible for historians toachieve a considerable degree of objectivity,especially if they seek to be aware of theinfluences upon their own thinking. Part of mostsecondary school history curricula is theconsideration of how historians are affected bythe context in which they write: this equipspupils to consider critically what they are beingtaught and why they are being taught it.Moreover, it can be argued that worthwhile ends(e.g. the good relations between different ethniccommunities sought by the British government)justify some selection of the history that istaught to schoolchildren. After all, it isn't possibleto teach children everything about all historicalperiods, so there must be some criteria formaking choices about what would be mostvaluable to study. A 'British' history curriculumwill aid integration and encouragemulti-culturalism within the country, withoutsacrificing truth, merely breadth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "History teaching will reflect the erroneouspreconceptions and aims of those who set thecurriculum History is not objective and, inschools, historical fact is at the mercy of those incontrol of the curriculum. Even when there is noattempt to deceive or manipulate, postmodernistcritiques of history suggest all history teachingwill reflect the preconceptions and aims of thosewho set and teach the curriculum. The Britishgovernment announced in early 2006 thathistory taught in schools should seek toengender a sense of \"Britishness\" by stressing ashared political and cultural heritage1. TheEducation Secretary at the time asked schools to'play a leading role in creating communitycohesion' by doing so1. Even if no historicalevents are invented as such, this willnevertheless lead to an unbalanced account, inwhich events that support modern political/socialends are highlighted and others receive lessattention. The principle that such taintedinformation, whether implicit or explicit, can be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Isolated instances in which history has been usedfor propaganda purposes do not reflect adangerous subject, merely dangerous regimes.The vast majority of History teaching does notseek to promote such agendas. It is commonsense to tailor the national history curriculum tothe nation in which it is being taught, and veryeasily achieved without constituting propaganda.Recent studies have shown it is common forstates to focus heavily on their national history,'setting out key events that shaped the nationalstory as compulsory knowledge'1. Furthermore,all subjects can be distorted if the State and itsteachers are prepared to try hard enough - forexample, under the Nazis German children weretaught Mathematics with a heavy emphasis uponmilitary applications (e.g. calculating angles andranges for artillery). Instead of banning thesubject, what is needed is proper inspection ofschools and monitoring of the curriculum, underthe control of a democratic government. 1 Baker,Mike. \"History study needs fact first, analysis", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "History should be left for those intellectualcapable of understanding its limitations, andtherefore not taught at school Even if no agendais being consciously or subconsciously pursued,school pupils are presented with oversimplifiedinformation in History. This is a result of thelimited time available, the limited intellectualcapacity of pupils, the limited knowledge of manyteachers (who may not be history specialists,especially in primary schools) and the desire foranswers that can be labelled as \"correct\" or\"incorrect\" in examinations. Much school historyteaching is therefore concerned simply withmemorising \"facts\". However, such learningneeds to be accompanied by a deeperunderstanding of events, lacking definitiveanswers but providing a narrative to give the'facts' (often figures) meaning. As schoolsrecognize this is beyond most students, theystruggle to make time spent in history lessonsconducive; a study in America found that only 20percent of fourth graders were proficient in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Where there is uncertainty, this can and shouldbe highlighted if pupils have the intellectualcapacity to understand the debate. Much of thebenefit of studying History is that it is not (orshould not be) solely based upon the learning offacts. Rather, History develops the ability toevaluate and challenge different interpretations.If historical study were postponed to adulthood,this would mean that most people would learn noHistory, unless they chose to study for a Historydegree. And it is impossible to escape anydiscussion of History in adult life - there aremany television programmes and press articlesdevoted to historical subjects every day, andpoliticians constantly refer to past events tojustify their actions. Only if citizens are equippedat school to question such historicalinterpretations can the public avoid being misled.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "History lessons can be used as state-sponsoredpropaganda, distorting the events of thepast History taught in schools sometimesinvolves flagrant distortion of historical evidenceeither by the State or by individual teachers.Attempts may be made to avoid nasty aspects ofa nation's past (e.g. the massacre of Chinesecivilians by Japanese soldiers at Nanking in1937) and/or to put down other peoples (e.g. thepresentation of Australian Aboriginals asuncivilized until the 1960s). Japan's attempt toerase the memory of Nanking in itsschoolchildren began in 1950s when it banned athird of all textbooks and 'Nanking Massacresimply disappeared' from their history1. As wellas these extreme examples, low-levelanti-Americanism is arguably pervasive inmodern French school textbooks, reflectingtensions between France and the USA arisingfrom the latter's Gaullist heritage and the recent\"War on Terror\". It is highly undesirable forschool pupils to be exposed to misinformation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "History does offer a source for understandingoneself and one's nation, but that no reason toteach it at school. In fact, the centrality ofhistory to identity is an argument in favour ofleaving history lessons until students are oldenough to weigh sources and evaluatearguments themselves. Australian schoolchildren don't need to be taught specifics aboutthe history of their nation at school in order todevelop into well rounded, reasoned adults. Infact, they are more likely to better understandthe plight of the native aboriginals if they areonly introduced to the historical specifics of thecase at a later, more mature age.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The teaching of history does not either to themaintenance of memory or the learning oflessons. Examples have shown that states canuse history lessons to in fact erase certainmemories, denying any lessons to futuregenerations. Furthermore, teaching historyencourages people to become obsessed with pastconflicts and alleged wrongs inflicted upon them;it is more productive to forget the past and toseek friendship in the present. For example,modern tensions would be reduced if pupils inIreland were no longer taught about the Battle ofthe Boyne (1690) and pupils in South Asiastopped learning about conflicts following thePartition between India and Pakistan (1947).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Historical facts can be established to a sufficientdegree to be taught to schoolchildren For mostpost-medieval periods, it is possible to establishsuch \"facts\" with a very high degree ofprobability. To take the Holocaust as anexample, fears of the events being erased out ofhistory books drove Dwight Eisenhower to travelto Germany to witness the aftermath first-hand.The future American President was driven by adesire to be able to 'testify at first hand aboutthese things in case there ever grew up at homethe belief that the stories of Nazi brutality werejust propaganda'1. Furthermore, even if thehistorical facts are not as clearly evident as theHolocaust, and have to be simplified, this neednot be \"intellectually dangerous\": it is impossibleto prove that a real harm results from onlyknowing the academically dominantinterpretation of a historical episode, even if itmight be theoretically desirable to considerminority viewpoints too. Indeed, all schoolteaching involves simplification and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "History teaches useful skills applicable in otherareas of education and life History teaches manyuseful skills, which are of great value to bothindividuals and the economy. These include theability to think critically and construct reasonedarguments, an awareness of differing points ofview and understanding of cultures (both one'sown and those of others). Essays on historicalevents or figures require an original, structuredargument and an evaluation of sources, skillsthat have relevance in other areas of education.Furthermore, the humility necessary to acceptthe limitations of historical research areinstrumental in encouraging multi-culturalism insociety and respect for views one might notinitially understand.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "History should be taught to school-children, theyform an integral part of understanding oneselfand one's nation Historical events, no matterhow tragic, gruesome or embarrassing, shouldbe taught in schools in order to provide a basisfor the youth to explore their own identity andthat of their nation. Children should therefore notbe shielded from reality, but be taught, in anappropriate manner, about all manner ofrelevant historical events. In so doing, they willnot leave school with a false image of reality, orof whom they are and where they live. Only thenwill they be prepared for the very worst life willthrow at them. For example, Australian schoolchildren are unlikely to fully appreciate the plightof their Aboriginal compatriots without athorough understanding of the British discoveryof the island and subsequent governmentalpolicy that oppressed the native population. Asthe future leaders of tomorrow, it is essentialthat the youth are given the broadest, mostaccurate platform on which to build their own", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Teaching history ensures that events of the pastare not forgotten, and lessons arelearned \"Organized forgetting\" of the past doesnot lead to harmony: those who allege historicwrongs are unlikely to forget them and will beaggrieved at attempts to deny the significance ofthe events concerned. This is seen in the Chineseoutcry at Japanese attempts to forget the Rapeof Nanking; the international attention drawn tothe issue led to attempts within Japan itself tore-introduce the event into history textbooks1.By 1997, all Japanese textbooks included theevent, signalling a shift towards a closerrelationship with China, their long-term rivals1.Friendship often results from shared recognitionof past wrongs, and a resolve not to repeat pastinjustices and mistakes; studying the past isessential for this. History teaching in schools isespecially important when tensions are present:those who set and teach the curriculum can andshould strive to be impartial, to counterone-sided historical narratives to which pupils", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "History teaching is a waste of time, particularlyat school, where it often revolves around thelearning of names and dates. Antiquarianknowledge is of no practical use; pupils shouldspend more time learning sciences andvocational subjects. It is dangerous to bothpupils' employment prospects and the economyas a whole for time to be spent studying Historyat school.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-pstuhbhhnp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Historical facts cannot be established to asufficient degree to justify history being taughtas a subject in school. Though there are certainfacts that are beyond question, history is aboutmore than the accumulation of facts but thecreation of a narrative. Narratives in history areconstantly subject to changes as furtherevidence comes to hand. Young students shouldnot be forced to learn a narrative that maybecome redundant in the week between historylessons. Furthermore, though Eisenhower meantwell, he could only ever control events in theUnited States, if Germany had decided to censortheir textbooks, as the Japanese did, in the wakeof World War II, his protests would have fallenon deaf ears and done little to ensure theGerman youth knew of the horrors of theHolocaust. As such, it is necessary to restricthistory lessons to the youth; once mature andreasoned, they will be much better placed toevaluate and study history in depth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shbpshrpe-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "While it is true that parents who are having theirchildren educated privately still pay their taxesthat get spent on state education, it is also worthnoting that private schools currently holdcharitable status in the UK, and as such benefitfrom tax subsidies that some people estimate as£88 million annually (BBC, 2011). This money isable to fund facilities that state schools could notafford. Therefore while private schools financiallybenefit state schools in some ways, they also arefinancially damaging to state schools in manyother ways.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shbpshrpe-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Private schools are financially beneficial for stateschools The state funds the education systemthrough taxation. Parents who do not send theirchildren to state schools still pay those sametaxes. Therefore, these taxes are spent on asmaller number of schools and there is moremoney per child in the state sector than therewould be if we banned private education. In2008 there were 569,080 students inindependent schools in England,(BBC 2009) -this would be a very large extra burden for stateschools to bear. These students’ parents aretherefore not only paying for their own childrenbut also for students to study at state schools aswell.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shbpshrpe-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The US magazine Time found research in 2007that suggested that private schools do notprovide a better education than state schools,they do however have a higher percentage ofstudents who would do well in any situation. Thismeans that these children would not lose out bygoing to state schools. ‘The study says that it is\"the kinds of economic and resource advantagestheir parents can give [students]\" — as well asthe level of parental involvement in their kids'education —that determines success or failure inhigh school. The problem isn't in the schools; it'swith social inequality’ (Time.com). The secondcriticism is that statistics provided by theargument are true only because privateeducation exists, and takes all the best teachers,head teachers and resources away from stateschools. If public schools were banned then stateschools would gain more teachers and resourcesand thus would raise to the standards currentlyoccupied by private schools. In a study by Hilland Guin for the University of Washington found", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shbpshrpe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "People should have free choice about how theyspend their money People should be allowed tospend their money as they wish. If parentschoose to spend money on their children’sadvancement over something else they couldbuy then it is there decision to make. The core ofthis is the idea of ownership over our income,and that the state should not be able to restrictour spending this income by banning productssuch as private education. Education in Germanycan be used as an example of allowing parentsthe free will to decide where their child goes toschool, article 7 paragraphs 4 of the Grundgesetzenshrines the right to create private schools.(The Grundgesetz). There are many othersimilar cases where the state provides a servicebut there are also private options, healthcarebeing the most obvious. While most people inBritain use a National Health Service (NHS)hospital there are other options providedprivately by companies such as BUPA, no oneproposes that people should not be able to buy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shbpshrpe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The state already does restrict our spending bycriminalizing the purchase of certain goods. Forexample we cannot choose to spend our moneybuying slaves even if we desire to. Just as weshouldn’t be able to buy another human life, wealso should not be able to buy an advantage inlife. It seems clear throughout this debate thatprivate education does give an advantage overstate schools in many areas. This argument of anunfair advantage has also been identified byOntario’s (Canada) Provincial Ministry ofEducation where they are going to identify wherea credit was earned if outside the student’s highschool (Tamsyn 2010). It further seems unfair tosay that people should have a right to chooseprivate education, while this choice is notavailable to everyone. Those who cannot affordthe huge expense of private education are oftennot choosing to put their children into stateschools, they just have no other options. Theaverage annual cost of sending a child to privateschool in the UK is £9,627, which works out at", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shbpshrpe-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Private schools provide a better education thanstate schools In 2007, Time the US magazinediscovered that private schools in the USreceived much higher SAT scores that the statecounterparts. Research suggests that privateeducation puts a greater emphasis on criticalthinking, while state schools emphasise memoryand learning by rote (time.com). These types ofcritical skills mean that students from privateschools have a better start at universityeducation as they are more used to what will berequired of them. Furthermore, students fromprivate schools are more likely to get into auniversity in the first place (Time, 2007/ BBC,2010). In the US students are twice as likely toget the grades allowing them to go to universityif they have had a private education, and forminority groups in America it is more thandouble (Capenet.org, 2001). This is likely to bereplicated across the world. Private schools inBrazil also provide better education, as there isone teacher per 10 students in comparison to the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shbpshrpe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This is what is already happening. It is thegovernment that sets a curriculum for stateschools (such as in Great Britain, Singapore,Japan, China, New Zealand and France) and thegovernment want us to vote for them. So inmany ways the education system may already beindoctrinating children in state school in the waythis argument fears private schools do. Yet thereare also private interests in many state schoolsalready. For example in Britain academies arepartially funded privately and in return areoutside of local authority control so they do nothave to follow the national curriculum.(BBCNews, 2010)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shbpshrpe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Abolishing private schools will not bring to anend to inequality between pupils as this isillustrated every day in state schools. Forexample, bullying is extremely common in allschools whether they be state or private.Bullying represents inequality between pupils asoften it is the result of one pupil being differentto another. Additionally, teachers may treat theirstudents differently depending on theirintellectual ability or their behaviour. In the USracism between students and teachers is still abig issue, as minority groups are consistentlyplaced on slower academic tack and in 38 states“black students are twice as likely as whites tobe labelled as mentally retarded” (University ofWashington2003). Thus Private schools are notthe only means of inequality between studentsand so the abolition of these would notcompletely diminish student inequality. On thedisparity between private and state schools, thecorrect way to improve the education for childrenin state schools is to spend more money on state", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shbpshrpe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Private schools lack diversity A private school isan institutionalised, artificial environment wherethe child will be exposed almost completely tochildren of their own socioeconomic background.This has two very interlinked problems. 1) Oneof the most important factors of a child’seducation is to be exposed to a variety of races,religions, economies and abilities. This allowschildren to grow up to be more aware of thesedifferences between people and more acceptingof diversity as they get older. Yet private schoolsadmission costs alone mean that students arefrom wealthy backgrounds, and this means theyare largely exposed to other people from wealthybackgrounds. As we know, the majority of thepeople in the world are not wealthy andtherefore these students have an extremelyblinkered view of their country. Pakistan can beused as a prime example, where half of itschildren cannot read a full sentence at primarylevel and government spending on education hasbeen cut from 2.5% to 1.5%. For those in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shbpshrpe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Schools should be free from bias Privateeducation needs funding, be it from a business,individual funders or organisations and privateschools rely on this money to run. It seemsunlikely then, in this context, that these fundersthat the school is so reliant on may have aninfluence (even if unintentional) on variousfactors of the school life such as curriculum, foodor teaching style. In many countries, such as theUS, the curriculum in private schools does notneed to be standardised (as State educationdoes) and therefore teachers are free to teachwhat they desire and this might not give an openand full account of certain topics. The bias couldbe political, charitable or even commercial. Wecould have a political group like GreenPeacewanting to run a school and heavily emphasisingenvironmental issues, or a company like Shellemphasising our desperate need for oil. Neitherof these would present a balanced educationwhich is what our children need. An example ofthis is that about 50 independent Christian", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shbpshrpe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Private schools encourage elitism Privateeducation suggests that a higher level ofschooling is a privilege of those who can afford it,rather than a right. This encourages a cycle,whereby those who get a good, private educationare more likely to get higher paid jobs as privateeducation increases access to higher education(in the UK twice the percentage of students fromprivate school went to university than those fromstate school), certain sectors of employment, (inthe UK only 7% of students go to privateschools, yet these people hold 86% top mediajobs and 70% of barrister positions, 33% of MPs)(Gibson, 2006) and employer networking. Thustheir children are more likely to go to privateschool and get a better job. This means that byallowing private education we create a societywhere the rich remain rich, and the poor remainpoor, with the gulf between the two areas everincreasing. If we were to remove privateeducation the field would be open for peoplefrom all walks of life to achieve a range of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-education-shbpshrpe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Similarly the counterargument to this has twodistinct principles. 1) That some state schoolslack social diversity as much as private schools,particularly in small, rural areas. Therefore wecannot simply criticize private schools, and mustrecognise that all schools have different levels ofdiversity. MacKinnon recognises that segregationin the United States schooling system is oftendefended on the grounds that it ‘represents thecommunity’. Yet this is only the case becausehousing itself is segregated (Scrapbook).Therefore if we are banning private schools onthe grounds of diversity, we should enforce apolicy whereby neighbourhoods are forced to bediverse in order to ensure the same thinghappens in state schools. 2) That rather thanshut down private schools we should encouragethe creation of funded places or bursaries. Thisway people who can afford private school do nothave their choices limited, but that there is agreater diversity as people from poorerbackgrounds would still be able to attend the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepwhbwi-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Gaddafi was not deliberately killing civilians butrather targeting armed rebels fighters who weretargeting his government. In his words he saidhe would show no mercy to rebels and did notspeak about civilians. When pro Gaddafi forcesregained control of Brega and Zawiyah, therewas no bloodshed reported or any conflictharming civilians [1]. We don’t know what wouldhave happened had Gaddafi regained control ofBenghazi, but it is likely there would have beenno bloodbath. [1] RT news, ‘Gaddafi gainingground in battle, losing on information front’,rt.com, 11 March 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepwhbwi-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Intervention prevented an impending bloodbathin Benghazi. From the day of the uprising inBenghazi, the government was committed tofight back till the end. Gaddafi asserted that hewill chase down the protesters and cleanse houseby house while his son said that rivers of bloodwould flow with thousands of deaths, if theuprising didn’t stop [1]. Military jets andhelicopter gunships were indiscriminatelyunleashed upon people who had no means todefend themselves against assault from theair. The resolution of a no fly zone passed by thesecurity council weakened and preventedgovernment forces from killing people anddestroying cities using air strikes[2]. Air strikeswent on to destroy artillery, armor and otherweapons that could be used for indiscriminateattacks. The intervention therefore stopped largescale civilian bloodshed. [1] The middle east inrevolt, ‘Gaddafi’s son; last gasp of Libya’s dyingregime?’, time.com [2] Los Angeles Times,‘Obama on Libya; Intervention prevented more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepwhbwi-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Far from creating a liberated and free democracywestern intervention has set Libya on the path tobecoming a failed state. The country is todayranked among the most insecure countries in theworld [1]. Two years after the war, The countryhas not managed to form a unified police force ora professional army, and it has even formallyrecognised several of the militias, entrustingthem with security tasks [2]. It may be betterbut freedom of information in Libya is still underthreat [3]? The threat is simply different; lessfrom the state, and more from a chaoticsituation. Freedoms are also not gaining groundin all areas; notably there are concerns thatreligious freedom is declining with the countrymoving towards Sharia law, and with minoritiesbeing attacked and forced to convert to Islam[4]. [1] The New York times, ‘Clashes and carbombings highlight insecurity across Libya’,nytimes.com, 4 November 2012 [2] Euronews,‘Libya’s internal insecurity appears long-termmilitia problem’, euronews.com, 10 October", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepwhbwi-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A long ruling and ruthless dictator wastoppled. Gaddafi was an oppressive ruler wholed Libya for 42 years. The country had noParliament, political parties, or NGO’s and no civilsociety [1]. He ruled Libya with an iron fist,eliminating any political opposition, restrictingpeople’s rights and worst of all supportingdifferent terrorist groups around the world. Thesame man was responsible for the 1988 bombingof a Pan Am jet over Lockerbie, Scotland, whichkilled 270 people [2] and he supported theleadership of Iddi Amin a dictator who killedmasses in Uganda. His leadership posed a threatnot only to Libya but to countries around theworld. Western intervention in the Libyan civilwar paved a clear path for the downfall ofGaddafi’s rule. We should consider the downfallof such a dictator to be a success and benefit toLibya and all who Gaddafi threatened. [1] Neil,MacFarquhar, ‘An erratic leader, brutal anddefiant to the end’ nytimes.com, 20 October2011 [2] BBC News South Scotland, ‘Colonel", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepwhbwi-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Intervention was approved under the doctrineresponsibility to protect and it aimed atprotecting civilians in Libya [1]. While topplingGaddafi was successful, it did not help instabilising Libya. Many would prefer stabilityunder a dictatorship than chaos. The situationtoday is even worse than during Gaddafi’sregime, with insecurity and chaos across thecountry, increased reports of human rightsviolation and terrorism [2]. Interventionhowever did not restore peace and did nothing tohelp or protect civilians in the longer term. [1]The economist, ‘The lessons of Libya’,economist.com, 19 May 2011 [2] The fault lines,‘Libya; state of insecurity background reading’,Aljazeera.com, 14 February 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepwhbwi-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Ushered in the liberation of Libya. The uprisingsparked off as a concern for freedom in thecountry, people were tired of the oppressiveregime and wanted to be liberated. This couldnot happen by people power alone; Gaddafi waswilling to crack down to prevent it like Assad inSyria did. Western intervention in the civil warhelped the citizens gain power and force to fightfor their rights, by providing them with training,intelligence and logistics among others henceejecting the oppressive leadership a symbol forliberation. After the civil war, people were ableto participate in an election of the nationalassembly considered free and fair for the firsttime in Libya[1]. The part of the Mo Ibrahimindex that rates participation and human rightsrose from 20% in 2010 to 30.5% in 2012 [2].More democratic and accountable governmentinstitutions have been set up, NGO’s welcomedand civil society empowered. Libya is becomingmuch freer with freedom house upgrading thecountry from ‘not free’ to ‘partially free’ [3]. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepwhbwi-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Russia’s long standing antagonism with the westis not new [1] and Libya is not the cause. Itsreaction towards the Syrian conflict is driven by acomplex mixture of political and economicinterests including having a naval base in thecountry [2]. The UN security council has alsocontinued to ensure that its operations aresuccessful and have acted on the Syrian crisistoo. It approved a mission to destroy chemicalweapon stockpiles in Syria and evacuate peoplefrom Homs. This shows how the UNSC usuallyworks; where the major powers can agree theydo and act, where they can’t the council doesnothing. This would have happened in Syriaregardless of what occurred in Libya; Syria issimply worth more strategically to Russia thanLibya was. [1] Con, Coughlin, ‘While Putin stillbelieves the west is still an enemy, Russia willnot change’, telegraph.co.uk, 3 December2010 [2] Nicholas, Kosturos, ‘What DrivesRussia’s Unrelenting Position on Syria?’,americanprogress.org, 13 August 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepwhbwi-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The no-fly zone on its own was not sufficient toprotect civilians on the ground. It was theresponsibility of NATO to take further actionaimed at protecting people whose lives were atrisk from gaddafi’s soldiers. This NATO did byattacking military targets such as artillery. Thiswas also part of the UNSC agreement “permit allnecessary measures to protectcivilians”[1]. Specifically, NATO targeted militaryweapon stores and facilities not homes andcamps as Gaddafi’s military did. 72 civilians werekilled during this bombing campaign [2] a smallnumber compared to the thousands of sorties.No one can know how long the conflict wouldhave lasted without NATO intervention, it istherefore impossible to state that the conflictlasted six times longer than it would havewithout NATO involvement. [1] Richard, Roth,‘UN Security council approves no fly zone inLibya’, cnn.com, 18 March 2011 [2] BBC newsAfrica, ‘Nato hits back at Libya's civilian deathsreport’, bbc.co.uk, 14 May 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepwhbwi-con02a", "title": "", "text": "It increased conflict and instability in Libya andits neighbours. The toppling of MuammarGaddafi has had unpleasant side effects.Gaddafi’s army involved a large number ofmercenaries, many of them Tuaregs fromnorthern Mali. When Gaddafi was overthrownthey returned to their homeland without havinggiven up their arms. These returnees helpedspark a rebellion that deposed a democraticallyelected president under a coup and prompted yetanother western intervention[1]. In Libya thesituation never fully calmed down with thecountry left dealing with militia groups andterrorist attacks. The US ambassador to LibyaChris Stevens was killed, Prime minister AliZaidan was kidnapped and there are reports ofongoing insurgencies [2]. Previously Libyansmay have lived under an eccentric dictator but atleast they had order and stability. [1] Owen,Jones, ‘The war in Libya was seen as a successnow here we are engaging in the blowback inMali’, independent.co.uk, 13 Jan 2013 [2] Chris,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepwhbwi-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Created a large divide in the UN securitycouncil. The UN security council approvedhumanitarian intervention in Libya that ensureda no fly zone to protect civilians fromgovernment attacks. However, the west wentbeyond the resolution’s intent and turned it intoa de facto campaign for regime change [1]. Thismade Russia and China who initially had opposedany intervention feel cheated. The divide hasaffected the response of the security council toother crises notably in Syria where over ahundred thousand people have been killed andan even larger number displaced. Russia andChina have vetoed resolutions on Syria threetimes [2] fearing that it may end like the Libyancase a fact that Russian foreign minister SergeiLavrov stressed; “Russia will not allow arepetition of the Libyan scenario in Syria”[3]. Such divisionism has destroyed thecredibility of the security council [4] and createdan unintended casualty of the Libyanintervention. [1] David, Blair, ‘Putin thinks", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepwhbwi-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The intervention backfired. NATO’S actionincreased the conflict’s duration about a six foldand the death toll at least sevenfold, but alsoincreasing human rights abuses, humanitariansuffering, and weapon proliferation in Libya andneighbouring countries [1]. The UN securitycouncil approved the resolution for protectingcivilians in Libya [2] but NATO just did theopposite. Their operation came at the expense ofincreasing harm to Libyans. NATO attackedLibyan forces indiscriminately including those inSirte who posed no threat to civilians as Sirteremained in government hands right to near theend of the conflict and continued to support therebels offering them weapons, military training,intelligence and troops on ground [1], even whenthey rejected cease fire offers from thegovernment that would have helped end thecrisis and spare civilians. [1] Alan, Kuperman,‘Lessons from Libya; How not to intervene’,harvard.edu September 2013 [2] Robert, winnetand Richard Spencer, ‘UN approves no fly zone", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepwhbwi-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The Malian conflict is not new and has been onfor a long period notably the 1960, 1996 and the2006 rebellions[1]. It did not break up from theLibyan conflict and additionally the Tuareg werenot the only rebels involved in this crisis. Theinsecurity reports across Libya is typical forevery emerging democracy in transition andcannot be a reason to claim that it is not stable.Even the Libyan people accept it with 71% of thepopulation being optimistic about the currentsituation [2]. [1] Mats,Utas, ‘The Malian crisis;Causes, consequences, responses’,wordpress.com 7 May 2013 [2] JMW Consulting,‘Believing in Democracy: Public Opinion Surveyin Libya’, National Democratic Institute, August2013, p.6", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A minor addition to what the UK has is hardlysecuring a special place for the UK. Moreoverthere is no reason to keep such a position if it isnot working for Britain. The renegotiation dealdid not succeed in making the EU work howBritain would like – a move back to greaternational sovereignty – so Britain is better off out.Indeed some, such as former Conservativeleader Michael Howard argue “There is only onething that just might shake Europe’s leaders outof their complacency: the shock of a vote by theBritish people to leave… If the UK voted to leave,there would be a significant chance that theywould ask us to think again [with greaterconcessions].” [1] [1] Howard, Michael, ‘DavidCameron’s reform bid has failed – it’s time togo’, The Telegraph, 25 February 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Secures a special place for the UK Therenegotiation deal ensures that the UK has aspecial place in Europe. One where it is both aleading part of the club with a major say in thecouncil, commission and parliament, and is alsooutside of those areas such as the Eurozone andanything relating to the Euro which the UK doesnot wish to join. Donald Tusk, current presidentof the European Council, says that the deal\"strengthens Britain's special status\"; [1] therenegotiation document “recalls” the specialposition already holds listing previous opt outson joining the Euro and Schengen among others.This deal adds to that an opt out from ever closerunion. With such a privileged position within theEU secured Britain should not rush to the exit sogiving away such a status. As Europeanpoliticians have made clear the UK will notreceive such favourable treatment when outsidethe EU. [2] [1] BBC News, ‘EU deal gives UKspecial status, says Cameron’, 20/2/16 [2]Verhofstadt, Guy, ‘Message to Michael Gove: this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The only way to ensure that the UK does notbecome part of a political union is to leaveentirely. The European Scrutiny Committee ofthe UK Parliament has concluded that the “evercloser union” is largely symbolic so guaranteesagainst it amount to little. [1] Meanwhile thepledges about competitiveness are vague. Itleaves as an open question what are theadministrative burdens that are going to belowered or what legislation might be repealed.Without specifics is it likely that any such repealwill take place? [1] European ScrutinyCommittee, ‘Voters must know EU changes willrequire Treaty amendment’, parliament.uk, 15December 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A fundamental change to Britain’s relationshipwith Europe It was too much to hope that thedeal might involve a complete change for the EUas a whole. However it has the potential tofundamentally change the UK’s relationship withthe EU by putting it on a much more securefooting. The most fundamental change is theacceptance of two Europes. By accepting the UKopting out of ever closer union in perpetuitythere is now an acceptance that the whole ofEurope is not necessarily even moving to thesame goal. As the deal states there can be “adeeper degree of integration among the Memberstates that share such a vision of their commonfuture, without this applying to other MemberStates.” [1] The second change is increasingdemocratic accountability through increasing thepower of national Parliaments. Now if 55% ofnational parliaments reject a European Councilproposal the Council will need to think again.[2] [1] Annex 1, P.17 [2] Annex 1, P.17", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While it is quite correct that the UK should nothave to be signed up to taking part in aEuropean super-state the renegotiation does notrepresent a big leap forward. With its’ opt outsthat are not time limited the UK was already notfurther integrating with the EU. The change toaccepting the de facto truth is not a big one.Allowing national parliaments a say may have along term impact, but under the currentmechanism it means almost nothing. It seemsunlikely that 55% of member states nationalgovernments (which of course signed the deal)are ever going to lose in their parliaments. Thebar is raised even higher by their being a timelimit of 12 weeks.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Ensures Europe stays of the track Britain wants itto be on Britain’s ideal for the European Union isa union that is founded upon free trade; aneconomic not a political block. The agreementensures that the European Union remains on thispath in two ways. First through agreement oncompetitiveness where members pledged the“lowering administrative burdens and compliancecosts on economic operators, especially smalland medium enterprises, and repealingunnecessary legislation”. [1] Second it isexplicitly stated “references [in EU treaties] toever closer union do not apply to the UnitedKingdom” [2] which ensures that the UK willnever have to become part of a political unionbut can instead remain in an economicpartnership with the EU even if the EU itselfmoves towards political union. [1] Annex 1,p.15 [2] Annex 1, p.16", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Neither are at all likely. Gove’s opinion has beenrejected by the Attorney General saying “It haslegal effect from the point the UK says it intendsto remain in the EU, and the European courtmust take it into account. The job of theEuropean court is to interpret the agreements”.[1] Similarly the European Parliament is veryunlikely to reject the deal which has been agreedby the leaders of all member states. MEPs havegenerally shown support for the UK remaining inEurope and the leader of the EPP, the biggestgroup, has stated “We support the core of theagreement.” [2] [1] Mason, Rowena, ‘Attorneygeneral rejects Gove claim that EU deal is notlegally binding’, The Guardian, 24 February2016, [2] European parliament web team, ‘EUReferendum: MEPs Debate the UK's EuropeanFuture’, Huffington Post, 25 February 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This is the case in all negotiations. Both sidesstart out with their maximalist demands thatthey would like to have and both sidescompromise and reduce their own demands untilthey meet in the middle. During this compromisemany ideas and proposals are dropped orwatered down until both sides get the core ofwhat they want. Cameron was never going to getall of his demands and it is disingenuous tosuggest this could have happened.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The deal makes no difference to migration DavidCameron failed to even negotiate on the areathat the people of the UK most want changed;cutting migration. The only way to do this is toend freedom of movement through the Schengenagreement; something that was never on thetable. As a result the changes are minor ones tobenefits which the Office for BudgetaryResponsibility has said “changes to benefit rulesare unlikely to have a huge impact on migrationflows” indeed “In my opinion: not much”.[1] Polling by ComRes within days of theagreement showed that 53% of the British publicbelieve there will be no change in migration as aresult of the deal while roughly equal numbersthink it will increase as decrease; 21% to 22%.[2] [1] May, John, and Whale, Sebastian, ‘OBR:Four-year ban on benefits 'unlikely' to cut EUimmigration significantly’, Politics Home, 8December 2015, [2] Slack, James, ‘A completefailure: Voters offer damning verdict on PM'sEurope deal with three-quarters claiming", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The renegotiation agreement could yet fallthrough At the moment is simply an agreementbetween the leaders of the states within the EU.Until it is written into treaties the agreement isvulnerable. There are two ways in which it couldfall through or be changed. The first is for theEuropean Court to declare part of it incompatiblewith the EU treaties. The Secretary of State forJustice Michael Gove has argued \"The facts arethat the European Court of Justice is not boundby this agreement until treaties are changed andwe don't know when that will be\". [1] Thesecond is that the European Parliament stillneeds to approve as would any legislature whengiven a proposal by the executive branch. [2]Members of the European Parliament haverefused to rule out that it could be rejected. [3]Even then nothing is secure until there is treatychange as the only way the agreement can belegally binding “would be through Treatyamendment, or the equivalent agreement of aProtocol.” [4] [1] ‘EU reforms ‘not legally", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The renegotiation makes littledifference Conservative MP Jacob Rees-Moggdescribed the deal as “pretty thin gruel” whichhits the mark. The British Prime Minister has notbeen able to go nearly as far as he would like forexample with his pledge on migrant benefitswhere Cameroon failed to ensure that all whoclaim must contribute to the UK for at least fouryears. Instead there is a break that the UK canuse if migrants are putting excessive pressure onpublic services. Meanwhile Cameron failed to getanything at all on the Working Time Directivethat restricts working hours in the EU. [1] Moreimportant is what Cameron did not evendemand; greater democracy in the EU, bringingpower back to national parliaments, or opting outor significant changes to common agriculturaland fisheries policies. [1] Foster, Peter, ‘EUdeal: What David Cameron asked for… and whathe actually got’, The Telegraph, 20 February2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oepvhwvseacd0-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Migration is a benefit to the UK financially. Mostmigrants don’t claim benefits which is why suchbenefit rules changes will not make muchdifference. Cutting migration would be easieroutside the European Union however even thenthere is unlikely to be scope to cut migration asfar as skeptics want. Net migration from outsidethe EU in year ending September 2015 was191,000 [1] far above the Conservative target toget migration below 100,000. [1] White, Nicola,‘Migration Statistics Quarterly Report: February2016’, ons.gov.uk, 25 February 2016,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-glgvhbprss-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "As an American state, Puerto Ricans would payfederal income taxes, which most currently donot. Some businesses would also lose tax breaksthey currently enjoy. [1] This would harm notonly the wealth of individual Puerto Ricans butalso harm the country's economic standing, as itwould become less appealing as an investmentdestination without these tax breaks and withthe presence of federal income taxes. There is noguarantee that the extremely high rates ofeconomic growth the pro-statehood optimistsforecast will actually come about to balance outthese increased costs for all Puerto Ricans.Historically statehood could have been disastrousfor Puerto Rico's economy: the post-World WarTwo economic growth in Puerto Rico was theresult of special treatment via exemption fromFederal corporate taxes resulting from PuertoRico' special non-state status. [2] [1]Constitutional Rights Foundation. “BRIA 17 4 cPuerto Rico: Commonwealth, Statehood, orIndependence?”. Constitutional Rights", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-glgvhbprss-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Puerto Rico would benefit economically fromstatehood American statehood would lead tosignificant economic growth for Puerto Rico.Statehood would mean that the island wouldshed its ineffective and costly reliance onpreferential tax credits and more fully integrateinto the national economy. In a study by Hexner,Jenkins, Lad and Lame, \"Puerto Rican Statehood:A Precondition to Sound Economic Growth,\" thecase is persuasively made that statehood isnecessary for the island's economic growth. [1][2] As an American state, the standard of livingin Puerto Rico would profoundly improve for theaverage person. With average income going up,families would be able to pay their fair share oftaxes while still improving their net income andstandard of living. For those with low incomes,the U.S. citizens of Puerto Rico would have thesame access to tax relief and federal supportprograms as any other citizen of the country,unlike under the present status where significantdisparities exist. This is particularly significant as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-glgvhbprss-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The foreignness of English in Puerto Rico isgreater in magnitude than it was in any state atany time in our national experience, includingthe examples listed. Census data show that just20 percent of the island’s residents speak Englishfluently. By comparison, California has the lowestproficiency rate among the 50 states, but its 80percent proficiency rate dwarfs Puerto Rico’s.The deeply rooted preference for Spanish makesPuerto Rico’s 1993 elevation of English to“co-official” status practically irrelevant.Authentic “official English” policies increaseEnglish learning, but they will not work whenEnglish is merely an add-on to a pre-existingofficial language that is spoken in 95 percent ofhomes. [1] [1] Schultz, Tim. “A Spanish 51stState?” National Review Online. 8 March 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-glgvhbprss-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Puerto Ricans deserve full political rights andcitizenship Currently, Puerto Ricans do notreceive full political rights and equalrepresentation, despite their Americancitizenship. Although it has its own Governor andlegislature which handles some domesticmatters, inhabitants of Puerto Rico receive nosay in US federal matters or foreign policy,despite being heavily affected by them (more sothan most current American states, as PuertoRico sits in the Caribbean surrounded by otherisland nation-states). [1] If Puerto Rico became aUS state, Puerto Ricans would then share aseveryone else in full benefits from the USgovernment, while paying taxes like everyoneelse. The status quo perpetuates a semi-colonialsituation in Puerto Rico, where Americancitizenship, which they have held since 1917,carries fewer rights than in the US proper. Thishas been the situation since the US capturedPuerto Rico in 1898, and no other US territoryhas been held in limbo like this for so long.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-glgvhbprss-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Regardless of what Puerto Ricans may or maynot “deserve”, the fact is that Puerto Ricans haverejected statehood many times now, makingtheir voices heard on this issue many times sincethe late 1960's. The island has repeatedly votedto remain a commonwealth when votes weretaken in 1967, 1993, and 1998. [1] If PuertoRicans actually like their current status enoughto vote for it when presented with thealternatives of statehood or independence,where is the injustice in that statuscontinuing? [1] United States Council for PuertoRico Statehood. “Statehood Issues”. UnitedStates Council for Puerto Rico Statehood. 2004.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-glgvhbprss-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "English is not a problem for Puerto Ricanstatehood Some have made the argument thatPuerto Rico should not be a state because PuertoRicans do not speak English, and that the USshould not have a non-English speaking state.This argument does not hold up for the followingreasons: English is already an official languageon the island with the same status as Spanish.Puerto Ricans are already citizens of the U.S.,and have been since1917. [1] There was nolanguage requirement with the granting ofcitizenship then, so it makes no sense to ask thisquestion now. In fact, there has never been alanguage requirement of territories entering theunion in American history. English is a requiredsubject in public schools through high school.English is the only language of the Federal Courtsystem and all U.S. government agencies inPuerto Rico and is the common language inbanking, commerce, real estate and the tourismindustry. Learning English as well as Spanish justmakes good sense. English is the international", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-glgvhbprss-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, Puerto Ricans have repeatedly rejectedindependence in referendums in 1967, 1993, and1998, with the votes for independence alwaysbeing fewer than those for statehood. Butsecondly, the reasons against Puerto Ricanindependence are myriad. If Puerto Rico were tovote for independence, it would be hugely costly.It is inconceivable that the U.S. would set PuertoRico adrift without a large \"transition package\"and continued foreign aid of a large magnitude.This would be necessitated by the fact thatPuerto Ricans are currently U.S. citizens, whowould demand favourable treatment and help.Puerto Rico, as an island with 3.8 million peopleand no other significant natural resources, is noteconomically viable as a separate nation withoutsignificant external aid and free access to largemarkets like the US enjoys. With statehood,Puerto Rico can be economically viable and acontributor to the United States' wealth, but withindependence it would be impoverished andisolated. [1] Moreover, the American 'melting", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-glgvhbprss-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The arguments regarding the loss of PuertoRican culture under statehood do not stand upbecause Puerto Rican identity is strong and willcontinue to be so. Puerto Rico has been exposedto U.S. mainland cultures for over 100 years,and Puerto Rican culture and heritage hasthrived and grown. Puerto Ricans and mainlandcitizens have moved freely between the islandand the mainland with no resulting culturaldilution or weakening of Puerto Rican's strongidentity, even with the large migrations of the1930's, the 1950's and since then. There is noreason to believe this would change understatehood. Puerto Rico has adopted and adaptedaspects of U.S. culture, just as we haveincorporated much of Puerto Rican culture whenexposed to it. Puerto Ricans, while citizens, inmuch the same way as Texans and others viewthemselves, are still Puerto Ricans despite themore than 100 years of the deep and strongrelationship with the mainland United States.[1] [1] United States Council for Puerto Rico", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-glgvhbprss-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Puerto Rican statehood is not economical for theUS If Puerto Rico were to enter the US in such away as to harm the US economy or if it were tobecome a burden to the US, this could lead toresentment of Puerto Rico by the rest of the USand hamper integration. The unemployed inPuerto Rico will at least have higher welfarebenefits to fall back on if statehood is granted,meaning more money lost to the U.S. treasury.[1] Puerto Rico's per capita income of $8,509 isless than one third of the US average, and aboutone half that of Mississippi, the poorest state.The government sector in Puerto Rico generatesapproximately 380,000 jobs, or 33% of totalemployment can be unfavourably compared tothe percentage of the economy of Puerto Ricofrom tourism: About 6%. The average monthlyper capita income in Puerto Rico $709 permonth. Social Security Disability payments are atleast $790 per month. Rank of a state of PuertoRico as a state among states based onpopulation: 25th. Rank of Puerto Rico currently if", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-glgvhbprss-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Statehood would prevent Puerto Ricanindependence The US has treated Puerto Rico aslittle more than a colony for 100 years, and thishas seeped into the Puerto Rican mentality inharmful ways. According to educational scientistsFrancesco Cordasco and Eugene Bucchioni, intheir 1973 work The Puerto Rican Experience: aSociological Sourcebook, the belief that PuertoRico cannot survive on its own results fromteachings since grade school. “Puerto Ricanshere and in Puerto Rico are taught three things:Puerto Rico is small and the US is big, PuertoRico is poor and the US is rich, Puerto Rico isweak and the US is strong.” [1] Popular authorand Puerto Rican culture enthusiast Jesús OmarRivera similarly argues that “in Puerto Rico, eversince you are a child, you are told that you liveon a tiny island that has no natural resources,nothing. This is what they teach you in school,on TV, the media, and it’s always negative.” Heargues says this perception is a by-product ofthe island’s political dependence on the U.S..", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-glgvhbprss-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The language barrier and Puerto Ricanidentity Puerto Rico should not become anAmerican state because linguistic and culturaldifferences continue to divide the other 50 statesand Puerto Rico. This would mean that PuertoRico would either fit incongruously into theunion, or it would lose its distinct culturalidentity. Historically the US administrations ofPuerto Rico have pursued 'Americanization'campaigns there, focusing especially aroundimposing the use of the English language andcasting aside 'old values'. This policy was deeplyresented and strongly resisted by most PuertoRicans, and it failed. Thus, after 91 years ofintimate association, Puerto Rico remains aseparate cultural nationality. [1][2] Furthermore in terms of national identity,Puerto Rico joining the US would result in itlosing the semi-independent (or at least distinct)identity which it currently has in the eyes ofmuch of the world. To name but two examples,Puerto would no longer have its own", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-glgvhbprss-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Much of this argumentation assumes that thePuerto Rican economy will not expand withstatehood, which there are many good reasonsto believe would occur. Look at what happenedto the last two states admitted to the Union,Hawaii and Alaska. Both economies grewsubstantially after being admitted to the Unionand became net contributors to the U.S.Treasury. Puerto Rico would receive equaltreatment in both taxes and benefits, the sameas the other states. Benefits to the island underthe current system are limited by Congress.Those limitations would be removed. At the sametime, payments of federal taxes would be phasedin, as provided by the enabling legislation. It hasbeen estimated Puerto Rico as a state willcontribute nearly $2 billion to the U.S. Treasuryeach year. [1] How is that possible? Througheconomic growth. With economic growth thereare more jobs, fewer unemployed, and less of apublic assistance burden. [1] United StatesCouncil for Puerto Rico Statehood. “Statehood", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It does not matter if think tanks are used in thisway, so long as the conclusions that are reachedby the think tanks are true. If there is objectivevalue in an idea it should be communicated aswell as possible. If this cannot be done withconventional marketing, it is good for it to bepossible through a think tank. If the think tank’sidea and conclusion is wrong, the fact that it ispresented objectively makes it no less falsifiable.Think tanks do not exist in a vacuum, and forevery false idea presented as positive there willbe another think tank to scrutinise it. In eithercase, the consumer is given useful information inan accessible way that can still be questioned.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Think tanks’ power of objectivity is the best formof marketing for biased views Think tanks areconsidered more credible than corporatemarketing. [1] In the case of corporatemarketing the recipient is aware that he is beingsold a product. In the case of think tanks, therecipient believes he is being given unbiasedinformation. Therefore, it is tempting forcorporations to finance think tanks andencourage them to reach the conclusions thatthey otherwise would promote throughmarketing. This way, think tanks can be powerfultools for promoting a biased agenda: if donesuccessfully the same message is communicatedbut in the form of credible information ratherthan manipulative marketing. In fact, it iscommon practice for journalists to quote thinktanks without labelling their political bias. [2]And they most certainly don’t say if there isfunding from a particular interest for examplewith the supposedly free market Institute ofPublic Affairs in Australia that somehow ends up", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is already in the interest of think tanks to betransparent. Think tanks exist in societies thatdepend on open communication and the free flowof ideas. Numerous organisations exist tocriticise and unmask non-transparent thinktanks: [1] this is sufficient incentive for them toreveal their funding. There may be exceptions inwhich the benefits of non-disclosure overrule thedisadvantages in terms of trust, but these arerare, and it does not follow that it will beabused. [1] Who Funds You, PoliticalInnovation,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Think tanks may become smoke screens forcriminal groups In the status quo, the ability ofthink tanks to be non-transparent potentiallyprovides a framework for criminal groups, or inextreme cases organisations, to handle largeamounts of money without revealing where theirmoney comes from or goes. We are allowingextremist groups to be exempt from answeringto the government or shareholders in theirmanagement of money or information. In the USand Canada, think tanks are also exempt fromtax. [1] By this mechanism, false think tanks canbe used, for example, to channel money fromopenly extremist groups that could otherwise notaccess those parts of the world. [1] 26 USC §501 - Exemption from tax on corporations,certain trusts, etc., Legal Information Institute", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "People have a right to know where theirinformation comes from Democracies rely ontransparency. Our commitment to transparencymeans surrendering part of our autonomy for thecollective. This does not mean that ourautonomy does not still belong to us; theinstitutions that affect our lives are under aconstant obligation to justify their decisions andexistence in relation to us. I do not have a rightto know everything about the local football club(if I don’t play football and they are not a publiccompany their decisions don’t affect me). Thinktanks, however, are highly influential, anddirectly affect the society in which we live: somehave, for example, lobbied successfully againstaction to prevent global warming. [1] Thereforethey are to be considered a power in society, andthe principle of transparency must be extendedto them. [1] Monbiot, George. “The educationalcharities that do PR for the rightwing ultra-rich”,Comment is Free, The Guardian. 18 February2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Think tanks don’t have any legislative power. Atthe end of the day, what they do is merely makesuggestions. If they were active lobbyists theywould lose their privileged legal position as anacademic organisation. [1] Even if there may beother benefits of them being transparent, thelegal concept of transparency cannot beextended to them. That would open the door toforcing other independent private institutions toreveal details of their organisation. Furthermore,think tanks rarely claim to be completelyimpartial. They usually have an agenda and arealigned with a political party. This concession interms of impartiality merits equal concessions interms of demanded transparency. At the end ofthe day it is their work that influences theagenda and that same work shows where theirsympathies lie. [1] “The Political Activity ofThink Tanks: The Case for Mandatory ContributorDisclosure”, Harvard Law Review, Vol. 115, No.5, March 2002, pp. 1502-1524.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "There is no necessity to disclose think tankfunding publically in order to circumvent thisissue. As long as there are public institutions thatscrutinise think tanks and are also bound tosecrecy unless there are anomalies, the risk ofterrorism can be successfully regulated. Being athink tank does not prevent an organisation fromhaving to be transparent to government abouttheir finances. It is unnecessary to expose thinktanks that do not act illicitly to the generalpublic.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Think tanks can choose transparency in thestatus quo anyway (as shown by nef): thisbenefit is relatively small. On the other hand, itharms the many other think tanks that need toprotect the information of who funds them if, forinstance, the funders do not wish to disclose it. Itis a loss of freedom for the majority, not a gain.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The status quo promotesnon-transparency Non-disclosure can beperceived as objectivity. It is easier for the publicto criticise a think tank that is openly associatedwith a particular funder. That kind of prejudice isstronger than the more general the prejudiceagainst non-disclosure. A person might distrust anon-transparent think tank, but dislike a thinktank that is funded by an organisation they arealready prejudiced towards. [1] In anycomparison between two such organisations thedistrusted organisation will have greater impactthan the disliked organisation. [2] This givesnon-transparent think tanks an advantage overtransparent and honest ones. Billionaires arethen able to buy influence by secretly fundingorganisations such as the Global Warming PolicyFoundation or the Institute of Economic Affairsthat is then listened to, by the media andtherefore the public, when their own views wouldsimply be dismissed due to the personalmotivations of the backers. [3] By forcing all", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Legally requiring disclosure from all benefitsthink tanks Even think tanks benefit from theintroduction of this policy. The status quo leavesdisclosure as a strategic device: think tanks areunwilling to disclose more than their competitionfor fear of being unfavourably portrayed. Suchnegative competition, i.e. competition in factorsthat do not improve the products of the market,makes them unable to make rational decisionsabout their funding if, for instance, potentialfunders want to contribute only on the conditionthat this funding be made public. As aconsequence, the advent of organisations whocall for transparency has been praised byprominent think tanks like the New EconomicsFoundation. [1] By depriving everybody of thestrategic tool of revealing none or only a part oftheir funding, think tanks cannot be pressuredinto hiding or providing certain information abouttheir funders, and they can thus act moreindependently. [1] Read, Sam. “Think tankfunding matters: it’s central to democracy”, the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "On the other hand, by disclosing funders morecorporations and individuals will have anincentive to fund think tanks. They will beassured that they will be publically recognised forit, and thus be rewarded when the think tanksthey support produce good ideas.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Such a system, in which one allows think tanksto accept substantial anonymous donations, hasimmense downsides. It is simply too easy for athink tank to claim all, or most, of its funding isanonymous to them when it is questioned, whilein fact they have been having informal strategictalks with potential funders days prior to, during,or after the donation. We cannot adopt a policythat is so easy too abuse, and since all thinktanks must know who their funders are, we arenot restricting their independence any further byasking them to make it public.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Overregulating think tanks sets a dangerousprecedent The public scrutiny on think tankfunders may backlash on perfectly innocentinvestors. Investors may be accused ofcorruption if think tanks that share their valuesindependently reach favourable conclusions.Alternatively, minor investors may become guiltyby association, for instance, if notoriouscompanies or political parties have been seensupporting the same think tanks – even if this isdone for completely different reasons. Themotivations of think tanks cannot be madesynonymous with their funders, but thesefunders should also not be made synonymouswith each other. Thus for example Policyexchange is both seen as a think tank for UKconservative modernisers – the progressive wingof the party while also having been labelled as a“neo-con attack dog”. [1] [1] Helm, Toby, andHope, Christopher, “The top twelve think tanks inBritain”, The Telegraph, 24 January 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Private investors have a right to privacy Thepublic scrutiny on think tank funders maybacklash on perfectly innocent investors.Investors may be accused of corruption if thinktanks that share their values independentlyreach favourable conclusions. Alternatively,minor investors may become guilty byassociation, for instance, if notorious companiesor political parties have been seen supporting thesame think tanks – even if this is done forcompletely different reasons. The motivations ofthink tanks cannot be made synonymous withtheir funders, but these funders should also notbe made synonymous with each other. Thus forexample Policy exchange is both seen as a thinktank for UK conservative modernisers – theprogressive wing of the party while also havingbeen labelled as a “neo-con attack dog”. [1] [1]Helm, Toby, and Hope, Christopher, “The toptwelve think tanks in Britain”, The Telegraph, 24January 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Think tanks should be assessed by the value oftheir ideas, not by who funds them One canconceive of an infinite amount of cases in whichresults of a think tank’s research are completelyindependent of their funders. Their opposition,however, will be likely to signal corruption, whenin fact there may be no relation between afunder and certain results. Even if they areassociated by sharing a perspective or an aim,this is not a sign of corruption or bias, and itshould not enter into the value of a think tank.There has been one study of charity donations(as think tanks are) that concludes thatanonymous donations are “a costly signal of acharity’s quality by an informed donor”. [1] [1]Peacey, Mike W., “Masked Heroes: endogenousanonymity in charitable giving”, Centre forMarket and Public Organisation Bristol Instituteof Public Affairs, May 2013, p.27", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Being subject to scrutiny discourages investorsfrom supporting good projects Think tanksdepend largely on voluntary funding for theirprojects, [1] so they must be careful whenrisking potential investments. Investors are likelyto be put off from funding think tanks with goodaims if this funding will be scrutinised and theirinterests questioned. [2] They are likely not towish to risk being associated with seeminglybiased results: a system by which funders cansupport ideas in themselves, perhaps evenanonymously for the think tanks themselves, isthe one in which think tanks best flourish andbest produce results. Those that produce thebest and most interesting ideas will be those whosucceed in obtaining funding. [1] Think TankFunding, On Think Tanks, accessed 11 June2013 [2] Butcher, Jonathan, “Does it MatterWho Funds You?” One World Trust, 12 July 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con05b", "title": "", "text": "This is not an inherent flaw in the system. In thestatus quo, large investors can still publicallyadvertise the fact that they are funding aproject, and this too can have repercussions andbring negative associations for other investors. Itis a risk anyone makes when investing in a givenidea. The right to privacy of investors in politicalcampaigns was discarded once evidence ofpotential abuses and political arrangementssurfaced. Similarly, this right cannot apply tothink tank funders. [1] [1] “The Political Activityof Think Tanks: The Case for MandatoryContributor Disclosure”, Harvard Law Review,Vol. 115, No. 5, March 2002, pp. 1502-1524.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Think tanks should be able to choose not to knowwho funds them The information think tanksprovide can be extremely useful to society.Therefore we should be hesitant to restrict theirkey strength, which is their independence. Theremay be scenarios in which think tanks, in need offunding for a purely positive project, ask fordonations from anyone who believes in theirvalues. Wanting to avoid any negativeassociations or any accusations of bias, theychoose not to find out who their funders are, andthus they cannot disclose that information. Forthink tanks who claim independence by onlyasking for anonymous donors, this is no longeran option when they are forced to disclose. Theattempt to create more objectivity actuallyremoves one of the ways of being perfectlyimpartial.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggdfakhwf-con04b", "title": "", "text": "People are capable of assessing a biased ideaafter discovering its bias, while it is dangerous topresent potentially biased ideas as genuine, forthis limits discussion. This is especially so in thestatus quo, where the suspicions of who may befunding think tanks remain when they choosenot to disclose their funders. A blanket obligationof all think tanks to reveal their funding allowsfor open discourse and thus more space todiscuss the ideas themselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Suggesting that feminising African politics willstop poverty and provide empowerment returnsto the ideas we attach to women. Women areoften associated with domesticity, care, andreproductivity. Who’s to say that this is whatwomen are or what they stand for? Basing quotasystems on what women are believed to do isdangerous – in reality behaviour cannot bepredicted, as women remain diverse andheterogeneous. A study has shown that there isno relationship between the number of womencabinet members and the sex of the executiveimplying that women don’t really help otherwomen in politics (Jalalzai, p.196). Additionallywho is to say that by having women in politicalroles they will instantly be able to implement andact on their desired policies? How resources andpower are distributed within the political systemis key. Resources may remain controlled by men.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Feminising the state: women helpingwomen Including women in politics helps enablepoverty to be tackled. Poverty is a women’sissue; women are more likely to live in povertythan men, and women are needed in politics tochange this. Women understand each other, andwhat they need. Furthermore, although datavaries, evidence shows gender inequalitiesremain intertwined to poverty andimpoverishment [1] [2] . Women in positions ofpower and leadership can put the issues womenface on the agenda and apply action. There isclearly a need to get women into politics tocounter the current ‘boys club’ that exists inmost countries where men help each other intopositions of power squeezing out women andother methods of doing things. [1] See furtherreadings: Gender Inequality Index, 2014. [2]See further readings: Chant, 2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Women become integrated into a man’s world.But the territory may not be changed. First,women may become like men in response to thejobs they take up and how one is expected to actin the given role. When we consider whatconditions women are introduced, potentiallywith limited training in public speaking,confidence or acceptance, how will they fare?Their best way forward is to get help from themen already in parliament. Secondly, how dowomen experience work and are they treated atwork? Quotas introduce more women, however,they may experience gender-based harassmentand unfair treatment at work. In the case ofKenya, a female politician was publicly slapped[1] . Who will ensure their rights are protectedand they are treated equally in a politicalworld? Finally, is power redistributed? Frequentprotests in Senegal show that despite quotasystems being implemented women do not endup with power despite being in parliament. [2]Women are legally enrolled into local and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Democracy must be representative Quotas arebuilding representative democracies. Throughthe quota system women are given a voice insociety. Quotas mean women are represented inpolitics. Women are half of the electorate soshould be around half of the legislature. Althoughnot there yet the rising numbers symbolisepositive change. In 2012, on average, 1/5 of MPsin sub-Saharan Africa were women (TheEconomist, 2013). In South Africa and Rwandathe number is far above this. Women make up42% of parliament seats in South Africa, and64% in Rwanda (ibid.). At present, in Africa wehave 2 female presidents (Liberia; Malawi); and1 prime minister (Aminata Toure, Senegal).Notably Malawi, Rwanda, Senegal, and SouthAfrica all have some form of quota system(quotaProject, 2014).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Having more women does not mean arepresentative democracy is built as it is not justgender balance that needs to be considered butethnicity, language groups etc. aswell. Additionally, the bias quota system willcause future problems. In the future men willneed to be targeted and receive help. Forexample in Rwanda the focus on includingwomen has pushed men out of politics.Implementing quotas favours the creation of acertain ‘representative democracy’. Thedemocracy becomes ‘represented’ by what wethink democracy should look like.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "When we don’t just consider battle deaths theextent to which violence is declining isquestionable [1] . Furthermore, we cannotsuggest women in politics will limit war, conflict,or violence, as anomalies are found – such asMargret Thatcher’s use of violence in closingdown industries across the UK and willingness toengage in the Falklands conflict. Furthermore theidea returns to a preconceived image and idealwomen. The women are represented as thecaregiver, submerged within traditionalconstructions of women as nurturing andempathetic. [1] See further readings: WDR,2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Changing the male territory African politicsremains masculinised and strongly maledominated. Implementing quotas shows acommitment to change gender inequalities byincreasing women’s political participation(Bachelet, 2013). More women mean genderimbalances can be changed, women empowered,and the territorial boundaries defining what menand women do will become blurred. Additionallywomen in African politics can change the ‘boysclub’ of bad governance in Africa. Badgovernance can be tackled as the prominence ofmales controlling decisions will be changed, andinternal political relations altered. The leastcorrupt countries on the continent; Rwanda andBotswana both have some form of quotasystem(quotaproject, 2014, TransparencyInternational, 2013)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "A safer world International relations debates,and conflict theories, suggest more women inpolitics makes for a safer world. In Pinker’s(2011) book the feminisation of politics isidentified as a key factor to explain the decline inconflict and violence – battle deaths havedeclined from 20 per 100,000 people to only 1 or2 today. Women are more inclined to call forpeace resolution and being ‘maternal beings’reflect nurturing behaviours.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It remains difficult to compare the experiences ofwomen in Scandinavia and Africa. The contexts –history, ideas, and social geographies – arecompletely different. While Scandinavia may wellnot need quotas to change perceptions in Africait may be the best way to do so. Women in Africaneed a voice, and therefore politics provides aplatform for their empowerment both vocally andin their use of public space. Quotas are afast-track. It’s not forcing change but guidingand enabling it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The women’s quota is a vital start to tackleunderlying inequalities. Quotas of multipleidentities such as race, class, age, sexuality,class and ethnicity will need to be includedfollowing the implementation of a women’squota.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The woman’s ‘political job’ Quotas mean morewomen are able to enter the political world;however, how is it decided what political jobsand positions they can utilise? The inclusion ofwomen into politics in Africa has mainly been incertain departments i.e. gender and health. Morepowerful women are needed in positions thatremain masculinised – such as defence andsecurity. Therefore the quota may introducemore women in politics, however, how active arethey in deciding what area of politics? The quotamay well be seen merely a means to introducewomen passively into new distinct genderroles. If women are believed to be grantedpositions as a result of the quotas, rather than itbeing a position they have earned, they may bemore at risk of marginalisation at work. Having aquota provides a reason to argue that anexceptional woman has received her place nobased upon merit but due to the quota. This maybe used as an excuse to prevent women reachingthe most important positions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Assuming causality: Africa VsScandinavia Scandinavian countries – Norway,Sweden and Denmark – have high femaleparticipation rates in parliament. However,Rwanda is one African nation that has evengreater female parliamentary representation. InScandinavia the quota has been introduced but isonly implemented by some parties. Neverthelessthere is little difference between parties inDenmark, for example, that utilise the quota andthose that do not. This shows that voluntaryquotas can work but also that they are not reallynecessary. This is because the position of womenand capability to engage in politics was tackledfirst. The key thing is the perception of women;if they are perceived equally and voted for ontheir own merits women will win as often asmen. This shows, crucially, political participationby women should not be dependent on quotas.We should not rely on quotas for genderequality. Women face multiple barriers topolitical participation; deeper action is required", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Are the women representative of allwomen? How can it be assured the womenentering African politics are representative of thewomen in that African nation? Further, will theleader implement politically popular ideas orrequired policies? If we are introducing quotasfor women in politics we need to think aboutwhat women are entering. The concern withrace, ethnicity, age, sexuality, and class isfundamental as if we accept the principle that anunrepresented group should get a quota ofparliamentarians this should not just apply towomen. We need to think about who the womenare, what they represent, and who. Even forwomen simple quotas do not ensure effectiverepresentation of what all women want, orensure the means for change. Women areheterogeneous, as are their challenges in life.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oapglvsghw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Working within gender departments does notmean a woman will be limited in integrating withdepartments of security. Politics is integrated,and interconnected, therefore learning how torun one political department shows how to runanother. Having a woman represent adepartment shows them in a position of powerregardless of the department. We should notbelieve that the department of health issomehow less important than Defense.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghsdltwt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The opinions of foreign governments and theinternational community have frequently failed tohave any real impact upon the situation 'on theground' in Tibet. For example, The US joinedmost other UN members in condemning theChinese 'aggression' and 'invasion' of Tibet in1950, however the Chinese exerted theirauthority there anyway. [1] The internationalcommunity will therefore acquiesce withwhatever is decided between Tibet and China –they will applaud any deal or condemn anyrepression but this will not affect the positions ofeither side. Rather, what matters is what theTibetan population support, and there is goodreason to believe that the 'Middle Way' does notsatisfy them. Many younger Tibetans wouldprefer that the Dalai Lama push for totalindependence, an regret that he did not pursue amore confrontational path with China over the2008 Olympics. [2] [1] The Office of Tibet, NewYork. “Historical Overview”. The Office of Tibet,New York. [2] Bell, Thomas. “Tibetans criticise", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghsdltwt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The 'Middle Way' has international support TheUSA, the most powerful nation in the world, hasbeen vocal in its support for the 'Middle Way'strategy. Concurrently, the US has not given anyindication that it would support complete Tibetanindependence – nor is it likely to. America isunlikely to jeopardise trade relations with Chinaover the Tibetan issue by giving politicallegitimacy to those advocating completeindependence. [1] The European Parliament andthe Scottish Parliament have also both passedmotions advocating for the 'Middle Way' as asolution in Tibet. [2] [3] Such internationalsupport for the 'Middle Way' should be comparedto the fact that no country in the world has everrecognised Tibetan independence. [4] Only theinvolvement of international actors andinter-governmental organisations can guaranteethat Tibet and China will be able to attain apeaceful and equitable equilibrium with eachother. International support means that theinternational community would accept any", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghsdltwt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "China's supposed strategic interests in Tibet arealso why the promised autonomy under the'Middle Way' will never truly emerge. If China'sneed to hold onto Tibet is really so important asmade out, China will always need to keep tightcontrol over all happenings in Tibet so as tofurther guarantee its security. This of courseassumes China really does have vital strategicinterests in controlling Tibet (as the ChineseGovernment claims, and as is argued opposite),however it is not entirely clear exactly whatthese strategic interests are. The 'Middle Way' isjust a smokescreen for perpetuating thepredominance of China's security interests as themost important issue in Tibet. Thus, if Chinadoes have vital strategic interests in Tibet, it willnever allow it true autonomy (and so the MiddleWay is hopeless), and if it has no vital strategicinterests in controlling Tibet then Chinese rulethere is unjustified -and independence, not the‘Middle Way’ should be adopted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghsdltwt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The 'Middle Way' is the most realistic path forTibet and China The Dalai Lama believescomplete independence is not a viable solutionfor the Tibet crisis. Rather, his advocacy is aimedat creating common understanding between theChinese and the Tibetans. He points to the modelof the European Union as an example of amodern supranational political system in whichdifferent ethnicities and nationalities cancooperate to achieve an agreed ideal ofprosperity. “Look at the European Union … Whatis the use of small, small nations fighting eachother? Today it's much better for Tibetans to join[China].” [1] The 'Middle Way' is the mostpractical and realistic path for Tibet and China,as it bridges the needs of the Tibetan people withand interests of China. Specifically, the \"MiddleWay\" offers a mutually beneficial course ofaction, as it avoids the concerns that China hasregarding national unity and separation and atthe same time it enables the Tibetan people toachieve de-facto equivalent of a right to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghsdltwt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The 'Middle Way' is no different from the currentsituation. Although, theoretically, the 'MiddleWay' proposition offers the Chinese authoritiesand ordinary Tibetans a way to harmonise theirconflicting interests, it is practically no differentfrom the political accommodation that Tibetcurrently subscribes to. Under the ‘Middle Way’,the Dalai Lama has expressed willingness toaccept socialist rule in Tibet. He has also droppedformer Tibetan demands that their homeland beoffered a political relationship as expansive asChina’s offer in the early-1980s to Taiwan infavour of an insistence on a Hong Kong-style‘association’ relationship with Beijing. Since theearly 2000s, in keeping with the ‘Middle Way’,his hints about a residual internationalpersonality have been kept to a minimum.Further, the autonomy arrangement sought is anamalgam of the Hong Kong ‘one country, twosystems’ formula and the existing autonomyprovisions of the PRC Constitution. [1] Thisgradual dropping of Tibetan demands under the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghsdltwt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The 'Middle Way' respects China's right toterritorial integrity The Chinese government hasa right to protect the unity of China againstTibetan separatism. US President AbrahamLincoln, in justifying efforts to maintain the unionin the face of an imminent civil war, said in 1858,“A house divided cannot stand”. [1] Unity wasargued to be essential to the integrity and futureof the union if the United States as a much moredecentralized federal union cannot sanction sucha division then a much more centralized Chinacannot. China can put forth the same rationaleas Lincoln for forcing Tibet to remain part ofChina, for example when it notes argues that theconcept of an independent Tibet has historicallybeen used by what it calls ‘foreign imperialists’ tointerfere in China internally and split it up so thatit can more easily be controlled from abroad. Asan example of this, the CIA’s support for Tibetanseparatists during the Cold War is cited. [2][3] Mongolia provides a striking precedent forfor Chinese worries about Tibetan independence,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghsdltwt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "China will simply never accept independence forTibet, and so it is not a reasonable alternative tohold up against the 'Middle Way'. Rather,whatever gains can be made by adopting the'Middle Way' should be embraced, as thealternative is not independence but ratherunchanged Chinese dominance and control.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghsdltwt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The average Tibetan does not actually wantindependence from China. For example, Dr.Lobsang Sangay, who was born in a refugeecamp in India in 1968 and was named PrimeMinister of the Cental Tibetan Administration(Tibetan exiles) on April 27, 2011, was once amilitant of the Tibetan Youth Congress, a groupthat unequivocally supports Tibetanindependence, but who now says he has maturedand now supports the Middle Way Approach. [1]Certainly, many Tibetans want independence- ofa type different to that proposed by the DalaiLama- and some protest in favour of it. TheTibetan exile population is particularly vocal inthis regard, but this should not be taken to meanthat a majority of Tibetans want completeindependence from China. Most Tibetans likeeverybody else would be happy with morefreedoms within China rather than fullindependence. This is reflected in the views ofthe Dalai Lama, who seeks only greaterfreedoms and autonomy, but not independence,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghsdltwt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Dalai Lama is no longer relevant to Tibet'sfuture The Dalai Lama's influence andsignificance in the debate over Tibet’s future hasbeen fading; he has resigned from all ‘formalauthority’ and handed over his political role [1] ,and his support for the 'Middle Way' strategy-over attempts to secure full independence- maywell have reduced his influence. During the 2008riots and protests in Lhasa in favour of Tibetanindependence, a feeling of incongruity betweenthe Dalai Lama and the desires of the Tibetanpeople was vocalized. A Tibetan teacher at theprotests stated “We are demanding a peacedialogue between His Holiness and the Chinese.But at the moment, Dalai Lama is out of thepicture. It's a Tibetan people's movement.” [2]Tibet appears to have moved beyond the 'MiddleWay', but the Dalai Lama has not. For a newgeneration of Tibetans the Middle Way isconsidered to be an ineffective negotiationstrategy, one that will not allow them to obtainthe rights and political equality that they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghsdltwt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The Chinese government is exploiting the 'MiddleWay' against Tibet's interests The Chinesegovernment manipulates people every day, andit is clear how Beijing is manipulating the goodintentions of the Dalai Lama and his 'MiddleWay'. The Middle Path is therefore not onlyhopeless, but also dangerous. Henry Kissingeronce said that in politics, one never pays forgoods that have already been delivered. True toform, China is using the moderate stance ofTibet’s leadership-in-exile to extort concessionswhile giving nothing of substance in return. Forexample, Beijing spread false rumours that theDalai Lama would be invited to China to preventdemonstrations when Hu Jintao visited the U.S.The 'Middle Way' policy is sapping momentumfrom the Tibet movement, depriving it of focus,and obscuring its goals. People are drifting awayfrom a movement that appears to be driftingitself; political fervour can be difficult to sustain– especially when the Tibetangovernment-in-exile actually asks its supporters", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghsdltwt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Tibetans want independence, not the 'MiddleWay' The Dalai Lama's 'Middle Way' is far frompopular amongst the Tibetan population. Manyordinary Tibetans have criticised the DalaiLama's conciliatory approach to China. Hisrefusal to call for a boycott of the Beijing OlympicGames is symbolic of this conciliatory approachwhere the majority of the Tibetan population,particularly the young disagreed with him.\"China does not deserve to host the Olympics.It's evident that they do not deserve theOlympics,\" said Tsewang Rigzin, the leader of theTibetan Youth Congress, at Dharamshala in2008. [1] Tsewang Rigzin also stated “There is agrowing frustration within the Tibetancommunity, especially in the [younger]generation... I certainly hope the Middle Wayapproach will be reviewed. As we can see fromthe protests here and all over the world, theTibetan people remain committed to achievingindependence.” [2] The (sometimes violent)2008 protests made it clear that many Tibetans", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghsdltwt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The Dalai Lama is the only solution for Tibet. Hispolitical advocacy as a leader and religious figureis imperative for the problem of Tibet. Hiscommitment for non-violence and cohabitationand cooperation serves the peaceful interests ofTibet while accommodating for moderatechanges. His 'Middle Way' platform is the bridgebetween China Tibet and world-wideinternational consensus on the Tibetans' right toself-determination. If resistance to Chinabecomes more violent, as it did in 2008, then theDalai Lama’s third way will become much morerelevant as a solution that both sides canpotentially sign up to. It may become the onlyway forward towards acompromise. Irrespective of some discontent,the Dalai Lama still enjoys the loyalty andrespect of most Tibetans. [1] During the 2008protests in Tibet, the protesters regularlychanted the Dalai Lama's name, displayed hispicture and recited a \"long life\" prayer for him.[2] He remains the undisputed moral leader of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Status in the world is not based upon having oneextremely powerful weapon; there are muchmore important factors such as a country’seconomy and use of diplomacy. Britain would stillbe a major financial centre, a major economy, amember of the UNSC (which is not based onnuclear weapons) as well as being one of thebiggest contributors to peace and security in theworld through peacekeeping and aid. ‘Status’ isone of the popular justifications for acquiringnuclear weapons. However while countries likeNorth Korea that develop nuclear weapons mayacquire deterrence they don’t gain any morediplomatic clout. Britain giving up its deterrent orcombining it into a European deterrent wouldhelp to undermine this perception by showingthat nuclear weapons are not needed to maintaina powerful role in the world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Trident allows the UK to maintain its globalstatus Currently the UK is recognised as anuclear power by the Nuclear non-proliferationtreaty along with the USA, China, France andRussia. All of whom are either modernising ormaintaining their current nuclear arsenals. Thismeans to not replace Trident would mean thatwe'd suffer a severe loss of status in relation tothe other permanent members of the UNSecurity Council. This would also raise questionsof whether the UK even deserves its place as amember there as it would show the UK’sdeclining global role and military power. Othercountries that can be considered \"morerepresentative\" such as India (the world's largestdemocracy) now would be an obviousreplacement at the top table. [1] Churchill saidthat the H bomb that it was \"our badge to theRoyal Enclosure [at Ascot]\" [2] and today Tridentremains one of our master keys to the Britain’sstatus at organisations such as the UnitedNations Security Council. There are already", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "We already rely on the USA for our Tridentmissile systems so our ‘independent nucleardeterrent’ is already a fiction. The USA can at themoment easily pull the rug out from underneathus. While the UK maintains command and controlover its weapons the United States is needed tokeep the weapons operational. This means weare reliant on the United States one way or theother anyway.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Deterrence is still necessary. The TridentWeapons System while it may be a \"horrific partof our system\" is still necessary even in today’spost-Cold War world. Firstly through deterrenceit protects us from being blackmailed by anyother states, and in particular so called \"roguestates\" like North Korea and potentially in thefuture Iran who could threaten our vital interests– such as closing the straits of Hormuz.[1] Moreover having a second strike capability,the ability for nuclear weapons to survive anuclear assault by an opponent so allowingretaliation, is also still necessary. [2] It maycurrently seem unlikely that any of the majornuclear armed states will threaten the UnitedKingdom however we do not know what mayhappen in the future and by the time a threatappears it would be too late to build a newnuclear second strike capability. [1] TheSecretary of State for Defence and The Secretaryof State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs,‘The Future of the United Kingdom’s Nuclear", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "A deterrent is useless if no one thinks it will everbe used. The only conceivable use of Britain’snuclear deterrent would be in the event of anuclear attack on the UK, and if that hashappened then there is little point in firing themissiles as there will be nothing left to save. Anyblackmail today is likely to be much smaller, nostate is going to threaten the use of nuclearweapons in order to get their way on trade. Theonly real possibility of nuclear blackmail is byterrorists who could not be deterred by a nucleararmament.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Can we rely on US nuclear umbrella? The UKnuclear weapons programme was first created inlate 1945 a time when people were concernedabout the US commitment to Europe which wasuncertain as the rise of the Iron Curtain had notbeen yet apparent. Currently if we didn't replacetrident and disarmed more likely than not wewould fall under the American strategic nuclearumbrella which would be fair enough in the shortterm and medium term as the relationship iscurrently strong despite certain cobblestones. Asimilar thing also applies with the French Butcan we really rely on the Americans to keep thatumbrella extended over the long term when theirinterests and emphasis may shift, regardless ofcultural or ideological links? Relying on someoneelse’s deterrent will always be risky as the US orFrance would not want to put themselves at riskof being attacked in order to deter an attack onus. [1] An independent deterrence arsenal isnecessary to maintain deterrence. [1] TheSecretary of State for Defence and The Secretary", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "That Britain is not currently threatened withnuclear Armageddon as it was during the coldwar does not mean that such a threat couldnever again occur. Britain must remain preparedfor any eventuality which has to include theunthinkable such as the United States no longerbeing an ally. The world is not yet a safe placethere are many unstable states, such as NorthKorea, developing nuclear weapons capabalities.Beyond these dangers it is easily conceivablethat the world will once again face tensionssimilar to those of the cold war. Given the lengthof time it would take to rearm should suchtensions occur Britain would be safer to keep itsnuclear armament.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "A state of the art nuclear weapons system isalways going to be costly and no one wants tocut corners for the risks that could create. Yet itis money well spent when compared to thedamage which would be caused if Britain wasattacked due to not having a nuclear deterrent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The UK should encourage others to reduce theirown stocks of nuclear weapons. Britain as asignatory of the Non Proliferation Treaty theUnited Kingdom is obliged to pursue “nucleardisarmament, and on a treaty on general andcomplete disarmament under strict and effectiveinternational control.” [1] While completedisarmament by all states with nuclear weaponsis a long way off the United Kingdom could makea good start by getting rid of its own weapons. ANuclear Weapons state giving up its weaponsafter sixty years would show that nations canmanage without nuclear weapons and so act asan encouragement to others to do the same. [1]‘Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of NuclearWeapons’, International Atomic Energy Agency,INFCIRC/140, 22 April 1970, Article VI.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Trident is not an independent weaponssystem Britain tries to maintain that it has an‘independent nuclear deterrent’ but this is just afiction. Britain has not had an independentnuclear deterrent for fifty years. The UnitedKingdom has used American missiles since thePolaris Sales Agreement of 6 April 1963 first withthe United States supplying Polaris missiles andthen Trident missiles. [1] The UK does not ownits missiles, they are leased, and the UK iscompletely dependent on the US for themaintenance of the missiles and even fortargeting data. [2] The United States certainlyappears to consider Britain’s deterrent to bedependent on them; wikileaks revealed that theUS handed over the serial numbers of themissiles it transfers to the UK over to Russia tohelp the Russians verify the number of UKmissiles. [3] [1] Jimmy Carter: \"Sale of Trident IMissiles to the United Kingdom Exchange ofLetters Between the President and Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher of the United Kingdom. ,\" July", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear weapons are no longer needed Whenthe United Kingdom first tested Nuclear Weaponsin 1952 she was still a great power with a largeempire to defend. In the early 1980s whentrident was being conceived [1] the UK fought awar with Argentina and the Cold War wasperhaps at its deepest following the Russianinvasion of Afghanistan. The Country wastherefore in an international situation in whichnuclear weapons were potentially required todeter the Soviet Union. A study of thevulnerability of Nuclear Weapons states showsthat the UK is the least vulnerable nuclearweapons state because the country issurrounded by allies and is nowhere near anystates that may potentially become failed states.[2] The only conclusion from this can be that theUK no longer has any need for nuclearweapons. [1] Fairhall, David, ‘£5 billion Tridentdeal is agreed’, The Guardian, 16 July 1980. [2]Asal, Victor, and Early, Bryan, ‘Are We Focusingon the Wrong Nuclear Threat?’, Foreign Policy,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The cost of replacing trident is prohibitive Britainis in the longest recession it has ever been in –longer even than the great depression of the1930s – with the economy not having recoveredto pre-recession levels four years after the startof the downturn. [1] This is obviously completelythe wrong time to be wasting money onruinously expensive new weapons systems. Thecost of replacing trident is disputed with theGovernment saying it would be between £15 and£20 billion [2] but campaign group Greenpeaceputs the total cost at £97billion once runningcosts over the missiles thirty year lifetime areincluded. [3] Both figures are incredibly costlyfor a system which we hope we won’t ever haveto use and for which we have allies with similarsystems. The money should instead be spent onhelping to get the economy moving or servicesthat benefit society such as health andeducation. [1] Oxlade, Andrew, ‘Economywatch: What caused the return to recession andhow long will it last?’, This is Money.co.uk, 4 May", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Sharing procurement of nuclear weaponsdelivery systems makes simple sense throughsharing the cost. The UK only contributed 5% ofthe original cost of trident but the UK systemsare just as potent. This however does not meanthat the UK weapons systems are notindependent. Operationally the UK has completecontrol over its weapons. The USA cannot in anyway prevent, veto or forbid the UK from using itsown nuclear weapons. [1] It is independent inthe way that matters. [1] Directorate ofChemical, Biological, Radiological and NuclearPolicy, ‘Your freedom of information requestabout the UK Nuclear deterrent’, 19 July 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dhwrt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "One country disarming is not going to persuadeothers, particularly those like China and Russiathat still consider themselves great powers, to doso. At the same time the United Kingdom’ssituation can never be compared to othercountries; Israel would argue it is surrounded byenemies, China that it needs them if the US hasthem etc. These countries would only considerwhether to disarm based upon their own nationalinterests not what other states have done. Weshould do the same and renew trident as beingnecessary for the defence of the realm.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "States seek nuclear weapons not primarily inorder to use them, but in order to takeadvantage of the security they offer. If statesexisted in a world post-disarmament, theincentives to develop nuclear weapons forreasons of security would not have disappeared,in fact they would have increased as no otherstate would be able to use their more powerfulconventional forces against that state. As PaulRobinson notes, ‘conventional armaments…willremain the backbone of U.S. defence forces, butthe inherent threat to escalate to nuclear use canhelp to prevent conflicts from starting, preventtheir escalation, as well as bring (them) to aswift and certain end (Robinson, 2001)’. Suchpotential advantages will not be lost on states ina nuclear-free world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The purported efficacy of nuclear deterrencedrives nuclear proliferation and thereforeincreases the risk of nuclear weapons beingutilized By claiming the efficacy of nuclearweapons as a strategic deterrent, the currentnuclear powers encourage the proliferation ofweapons of mass destruction (Krieger, 2003). Tobe a part of the so-called 'nuclear club' is seen asa matter of great prestige; when India andPakistan recently declared their nuclearcapability and held mutual tests in the 1990s, itwas seen in both countries as increasing theirinternational status. Nevertheless, tensions inthe region have only increased since the mutualannouncements, not least the Kargil War of 1999that almost precipitated a nuclear war. Nationsopposed to a nuclear power therefore feel thatthey need to develop their own capability inorder to protect themselves. The declarednuclear powers must therefore take the lead indisarmament, as an example for the rest of theworld.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The abolishment of nuclear weapons does notreduce the risk of them falling into the wronghands. While nuclear weapons can bedismantled, the weapons-grade plutonium whichforms their warheads cannot simply bedestroyed. Instead, they must be stored inspecial facilities; in Russia, there are some threehundred sites were military nuclear material isstored (National Intelligence Council, 2002). It isproducing this plutonium which is in fact themost difficult stage in building a weapon - bydismantling missiles, you are therefore notdestroying their most dangerous part, and hencethe risk of theft does not decrease. In fact, itmay increase: missile silos in Russia are still themost heavily funded part of the military, whereasin recent years it has become clear that securityat storage facilities is often inadequate.Moreover, it is far easier to steal a relativelysmall quantity of plutonium than an entireIntercontinental Ballistic Missile; there werethree such incidents in Russia in the 1990s of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear weapons can be abolished through theco-operation of nuclear powers and theestablishment of an independent verificationsystem The co-operation of the United Statesand Russia, demonstrated in theirregularly-renewed START treaties, confer theability of nuclear powers to work towards areduction in nuclear stockpiles. A newcampaigning body, Global Zero, has laid out thepath to nuclear abolishment, concerning firstbilateral accords to reduce stockpiles in themanner already occurring. From there, theyadvocate the ‘universal acceptance of acomprehensive verification and enforcementsystem accompanied by tighter controls on fissilematerials produced by civil-nuclear programmes’(The Economist, 2011). The process will not beswift, but it is plausible and not a stretchconsidering the success of previous STARTtreaties and the example of the InternationalAtomic Energy Agency as an independent bodycharged with verifying nuclear installations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "States should not possess such destructive,cataclysmic weapons Nuclear weapons are, bytheir very nature, indiscriminate anddisproportional; any weapon which could notpossibly be used in a responsible manner shouldnot be permitted. Over the past fifty years, wehave seen a general tendency towards limitedwarfare and precision weapons, allowing militaryobjectives to be achieved with minimal loss ofcivilian life. The entire point of nuclear weapons,however, is their massive, indiscriminatedestructive power. Their use could kill tens ofthousands of civilians directly, and theircatastrophic environmental after-effects wouldharm many more all around the world. Theseeffects could never be morally acceptable,particularly as the basis of one’s national securitystrategy. They place ‘humanity and most formsof life in jeopardy of annihilation’ (Krieger,2003). No state or leader can be entrusted,morally, with a power and responsibility thatcould come close to annihilating humanity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "States have the right to possess any weaponthat will materially support their ambitions ofsurvival, regardless of their destructive power.There is no greater principle than that ofself-defence, and a state is entitled to developany means by which it improves its positionvis-à-vis an enemy and subsequently promotespeace in the region and internationally.Furthermore, the damage done by a nuclearweapon is no more indiscriminate ordisproportional than the damage potentiallycaused by a prolonged aerial bombardment. InWorld War II for instance, far more damage waswrought by fire-bombing Tokyo than either ofthe nuclear attacks. The issue is therefore notwhether nuclear weapons should be held, butunder which circumstances they are used, orthreatened. Either way, they should not beabolished.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The process is implausible, primarily becausewhilst the actual weapons can be dismantled, thetechnology remains and the only effective meansto deter the development of a nuclear weapon isa nuclear weapon. Even if this were not the case,such a gradual and incremental process ofdisarmament does not account for the weaponsheld by states who have not officially declaredtheir presence, like Israel. Furthermore, thougha verification agency may have universal accessto nuclear stockpiles, it has little power toenforce states to adhere to treaties, precipitatingthe scenario whereby one state refuses to giveup its final weapon and stalling the processindefinitely. Finally, this process assumes thatstates wish to see nuclear weapons abolished,rather than the more common assumption thatstates view nuclear weapons as necessary, notmerely to deter other nuclear powers but fortraditional deterrence and nuclear blackmail.Would all states willingly give that up?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The Count was only asked to provide an advisoryopinion; their adjudication had no subsequentbasis in law. Anyhow, the very same jury votedunanimously that ‘there is in neither customarynor conventional international law anycomprehensive and universal prohibition of thethreat or use of nuclear weapons as such’(International Court of Justice, 1996). Unlikebiological and chemical weapons, for whichspecific treaties have been developed to regulateand prevent their use, the absence of regulationfor nuclear weapons implicitly recognizeswide-held appreciation for their deterrent effects", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Risk of nuclear weapons falling into the wronghands While nuclear weapons exist, they can fallinto the wrong hands. This is particularlyprevalent in an environment whereby there areextremist groups actively seeking to causeinstant, egregious harm to their ideological andpolitical enemies. Such groups do not lack forfunding; therefore the fear of weapons fallinginto the wrong hands has never been higher.This is particularly true in Russia, which now hascontrol of all of the nuclear weapons which weredistributed around the former Soviet Union. Inparticular during the 1990s the military wasdisastrously underfunded; technicians andofficers who were used to a high standard ofliving found themselves without pay, sometimesfor years. At the same time, other states andextremist groups are willing to pay substantialsums for their services, and to gain access tonuclear weapons. This same danger is now asmuch, if not more, of a problem in Pakistan(Ambinder, 2011). The danger of a weapon being", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Both the use and threat of nuclear weapons areillegal The disproportionate and indiscriminatenature of nuclear weapons use renders theirpossession illegal under internationalhumanitarian law. The International Court ofJustice in 1996, asked to provide an advisoryopinion, declared unanimously that any use orthreat of nuclear weapons had to be compatiblewith existing international law relating to armedconflict (International Court of Justice, 1996).The principles of discrimination andproportionality inherent in the laws of wars arecodified in the Geneva Conventions of 1949, andare quite clearly violated by nuclear weapons. Assuch, a majority of the judges present felt thatany such use or threat would ‘generally becontrary’ to those rules of international law andtherefore, unanimously, ‘there exists anobligation to pursue in good faith and bring to aconclusion negotiations leading to nucleardisarmament in all its aspects under strict andeffective international control’ (International", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear weapons provide the source of thegreatest possible barbarity in warfare; thereforeit is disingenuous to suggest that theirabolishment would only exacerbate conflicts.States do not start wars with major powerscontemporaneously merely because those majorpowers happen to have nuclear weapons;traditional deterrence will still be as effective asit is currently. Furthermore, the abolishment ofnuclear weapons would allow thereafter mutualco-operation on the issue of non-proliferationwithout the current fear that others are onlyconcerned with preventing proliferation incountries likely to be opposed to their interests.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The idea of a so-called 'nuclear deterrent' nolonger applies – the United States would not bedeterred from attacking a newly nuclear Iranbecause the U.S. would have a first strikecapability so would be able to wipe our Iraniannuclear weapons before they could be used.While it is true that political leaders on both sidesduring the Cold War were terrified of a nuclearconflict it was as much the balance of power thatmaintained the peace. Neither superpower hadan advantage large enough to be confident ofvictory. However, there is no longer nucleardeterrence. With the proliferation of nuclearweapons, some rogue states may develop theability to strike at enemies who have no nuclearweapons of their own. Unless the country underattack is allied to another nuclear power It is notclear that any of the major nuclear powers wouldthen strike back at the aggressor. This is furthercomplicated by the fact that most of theemerging nuclear threats would not be fromlegitimate governments but from dictators and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Abolishment is an unrealistic goal The nucleargenie is out of the bottle, and there is no way togo back. Nuclear technology exists, and there isno way to un-invent it (Robinson, 2001). Muchas the ideal of global disarmament is fine, thereality is that it is impossible: it takes only onerogue state to maintain a secret nuclearcapability to make the abolition of the majorpowers' deterrents unworkable. Without thethreat of a retaliatory strike, this state couldattack others at will. Similarly, the process bywhich nuclear weapons are produced cannoteasily be differentiated from the nuclear powerprocess; without constant oversight it would bepossible for any state with nuclear power toregain nuclear capability if they felt threatened.This is the same as the nuclear ‘breakout’capability that many states such as Japan havewhereby they can create a nuclear bomb in amatter of weeks or days – if a country hasnuclear power and the technology they have thiscapability even when they have disarmed their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Abolishment would be counter-productive andonly lead to greater barbarity in warfare Nuclearweapons have a restraining effect on warfare,preventing escalation through fear of theirdestruction. To abolish them is therefore to actcounter-productively: ‘it will not advancesubstantive progress on non-proliferation; and itrisks compromising the value that nuclearweapons continue to contribute, throughdeterrence, to U.S. security and internationalstability’ (Robinson, 2001) Nuclear weapons area necessary evil; the doctrine of mutuallyassured destruction prevented the outbreak ofnuclear war during the Cold War because in theneither side was willing to risk the response andneither side could risk even a small scale wardue to the threat of escalation. Nuclear weaponstherefore act as a check upon the very institutionof war between those states that have nuclearweapons, restraining aggressors through fear ofescalation and certain destruction.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear weapons are required fordeterrence The use of nuclear weapons wouldindeed be a great tragedy; but so, to a greateror lesser extent, is any war. The reason formaintaining an effective nuclear arsenal is in factto prevent war. By making the results of conflictcatastrophic, a strategic deterrent discouragesconflict. The Cold War was in fact one of themost peaceful times in history, particularly inEurope, largely because of the two superpowers'nuclear deterrents: ‘the principal function ofnuclear weapons was to deter nuclear attack’(Record, 2004). During the Gulf War, forexample, one of the factors which prevented Iraqfrom launching missiles tipped with chemicalweapon warheads against Israel was the threatthe USA would retaliate with a nuclear strike.Although there is no longer as formal a threat ofretaliation as there was during the Cold War, thevery possibility that the use of nuclear weaponsby a rogue state could be met a retaliatory strikeis too great a threat to ignore. Moreover,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-whwanw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "In 1996, the Comprehensive Nuclear Test BanTreaty was adopted by the United NationsGeneral Assembly. The treaty, which calls for anend to all nuclear testing, includes provisions forextensive and independent mechanisms for themonitoring of nuclear activities. Suchmechanisms could easily be co-opted for use inimplementing, monitoring and verifying anyfuture nuclear disarmament process. \"The defacto global nuclear test moratorium and CTBT’sentry into force are crucial barriers to helpprevent the spread of nuclear weapons toadditional states and are essential to the futureviability of the nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty(NPT). They are the first two of the 13 practicalsteps for systematic and progressive nucleardisarmament that were unanimously adopted inthe Final Document of the 2000 NPT ReviewConference (Kimball, 2005).” Even if countriescould rapidly produce a bomb without any testingthey would not be able to see if it works and anystate engaged in breakout would take time to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is clearly too early to condemn Erdoğan’sdesire to change Turkey to a presidential system.We do not yet have much idea what this actuallymeans and there is no clear reason why thiscould not be a step forward. Erdoğan clearlywants a powerful presidency but there is nosaying that this is what he will get once thehorse trading is done and even if he does thereare systems with powerful presidents that areclearly democratic such as the US and Frenchsystems. The change to a presidential systemcould also solve problems; it would replace aconstitution that was drafted under military rule,and it would increase regional autonomy, [1] butmuch more importantly if done correctly it couldcreate strong durable institutions that will ensuredemocratic rule far into the future. [2] [1]‘Presidential Dreaming’, The Economist, 16March 2013, [2] Tremblay, Pinar, ‘WillPresidential System Move Turkey Forward?’, AlMonitor, 14 April 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Attempts to change into an executivepresidential system Turkey has been headingtowards being a one party, even a one person,state. Erdoğan is intending to change theconstitution is an attempt to institutionalise this.His new presidency would have the power toissue decrees with force of law, dissolveparliament and call elections, and to commandthe military. [1] The attempt to change to apresidential system is clearly a move to enableErdoğan to avoid the limit of three terms in muchthe same way as Vladimir Putin did by switchingjobs. A presidential system is not bad in principlebut it should not be simply used as a vehicle fora particular politician. Moreover any change ofsuch a magnitude in a democratic country shouldbe done only with popular consent – somethingthat this change does not have. In a February2013 poll 65.8% of Turks favoured keeping theparliamentary system and only 21.2% were infavour of a change to a presidential system.[2] [1] The Editors, ‘Erdogan Shows Why Turkey", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Having one dominant party does not make thecountry an autocracy or prevent Turkey being aliberal democracy. There have been manycountries that are considered democratic thathave had single parties ruling for long periods. Inthe UK the Conservatives in the 1980’s andLabour in the 2000’s won three elections just asthe AKP has. In Japan the LDP has only lost twoelections since the start of Japan’s post WorldWar II democratic system yet it is accepted asbeing a legitimate democracy. Rather thanworrying about a single party dominance weshould be applauding parties that are successfulin putting together such a broad coalition thatthey can win election after election, they clearlyrepresent most of the population which is thepoint of democracy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Decline of secularism The AKP is not just makingTurkey authoritarian it is making it an Islamicauthoritarian state. Since a 1928 amendment tothe constitution Turkey has been a secular state.Recently Turkey rushed through restrictions onthe sale of alcohol prohibiting sale overnight. [1]More worryingly than minor restrictions is adecline in gender equality and respect forreligious minorities; in 2002, the year the AKPcame to power Turkey was ranked 63rd in theUN’s Gender Empowerment Measure, by 2009 ithad dropped to 101st out of 109 countries. [2]Without respect for these groups it is difficult tosee how Turkey can be considered a liberaldemocracy that provides for equal and personalrights. [1] Letsch, Constanze, ‘Turkey alcohollaws could pull the plug on Istanbul nightlife’,guardian.co.uk, 31 May 2013, [2] Onanç,Gülseren, ‘Women’s place in Turkey is alarming’,United Nations Development Programme, NewHorizons Issue 47 November 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Turkey does not have the freedoms associatedwith democracy The rule of law, limits on thepower of the state, and the provision of personalrights are key to any country being considered tobe a liberal democracy but these are beingundermined in Turkey. This is most noticeablewhen it comes to freedom of the press. Turkey’spress freedoms have been in decline. It is adismal 154th on the press freedom index [1] andmost notable is that it is the country with themost imprisoned journalists with at least 76imprisoned, mostly without having beenconvicted and as a result of their work. [2] Thelack of freedom of the press and how cowed thepress is has been shown in the recent rioting;CNN covered the protests live, at the same timeits Turkish language subsidiary CNN Turk wasbroadcasting a cooking show. [3] [1] ‘21013World Press Freedom Index: Dashed Hopes AfterSpring’, Reporters Without Borders, 2013, [2]Greenslade, Roy, ‘Turkish press freedom crisis’,guardian.co.uk, 23 October 2012, [3] Cook,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Each country should be free to decide whichfreedoms are important to it and fit with its ownculture rather than having to fit into a westernstraitjacket in order to be considered‘democratic’. It is true that press freedoms are adifficult issue but it is not the full story to simplypoint to the numbers of journalists in prison asthe media can still be effective even when somejournalists are imprisoned. The OSCE whenlooking at the 2011 elections said “The medialandscape in Turkey is diverse and lively” forexample all parties are able to purchase airtimeunder equal conditions. [1] [1] ElectionAssessment Mission, ‘Republic of TurkeyParliamentary Elections 12 June 2011’, OSCEOffice for Democratic Institutions and HumanRights, 31 October 2011, , pp.2, 19", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Liberal democracy is flexible; it can incorporatesecular and non-secular, different religions,cultures, or views of the role of the state. Manyliberal democracies have restrictions on the saleof alcohol; some parts of the United States areentirely dry. Gender equality is more of an issuebut women are allowed to vote in Turkey – whichis essential to democracy. [1] Other rightshowever are up to individual culture to decide.Even if we don’t like a lack of gender equality inTurkey we should not consider the country not tobe democratic because of it. [1] ‘February 6,1935 Turkey Holds First Election That AllowsWomen to Vote’, OUPblog, 6 February 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "This is one of the flaws of a parliamentarysystem; when a single party has a largemajority, as the AKP does, they can essentiallyget whatever they want through parliament. Thisis why systems such as Britain’s have beencalled elective dictatorship, something which achange in the constitution could potentially solvebut clearly does not preclude the country inquestion being considered to be a liberaldemocracy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "One party state Under the AKP Turkey haseffectively become a one party state; this meansthat there is not the competition necessary tomake Turkey a genuine liberal democracy. Yesalternative parties exist but this does not meanthey are going to get any power any time soon ifthe government can help it. The AKP has beenable to get twice as many votes as its nearestrival making it by far the dominant party. Theparty consolidates power and there are signsthat competition in the party is more importantthan with other parties. [1] The rioting acrossthe country has shown this in several ways. Firstthe resort to violent and street protest shows theopposition don’t think they can oust the AKP atthe ballot box. Secondly the response from theleaders of the AKP have been mixed. WhileErdoğan has vehemently condemned theprotests while President Abdullah Gül has taken amore nuanced line saying “Democracy is not justabout elections” and that “If there areobjections, there is nothing more natural than", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Railroading without consultation The trigger forthe rioting; construction projects building over apark and a square are a good analogy for thegovernment as a whole. The AKP governmentdoes not care for public opinion and is happy topush through projects without reference to it. Inthe case of Taksim square the government didnot consult about plans to bulldoze the parkdespite it being the site of a massacre in 1977making it a place of historical significance. Acourt ruling to stop construction was alsoignored. [1] It is the same with legislation, thecontroversial changes to alcohol laws were onlyproposed a month before they were passed anddebate was limited to two days, [2] while someimportant business particularly involving day today running of foreign and defence has very littleoversight. [3] [1] Yackley, Ayla Jean, ‘Insight:Simmering anger at Erdogan's authoritarianismboils over in Turkey’, Reuters, 2 June 2013, [2]Resneck, Jacob, ‘Anti-alcohol bill leaves manyTurks dispirited’, USA Today, 29 May 2013, [3]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "We do not yet know if this is a false dawn whenit comes to peace with the Kurds. Erdoğan couldsimply be using the process for his own ends;either to secure the Olympics for Istanbul or tosecure a powerful presidency for himself.Alternatively he may simply be seeking to dividethe Kurds so making them easier to defeat. [1]As yet with no political deal or real knowledge ofwhat the settlement might be considering this ademocratic advance seems a bit farfetched. [1]Hannah, John, ‘Erdogan's Great Gamble’, ForeignPolicy, 14 May 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "High electoral turnout is in large part a result ofturkey having compulsory voting so it is difficultto see how this statistic is an indicator of thedemocratic health of the country. There is also abig difference between having a liberaldemocracy and a ‘tyranny of the majority’Turkey under AKP has been much more thelatter. Erdoğan has threatened the opposition “ifyou gather 100,000 people, I can gather amillion” showing that the majority and numbersare simply being used to browbeat anyone whoopposes his plans. [1] A democracy means morethan holding regular elections; even regimeseveryone recognizes as authoritarian, such asKazakhstan or Iran, hold them. [1] Cook,Steven A., and Koplow, Michael, ‘HowDemocratic Is Turkey?’, Foreign Policy, 3 June2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Less army influence – no coups There has nowbeen more than thirty years without an armycoup but it has only been during the AKPgovernment that the army has finally beencowed with the army being forced to defend itsactions in court. [1] The AKP has brought abouta fundamental transformation in the relationshipbetween the military and civilian governmentsreducing the military’s influence; consistent withmilitary subservience to civilian authority inother democracies. The National Security Councilwas turned from a executive body into anadvisory board that was dominated by civiliansand Parliamentary control over the military’sbudget was strengthened. The Government’scontrol over the military was shown by theErgenekon trials where senior army generalswere accused of plotting a coup, with the resultthat the government showed the power of thejudiciary over the military and took control overpromotion. [2] [1] Demir, Firat, ‘Here's WhatYou Need to Know about the Clashes in Turkey’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Turkey has an effective and legitimategovernment It is clear that the government islegitimate; it received 49% of the vote in the2011 elections, an increase. By comparison TonyBlair’s ‘landslide’ win in 1997 was achieved with43.2% of the vote. [1] And it is a legitimategovernment in large part because it is aneffective government. This has particularly beenthe case on the economic front. There are ofcourse a few problems, as there always are evenin booming economies, but Turkey has anenviable record over the ten years of AKP rule.Public debt fell from 74% in 2002 to 40% in2011, productivity growth has averaged 3-3.5%,economic growth has hovered around 8% andinflation took a tumble from almost 70% whenthe AKP was elected to high single figures. [2] Itis no surprise that the electorate has rewardedthe government that has pulled this off. [1]Johnson, Ron, et al., ‘Anatoimy of a LabourLandslide: The Constituency System and the1997 General Election’, Parliamentary Affairs,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Ending the conflict with the Kurds – inclusivegovernment Democracies are only trulydemocratic when they accept that theirminorities have rights and deserve a place in thepolitical system even if those minoritiesthemselves want a separate state. Only thendoes the country truly represent and work foreveryone within the state. It has only beenduring Erdoğan’s time as Prime Minister that thishas happened in Turkey. Turkey has spent itshistory since its founding ninety years agodiscriminating against the Kurds by denying theyare a separate ethnicity. Now however there is acease fire in place and serious consideration formajor constitutional changes that wouldrecognize the Kurds. [1] Already there have beensignificant changes like allowing the use ofKurdish in public life and the launch of a Kurdishlanguage TV station and courses in universities.[2] [1] Hannah, John, ‘Erdogan's Great Gamble’,Foreign Policy, 14 May 2013, [2] Zalewski, Pitr,‘The Kurds’ Last Battle in Turkey: Teaching Kids", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Turkey has elections, it is a democracy Themost fundamental part of democracy is theability of the people to influence theirgovernment. In almost all democracies this isdone through elections to parliament. This is thecase in Turkey. There was general acceptancethat the elections that the AKP won were freeelections. The US state department said theelections were carried out “in a free and fairmanner” [1] while the OSCE election observerssaid “The parliamentary elections demonstrateda broad commitment to hold democraticelections” although there was the odd complaint.[2] Turnout in elections is very high compared tomany democracies and is actually rising; it was79% in 2002, the election that brought AKP topower, increasing to 88% in 2011. [3] If turnoutis any indicator (and clearly it is or else maturedemocracies such as the UK would not beworried about their own falling turnout) the AKPwould appear to be strengthening democracy inthe eyes of voters. [1] Toner, Mark, ‘US", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Democratic legitimacy cannot simply be equatedwith economic growth even if most people seethe economy as the main issue when it comes tovoting. The economy is important but there areplenty of countries which have used economicgrowth to buttress undemocratic regimes; Chinabeing the obvious example where the state’slegitimacy is intimately bound up with economicgrowth. [1] [1] Li, Eric X, “The Life of the Party”,Foreign Affairs, January/February 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-gvhbtnd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While coups were frequent during the twentiethcentury each time power was quickly returned tocivilian hands meaning that even including thecoups Turkey had a vibrant democracy. [1] [1]Baran, Zeyno, ‘Is Kemalism Dead in Turkey?’,Defining Ideas, 13 December 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This happens in theory but in practise does notwork this way. Precedent in the United Stateshas shown that political discourse is still fractiousdespite the presence of Open Primaries as it isstill the ideologically focussed base that that voteand decide such elections on a lowturnout. Even if Propositions contentions weretrue, it can be argued that it is the lack of cleardividing lines between parties that can causemajor disillusionment in politics, with manyparties now subscribing to a broadly neoliberalworld view as has happened in the UK whereparties regularly cross-dress, appeal to the samegroups and steal each other’s policies. [1] Thelack of clear ideology engendered by OpenPrimaries would make such disillusionmentworse. Two parties that agree on everythingwould seriously damage turnout as no clearchoice is presented to the electorate. [1] Ash,Timothy Garton, ‘If our political parties did notexist would we ever need to invent them?’, TheGuardian, 25 October 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Open primaries promote moderate, non-partisanpolitics By creating a situation whereby allvoters have a potential say in selectingcandidates, it can prevent overweening controlby party grass roots who may vote for overtlyideological candidates who turn off the moderatevoters needed to win elections. An Open Primaryis more likely to choose more centrist candidatesfor the general election, providing a degree ofmoderation to the process of election and politicsin general. This in turn can help foster aconsensual atmosphere in political discourse withgeneral agreed points, focusing the debate onmore core issues between the main parties.[1] This then means that much more is likely toget done. At the moment American politics isplagued by gridlock both in the states and inCongress. Individuals elected under openprimaries are much more likely to be willing tocompromise across the aisle. [2] As a resultgovernment will begin moving again. [1]‘Editorial: California should switch to open", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The whole point of Democracy is that there arelosers as well as winners. It is not up to politicalparties to accommodate those who disagree withthem by accommodating their policies. Partiesand the candidates who stand on their behalfmust be able to justify their own views andpolices to the electorate, without them beingdiluted by the outside influence of those whomay actually fundamentally disagree with whatthe party believes in. Those on the fringe arebetter off advocating their policies better insteadof voting for candidates of the party they do notsupport. Very occasionally an open primary mayallow an independent to seriously run, but thiswill be so rare that it will not compensate forhaving their independent platforms at elections.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Open primaries allow the electorate to expressnuanced polling choices Open Primaries allowsfor the electorate to make a considered choicebetween candidate and party, with otherconsiderations beyond the partisan being up forconsideration. In safe districts, voters are givena choice between members of the same party,allowing for voters to effectively choose the nextmember based upon past record and views onbig issues, allowing for the ideological cleavageswithin parties to brought under closerexamination, with voters in the safe seatchoosing the type ofConservatism/Liberalism/Socialism they prefer.[1] This can help to provide choice even whenone party is already assured of winning the seat,thus providing a degree of competition in thedistrict, engaging voters in the electoralprocess. [1] Skelton, George, ‘California openprimaries? Give them a chance’, Los AngelesTimes, 11 February 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Increasing voter engagement A major problemwith politics in Western Liberal Democracies isthat electorates feel disengaged from thepolitical process as they are generally presentedwith a choice between parties at irregularintervals without much oversight over the calibreof candidate presented to them by eachparty. This issue would be countered byintroducing Open Primaries for candidates toelections. By making candidates from the sameparty compete for a party candidacy byappealing to the same group that will choosebetween all parties in General Elections, voterswill have a chance to greater examine eachprospective candidate at greater detail, allowingfor a more considered choice of candidate thanthe binary choice made at elections. [1] Bygiving more time to voters, this will increaseinterest in what candidates have to say, andallow those of all political persuasions tocontribute to the debate, turning contests awayfrom ideology and towards representation. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "People feel disengaged with politics in generalnot because they don’t have a say overcandidacies, but because of the constantmerry-go-round that is electoral politics. Thevoter fatigue that comes from the constant chasefor votes from parties will not decrease. Ifanything, it will increase as candidates andmedia coverage is dominated by speculation overwho will be a candidate for office rather than whowill gain the office actually up for election,causing further disillusionment with the politicalprocess.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Contests between those of the same party are intheir nature divisive and distract from the aim ofwinning the general election. Debates aboutIdeological nuance are not major reasons fornon-political voters to go to the polls. Debatesabout those issues have largely been thepreserve of those who are party members and asa result should stay within that sphere. Greatercompetition can be engendered through othermeans, such as Proportional Representation thatleads to real competition between all parties inall areas of a country as opposed to a contestbetween candidates who have no real differencesof opinion.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Party power is exercised heavily in countrieswhere Open Primaries exist. In the UnitedStates, it is common for a political party toopenly back a candidate in Primary Elections forCongressional seats. This can give said candidatea major head start, with the massive financialbacking and exposure in the public eye thatfollows resulting in predictable results. [1] Onlyspecial circumstances see incumbents defeated(See the rise of the Tea Party and its effect onthe US Republican Party), with Primaries beinglargely predictable affairs. These results in a lackof interest in many Primary contests, makingthem little more than sideshows that distractfrom the process of government. [1] ‘“Open”Primaries and the Illusion of Choice’, open salon,9 June 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Open primaries promote engagement withpolitical minorities A major problem with generalelections, specifically in countries such as theUnited States, United Kingdom and Canadawhich use Majoritarian Simple Plurality electoralsystems, is that only two major parties (e.g.Democrats and Republicans) are in contentionfor power or in some cases representation,leaving those that have loyalties elsewherefeeling disenfranchised from a political systemthat does not take into account of their point ofview. Open Primaries counters this by allowingthese voters a chance to vote for candidates of amajor party that are closer to their own politicalpersuasion, thus giving as many people aspossible the opportunity to register their opinionon who will be their representative for the nextterm, ending disillusionment with predictableelection results. This means that third partycandidates may become serious candidates inelections when they pass the primary test.[1] [1] Nielson, Susan, ‘Open Oregon’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Open primaries prevent the centralisation ofparty power Political Parties are able to wieldconsiderable power, controlling their partymembers and representatives, particularly inParliamentary political systems. Through use ofpatronage and the threat of sanctions such asdeselection, party leaders are able to manipulaterepresentatives to fulfil their own aims ratherthan those of constituents. [1] By institutingOpen Primaries, the focus of representativesshifts from the party leadership to theconstituents whom prospective candidates hopeto represent. Scrutiny over the representative’sconduct would be in the hands of the voters, withreselection in an Open Primary being contingentupon the member looking after the interests oftheir constituents, rather than the interest of theparty as is the case in many countries that donot have Open Primary systems. [2] By usingOpen Primaries, elections once again becomesabout representing the people as opposed tobeing a means to power as is the case under the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This Argument does not stack up. The largenumbers of people voting in Primary electionswill mean many ‘apoliticals’ will counter theworst partisan tactics (if any) being used in theelection. If there has been any impact ofopposition party involvement upon the internalpolitics of a party, it has been to elect morecentrist candidates that the greatest number ofvoters can find palatable. That in itself is no badthing, as politics can become extremely partisanat times, it does help to have candidates who canbe moderate and be more prepared tocompromise in order to the best possibleoutcome for all they represent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Open Primaries have proven themselves to be ameans of engagement in the political process,providing scrutiny of individual candidates beforeapproving the program that they stand for. OpenPrimaries maintain scrutiny over individual actionas opposed to merely scrutinising the actions ofthe party as a whole, giving voters a chance toprovide a nuanced results in elections. Politicianscan still focus on their job of representing thepeople under an Open Primary system, as it istheir actions in conducting that particular rolethat will decide their success in reselection bythe electorate they represent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Open primaries obscure the distinctions betweenpolitical parties Primaries tend to favourcandidates that are more centrist in nature, asnon-committed voters are more likely to vote forsuch a candidate than grass roots members ofthe party hosting the primary, who are muchmore likely to prefer a candidate who is moreideological. The dominance of centristcandidates in primaries may lead to convergencebetween the major parties to the extent thatthere is little difference between them for votersto choose from in the general election. [1] Thiscreates the harm of not presenting a cleardemocratic choice to voters, which can help feedthe discontent with politics that discontent hopeswill be countered by Open Primaries. [1] White,Stuart, ‘Why open primaries are a really badidea’, NextLeft, 26 May 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Open primaries will lead to an increase indisputes internal to political parties Primaryelections can be extremely damaging to partiesas it engenders cleaves and splits which damagechances of election. Election campaigns betweencandidates from the same party can becomefeverish, particularly if the contest is close (Seethe Democratic Presidential Primary in2008). This can be damaging as parties aremade to spend their time focussing theirenergies on themselves instead of the oppositiononly to create an image of a divided party thatalienates voters who prefer parties who canconvey a coherent message about what they canprovide for the future. Primaries obscure what aparty is about, changing the focus from beingabout policy and the message of the party to thecandidate with personal attributes such as imagebeing of importance. This makes politics muchmore superficial than it already is.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Open primaries will lead to an intensification oflobbying activities Elections, particularly in theUnited States, can be prone to excessivelobbying by various interest groups who fundcandidates who are more likely to support theirpoint of view whilst also pouring efforts intoensuring the defeat of those who are opposed totheir interests (See the fate of Rep. RichardPombo, who was defeated after a campaign bythe Sierra Club [1] ). Primary electionsexacerbates this, with 527 groups affiliated tocertain interest groups being able to lobby andfund numerous candidates in the primary toensure that regardless of the result, theirinterests are best preserved. This can be harmfulas it further allows for corporate capture of theelection cycle, with candidates positioningthemselves in relation to the aims of those whohelped them gain the candidacy rather than thevoters who put them there. This undermines theability of legislators to arbitrate betweencompeting claims when making law, creating less", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Open primaries are open tomanipulation Because political persuasion is nobar to voting in a Primary election, it can makethe internal elections within parties be open tomanipulation from those hostile to the aims ofthe party and the candidates running forelection. We have seen instances where‘unelectable’ candidates have been elected byOpen Primary as means of discrediting a partyand helping their opponents win the generalelection. A famous instance of this was in theDemocratic Primary for the US Senate seat inSouth Carolina, where the winner, Alvin Greenebecame the candidate with little advertising orsuccessful fundraising, leading to accusations ofa Republican campaign to make re-election oftheir incumbent, Jim DeMint, much easier.[1] In other instances, it is also possible that theopposition party can use the election as a meansof electing a candidate that most reflects theirviews, neutering the effect of losing the generalelection. Either way, Open Primaries can be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-con05b", "title": "", "text": "Only in exceptional circumstances are majorsplits caused by Primary election. What tends tohappen is that Primaries act as a stimulus tohealthy debate over what the party stands for,with candidates from all parts of the politicalspectrum engaging in a contest to define theparty in line with the wishes of theelectorate. Candidates focus on themselves,while the party leaderships can still play the roleof holistically overseeing proceedings to makesure that the focus still remains the generalelection and what happens after the ballots inthe primary election have been counted. It ispossible to have rigorous primary campaignswithout there being major splits that harm theparty’s performance in the general election (Theperformance of The Democratic Party in 1992bears this out). While there maybe an emphasison candidacy and personality, it helps to form aclear of what the party stands for in the generalelections, marking out a clear choice betweenthe parties at election time.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Open primaries will distract and confuse themajority of the electorate Primary Elections dolittle more than provide a distraction to thepolitical process. Instead of focusing on thepolitical process for the maximum time possiblebetween elections, politicians are constantlydistracted by electioneering, not just to bere-elected but also to seek selection as theirparty’s candidate. This may create a dangerousprecedent of politics being little more than oneconstant election cycle, with decision being madeto please constituents in order to win twoelections. We see this the most in the US Houseof Representatives, where decisions influencing‘pork-barrel’ spending are made with the mainaim of keeping constituents happy in order toavoid primary defeat, to the detriment ofgovernment being more disposed to dysfunction.[1] The constant election cycle can causedisillusionment with voters who fail to seetangible effects of what the politicians the electdo yet face constant electioneering. By only", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-con04b", "title": "", "text": "There is a large problem with lobbying in theUnited States but the influence they exert wouldbe worse if there was no system. The efforts ofinterest groups would be exerted upon onecandidate from each party, whereas Primariesmake it harder for interest groups and 527’s togain access to power as there are multiplehurdles for their candidate to overcome to winpower and gain influence over policy. Primariescan also prevent capture of entire parties byinterest groups as can happen in countries wherefunding of candidates comes directly from thecentral party such as the United Kingdom (wherethe role Trade Unions for example have 50% ofthe vote in the labour party conference [1] ).Candidate discretion is more likely in Primarysystems, giving more choice over what thegeneral election candidate will support asopposed to just following the lead of the partyleadership, which causes more disillusionment topolitics in the long run. [1] ‘Ed Miliband ‘plans towater down trade unions’ influence over labour’’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbopam-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While centrist candidates maybe preferred inPrimary elections, but it is a choice that has beenmade by the people when presented with a fullideological spectrum by the range of candidatesstanding for elections. Appeal to Swing voters iswhat matters in elections anyway so what OpenPrimaries do is make that abundantly clear, withthe candidate most likely to carry swing voters inthe general election most likely to win thecandidacy. This makes party leaderships thinkhard about what voters want and how toincorporate that into policy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The referendum is not an example of progress. Itis not hard to see why many of those whodemonstrated in Tahrir square were in the nocamp for this referendum. “The presidentremains extraordinarily powerful. Theamendments do nothing about due process andneglect other authoritarian aspects of the state”[1] The referendum was attacked for not dealingwith large scale structural issues. Leadingopposition figures such as Mohamed El Baradeiargue “The referendum deals only with minutiae.It doesn't talk about the imperial power of thepresident, it doesn't talk about the distortion ofthe parliament, it doesn't talk about the need tohave an independent constituent assembly thatrepresents everybody. So we are going to sayno.” [2] This means that the institutionalproblems that helped create an over-mightypresidency and autocracy have remained inplace. These countries have also not becomemuch more stable. There have been clashesbetween Christian Copts and Muslims following", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Progress has been made. Egypt as the biggestArab state and one of only two so far that havehad largely peaceful revolutions is perhaps thebest example of the progress that has beenmade. There was a referendum in Egypt in Marchon amending the constitution that passed with ayes vote of 77.2%. That there was a referendumat all surely counts as progress. It limits thenumber of presidential terms to two, promises tostrengthen the judiciary and abolish some of theemergency laws. A turnout of 41% is not as goodas it could have been but it was a great advancecompared to other polls in recent Egyptianhistory. Mohamed Ahmed Attia, the chairman ofthe supreme judicial committee that supervisedthe elections, explained its significance as being“the first real referendum in Egypt's history, wehad an unprecedented turnout because after Jan.25 people started to feel that their vote wouldmatter.” [1] Because Egypt has historically beenat the center of the Arab world success in Egyptwill be vital to show that a stable Arab", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "While these examples prove that in someiterations Islam can work with democracy, it islikely that other factors made democracy viablein Inodnesia and Turkey. Indonesia is free of thehostile relationship with the West that oftenundermines the stability of the Middle East, andhas benefitted from a strong trade relationship.While the AKP in Turkey is Islamist, it operateswithin the Turkish constitution which requires themilitary to dissolve any government thatthreatens the secular nature of the state.Without a constitutionally defined commitment tostrict secularism, like in Turkey, the Islamistparties in Egypt and Tunisia will resort toundemocratic practices. While Indonesia’srevolution superficially looks similar it should beremembered that no two revolutions are reallythe same. They are different in almost everyrespect, culturally, geographically, economically.Indonesian Minister Natalegawa argues “I thinkthe lesson form us is that it is possible for thedemocratization process to return to the military", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "There are preexisting institutions in Arabcountries. Many middle eastern states alreadyhave institutions that are similar to therepresentative institutions that a stabledemocracy needs so can easily become the realthing. Arab dictators have grown adept atholding elections, setting up parliaments;constitutional courts etc. as window dressing toshow either to their people or to the outsideworld that they are reforming and are‘democratic’. No matter how undemocratic theseregimes have been the simple existence of theseinstitutions is useful when there is a revolutionas they allow some continuity and the possibilityof a transition to democracy. To take Egyptwhere protests toppled the Mubarak regime asan example. It has a parliament with the MajilisAl-Sha’ab (People’s Assembly) as its lower houseand Majilis Al-Shura (Shura Council) as its upperhouse. In both houses a majority of themembers are directly elected. [1] Egypt heldelections for its parliament as recently as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While the presence of pre-existing institutions isan advantage in transitioning to a democracy,that advantage may be compromised when theseinstitutions are largely seen as illegitimate andhave not fostered a democratic political culture.Key to the development of a democratic politicalculture is confidence in institutions and awillingness to accept the popular will as carriedout by those institutions. The predominance ofthe Executive over the Legislature is ratherreminiscent of the Imperial Russian State Duma(1905-1917) as with Tunisia and Bahrain thelower house was directly elected, although thesystem was heavily weighted to produce pliantDumas from 1907 on, and the upper houseappointed. There was quite a plurality of partiesand the Duma had control over a wide area oflegislation but not over areas such as militarypolicy and the Tsar had veto powers. [1] Itcertainly cannot be said that the Duma’sexistence proved to be conducive to the creationof a stable democracy after the fall of the Tsar,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Islamic parties have led governmentsbefore The economic, social, and political historyof the region show there are many obstacles toestablishing stable democracies in the MiddleEast. Many in the West fear that Islam is amongthese barriers, with claims that Islamist partieslike the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt andEnnahda in Tunisia will turn their countries intotheocracies like Iran. However, there aremajority-Muslim states with Islamist parties thathave succeeded in creating stable democracies,including Turkey and Indonesia. Both countriesare good case studies that disprove thewidespread notion that Islam is incompatiblewith democracy. Turkey is most often cited as agood example for the Arab spring to follow. Theelection of the AKP has shown that an Islamicparty can also uphold democracy, so providing agood example for the powerful MuslimBrotherhood in the Arab world. Elections are freeand fair and the press is relatively free. ThePrime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan has faced", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con03b", "title": "", "text": "In the Libyan case the dictator remains (as of20th April 2011) but cannot sell oil even if heretakes the refineries. The rebels cannot sell oileither (legally) even though they control most ofthe infrastructure. The sanctions imposedagainst Gaddafi apply to the whole of thecountry. [1] Therefore the desire for oil pushesfor further support of the rebels in this case asthe sanction regime is only likely to bedeconstructed following a rebel victory. ShouldGaddafi remain in power the west may have tocut itself off from Libyan oil for years tocome. Obviously the above case represents aregime in flux. Once a regime is toppled thenanything can happen. There is then no reasonwhy outside actors should want to encourageanother dictatorship rather than a democracy. Adictatorship may bring stability faster but ademocracy is much more stable in the long run.Countries ideas of their strategic interests can bevery divergent. An example is the Suez crisis.Prime Minister Eden considered it “an obvious", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The question is as much whether once ademocracy has been established it can sustainitself as a system through multiple changes ingovernment without reverting to dictatorship bycoup. Notionally at least Lebanon has been ademocracy continually since 1932, if theinterruption of the brutal civil war is ignored.While that event shows that it can hardly becalled stable in the general sense, it has been inthe way that democracy survived even thatcataclysm. Such ethnic tensions are hardlyconducive to stable government even in WesternEurope. [2] When Belgium’s current politicalquagmire is looked at next to Lebanon thedifferences between Flemish and Walloon seeminsignificant compared those which a Lebanesegovernment must bridge, so even if itseffectiveness may be questioned Lebanon’sdemocracy surely holds out hope for all,particularly for countries that are much lessdivided. There are excessively high hopes forArab democracy this early, given that democracy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The west only supports democracies that fit withits world view. Fincial and diplomaticengagement with the international community isessential for democracy to take hold. Tensionsturn to conflict when governments are unable toprovide basic services to the people, as was thecase in Gaza when Hamas was elected in 2006and the US and EU immediatey froze nearly allthe funds and resources that were reaching theoccupied territory. Furthermore, support fromthe West is necessary to provide the financialresources to rebuild after the revolutionsdamaged business and scared touristsaway. However the West’s does not supportdemocracy unless the ruling party is guaranteedto act in the interests of the West. Throughoutthe latter half of the 20th century, the UnitedStates has either directly aided or executed theoverthrow of over thirty foreign governments,many of which were popularly elected.a The UShas in the past warned that aid to Lebanon couldbe jeopardized if Hezbollah was dominant in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Rentier economies lead to dictatorships. Mosteconomies in the middle east are oligarchic withthe wealth in the hands of a few. Oil has createdrentier economies. These economies rely uponsystems of patronage relying upon kinshipgroups, merchant communities and patron-clientrelationships, economic considerations becomesubservient to political considerations. [1] Thisoccurred because of the small size of MiddleEastern private sectors forced the creation ofstate centred development programs. [2] Whileit remains the case there is a very small group ofpeople in each Arab country that need to keeppolitical power in order to perpetuate theireconomic power. As they already have theeconomic power and are often the best educatedthey are the most capable of forming any newgovernment. In such an oligarchic society itwould be very risky for these people to allow thecreation of a democracy that may well wish toredistribute resources more equally. [1] MichelChatelus and Yves Scehmeil, ‘Towards a New", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Outside powers want oil so support dictatorialregimes who can deliver it. Oil createsinterdependence between the producing states inthe Middle East and the consumers in Asia andthe West. Although rising prices are good forproducers they can also threaten the worldeconomy and create inflation that in turn willdamage the producers by reducing demand. [1]The consumers have to listen to Saudi Arabiaand the other Arab regimes who provide their oilwhereas they often don’t for poor countries inAfrica who would otherwise be no different. Oil isthe main reason for external interest in Arabregimes some of the strongest alliances in theMiddle East are built with oil as their foundations.[2] Saudi Arabia is a US ally due to it being amajor supplier while Egypt is an ally due to itsvital position controlling a major trade route –the Suez canal. In neither case would anyexternal powers such as the EU nor the U.S.really want a long an unstable transition to ademocracy making a strong man a much easier", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Factionalism is too strong Since the 1970s, Arabstate governments have become especiallycorrupt and oppressive, and have failed toprovide essential social services on a consistentbasis. Over the past forty years, people in theregion have had to become increasingly relianton informal networks and institutions in order toensure personal and familial security andlivlihood. This has degraded hopes of arelationship of trust between the state andpeople, causing people to committ themselves todiffering factions, gangs, tribes, and parties inorder to sustain themselves. It is apparent thatthe resulting factionalism may stand as a barrierto democracy, as parties hold fast to ideologicalcommittments and interest groups instead ofpolitical compromise and power-sharing. This isespecially rampant in post-conflict states, as isthe case in Iraq. The current Iraqi governmenttook 249 days to form. [1] The conditions forcreating a stable government in Iraq seem to bebased more on appeasing all the relevant groups", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con04b", "title": "", "text": "For these states perpetuating the resources thatgive their regime its legitimacy, as a provider, isabsolutely vital, the regime needs to be able tofulfill its side of the bargain with the people. [1]This is exactly what Egypt and other MiddleEastern states have been failing to do for the lastcouple of decades. Increasing food pricessparking riots shows that this is the case.Instead they have to rely more and more onforce. Once a rentier system has begun to breakdown there may well be an opportunity for amore democratic system to take hold and betterredistribute the economic resources of the statethat have previously been so concentrated in afew hands. [1] Gerd Nonneman, ‘Rentiers andAutocrats, Monarchs and Democrats, State andSociety: The Middle East between Globalisation,Human “Agency”, and Europe’, InternationalAffairs, Vol.77, No.1 (Jan., 2001), pp.141-162,pp.146-147.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oamepdgtwh-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The western reaction to victories by Hamas orHizbollah while on one level hypocritical do notshow that the west would be unsupportive ofArab democracy. Both parties are opposedbecause they are perceived to be bothanti-democratic in nature and, through theiropposition to Israel, agents of instability.Opposition to Hamas was always qualified,according to Tony Blair former British PM “Ofcourse, we recognize the mandate for Hamasbecause the people have spoken in a particularway in the Palestinian Authority. But I think it isalso important for Hamas to understand thatthere comes a point, and that point is nowfollowing that strong showing, where they haveto decide between a path of democracy or a pathof violence.” [1] Certainly when it comes to moremoderate parties like Turkish Prime MinisterRecep Tayyip Erdogan’s Justice and DevelopmentParty (AKP)’s victory in 2002 was cautiouslywelcomed by the United States despite theparty’s islamist roots. With State Department", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "NATO cooperates with Russia to decreasetensions. Since 2002, NATO and Russia have anon-going dialogue to discuss strategic issues inthe NATO-Russia Council. This Council aims to‘enhance political consultation and practicalcooperation with Russia in areas of sharedinterests’ with Russia as a ‘true strategicpartner’. [1] Obviously, political differences overspecific issues remain: NATO stresses Georgia’sand Ukraine’s sovereignty and maintains an opendoor policy for their membership if theythemselves want this. What matters is thatthrough this on-going, institutionalized dialogue,NATO makes clear it sees Russia as a strategicpartner, and possibly even as a future member,not as a potential enemy. [1] NATO. NATO’srelations with Russia.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "NATO destabilizes peaceful relations withRussia There are two issues keeping Russiacautious of NATO as a military alliance. The firstis a proposal by the U.S. to put up a missiledefence system in Poland, the Czech Republicand on warships in the Black Sea under the flagof NATO to protect against missiles from Iran orNorth Korea, which, according to Russia, wouldnever fly over these countries in any attack.Russia concludes that the missile defence systemtherefore must be directed at them. The secondissue is NATO’s plans to expand with Ukraine andGeorgia, which Russia has traditionally regardedas part of their ‘sphere of influence’. As Russianpresident Medvedev stated in 2008: “No statecan be pleased about having representatives of amilitary bloc to which it does not belong comingclose to its borders.” [1] [1] BBC News.Medvedev warns on Nato expansion. 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "NATO has sufficient safeguards to preventaccidental escalation. Article V indeed specifiesthat members commit themselves to assisting afellow member when attacked, but this clauseleaves enough room to remain on the safe side.First of all, the clause is only defensive, toensure that NATO doesn’t become involved in awar of choice of any of its members, like the GulfWar. Secondly, article V allows members tochoose their assistance in proportion to theactual security threat and according to their ownmeans and goals, instead of the automatictriggers that led to World War I.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Continued existence of NATO makes the worldless safe Originally, NATO had a clearly definedpurpose and a common enemy: the Soviet bloc.With the demise of that shared enemy, NATO’soriginal purpose has disappeared but itswell-functioning military structure remained,leaving it open to be seized by opportunisticpoliticians in a classic case of ‘scope creep’. Thishas happened with U.S. President George Bushjr.’s push to let Ukraine and Georgia in as newmembers in his global campaign to spreaddemocracy. This has only served to increasetensions with Russia (see next argument). Whois to say that something similar isn’t going tohappen vis-à-vis China? [1] [1] Hamilton, Timeto disband Nato now the Cold War is over? 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Continued existence of NATO doesn’t make theworld less safe. With the collapse of the SovietUnion, it is only natural for the members ofNATO to have been trying to define a newpurpose. But discussing to define a new threat,whether that be an enemy state or a broaderglobal security threat, isn’t the same as creatingthat threat. It’s not NATO’s so-called ‘scopecreep’ that makes the world more unsafe, it isactual threats that make the world unsafe, andNATO’s formidable military structure can beuseful in combating these. [1] [1] NATO. NATOadopts new Strategic Concept. 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "NATO does not cont too much it saves money.Through joint exercises and sharing intelligence,member states learn to cooperate andcommunicate more effectively with each other,saving efforts when, if ever, they are forced tocooperate. These benefits alone are worthwhile.Moreover, defence contractors could expect alarger, more unified market, thus driving downaverage cost per unit, because of NATO’s effortsin standardizing requirements.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "NATO runs the unacceptable risk of accidentalescalation The clause that ‘an attack against onemeans an attack against all’ (Article V) runs therisk of entangling the entire alliance in anunwanted conflict. This has happened before:World War I started out as a local conflictbetween the Austro-Hungarian empire andSerbia, but through their security alliancesinadvertently drew in all the major powers of theworld. Given that many members of NATO haveunstable countries near their borders (i.e. Turkeybordering Iraq) there is a risk they could becomeinvolved in a small regional war, which theninadvertently draws in the entire world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "NATO costs too much Maintaining anadministration for NATO, with personnel andbuildings, costs money. Moreover, wheneverNATO-members engage in a mission, they’resupposed to fund their activities under thesemissions themselves. [1] Given that the originalthreat has passed and given that theorganisation still struggles to redefine itself, whyspend money on it? [1] Rapoza, Russia andChina Team Up Against NATO Libya Campaign,2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The EU would do better to develop its ownmilitary capability. Slowly but surely, theEuropean Union is attempting to build its owndefence capability through the Common Securityand Defence Policy, with a strategy, defenceagency and coordinating official separate fromNATO. The process of creating this is slow,because it involves EU-member states sharingthe sovereign control of the monopoly of violenceon their territories. The EU wants this because inits own region, the EU has its own interestswhich it wants to protect by itself. Moreover, whywould NATO-members outside of the EU considerit fair that their collective assets are used forEurope’s particular interests, especially when itinvolves their own related interest, as forexample Turkey’s strenuous relation to the BerlinPlus Agreement shows? [1] [1] Ülgen, TheEvolving EU, NATO, and Turkey Relationship.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Strategic alliances should reflect the specificinterests they serve. The threats mentioned areglobal threats affecting all developed countries,but they affect different countries differently. Forexample, Australia and New-Zealand are closerto North-Korea than Europe is. Shouldn’t they bein a strategic alliance with U.S.? Indonesia andIndia are growing economies and burgeoningdemocracies, both regularly suffering terroristattacks. Shouldn’t they be in a strategic alliancewith the U.S. and Europe? Turkey continues tohave a different strategic view of the threat Iranposes and has a radically divergent strategicinterest in Cyprus than the EU-members inNATO. Why is the EU allied with them throughNATO whilst it has opposing strategicinterests? Without a clearly defined sharedpurpose and shared enemy, NATO will remain atalking shop where members with divergentinterests will continue to frustrate any possible‘coalition of the willing’, rendering NATOpractically useless.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con02a", "title": "", "text": "NATO provides the UN with an effective jointmilitary capability When in early 2011 theUnited Nations Security Council adoptedResolution 1973, calling upon countries andregional organizations to take “all necessarymeasures” to protect the citizens of Libya againstits dictator Ghaddafi, NATO provided effectivesupport through their ‘Operation UnifiedProtector’, through which it enforced the armsembargo against Ghaddafi and the no-fly zoneover Libya. Moreover, the smooth cooperationbetween France, the UK and the US in theiractive campaign to provide air support for therebels in Libya has probably been made easier bythe previous cooperation these countries havehad through NATO.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con04a", "title": "", "text": "NATO allows burden-sharing and specializationamongst its members For many members,maintaining a fully operational military that hasall the required capabilities (air, sea and landplus required logistics) is impossible: they don’thave enough budget, manpower or political willto maintain a full military. NATO allows membersto share their burdens and to specialise.Examples of this are NATO’s AWACS-aircraft(Airborne Warning & Control System) andNATO’s Strategic Airlift Capability. Both areinstances of NATO-allies pooling resources andsharing burdens. [1] [1] NATO. AWACS: NATO’s‘eye in the sky’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con03a", "title": "", "text": "NATO provides the EU with an effective jointmilitary capability As of yet, the European Unionhas little independent military capability tointervene in regional conflicts in neighbouringcountries. The relevance of this became glaringlyapparent during the 1990’s Bosnian war andlater, the Kosovo War: the EU called for theending of hostilities but only when NATO and/orthe UN became involved militarily, was peaceeffectively enforced. Consequently, in 2002NATO and the EU agreed on the Berlin PlusAgreement, allowing the EU to use NATO assets,provided no NATO members vetoed it. Under thisagreement, the EU has been able to hold theirown peacekeeping missions in the Republic ofMacedonia (EUFOR Concordia) and BosniaHerzegovina to oversee the Dayton Agreement(EUFOR Althea). [1] [1] NATO. NATO-EU: AStrategic Partnership.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con01a", "title": "", "text": "NATO is a vital instrument to make the worldsafer In spite of all the bickering, the membersof the NATO-alliance still face shared threats: anuclear armed North-Korea for example, but alsointernational terrorism, threats to internationalsecurity stemming from weak or failed states anda possibility of a nuclear Iran. As in the past,NATO provides an institutionalized dialoguebetween partners with shared interest: Americahas an easily accessible diplomatic forumthrough which it can garner an internationalcoalition for its policies, and European memberstates can benefit from access to US militarytechnology and know-how. That’s whythroughout 2010 and 2011 NATO hassuccessfully formulated a new ‘StrategicConcept’, a joint strategic vision shared by allmembers, as well as a policy to improve NATO’sinvolvement in stabilisation and reconstruction.[1] [1] NATO. Key NATO policy on stabilisationand reconstruction released to the public. 2011.NATO. NATO adopts new Strategic Concept.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con04b", "title": "", "text": "NATO has allowed many members a free ride onU.S. military capability. The little ‘burdensharing’ that is going on can’t hide the fact thatthe main contributor is the U.S. and thatespecially the EU-members have not beeninvesting enough in their own military capability.This has led to NATO becoming, in the words ofU.S. Defence Secretary, a “two-tiered alliance”between “those willing and able to pay the priceand bear the burdens of alliance commitments,and those who enjoy the benefits of NATOmembership”. As long as Europe continues totake a free ride on the U.S., it will never be ableto either shoulder its fair share of the burden, oroperate independently outside of NATO. [1] [1]Gates, Transcript of Defense Secretary Gates’sSpeech on NATO’s Future. 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-oegpdhwdn-con02b", "title": "", "text": "NATO actually undermines the authority of theUN. The attack against the Libyan regime, aswell as NATO’s participation in it, has drawnsevere criticism, especially from Russia andChina, who see the military campaign NATO andthe UK, US and France undertook asoverstepping the boundaries set by resolution1973, against their explicit wishes. If NATO everwere to operate as the de facto military arm ofthe UN Security Council, then China and Russiawould feel alienated from the UN SecurityCouncil, simply because they’re not(veto-wielding) members of NATO. [1] [1]Rapoza, Russia and China Team Up AgainstNATO Libya Campaign, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhwass-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The suggestion that superdelegates vote for oneof their own are simply disproved by theselection of Obama over one half of the mostinfluential couple in the entire party. [i] Obamadrew his support from the grassroots and hisfunding and that was quite sufficient. There issimply no evidence that the superdelegates actas a drag on the party, indeed they haveconsistently followed the popular decision ofparty activists and respected that decision.Indeed the Republican system, withoutsuperdelegates, have most recently selectedGeorge Bush followed by John McCain; it wouldbe difficult to think of two candidates who wouldmore accurately fit either of the descriptions“old, powerful, white men” or “partyestablishment”. [i] 2008 Democratic Delegates,Real Clear Politics, 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhwass-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The disproportionate influence of formerpoliticians inevitably benefits old, powerful, whitemen The influence of superdelegates acts as avehicle for an elite that needs little help. Thesituation in which the superdelegates would bemost likely to act were as the result of themembership of the party selecting someone fromoutside the political class or their friends inbusiness. It was worried that this might happenin 1998 in the close primary contest betweenClinton and Obama. [i] There is no reason thatthis decision should not be left to the members,it is after their party and they should berepresented by whosoever they see fit. Thedecision in a democracy over the governance ofthe country – or the leadership of the party –should be determined by the populous or themembers. Allowing a disproportionate influenceto past leaders and those they have selectedinevitably discourages new ideas and newvoices. [i] Younge, Gary, ‘It’s up to thesuperdelegates to prove Democrats believe in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhwass-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Overwhelmingly senior party figures havepublically declared for a candidate and thesuggestion that this does not involve a degree ofhorse trading is simply naïve. Equally thesuggestion that leaving such negotiations untilafter the election is over would be reckless in theextreme. For anyone seeking reelection theirmost likely request is the candidates involvementin their campaign. In terms of cash donations theamounts concerned are tiny - Obama donatedunder a million to election campaigns and Clintonless than half of that, it doesn’t seemunreasonable that someone wanting to lead theparty into an election campaign should deploysome of their own funds to help get a congressthey can work with.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhwass-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "One person, one vote is a basic principal ofdemocracy when the vote of one person is worth10,000 time as much as that of another is simplyundemocratic It’s simply a violation of basicdemocratic principles for one vote to be worthmore than another. There have been plenty ofother attempts to restrict the rights of partymembers and activists to select candidates byparty insiders keen to sew up the selectionwithout members being consulted,super-delegates were created as a watered downresponse to one of these but the effects are thesame [i] . Regardless of how votes are actuallycast it gives a very poor appearance a sends abad message for a major party – especially onecalled the Democratic Party - to be justifyingsuch a situation. [i] Paul Rockwell. “Screw thevoters. Let the superdelegates decide!” CommonDreams. 18 February 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhwass-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Primaries are a process of selection, not one ofelection. There are plenty of other situations inwhich political parties recognise the need tointroduce particular expertise into theirprocesses such as in drafting policy ordeveloping campaign materials. Superdelegatesact as a balancing mechanism in the event of anemergency or a tie. Other than that the systemsimply ensures that the winning candidate has aclear majority and to provide the leadership withthe party a legitimate reason to attend and showtheir support to those watching at home. Ratherthan providing an unwatchable parade of facesand names that the electorate has never heardof the superdelegate system means that seniorparty officials have the opportunity to say thatthey have actively and publically voted for thesuccessful candidate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhwass-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Candidates solicitation of superdelegatesdamages the political system and requirescandidates to go through contortions to securetheir support Superdelegates, as many aresenators, representatives or officials in thestates, often have their own reelectioncampaigns to secure and as a result their votescan be up for negotiation or go to whichcandidate will be best for their own reelectionchances rather than in the best interests of theparty. Presidential candidates are often preparedto make concessions to superdelegates to securetheir support. There is public acknowledgementof the fact that this process takes place and thefact that they are not obliged to support thecandidate designated by their state parties givesthem enormous bargaining power. For examplein 2008 several Democratic Representatives ofOhio formed a ‘Protect American Jobs’ pact tohold back from endorsements until a candidateaddresses issues of importance to the Ohioeconomy. [i] The system of superdelegates", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhwass-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The very fact that the only time since its creationwhen the superdelegates played a significantrole, they managed to select the mostunelectable candidate in modern Americanhistory – and by their involvement made him,more unelectable still suggests that the systemmay not be working. Their intervention in 1984to nudge Mondale over the winning line produceda candidate who lost in 49 states. If ever therewere a situation when the party elders subtleunderstanding of the electorate might have beenuseful then it was at that election. Instead theysupported the party insider with a mechanism hehad helped design and for exactly the purpose hehad wanted it in place.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhwass-con01b", "title": "", "text": "In such a scenario – which is a little concerned –it can be assumed that exactly the same partyelders could be relied on to pressure thecandidate to resign. Equally the only ‘crisis’ it isconceivable to imagine after months of primariesbeing raked over by the press and politicalopponents would seem to be that party grandeesconsidered that the voters had made ‘the wrongchoice’. The reason that the Mondale case wascontentious was that he wanted – and hadwanted for some time – the party apparatus tohave an even greater say but this was the besthe could get. It also gives the lie to the party‘experts’ capacity to ensure winning candidatesare selected.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhwass-con02a", "title": "", "text": "It’s in the interests of ordinary party membersthat they don’t have to compete withcongressmen to be a delegate Most delegatesare either party activists or, in some states,those selected by the candidate or state partyleaderships for a particular role in thecampaign. It would be unfair to all concerned ifthey had to compete for their place at theconvention with senators and congressmen, as isthe case with the Republicans where the electedrepresentatives often get to be delegates due tobeing a recognisable name. [i] Likewise ensuringthat former party leaders and other elders are inattendance shows both continuity and unity. Itseems unlikely that the average activist fromArkansas would be likely to be sent if thealternative was W.J. Clinton [i] Klonsky, Joanna,‘Backgrounder The Role of Delegates in the U.S.Presidential Nominating Process’, Council onForeign Relations, 10 June 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhwass-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The party leadership has the experience andexpertise of actually winning elections, theyprovide a useful buffer against activists – usuallyfrom the party’s extremes It is a standing jokein both parties that to win the nominationcandidates need to run to the extreme and then,to win the election, run back to the middle. Thevery fact that this disparity exists suggests thathaving a stop button of people who have actuallywon some elections because, by definition, theyhave an understanding of the electorate mightnot be a bad idea. In essence thesuperdelegates act as what in parliamentaryterms as a reviewing chamber, rarely used butuseful in a crisis. [i] [i] Thurow, Glen E., \"The1984 Democratic Primary Election: Issues andImage,\" in Peter W. Schramm and Dennis J.Mahoney, eds. The 1984 Election and the Futureof American Politics (Durham, NC: CarolinaAcademic Press), 1987", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhwass-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It’s useful to have an informed and experiencedgroup involved in the event of a tie and also todeal with any other issues such as a last minutescandal The superdelegates are really a valve todeal with the unexpected. Even in the mostcontentious case of Walter Mondale – in realityonly contentious because it was the first time thesystem had been used – the party had alreadydecided and the superdelegates were justensuring a clear majority. Imagine a scenario inwhich a candidate had won the popular vote onlyto face a major scandal on the eve of theconvention. The role of those electors with a freehand would suddenly look very useful to partymembers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhwass-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is absolutely no reason for the partyleadership not to be invited – and to speak –without being given a vote. Every other partymanages to do so. Working on the basis that BillClinton managed to get an invite to – andaddress – the British Labour party (with KevinSpacey as his sidekick) in 2002, [i] it seemsunlikely that Democrat party managers wouldforget to give him an invite. Indeed the fact thatthe parties great and good have already had aninfluence over the outcome of the nomination interms of giving their support and appearing onthe campaign trail with candidates to give theman extra say at this late stage seems doublyunfair. [i] ‘Speech by Bill Clinton, former USPresident, at the Labour Party Conference,2002’, Winter Gardens, Blackpool, Wednesday 2October 2002,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "If the terrorist organisation was elected asHamas was it is likely that as in 2006/7 whenmuch of the power in the PA remained with theFatah President, Mahmood Abbas, one or otherof the presidency or the parliament would remainin non-terrorist hands so funding should becontinued in order to strengthen that party. Inany case, any party that is willing to stand andcontest relatively free and fair elections, is in thelong term likely to want to bring peace. Workingwith such a government would encourage themoderates within that organisation, and allowthem to understand that helping the Palestinianpeople to a better future requires compromiseand negotiation. This move from terrorism to apolitical process will take time in order forattitudes to change and trust to build. It can onlybe achieved by western commitment to workwith the new government rather than to cut it offentirely.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Withholding funds will prevent PNA terrorism andanti-Semitism. It is clear what Hamas, or anyother terrorist organisation, has to do in order toconvince western governments to continuefunding the Palestinian National Authority with itin charge. It must formally give up terror, acceptthe existence of the state of Israel and drop anyanti-Semitic ideology. Yasser Arafat’s PLO andFatah Party made these commitments in theearly 1990s, and this allowed them to becomenegotiating partners in the Oslo Peace process.[1] Hamas has to take the same steps if it wantsto enjoy the same level of support from westerndonors which the previous Fatah governmenthad. Until it makes these public changes, therewould not be any funding. [1] Schlaim, Avi.“The Rise and Fall of the Oslo Peace Process.”International Relations of the Middle East. 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It would be anti-democratic to punish thePalestinian people for exercising their right tovote. Their vote may not be a vote for terrorismor against the peace process, but rather aresponse to the corruption and anarchy of theruling party, currently Fatah, and itsmismanagement of the Palestinian NationalAuthority. Withdrawing funding is not just asignal of disapproval for the party which iselected, but a clear attempt to bring down thePNA government and overturn the electionresult. After all the years of western criticism ofcorrupt dictatorial regimes, what message doesit send to Arab governments and people if thewest refuses to respect the result of an electionand imposes a collective punishment?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The law prevents US and EU governments fromfunding terrorist groups. Hamas is a terroristorganisation, responsible for killing hundreds ofcivilians, often by sending suicide bombers intoIsrael. Both the European Union and the USState Department have recognised this by listingHamas as a terrorist organisation. Theirgovernments are barred by law from providingany funding to such groups. [1] It is extremelyworrying that such a violent organisationmanaged to win power in the most recentPalestinian election, and that committedterrorists are in government in Gaza and incontrol of the Palestinian budget and securityforces. In 2007 both Western law, and the moraldisgust at the thought that aid funding could beused to fund terror attacks, required the EU andUS to stop funding the Palestinian Authoritywhile under a Hamas government, the samewould almost certainly be the case again ifHamas were to regain power. [1] Schulenburg,John. “Fatah Reconciles With Hamas.” Gateway", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is these western governments themselves whodefine what groups are terrorist groups. Theyboth make the definitions of terrorism and decidewhat groups fall into these definitions. Forexample the United Kingdom regarded the IRA(Irish Republican Army) as being a terroristgroup while the United States did not considerthem a terrorist organisation. [1] Therefore ifthese countries wished to deal with and providefinancial aid to a new Palestinian government,even if it was the political arm of a terroristorganisation they could simply redefine it, aswould almost certainly be the case if the terroristorganisation was perceived as doing somethingthat is in the interests of these westernnations. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The outcome of the Palestinian elections shouldnot be rewarded with aid. A terroristorganisation such as Hamas may bedemocratically elected, but that does not meanwe have to fund its government. Respecting thedecision of the Palestinian people is not the samething as liking their choice or rewarding it withaid. The Palestinian people should realise that avote for Hamas or any other terroristorganisation is a vote for international isolation.Showing our clear disapproval of terrorists ingovernment sends a clear message for futureelections both in Palestine and in other countries.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The history of the IRA does not provide a usefulprecedent for dealing with Hamas. Leaving asidequestions of how genuine the IRA’s conversion topeace and democracy really is, parallels withHamas and the Palestinian conflict aremisleading. Compared to the religiousfundamentalism of Hamas, Irish republicanswere pretty secular and focused on gaining andusing power in this world. They wanted to forceBritain out of Northern Ireland, but not to wipeBritain itself off the map. There has never beenan IRA suicide bomber and, faced with a failingarmed struggle, the movement’s leaders choseto compromise. Hamas is entirely different in itsbeliefs and attitudes, and there is no reason tosuppose that funding it in power will encourage itto change its strategy or aims.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Arab and Muslim states won’t necessarily makeup any budget shortfall if the EU and USA stopfunding the PNA. Many Arab governments wouldbe deeply unhappy at seeing Islamists ingovernment and even though they do not likeIsrael, they have no wish to inflame the situationfurther. More moderate countries in the regionrecognise Israel and want the peace process tomove forward so would be just as likely todemand that a terrorist group gives up terrorand disarms as the west. Iran may be moresympathetic, but almost all Palestinians areSunni rather than Shia Muslims, and Iran has itsown international problems such as sanctionsthat are making an economic impact so it maynot be in a position to subsidize othergovernments. There is also no evidence that thePalestinians would turn to such states. InDecember 2007, 87 countries and internationalorganisations, including Serbia and Nicaragua,pledged to donate $7.4 billion to the PNA overthree years. [1] This amount is far more than", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The loss of funding would destabilise andradicalise Palestine. Palestine is very dependenton foreign aid, the PNA is dependent on aid for50% of its budget and per head the Palestiniansare the biggest recipients of aid in the world. [1]The loss of funding would therefore destabiliseboth the Palestinian National Authority andPalestinian society as a whole. 140,000 PNA jobsare dependent upon the income from westernfunding, and these workers in turn help supportmore than a third of the Palestinian population.[2] Cutting funding could lead to the collapse ofany government system and cause greatsuffering among the people who would lose theirchief source of income has gone. Both thesethings are likely to radicalise the Palestinianpeople further and make peace less likely. [1]Levy, Judith, ‘Palestinian economy dangerouslydependent on foreign aid’, The WashingtonTimes Communities, 27 May 2011, [2]“Palestinians ‘face financial crisis’.” BBC News.21/02/2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Western donors should support fairgovernment The west should supportdemocratically elected, just, uncorruptedgovernment no matter who provides it. Hamascould make a much better government thanFatah, it is a religious movement dedicated topolitical and social action. For many years it hasrun the most effective welfare programmes inthe Palestinian territories, especially Gaza,including orphanages, schools, clinics and helpfor the needy. [1] The honesty and discipline ofits leaders and followers provide a stark contrastwith the corruption and chaos of the Fatah-runadministration of Yasser Arafat and MahmoodAbbas. They paid lip service to the peace processbut either could not, or would not control theirfollowers so as to make a clear commitment topeace. At least with Hamas in power, thePalestinians would be better and more honestlygoverned, and billions of dollars in aid money willno longer be stolen by a corrupt elite. Hamas inGaza by comparison has established an efficient", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Engaging with Hamas is the best way to secure apeace deal between Israel and Palestine. Thereis a clear precedent for engaging with terroristgroups moving towards a political track. LikeHamas in recent years, at the end of the 1970s,the IRA was a terrorist organisation whichrejected the political process. In the early 1980s,Sinn Fein, the political wing of the IRA, decidedto stand for elections. As elected representativesgrappled with local issues and had to work withothers on councils and committees, themovement changed and, in 1994, the IRAdeclared a ceasefire. [1] More recently, Sinn Feinleaders have held ministerial positions inNorthern Ireland and the IRA has ended thearmed struggle. This was a long process but itshows clearly how, if we respect any electedterrorist group’s popular mandate and areprepared to engage with them, they may beencouraged to give up terrorism and makeconcessions for peace. Indeed some hard linersin Hamas controlled Gaza worry that exactly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Withholding funds will cause Palestine to rely onanti-Israeli regimes. Cutting off aid to thePalestinian National Authority would becounter-productive no matter who is elected in.The PNA would have to replace funding fromsomewhere, this would inevitably mean turningfor aid to Muslim and Arab states, such as SaudiArabia and Iran as Hamas did. [1] The west maytherefore simply force the Palestinians in to thearms of countries that are much more hostile toIsrael resulting in the Palestinians simply beingmore hard-line to please their new paymasters.Allowing the Palestinians to become dependentupon such anti-Israel regimes will end anyinfluence the west has had with the PNA andpush it in a more extremist direction. Potentially,such alliances could make a regional conflictmore likely. [1] Watt, Nicholas. “US urges Arabstates to fund Palestinians after Hamas victory.”The Guardian. 31/01/2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This assumes that it is Hamas that is elected oranother group that has been involved in runningwelfare programmes. It should however be notedthat while Hamas has effectively providedwelfare programmes it has at the same timeused those same civilians as human shields.During its time in power in Gaza Hamas has hadlittle impact except for starting a conflict withIsrael, as a result Gaza is in a worse positionthan the West Bank with 80% of the populationdependent on international aid, 61% are foodinsecure and 90% of water supplied is notsuitable for drinking. [1] [1] Hasan, Mehdi, ‘Noend to the strangulation of Gaza’, NewStatesman, 6 January 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ogmepthbeuao-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Cutting off aid to the PNA need not result inmass suffering among the Palestinian people.Humanitarian aid would certainly continue,although this could no longer be channelledthrough the PNA but rather to individual schemesrun by non-governmental organisations. In anycase, the greatest suffering is caused by a lack ofa peace process with Israel. A commitment topeace talks shown by a terrorist group pledgingto end terrorism would help allow the economicdevelopment needed to create jobs and relievepoverty in the Palestinian territories.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Buying time only helps the terrorists. It givesthem time to arm themselves and gain alliesabroad so enabling a more deadly series ofattacks later on. Terrorist groups usually onlyhave a very finite number of resources so thestate should seek to press the terrorist groupuntil it has nothing left to fall back on. It isnotable that each time Israel has failed todestroy groups such as Hezbollah in Lebanon andHamas in Gaza they have quickly beenresupplied b allies in Syria and Iran making themmore difficult to fight next time. [1] [1] Spiegel,Peter, and King, Laura, ‘Israel Says Syria, NotJust Iran, Supplied Missiles to Hezbollah’, LosAngeles Times, 31 August 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "No negotiation encourages the hunt for a biggerlever When fighting terrorists the state eitherneeds to answer some of the terrorists demandsor fight back. When the state fights back the bythe terrorists response is almost always morebloodshed using more and more extrememethods for example the first intifada was foughtusing sticks and stones, but when this, and thepeace process that followed it failed, or ratherdid not show the results that was hoped for, thesecond was a major step up to suicide bombing.This is because when the terrorists fail they areunlikely to pack up; instead they will try to find abigger lever to course the state into making themove they want. In this case Arafat hoped around of violence would bring about concessions.[1] The best way to prevent this cycle of violenceis to negotiate, even if this is mostly to buy time.Even when there is no cease fire there will be noreason for the terrorists to escalate if theirdemands are being taken seriously. [1]Pressman, Jeremy, ‘The Second Intifada:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Whether this happens really depends on thenegotiations. Unfortunately negotiations withoutresult are likely to strengthen the radicals whocan show that the peaceful route is not goinganywhere. The only way to strengthen themoderates is to give them what they want, and ifthis has to be done the concessions could havebeen given before there was a turn to terrorism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Negotiation isolates those who are onlyinterested in violence Just as negotiationsstrengthen the moderates they isolate those whoare most radical and interested in a violentsolution. This isolation is key to actually winninga fight against groups using terrorist methodsbecause terrorists are almost always hidingwithin the community. The only way to preventthese acts is therefore to encourage theircommunity to persuade the terrorists to rejectviolence, or if they are not willing to change toaid the state. The need for help from thecommunity is recognised in almost all conflictsagainst terrorist groups and insurgencies. Thestate succeeds when it gets the moderates onboard, this is shown by the conflict in Iraq wherethe United States turned the tide against alQaeda in the Al-Anbar Awakening. This victorywas only made possible through the engagementand cooperation with local leaders who wantedan end to violence so were willing to talk to, andjoin with the US military if the result was likely to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Negotiation saves lives Almost all terroristgroups kill people, whether innocents ormembers of the military. Even those who limitcasualties by giving warnings of their atrocitiesare unperturbed when they do end up takinglives. Negotiation can then be the best way tosave lives both in the short and long term. In theshort term negotiating can mean a cease fire,and if there are hostages their release. Over thelong term negotiation is necessary if there is tobe any peaceful conclusion to the conflict. As theright to life is the most fundamental right, andthe duty of the states to protect its citizens isprimary role of the state it is clear that theprotection of these lives should be the mainconsideration for the state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "In the long term negotiation and compromise ofsome form is needed to bring about a final peacebut it is not correct that negotiations in the shortterm saves lives. First of all not all terroristgroups will initiate a cease fire if they arenegotiating with the government, about halfcontinue their violence while negotiating, [1] andeven if they do there is no saying all theirsupporters will take part. Negotiating also showsthat the government is weak; the determinationto 'save lives' can end up costing more lives asthe terrorists see that they violence is payingdividends. They may come to the conclusion thatif they kill more they will gain moreconcessions. [1] Cronin, Audrey Kurth,‘Negotiating with groups that use terrorism:Lessons for policy-makers’, Centre forHumanitarian Dialogue Background papers,2008, p.6", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Negotiations are not needed to isolate terrorists.The vast majority of citizens will abhor violenceas they simply desire a quiet life in which theycan make a peaceful living. The best way for thegovernment to isolate the terrorists is to ensurethe security of the community and meet some oftheir grievances. When the community sees thatthey government is in a better position toprovide what they want they will support thegovernment. The situation in Iraq was unusual inthat there were important people in thecommunity who at one point or another activelysupported Al Qaeda so there needed to benegotiations with these people. In mostcircumstances the important members of thecommunity are on the sidelines so negotiatingwith them would not be analogous to negotiatingwith terrorists.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There is nothing wrong with attempts to solvethe individual grievance without reference to theterrorist group. The aim of resolving thegrievance is to prevent more people joining theextremists and to isolate them from the people.When this is done it will be much easier to catchthe people who are responsible for the terroristatrocities and bring them to justice. Being willingto negotiate with the terrorist group on the otherhand will likely lead to some of the concessionsbeing that terrorists or former terrorist manageto escape justice for their acts as they will wantsuch an amnesty to be a part of the concessionsthey receive in return for giving up violence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Negotiation encourages moderation In everyterrorist movement there are different factionsand disagreements about how best to achievetheir collective aims, and often terrorist groupshave either direct or indirect ties with politicalparties with whom they share the same goals. Itis clearly then in the interest of the state tostrengthen the more acceptable parts of themovement whether can seriously talk to. Theonly way to strengthen the moderates is tonegotiate. This then makes their path to asolution the more credible course for themovement as a whole to take. To demonstrate anegative example the United States and Israelwere unwilling to negotiate with moderateswithin the PLO for fifteen years during whichtime not only was there a lot more bloodshed butmuch more radical groups formed on thePalestinian side making negotiations much morecomplicated in the long run as there would bemultiple groups who would need to sign up to afinal peace treaty. [1] [1] Chamberlin, Paul", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Negotiation is the only way to solve theunderlying problem UN Secretary General KofiAnnan stated in 2003 “terrorism will only bedefeated if we act to solve the political disputesand long-standing conflicts which generatesupport for it. If we do not, we shall findourselves acting as a recruiting sergeant for thevery terrorists we seek to suppress.” [1]Terrorist campaigns don't just come out ofnowhere (with the exception of some singleindividual acts), there is a grievance behind theacts. The terrorist is trying to have this grievancedealt with and believes the best way to this endis through violence. It is clear that the easiestway to end the conflict is simply to resolve thegrievance. Even when there are no negotiationsthe state will usually attempt to resolve some ofthese grievances, however doing so unilaterallywill simply show that the terrorist's violence isworking without getting any guarantees of anend to the violence in return. Negotiationtherefore benefits both sides. It is notable that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is very rare for such negotiations to provide abenefit to terrorist groups. Many states, such asthe UK and USA, are unwilling to provide ransompayments so where they are provided they areoften privately raised thus cannot be consideredto be a result of negotiation. In suchcircumstances the state will have secured therelease of hostages and the life of a state'scitizens should be placed above comparativelysmall amounts of money. Where prisoners arebeing released as a confidence building measurethe terrorists will usually be making someconcession as well such as giving up some armsso the state does not end up worse off but thereis more trust to enable negotiations to preventmore violence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "A precondition that terrorists must give up theirarms and renounce violence before negotiationswill ensure that negotiations never come and theviolence will continue indefinitely. Terroristsrealise that their influence is only as a result oftheir threat of violence; once this has beenrenounced the government will never have anyreason to give them what they want. The onlyresponse to such a precondition is to force thegovernment to drop that condition throughviolence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Negotiation encourages more terrorism Thereare two ways in which negotiation encouragesmore terrorism. First it shows that violence canachieve its aims, a group that has committedviolent acts and received negotiations in returnwill believe that they will gain even more fromgreater levels of violence. Secondly as argued inthe previous point negotiations with terroristgroups gives legitimacy to political violence. Thisin turn will encourage other groups to resort toviolence to achieve their political goals as theyhave seen it work for another group. Thus forexample when the Fatah movement and thePalestine Liberation Organisation werelegitimised by a peace process and therecognition of a form of Palestinian governmentother groups such as Islamic Jihad and Hamascame to believe that they could take terroristactions further in order to liberate Palestinethrough an armed struggle. [1] [1] Schweitzer,Yoram, ‘The Rise and Fall of Suicide Bombings inthe Second Intifada’, Strategis Assessment,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Even if negotiation with one group is successfulothers will take their place Terrorist groups arerarely static, they change, evolve, and break up.Negotiating with one group may create peacewith that group while at the same time causing asplit that creates another group that is morewilling to use violence. This is what happened inNorthern Ireland where the peace process tamedthe IRA and spawned the Real IRA, [1] a groupthat was more even more willing to kill innocentsthan its predecessor through attacks such as theOmagh bombing which killed 29 people in 1998.[2] [1] Moran, Michael, ‘Terrorist Groups andPolitical Legitimacy’, Council on ForeignRelations, 16 March 2006, [2] Elliott, Francis,‘Real IRA admits to Omagh bomb and disbands’,The Telegraph, 20 October 2002,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Terrorists can’t be trusted – better to crushthem Any group that is willing to resort toviolence cannot be trusted not to simply take uparms again as soon as they perceive some newgrievance. Groups that believe they can achievewhat they want through force of arms will turn toviolence again and again. This can be seen allover the world; thus ETA regularly declaresceasefires and breaks them just as often (1989,1996, 1998, 2006), [1] or civil wars that haveseemed to be coming to a close reignite becauseone or more groups believe they can gain morefrom another round of fighting. Thus the TamilTigers fought what might be considered to befour separate wars with the Sri Lankan state witha lot of ceasefires along the way. [2] It washowever not negotiations but the pursuit of aruthless military campaign that finally broughtthe reunification of the country. [3] [1] Dingle,Sarah, ‘ETA militants declare end to armedstruggle’, ABC The World Today, 21 October2011, [2] ‘Sri Lanka profile Timeline’, BBC", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Negotiation provides more resources toterrorists Negotiation can help the terrorists whoare negotiating in several ways. First it buystime; if the terrorist group has previously beenhard pressed by the state's military then thistime can be used to rest, recover and resupply,in effect for preparing for the next campaign.This is what happens whenever there is aceasefire, or a unilateral break, in the campaignin Lebanon or Palestine as those states which arealigned to the terrorist groups such as Syria andIran seek to resupply their allies. [1] Second insome cases negotiation can involve the statehanding over resources to the terrorist group.This is most often the case with hostagenegotiations where the terrorists demand therelease of other terrorists who have beencaptured so boosting the groups manpower orelse demand a ransom in return for the releaseof hostages. Somalia has over the last decaderegularly seen payouts of ransoms to groups ofpirates who have links to islamists [2] and are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-con05b", "title": "", "text": "The real IRA also shows how negotiation issuccessful. The new group did not have the tacitsupport from abroad in the form of the Republicof Ireland or the USA or resources of itspredecessor. The violent campaign destroyedany public support and the group disbanded, itsleaders were eventually found liable for thebombing. [1] The political process through theStormont Parliament is now the accepted way topeace and reconciliation in Northern Ireland. [1]McDonald, Henry, ‘Four Real IRA leaders foundliable for Omagh bombing’, theguardian.com, 8June 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Negotiations cannot take place while innocentsare being threatened Governments cannotnegotiate while innocent civilians are beingthreatened by illegitimate violence. The state isthe only wielder of legitimate violence in theform of the police and military that are needed tokeep order and defend the state's citizens. Tonegotiate with terrorists is to provide them withlegitimacy making violence an accepted way ofachieving political aims. Before legitimacy isgranted upon the terrorist group they must firstgive up their weapons and renounce violence. Bytaking such a position the state ensures that nolives will be taken during the political process.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Simply because a terrorist group has brokenceasefires numerous times does not mean thatthe next attempt will get nowhere – in ETA’s casethe current ceasefire is holding. [1] We shouldalso remember that not every time the terroristgroup breaks a ceasefire it has been result ofactions by the terrorist group – the state canalso be the one that is walking away from talks.Ultimately there needs to be trust on both sides,to the terrorists the state seems asuntrustworthy as the terrorists do to thestate. [1] ‘Spain and ETA Always around’, TheEconomist, 17 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-thwnt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is no question that violence can sometimesachieve its aims but each individual campaign isdifferent and is responded to in different waysthus for example a terrorist group that achievesminimal aims through violence cannot be used asa model by a group whose aims present anexistential threat to the state. Thus for examplethe IRA achieved devolution after years ofbombings but this does not them mean that theReal IRA was ever going to be successful inobtain a complete break with the UK.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There will always be some wasted spending butearmarks often appropriate money for projectsthat are considered very worthwhile by the localcommunity. [1] After all, representatives knowthat useless vanity projects will not attractpositive headlines back home, so they haveevery incentive to ensure that the money goesinto stimulating local economies, investing inneglected communities, and making a positiveimpact on the lives of millions of Americans. [2]For example Senator McCain singled out$6.6million for research on Formosan termites asunjustified but for local people they represent athreat to buildings as they consume wood. [3]Furthermore, who is more likely to appreciatethe needs on the ground, a faceless,unaccountable Washington-based bureaucrat, oran elected local representative closely in touchwith the needs of their constituents? As RahmEmanuel argues “I know more about the needsof the people I represent than some bureaucratin Washington, an ideologue in the White House,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Earmarks do not represent an efficient use oftaxpayers' money Earmarks usually representexpensive programs of little worth to theAmerican people. As the main means of porkbarrel politics, earmarks are typically vanityprojects with little economic benefit. Examplesinclude the Alaskan “Bridge to Nowhere” (a $400million project to connect an island community ofjust 50 people to the mainland), [1] $1 millionfor shuttle buses at Western KentuckyUniversity, [2] and a grant of $300 000 for thePolynesian Voyaging Society of Hawaii. [3]Worse, a recent Harvard Business School studyfound that states which received the mostfederal spending via earmarks fromwell-connected Congressmen actually sufferedeconomically as a result, because the federalmoney crowded out private investment anddistorted the local jobs market. [4] [1] Volpe,Paul, ‘Politifact: ‘Bridge’ Going Nowhere BeforePalin Killed It’, 2008 [2] WKU News, ‘Fundingsecured for 2 more projects’, 2009 [3] Mendoza,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "What erodes trust in Congress is the endlesssquabbling between parties who put their ownpartisan advantage over the national interest,not the lobbying of individual representativesand senators on behalf of their constituents.Politicians erode trust by loudly arguing thatgovernment is the problem. [1] Earmarks are infact important in linking Congress to citizens, asthey produce concrete benefits at a local levelthat can be associated with the activities ofelected officials. This increases trust and helps tolegitimise the wider activities of the federalgovernment, including its taxes. This helps toexplain why opinion polls find that most peopletrust their own Congressman to do the rightthing, even as confidence in Congress as a wholesinks to record lows. [2] [1] Sell, T.M., ‘A fewkind words for earmarks’, 2009 [2] Reich,Robert, ‘House of Ill-Repute: It’s Time to BanEarmarks”, 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Earmarks do not accord with democraticprinciples of equity, fairness andjustice Earmarks are fundamentally unfair,benefiting some states and congressionaldistricts much more than others regardless of themerits of their case for federal spending. Wherespending priorities are decided by the executivethey can set objective criteria and organisecompetitive bidding processes for specificprojects. Earmarks avoid this merit-basedapproach and instead channel money to specificprojects according to how well-connected theirCongressional representatives are. [1]Congressmen on the key spending committees,especially the Appropriations Committees, arebest placed to channel pork back to theirdistricts. It has been found that earmarkspending rises between 40-50% in a state if oneof its Senators becomes Chair of a top-threecommittee. [2] [1] Minge, David, ‘The CaseAgainst Academic Earmarking’ [2] Coval, Joshuaet al., ‘Do Powerful Politicians Cause Corporate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Abolishing earmarks will save money Scrappingearmarks will save billions of dollars andcontribute to reducing the appalling US budgetdeficit. Earmarks totalled about $16 billion of the2009-10 budget, [1] unnecessary spendingwhich should be cut in the interests of bothpresent and future US taxpayers. Earmarks canbe a large amount of a department’s budget, in2005 the Office of Naval Research derived aquarter of its budget through earmarks. [2]Granted, removing earmarks alone will not besufficient to eliminate the budget deficit and getrid of wasteful government spending, butearmarks are the obvious place to start. Untilthese most egregious examples of waste aretackled, it will not be possible to move on to cutbigger spending programs. [1] Kane, Paul,‘Congressional earmarks worth nearly $16billion’, 2010 [2] Charging RINO, ‘The Problemwith Earmarks’, 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Scrapping earmarks won’t save money, it’s just adistraction from the real challenge thegovernment faces. As Earmarks are just a way ofdescribing a government funded program [1]they do not represent additional governmentspending, they simply appropriate small amountsof it (less than 0.5% of the whole US budget,and only 1.5% of discretionary spending) forspecific projects. [2] If the earmarks were notthere, the money would still be spent; its usewould simply be decided by the executive branchrather than directed to a particular end byCongress. For this reason, ending the use ofearmarks will do nothing to cut the deficit. If youwere serious about doing that you would have tothink about cutting entitlement programs such asMedicare and Medicaid, raising the pension agefurther, reducing military expenditure, andincreasing taxes. [3] [1] Harris-Lacewell,Melissa, ‘In Defense of Earmarks’ 2009 [2] Sell,T.M., ‘A few kind words for earmarks’, 2009 [3]Hoyer, Steny H., ‘’Pork’ doesn’t fatten budget’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "All spending benefits some states over others, allthat depends is the actors who are deciding onwhere the money goes. If spending is equal perperson then it can be accused of not beingprogressive or benefiting states that need itmore. If it is made by some other method then itwill always favor some over others. It is rightthat those who are determining where money isgoing should be elected representatives ratherthan a bureaucrat or a simple formula.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Some observers would argue that Congresssuffers from a lack of party unity, rather than toomuch of it, and that anything that helps theleaderships to deliver on their party’s campaignpromises is of value. So the promise of earmarksis part of the normal give-and-take of legislativepolitics, often allowing a representative toameliorate the adverse impact of a policy at alocal level and allow necessary bills to be passed.[1] However, even if you think this is bad,eliminating earmarks will not get rid of undueinfluence on voting in Congress. Instead it willhand that power to the executive, with the WhiteHouse being able to offer incentives to waveringCongressmen to get them to vote for itsprograms in the form of promises aboutincreased spending on projects in their state ordistrict. [1] Plumber, Bradford, ‘The liberal casefor pork’, 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Earmarks erode trust in the government Theuse of earmarks erodes trust in politicians andthe federal government for two reasons. First, itreinforces a belief that politicians ignore thewider national interest but are simply out forthemselves, scrabbling to channel as muchfederal pork as possible back home in order toaggrandise themselves and ensure re-election.Second, it assumes that the answer to everylocal problem or issue is for the federalgovernment to raise yet more tax revenue andbestow it from on high becauseWashington-knows-best. It is a symbol thatmakes it hard to resist spending both forpoliticians and their constituents. [1] [1] Minge,David, ‘The Case Against Academic Earmarking’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Earmarks transfer too much power to politicalparties' central leadership The ability to supportor withhold approval from earmarks strengthensthe party leaderships in Congress too much.Effectively the leadership can bribe electedrepresentatives with pork for their state ordistrict in order to get them to vote for flawedlegislation or budgets. This was clearly seen inthe 2010 Healthcare bill where in the Senatevotes were secured from conservative Democratsby offering federal spending or subsidies thatonly affected the states of Louisiana andNebraska. [1] One consequence of thetemptation provided by earmarks is poorpolicy-making, but more broadly it discouragesCongressmen from thinking and votingindependently, according to their consciencesand their belief in what is best for thenation. [1] Murray, Shailagh and Montgomery,Lori, ‘Deal on health bill is reached’, 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Earmarks may represent relatively small sums inthemselves, but they act as a “gateway drug” tomore profligate spending. By giving individualCongressmen the gratification of directing smallamounts of taxpayers’ money to their ownadvantage, it makes it more likely they won’t sayno later when major new spending proposals likeObamacare are put up for a vote. An addiction toearmarks also reinforces the Washingtonassumption that more government spending andintervention is always the answer.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The power of the purse was given to congress inorder to keep taxation down, and thereforespending as well. Unnecessary spending onearmarks is therefore opposed to the foundingfathers intentions. [1] [1] ThisNation.com,‘Congressional Power’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Earmarking should become a transparent andpublicly monitored process The use of earmarkshas become progressively more transparent andaccountable in recent years. [1] [2] There is nowa Congressional database of earmark requests, arequirement on representatives and senators fordisclosure on their websites, as well as acertification obligation that they declare thatneither they nor their family will benefit from therequested appropriation. Earmarks are thus a“nonbureaucratic, transparent system ofrapid-response grants for pressing localconcerns”, something which is genuinely useful.[3] There however could be further reforms suchas having committees authorize all spending andbanning last minute vote buying. [4] Theattention given to earmarks by the media andcampaigning groups means that requests nowreceive far more scrutiny than they did in thepast so we can be sure that campaigners and thepress will make sure what they do is benefitingtheir constituency. [5] [1] Emanuel, Rahm,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Imposing a ban on earmarking will destabilisecongrerss There is very little chance of Congressever being willing to give up on having earmarksfor their constituency’s. If the ban is voluntarymany will not comply and if the ban is mandatoryit will need congress to agree to it in the firstplace. Even those who voice opposition toearmarks make use of the system so it wouldnever pass. [1] [1] Elander, Eugene, ‘So, what’swrong with earmarks?’, 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Earmarks help to create congressionalstability In a system with a two-yearly electioncycle, a certain element of incumbent advantageprovides stability and continuity in the legislature(and re-election rates have been sharply down inboth 2008 and 2010). Many other factorspromote incumbency, including the mediaattention a Congressmen rightly receives backhome, perks of office such as large staffs andgenerous travel expenses, redistricting, and theability of an incumbent to call upon an existingnetwork of volunteers and donors to supporttheir re-election bid. In any case, earmarks areonly a tiny share of overall spending, anddonations from local interest groups are usuallyheavily outweighed by both individualcontributions and those from nationalorganisations. Their money goes to candidateswho share their ideological position and who theyfeel will vote to support the major legislative andbudget initiatives they favour.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Congressional earmarks are a check on anexcessively powerful executive branch Theability of Congress to earmark funds is animportant check on the Presidency. Remember,removing earmarks does not save any money, itjust means the executive rather than thelegislature determines how it will be spent. [1]There are plenty of examples of USadministrations spending money wastefully, [2]and others of Congress forcing them to commitmoney to worthwhile programs – both theimproved body armour for troops and thePredator drone program originated as earmarks.As it is difficult to determine what is waste andwhat is not the books should be opened toscrutiny letting the public decide rather thanthere being an outright ban. [3] [1] Rockwell,Lew, ‘In Defense of Earmarks’ 2008 [2] Elander,Eugene, ‘So, what’s wrong with earmarks?’,2009 [3] Los Angeles Times, ‘Earmark games inWashington’, 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-con05b", "title": "", "text": "A ban is perfectly possible and Congress hascome close already, for example with the housebanning earmarks to for profit companies.[1] [1] Kane, Paul, ‘House bans earmarks tofor-profit companies’, 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Earmarks are part of the power of thepurse Earmarks are an important aspect ofCongress’s proper powers and role within theconstitution, they have been used since the early19th Century. [1] The US Constitution givesCongress the power of the purse – exclusiveauthority over the raising of money and itsappropriation to particular spending areas.Directing federal funds to individual projects at alocal level is an important part of this; [2] indeedmany Congressmen such as Rahm Emanuelconsider it their duty for which they can be heldaccountable by voters. [3] It is part of havingseveral layers of accountability andrepresentation at the federal level, congressmenfor local interests, Senators for states and thePresident for the whole country. [4] Theunconstitutional alternative is for Congress tocede this power entirely to the executivebranch. [1] Plumber, Bradford, ‘The liberal casefor pork’, 2006 [2] Feehery, John, ‘Reform,don’t ban, earmarks’, 2009 [3] Emanuel, Rahm,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Earmarks serve to strengthen the advantages ofincumbency when Congressmen seek re-election.They are used to generate pork barrel spendingin the constituency, for example a formersenator of Nevada claims the University ofNebraska lost $30 million per year when heretired, [1] which the Congressman can point toas an argument for their re-election, especially ifthey have seniority and a place on a majorspending committee. [2] They may also make iteasier for incumbents to raise large campaigncontributions from grateful companies andindustry associations, in 2007 people atcompanies that received defense earmarks gavelawmakers more than $47 million. [3] Thesereasons help to explain why incumbentre-election rates in Congress are regularly above90%, a worrying trend as it suggests there islimited democratic accountability. [1] Minge,David, ‘The Case Against AcademicEarmarking’ [2] Henke, John, ‘Why Earmarksare a Problem’, 2008 [3] Heath, David and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-appghwace-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Transparency is difficult in such immensespending bills as there is no way theappropriations committee can vet all thethousands of earmarks. [1] [2] Earmarks movebelow the radar so earmarks encouragecorruption. [3] Although collusion cannot easilybe proved, the ability of a Congressman to solicitcampaign contributions in exchange for usingearmarks to provide federal investment,subsidies, tariff protection and tax breaks forindividual firms and industries is worrying.[4] [1] Rauch, Jonathan, ‘Earmarks Are AModel, Not A Menace’, 2009 [2] Minge, David,‘The Case Against Academic Earmarking’ [3]Minge, David, ‘The Case Against AcademicEarmarking’ [4] Lessig, Lawrence, ‘the wong inearmarks’, 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Cooperation and compromise often does nothappen and acknowledging a wide range ofpublic opinion is the main reason why they cantcompromise. Firstly, they frequently won’t agree,which will lead to tortuously slow progress oreven to having no government for the country.This happened after the general election inBelgium in 2010, when the record was broken forthe time taken to form a new democraticgovernment after an election (The Telegraph,‘Belgium wins Guinness World Record for politicalimpasse’). This occurred because none of theparties are willing to compromise over electionpromises and yet do not want to have to fightanother election. However if a government is tobe formed the parties involved will have to makecompromises and resulting in tearing up some oftheir promises, betraying those who voted forthem. The alternative is the expense of going tothe country again, with no guarantee of adifferent result.(DW-world.de, 2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Coalition government is a goodthing. Adversarial democratic systems such asthe United States, Britain and Australia havebeen becoming increasingly dysfunctional withpolitics simply being a shouting match. Coalitiongovernments lead to cooperation andcompromise between parties.(Woldring, 2011)Governments which are forced to acknowledge awide range of public opinion are less likely tointroduce policies which victimise minorities orride roughshod over public opinion for ideologicalreasons; for example, the poll tax in the UK,1988-92. Empirically, countries with PR systems,such as Germany, show that great prosperity canresult from the policies of such governments.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There is no reason to assume that there will bean increase in political engagement. Votes willsimply not count in different ways. If there aremore coalitions, people could feel their votedoesn’t count even more strongly, as they willsee that the parties they vote for change theirpolicies once in government. What is the point invoting for a platform if the party that is pledgingto fulfil these promises is simply going to dropthem as soon as the election is over and thenegotiations begin?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "PR produces fairer results First past the post(FPTP) often results in a party without majoritysupport being able to dominate parliament.Minority parties, such as the Green party andUKIP (in the UK), which can win 5-10% or so ofthe vote all over the country, can fail to win asingle seat. In the UK 2010 general election,UKIP received 919,546 votes across the country,but not a single seat (BBC News, UK 2010general election results). Parties with a uniformvote across the country are punished unfairly.Thus in Singapore’s general election of 2011 theNational Solidarity Party contested 24 seats andwon 39.25% of the valid votes across the wardsit contested yet still failed to win anyseats.(Wikipedia, Singaporean general election,2011) Theoretically parties could win hugenumbers of votes, potentially up to 49% in everyconstituency, without ever getting anyrepresentation in parliament. As such FPTPfavours parties that appeal to local issues or toparticular segments of the population these", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "As there are many different forms of proportionalrepresentation some of them will be fairer thanothers. Implementing AV for example may helpsort out the problem of MPs not receiving amajority in their constituency as they will nowneed to receive 50% of the vote in order to beelected. Yet it will do nothing for the other twoproblems identified. Minority parties are stillunlikely to get any seats and parties with theirvote uniformly spread across the country will stillbe punished. AV in both cases still favoursgeographically centered parties and still favorsthe top two parties over any smaller one as thesmall parties will drop out as the ballots arecounted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "If seats are safe, that is because people arecontinuing to vote for a party that they aresatisfied with. Furthermore, it is perfectlypossible for politicians to lose safe seats if theelectorate is no longer happy with them; forexample, in 2008, the Scottish National Party(SNP) won Glasgow East, one of Labour’s safestseats (BBC News, ‘SNP stuns Labour in GlasgowEast’). In almost every constituency the numberof people who do not vote outnumbers the voteof the winning party. This means if those whodon’t vote all got out and voted the electioncould go any way, they could elect in a fringeparty if voting together. So look at Kirkcaldy andCowdenbeath, one of the safest seats in thecountry, former British Prime Minister GordonBrown’s seat. In 2010 Labour won with 65.2% ofthe vote,(Electoral Calculus, 2010) with 29559labour votes compared to 6550 SNP a majority of23009.(Wells, 2010) However in this seatturnout was only 62.2% that means that 27863people did not vote, considerably more than", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "PR increases political engagement which benefitssociety. PR results in more engagement inpolitics as every vote counts (CPA/Wilton Parkconference, ‘How can Parliamentarians bestre-engage the public?’). Political participation isgood and we should care about the low voterturnout in elections that has been caused by firstpast the post. Surveys show that that those whovote are more engaged in the community inother ways and have better personal wellbeing.Research in Switzerland has shown that votingdoes make people happier as well as being betterinformed citizens. The higher the stake theperson has, and the more likely their vote is tocount the more effort they will make to find outthe facts so as to make informed choices.(Markset al., 2005, p5-6)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Safe seats will be reduced. All political partieshave seats that they consider safe and unlikelyto lose. If a person in an inner city constituencythat has a strong Labour history, wishes to votefor someone other than Labour, then their vote iseffectively null and void. Labour will win amajority however they vote. The fact that theseat is so safe means that there is effectivelyvery little effect people can have, resulting inthousands of people's vote being wasted andhaving no effect when it comes to forming agovernment. In the 2010 UK general election theresult was decided by less than 460,000 votersin only 111 constituencies. This gives an unfairamount of political influence to a tiny minority ofthe electorate while making the majority’s votesclose to worthless.(Miliband, 2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "On the contrary having several manifestos usedby a coalition actually means that there aremany more people who get some of the policiesthey voted for passed. Under FPTP only aminority has ever voted for the manifesto thatwins and gets implemented. If there is a coalitioncreated by PR then more than 50% of theelectorate will be getting a large amount of thepolicies they voted for implemented. The wholeissue of manifesto promises also makes theassumption that parties always stick to themwhen they get into power. This is not the caseeven under single party government. Electionpromises are often not implemented aspoliticians are simply using them to win anelection, they may realise that the policy will notform the basis of a sensible government policy,or be too politically difficult to implement.Creation of a democratically elected House ofLords was in every New Labour manifesto, yetafter three terms in power was at best halfcomplete.(Summers, Labour’s attempts to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "A lot of successful countries use PR, so clearly itdoesn’t lead to instability. In particular coalitionsdon’t always mean weak government. Forexample, Germany uses PR and has coalitions,yet is one of the strongest economies in theworld and a significant power within Europe.Furthermore, Canada, India and the UK use FPTPand all have had coalitions. The UK coalition hasso far proven to be both strong and radical.Michael Portillo, a former Conservative Ministerof Defence has argued \"They have been moreradical on deficit reduction than say MargaretThatcher was, but on top of doing that verydifficult fiscal adjustment, they are also reformedschools, health, welfare, and pensions - areaswhere Margaret Thatcher didn't care totackle.\"(Today, 2011) The assumption thatProportional Representation leads to coalitionalso needs to be examined. Australia has fordecades had strong single party governmentunder the Alternative Vote.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "PR creates an unfair balance of power. Coalitiongovernment is actually unfair, as small partieswith only a few percent of support nationally canhold the balance of power. This can result inthem being able to force through unpopular orsectarian policies with no national mandate as aprice for their support in parliament; forexample, the Dutch coalition lost its majority in2011, meaning it may have to rely on thesupport of the SGP, a very small conservativeChristian party that does not even allow womento be members (Financial Times, ‘Dutch Coalitionloses Senate majority). Particularly when thereis only one potential small party that could be acoalition partner for the biggest party(s) thatsmall party potentially holds a lot more powerthan their number of seats in parliament wouldimply. When either of the main parties couldform a government the small party can negotiatewith both to get the best deal possible. And oncein government they can threaten to walk out ifthey do not get their way on the issues that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Extremist parties will rise under PR. Ademocracy means that everybody’s view shouldbe valued equally. However much some peoplemight dislike one party, other people still havethe right to vote for them. If extremist parties dogain seats, then it shows the government needsto do more to address concerns. Moreover thereare plenty of ways to avoid this problem in aproportional system, for example the Germanmodel of setting a lower bar that needs to becrossed before a party can have anyrepresentation in parliament. This would showthat it is a party that can attract sufficientsupport to be worthy of representing those viewsin parliament.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The link between constituencies and Members ofParliament is important. Most PR systems wouldresult in a break between the constituency andparliament. It is important that there is a singleMP that represents a particular area. Havingconstituencies means that every citizen feels thatthey have a personal representative inparliament. Much of the work of an MP isconstituency business, resolving problemsencountered by constituents and raising theparticular concerns of their geographical areawith the government. The importance of this linkcan be shown in the difference in feeling towardsindividual’s own representative and theparliament as a whole. In 2010 there was adissatisfaction in parliament as a whole of 38%whereas only 16% were dissatisfied with the jobof their own MP.(Hansard Society, Audit ofPolitical Engagement 7, p.29, p.88)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "PR decreases political engagement. PR results inless engagement in politics as voters do not getwhat they voted for – instead post-election dealsbetween the parties create coalitions which donot feel bound by manifesto promises. In orderto create coalitions there is a need for parties tobe flexible on their manifestos especially wherethey contradict each other. As elections seldomresult in all the parties in a governing coalitionleaving power, in practice accountability isblurred and voters feel alienated from thepolitical process. In addition, many PR systemsare very complex and off-putting for voters.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "PR leads to weaker government. Typically underPR, no one party gains a majority of the popularvote, so coalition governments have to beformed often between four or more parties. Thistends to produce unstable governments,changing as parties leave or join the governingcoalition, and frequent elections. Governmentsare unable to put a clear, positive legislativeagenda in place over several years or actdecisively in time of crisis. Compare this to thestrong governing majorities produced by FPTP,such as the Conservatives in the 1980s in theUK, which allowed them to push throughunpopular but necessary policies, such astackling trade unions and reducing inflation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con04b", "title": "", "text": "A proportional electoral system is more likely toreturn seats for smaller parties. Amongst thesesmaller parties, it is likely that we will findparties on either extreme of the left-rightspectrum. The British National Party campaignedfor PR for this reason (Channel 4 Fact Check,‘Would AV help or hinder the BNP?’). Potentiallyeven more extreme parties, such as the EnglishDefence League, could get members ofparliament under some proportional systems. Itis not beneficial to the country to have extremistgroups like this in parliament.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggllgvhwa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Junior partners are by definition junior. It is thebiggist party in the coalition that gets the topjob; President or Prime Minister while the minorparty has to make do with much more juniorroles – the Foreign Ministry has been popular inGermany. In the UK Conservative-Liberaldemocrat coalition the senior partner theconservatives hold all the big offices: PrimeMinister, Chancellor, Foreign Office and HomeOffice. Even if they have to compromise on someissues it is the senior partner that is setting thegovernment agenda.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "In a corrupt system the military is likely to becorrupt too. It will have its own sectionalinterest; getting as much funds for itself, orhyping possible threats. The military interest canoften lead to far worse things than corruption –such as wars. 1 In countries where the military ispowerful it is likely to have large private intereststoo; in Egypt the military's holdings in theeconomy is estimated at anywhere from 5 to60% of GDP though the military itself says itsrevenue from its private businesses is only 1%this is still a large interest. 2 1 Snyder, Jack,Myths of Empire, Cornell University Press,1991 2 Hauslohner, Abigail, 'Egypt's 'MilitaryInc' expands its control of the economy',Guardian Weekly, 18 March 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A technocratic government is needed to preventcorruption Democracy does not mean that acountry is not corrupt, or that the politicalleadership is not corrupt. There are manycountries where democratic elections stand sideby side with a large amount of corruption;Afghanistan, Libya and Iraq countries that haverecently had elections following westernintervention are ranked 175, 172, and 171 out of177 on the corruption perceptions index. Evencountries with long established democracies canbe perceived as being corrupt, India is 94th. 1 Ifthe political class is incapable of reforming itselfit may be necessary for another actor to do it forthem. There have been several coups in whichthe military has taken power in order to reformthe political system before handing over to acivilian government at elections; Turkey in 1960,Portugal in 1974, and the relatively recent coupin Bangladesh in 2007. 2 1 TransparencyInternational, 'Corruptions Perceptions Index2013', 2 Marinov, Nikolay, and Goemans, Hein,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "A military government may well be as riven byfactionalism and division as the system which itreplaces. The main interests of the military isoften simply to maintain or increase the positionof the military, this makes it likely there will bedisagreement on other issues including over howquickly to return to democratic government. Themilitary will often opt to return to barracks ratherthan have such splits become too deep “Militaryregimes thus contain the seeds of their owndestruction” as there is almost bound to be asplit into factions at some point when governinga country. 1 1 Geddes, Barbara, 'What do weknow about democratization after twentyyears?', Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.2,1999, pp.115-144, , p.131", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Necessary to restore peace to the country Theclearest, and most common, reason for themilitary stepping in is to restore peace to thecountry. When the stakes are so high, powerthrough control of government, the ability todistribute resources, it is something well worthfighting for. The result can be that democraciesbecome unstable and violent with electioncampaigns particular flashpoints. The runup tothe Thai elections in 2014 shortly before thecoup left 10 dead and 600 injured 1 with no signof stability returning after the flawed electionsGeneral Prayuth Chan-ocha the head of the armysaid the coup was necessary “in order for thecountry to return to normality quickly, and forsociety to love and be at peace again.” 2 Whenthere violence creating violence it is themilitary's role to step in the prevent suchinstability. 1 Wilkinson, Laura, 'Thailandelections: Violent clashes in Bangkok overdisputed poll', The Independent, 2 February2014, 2 Hodal, Kate, 'Coup needed for Thailand", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "In a country that is so polarised that there isviolence at elections the chances are the militaryis not neutral. In Thailand the royalists had beencalling for military intervention because theyknow it is unlikely they will win an election. Acoup cannot therefore be considered to be likelyto end violence; Egypt is a case in point as therehave been more than 3,200 deaths in the 7months after the coup against President Morsi.1 1 'More than 3,200 Egyptians killed sincecoup', Middle East Monitor, 9 April 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The argument that the military is restoringdemocracy from a democracy makes no sense.Only once a democracy has been turned into anautocracy can it be said to be restoringdemocracy. So long as the system is stilldemocratic then there should be constitutionalways to replace an increasingly authoritariangovernment; elections, vote of no confidence, orthe judiciary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "A neutral party Democracies can turn into anintractable conflict between two political partieswith neither side ruling in their national interestbut simply using power in an attempt to defeatthe other side. Bangladesh is a good example ofthis as there are two main parties; the AwamiLeague and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party.Neither are willing to talk to the other, thecompetition has at times been violent andattempts to create neutral caretakergovernments are scotched by one side or theother as occurred at the start of 2014. 1 The2007 coup resulted in the arrests of the leadersof both parties along with a major anti corruptiondrive. 2 Unfortunately this did not preventBangladesh quickly falling into the same twoparty system with the same parties and leadersonce civilian rule was restored. 1 Budhwar,Kailash 'Bangladesh elections: The 'battlingbegums'', Al Jazeera, 4 January 2014, 2 Voiceof America, 'Former Bangladesh Prime MinisterSheikh Hasina Arrested', voanews.com, 27", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Restoring democracy A coup that is against anelected government that is however becomingincreasingly anti democratic is justified. When anelected government is increasingly concentratingpower in its own hands, and particularly ifelections are postponed then it is necessary forthe military to step in to ensure democracycontinues to function. From 1991-2006 31 of 43coups resulted in an election within five years sofar from damaging democracy were oftenrestoring it. 1 1 Marinov, Nikolay, and Goemans,Hein, 'Coups and Democracy', British Journal ofPolitical Science, 2013, , p.2", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Whether or not the head of the army is the rightman to run the country is immaterial as he willbe passing on to another administration quickly.This will either be a temporary civilianadministration in which top technocrats arebrought in or it will be as a result of newelections. If a military man is still in power afteran election, as with Sisi in Egypt, then they havecome through the same test as a politician wouldhave done.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Elections do not always return a government thathas true popular support; the system may begerrymandered so it is much easier for one partyto win seats. Additionally in many democraciesthere is a large number of people who don't voteso even a party that is elected may not have atrue mandate. If the abstaining majority want adifferent government should the military notrespect their democratic wish?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "A coup makes it more difficult to trust indemocracy Military intervention damages trustin democracy even if the intent of the coup is toreturn to democratic rule as quickly as possible.There are two ways in which democracy isdamaged. The first is that it undermines thepoint of majority rule if the military may just stepin and take over if they don't like the result.Secondly if a democratic government is making amess of ruling and the military steps in to cleanthings up then this may create an impressionthat they will do so again, so absolving politiciansto clean up their own act. This may well be whathappens in Thailand. Since the end of militaryrule in 1973 Thailand has now had seven coups;1976, 77, 81, 86, 91, 2007 and 2014. 1 In the2007 and 2014 coups the government beingoverthrown was very popular; in 2005Shinawatra's Thai Rak Thai party won 60.7% ofthe vote while in 2011 his sister won 48.41% ifthe military simply steps in after a few years ofrule by a clearly elected majority then what is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The army is not the best institution to run acountry If the country is in trouble is the armythe best placed to take over and manage thecountry better than it has been in the past? Thismay plausibly be true if the reason democracy isfailing is a large scale insurgency or near civilwar but in almost every other case it is not thebest institution. The army is trained to fight notto govern. The generals who take over toppositions are used to running a bureaucracy thathas to respond to politicians, not one that has torespond to the people. Politicians may becorrupt, venal, or unpopular but at the least theyare open about what they stand for. They have amanifesto and a clear ideology which if thepeople don't agree with they wont be voted for.This is not the case with generals; the chancesare they have a bureaucratic desire to maintainthe power and funding for the military butotherwise there is likely to be little known abouttheir politics. Finally for those who are beingoverthrown the electorate has had a chance to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The response must be democratic It is neverappropriate to overthrow a democraticallyelected government which the people havechosen. The government is legitimised by beingthe choice of the people, a coup is by definitionnot legitimate in such a way. The response to agovernment that has lost the trust of theelectorate, unable to prevent violence, or iscorrupt, is to hold an election. In the worst caseand an elected government is using its power asa government to manipulate any election thenthe responsibility is with the judiciary to convicta government which is responsible for such a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dglvhblmc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Military intervention is most likely to happen onlywhen trust in democracy has already beendamaged. In Thailand democracy was alreadydistrusted due to corruption and vote buying, themilitary acted because of that distrust. Whenintervention is to clean up corruption and creategreater separation of powers the coup mayactually improve trust in democracy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "I am only one of thousands of voters who electmy MP so my vote is not going to help hold ‘my’representative to account. In the UK the averagenumber of voters in each constituency is 68,175[1] and some have majorities of tens ofthousands. In the US House of Representativesthe figure is more than ten times this number at710,767 [2] with so many other voters how willmy attempt to hold them to account actuallymatter? [1] ‘Parliamentary constituencies’,parliament.uk [2] Burnett, Kristin D.,‘Congressional Apportionment’, 2010 CensusBriefs, November 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Hold politicians to account For the most part incountries with FPTP we don’t like our politicians.In the United States Congress has a job approvalrate of 21% and it is often lower [1] while in theUK in 2009 only 1% were ‘very satisfied’ withMPs (total of 29% satisfied 44% dissatisfied). [2]Well elections are your chance to hold them toaccount by voting for someone else. Electedpoliticians are there to represent you but if youdon’t vote your voice wont be heard and youwont be able to hold your representative toaccount for what they have done during theirtime in office. There are increasingly websiteswhich will show you how your MP voted making itsimple to find out if they are representing you asyou would wish and so making it possible todecide how you will vote on the basis of yourrepresentative’s record rather than just theirstated intentions at the time of the election. [1]Jones, Jeffrey M., ‘U.S. Congress’ ApprovalRating at 21% Ahead of Elections’, GallupPolitics, 24 October 2012 [2] ‘Satisfaction with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The idea that someone who has voted might bemore entitled to complain about things is absurd.Yes they have shown how they want thegovernment to run but the idea that their voice isheard on all these particular issues is patentlysilly.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Have your say Democracy allows you to haveyour say and it is important you take advantageof that. It is unusual that your particular vote willmake an immense difference but justoccasionally it might make all the difference.Barak Obama’s 2012 campaign is running an adcalled 537 the ad says this is \"the differencebetween what was and what could have been.”As it is the number of votes that won thePresidency for George W. Bush over Al Gore inFlorida in 2000. “So this year if you're thinkingthat your vote doesn't count, that it won'tmatter, well, back then there were probably 537people who felt the same way. Make your voiceheard.\" [1] There will always be places wherethere are victories by such a small margin. Mostof the time it will be known where these marginalcontests are but if enough people who have notvoted in the past vote previous votes or thepollsters may count for nothing. You never knowit might be you who makes the difference, so govote! [1] Rama, Padmananda, ‘Obama", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Civic duty Voting is a civic duty, just as payingtaxes and jury service. As a citizen of your nationit is your duty to take thirty minutes out of yourday every few years to go and vote in anelection. This duty is not a very onerous one butit is an important one because the foundation ofour government is that it is democratic, and howcan it be democratic if the people won’t vote? Ifthe government is to represent the people thepeople must vote for it. Some civic duties suchas taxes are compulsory and while it is not thecase that voting is compulsory in the UK and USAit is elsewhere for example Australia andBelgium. [1] That it is not compulsory isconsistent with our freedoms so there is thepossibility of making the active choice not tovote. With the right to vote comes theresponsibility to use it. [1] ‘ Compulsory Voting’,Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance,updated 21 March 2012 also see our debate oncompulsory voting", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Many voters are making an active choice whenthey decide not to vote, they are either showingthat they recognise how little impact their votewill have, or else that they do not believe that itis worth their while spending the time to vote.[1] Finally even if they are not making an activechoice not to vote and don’t vote due toignorance is that really a dereliction of their civicduty? Does it not show that politics, politicians,and parties have not done enough to engagewith these voters and tell them why, when andwhere they can vote? It should be up topoliticians to persuade us that they are worthy ofour votes. [1] Caryl, Christian, ‘In Praise ofApathy’, Foreign Policy, 24 October 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The chances of you being the one who matters ina marginal contest are infinitesimally small. Firstmost elections are not won on narrow marginsand second you are unlikely to be in the rightplace at the right time. The FPTP system meansthat very few votes actually matter like thisunlike in a proportional system where almostevery vote would have a very similar worth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The question here then essentially lies in do weappreciate our democracy? Does voting every 5years actually count as a democracy? Does thefact that we have a first past the post systemrepresent our views as a democracy should? Thehistory of voting and the ability of other aroundthe world to vote really has very little bearing onwhether we should vote. Voting for the oneparty, or an other, or none at all is not going toresult in me not being able to vote in the future.If losing the vote becomes a real possibility inthe future then we can be sure that manycurrently apathetic voters will turn out becausesuch a vote really would matter.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "No right to complain We all complain, whether itis about the lack of places for schools, higheruniversity fees, trains not running on time, orabout how we are being ripped off by the shops.In almost every case the things we maycomplain about can be influenced by thegovernment either directly as with educationpolicy or indirectly through taxation orregulation. Voting is your one chance to showwhat agenda you want to government to take;do you want more regulation or less, do youwant tuition fees paid by the government orindividuals? Of course not everything will becontested in every election but some will be. Butnext time you complain about something if itactually matters find a party that wants to dosomething about it and vote for them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "We don’t just vote for ourselves You are verylucky that you have the chance to vote to chooseand influence your government. Most peoplethroughout history have not had this chance; inthe UK women only received the vote in 1918and most men only received the right in thenineteenth century. [1] In the United States thetimings were similar with freed slaves not votinguntil 1970 (even in 1940 only 3% of AfricanAmericans in the south were registered) andwomen not until 1919. [2] We should rememberthe sacrifices of all those who have fought for theright to vote. Moreover huge numbers of peoplelive in countries where these rights have not yetbeen won – just think of the 1.3 billion people inChina who have no input into the change in theleadership, the Politburo Standing Committee,every ten years. [3] As voting has not been anautomatic right throughout history you need tovote not just for yourself but for your childrenand their children in order to ensure that theyhave the benefit of growing up in a democracy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Yes politicians will sometimes break theirpromises or for some reason not be able to fulfilthem. When the Liberal Democrats made theirmanifesto they did not expect to be in coalitionwith the Conservatives, with two incompatiblemanifestos some things were going to have to bedropped. Equally sometimes the party in powerwill find they can’t get through the changes theywant. The point of voting when events mightovertake a manifesto is that the party’s ideologywill tell you how they are likely to react – alibertarian in 10 Downing Street would have letthe banks go bust or a communist would havenationalised them. Many could have anticipatedthat a Labour government would engage in somekind of bail out to save savers and the system.By having voted for the Labour party voters weresaying they wanted a slightly left of centreresponse to events.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This is nearly always not actually a reason not tovote as because in almost every constituency thenumber of people who do not vote outnumbersthe vote of the winning party this means ifeveryone who does not vote did as you will doand all get out and vote the vote could go anyway, even a fringe party could be elected if thenon-voters vote together. To illustrate lets take alook at Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath, one of thesafest seats in the UK, former British PrimeMinister Gordon Brown’s seat. In 2010 Labourwon with 65.2% of the vote, [1] with 29559labour votes compared to 6550 SNP a majority of23009. [2] However in this seat turnout was only62.2% that means that 27863 people did notvote, considerably more than voted for Labour. Ifthey voted together for someone else those whodo not vote could always throw out the party inpower. No seat is therefore really a safe seat,they are safe because who believe their vote isnot worthwhile do not bother to vote when inreality if they did they could make a difference.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Politicians don’t engage with issues that areimportant to me Political parties are not aboutissues, they are either about ideologies or arepurely about trying to triangulate on enoughissues so that they can get into power. Withrelatively few parties able to get representationin the Parliament how can I be sure that myviews on issues will be represented. If I wantisolationism then who should I vote for in the USelection? Both candidates say they want similarpolicies which are not at all isolationist. [1] Oftenthere is little choice; in the US there are only tworeal options, the democrats and the republicans,[2] while in the UK all three main parties occupyvery similar ground in the centre. [3] Theproblem is similar if I am interested in multipleissues but no party has a similar portfolio ofviews. [1] Helling, Alex, ‘The debate for the restof the world’, idebate.org, 23 October 2012 [2]Caryl, Christian, ‘In Praise of Apathy’, ForeignPolicy, 24 October 2012 [3] Parker, George, andPickard, Jim, ‘Centre prize: why UK political", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Not voting is voicing an opinion that is asimportant as any vote In both the UK and theUS non voters are the biggest block in thecountry. Governments are routinely voted in withonly 30% of the eligible voters – and once it iscounted compared against the total population itbecomes lower still. We should therefore notassume that these people are all not trying to tellus anything rather they are pointing out thatthey know how little their vote counts so see nopoint in casting it. In the United States only 32%of voters agree that only having two parties isgood. The non-voters could well therefore betelling us that there needs to be a radical changein the system before it is worth their while voting– ‘you make our vote count and we will beginvoting again’. [1] [1] Caryl, Christian, ‘In Praiseof Apathy’, Foreign Policy, 24 October 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Politicians will simply ignore how we vote Even ifI do vote who is to say that politicians willactually listen to what I say. A lot of governmentpolicy is responding to events, no one who votedfor Tony Blair in 2005 voted for bail outs ofbanks in 2008 by what was then a new PrimeMinister, Gordon Brown, who had not even facedthe electorate. Moreover political parties do notseem to feel that they are tied to their ownmanifestos. In the United States Obamapromised to close Guantanamo yet it is stillopen. [1] In the UK the Liberal Democrats said intheir manifesto they would not raise tuition feesfor UK Universities yet this is exactly what theydid when they got into government. [2] [1]Negrin, Matt, ‘Guantanamo Bay: Still Open,Despite Promises’, ABC News, 3 July 2012, alsofollow our Securing Liberty blog for updates onGuantanamo Bay and other civil libertiesissues: [2] Robinson, Nick, ‘Senior Lib Demsapologise over tuition fees pledge’, BBC News,20 September 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-con01a", "title": "", "text": "My vote does not count In safe seats, indeedright across the country there will be millions ofvotes that will not count when everything isadded up because of our first past the postsystem. [1] Essentially the system means that allthe votes that are cast for those who are not thewinning candidate do not count at all. In a safeseat there is no way a single vote is going to helpoverturn some of the immense majorities theparty in power has, they could put a monkey forelection in these seats and it would still getin. [1] In the UK take a look at the voter powerindex to see how worthwhile or otherwise yourvote is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-con04b", "title": "", "text": "We can never be sure what these apatheticvoters are saying because they have not said it –some might want a change in the electoralsystem, or might rouse themselves to vote if oneof the options becomes extreme but this may notbe the case. In the UK voters rejected the optionof changing the electoral system to thealternative vote [1] which would have been morerepresentative so making their voice mattermore in future elections. [2] [1] Hawkins, Ross,‘Vote 2011: UK rejects alternative vote’, BBCNews, 7 May 2011 [2] Jones, Charlotte R., ‘ThisHouse would adopt the alternative vote’,Debatabase, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-viwvfpps-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Parties go to the centre because that is wherethe votes are. You are perfectly at liberty to votefor more minor parties. If you wantnationalisation vote communist, clean energyvote green etc. Your vote may not elect arepresentative but the person who becomes yourrepresentative is likely to see which single issueparties received votes in his constituency and actaccordingly. Ultimately only one party cangovern at a time so it will never be the case thateveryone can get their way on the issues theyare interested in, but if you don’t vote no one willpay any attention at all.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions cannot be very finely targeted and willalways hit other groups as well as the cyberattackers. The chances of knowing specificindividuals who were responsible are next to zeroso those individuals cannot be targeted directly.This is the whole problem with cyber-attacks;they are very difficult to pin down. In the bestcase then sanctions are applied against the righttarget and happen to hit others as well; forexample hackers are not the only new who wantadvanced computer equipment. At worst thesanctions will completely miss their target; itwould be a major embarrassment for a countryto impose sanctions for a cyber-attack only for itto later be discovered that the sanctions areagainst an innocent party through whom theattack had been routed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions can be targeted The big advantage ofsanctions is that they can be as finely targetedas needed. If the sanctioning country only knowswhich country the cyber attack originated fromthen they can be broad brush sanctions, but ifthere is knowledge of which group initiated theattack then the sanctions can be more specific.For example in the case of unit 61398 Of theChinese People’s Liberation Army that Mandiantshowed has been attacking US companies [1]the United States could target sanctions at thePeople's Liberation Army by tightening weaponsbans. Alternatively if the hackers are privatethen banning the import of certain computerequipment into that country would beappropriate. If individuals are known then thesanctions can be even more targeted, forexample by freezing any bank accounts heldoutside their own country as the US did againstNorth Korea when it sanctioned Banco Delta Asiathrough which North Korea laundered moneyfrom criminal activities. [2] [1] Mandiant,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "How can there ever be deterrence when theattacker believes they will not be caught, or thatif they are the sanctions swill harm others notthemselves? When the problem with preventingcyber-attacks is the difficulty of tracing thesource [1] then deterrence becomes more andmore difficult to apply. This is not like the ColdWar where both superpowers could be certainthat if they launched an attack there would be adevastating response. In this instance there is nocertainly; the attacker believes they a, won't becaught, b, there will be no response and c, thatthe response won't affect them, and finally evenif they are affected unless they are caught mosttimes they will believe they will get away with itnext time round. [1] Greenemeier, Larry,‘Seeking Address: Why Cyber Attacks Are SoDifficult to Trace Back to Hackers’, ScientificAmerican, 11 June 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions are a proportionateresponse Cyber-attacks pose a distinct problemfor international diplomacy in that they aredifficult to prevent and difficult to respond to.Any kind of military response as the UnitedStates has threatened would be completelydisproportionate against all but the very biggestof cyber-attacks (those that actually result indeaths), [1] diplomacy on the other hand is asgood as no response, if the response is simply atongue lashing then the benefits of cyberespionage will be far higher than the cost. Theonly proportionate, and therefore just, responseto a cyber-attack is sanctions. The sanctions canbe used to impose a similar economic cost on theoffending state as that caused by thecyber-attack. This would be just like the WorldTrade Organisation's dispute settlement rules.They allow for the imposition of trade sanctionsto a similar value to the losses being experiencedas a result of protectionist action, with thesanctions sometimes on differing sectors to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "How do we determine what is proportionate? Ifsome valuable intellectual property, such as partof the designs for the US's latest fighter jet theF35, which were hacked in 2009. [1] Then whatcan be the response to this? Can it simply be thecost of developing this design? If so then whatabout the strategic loss the state has suffered,how can that be calculated in? So long as it isexcluded state sanctioned cyber-attacks will notbe deterred. [1] Gorman, Siobhan, Cole,August, and Dreazen, Yochi, ‘Computer SpiesBreach Fighter-Jen Project’, The Wall StreetJournal, 21 April 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "An asymmetric response to cyber-attacks in theform of sanctions may prevent escalation, butthey could also simply encourage acyber-attacker to do more knowing thatsanctions cannot stop cyber-attacks. Sanctions inthe past have rarely changed policy; Sanctionsagainst Cuba did not result in overthrowingCastro, sanctions have not changed North Koreaor Iran’s policy towards nuclear weapons, sothere is little reason that sanctions would stopcyber-attacks. [1] Instead the country beingsanctioned will find a way around and quitepossibly escalate themselves much as NorthKorea has upped the stakes whenever newsanctions are imposed, most recently bycancelling a hotline to the South. [2] [1]Friedman, Lara, ‘Getting over the sanctionsdelusion’, Foreign Policy The Middle EastChannel, 14 March 2010, [2] Branigan, Tania,‘Expanded UN sanctions on North Korea promptrage from Pyongyang’, guardian.co.uk, 8 March2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "There needs to be action to deter more cyberattacks At the moment the response tocyber-attacks has essentially been nothing. It ishowever clear that some response is needed aswithout a reaction there is no deterrence; theattacks will keep coming until something is done.The number of cyber-attacks and the sensitivityof the information stolen have been increasingover recent years and as more and more work isdone online and more and more systems areconnected to the Internet so cyber-attacksbecome more attractive. There needs to be adeterrent and the best deterrent is to make surethat such attacks are costly. As these attacksare usually cross border (and in this debate weare only concerned with cross border attacks)then the only way to create a cost is throughsanctions. These sanctions can either hit theassailant directly or else hit his government soencouraging them to crack down on hackingemanating from their country. It should beremembered that China argues that it does not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions will prevent escalation in cyberconflict Cyber conflict favours the offence; whenthe defender is successful they gain nothing andimpose no harm on the attacker who is free totry again elsewhere. The attackers are free toattack until they get past the defencessomewhere. [1] That the attacks don’t risk liveshelps to encourage an offensive mindset asmakes it seem like there is no downside toattempting to dominate your opponent. [2] Thismeans the only cyber response is to attack theattacker so that the same advantagesapply. The result is that cyber-attacks have avery real danger of long term tension orescalation. If one side is losing a conflict whereboth sides are attempting to steal the other'sintellectual property (or the other has little tosteal) the response may be something like thestuxnet attack that involves physical damage,this then would probably be considered an illegaluse of force creating a thin line between acyber-war and a real war. [3] When the cyber", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Cooperation is not a helpful alternative as itreally means status quo when we can see thatthe status quo is not going to reducecyber-attacks or bring recompense. Rather this isprecisely what sanctions are needed for; toencourage states that harbour cyber criminalsand hackers to use their law enforcementcapabilities to crack down on such attacks.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This will clearly depend on the country engagingsanctions; sanctions from the US or EU will bemuch more significant than sanctions from thePhilippines. Most countries however are a part oflarger trade blocks; sanctions from thePhilippines may not be much of a threat butsanctions from ASEAN would be much morecompelling. Using such regional organisationscan help nations get around the problems ofagreement associated with broader UNsanctions. There have already been calls forgroups such as ASEAN to work together againstcyber attacks [1] and these groupings could beexpanded to include other nations that agreewith the policy on an ad hoc basis in much thesame way as Japan is looking to join with ASEANon such defence. [2] [1] Minnick, Wendell,‘Malaysia Calls for ASEAN ‘Master Plan’ to FightCyber Attacks’, Defense News, 3 June 2012, [2]Westlake, Adam, ‘Japan pushes to formcyber-defense network with other ASEANcountries’, Japan Daily Press, 8 October 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions are indiscriminate The problem withsanctions is that they are almost alwaysindiscriminate; Iran’s sanctions today are anexample where the international community’sconcerns are entirely with the government, overnuclear weapons, not the people yet the resulthas been a doubling in the price of staplefoodstuffs and rapidly rising unemployment.[1] This will equally be the case here. Whilesanctioners will try to target the sanctions thefact is there is nothing to target with sanctionsthat would not affect everyday lives. Hackers areordinary people so clearly sanctions will affectothers like themselves. The most obviousreactions involve the internet but blocking accessto internet services, or penalising ISP’s, orcutting off technology transfers, harm everyoneelse as much as hackers. Often this harm is inthe form of simply making the internet less safefor people in that country because they will haveto turn to pirated versions of software. IDC andMicrosoft estimate the chances of being infected", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions won't harm the hackers Sanctions aretypically used as a response to the actions ofanother state, not the actions of a private actor.Much cyber espionage is not carried out bygovernment entities such as the army orintelligence services. It is also not encouraged bygovernment regulation. Rather it is carried outby private actors whether this is criminalorganisations or businesses seeking toundermine their rivals and learn their secrets thisis usually with a financial motive (75% of databreaches) [1] , or else by individuals motivatedby nationalism and patriotism to attack thosethey see as their nation’s enemies. It is difficultto see how sanctions against the nation as awhole affect these groups and individuals. This iscertainly the case in China where many such asthe ‘China Eagle Union’ admit to hacking fornationalist reasons rather than being told by thegovernment. [2] A response such as sanctionsare simply likely to breed more resentment thatthe other power is attempting to bully their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions won't work The problem withsanctions is that they almost never work so allthey do is provide punishment and damagerelations without ever resolving the issue.Numerous studies have shown that sanctionsdon’t actually change the policy of the countrythat is being sanctioned. [1] Robert Papesuggests that sanctions are only effective inachieving policy change about 5% of the timebecause states can take substantial economicpunishment before they give up on anything thatmight be considered to be a national interest,and because states are good at shifting theburden of the sanctions onto opposition groups,[2] or else use the sanctions to rally domesticsupport against the outside actor. [3] Insteadthere need to be renewed cooperation on cybersecurity. Fundamentally as with things like drugsmuggling, and people trafficking this is aninternational problem that needs to be tackled bylaw enforcement authorities. To that end thereneeds to be more cooperation not more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions require international agreement to beeffective When is it legitimate to use sanctionsin response to an action? Any individual state (orgroup of states) can use sanctions against anyother state. However for these sanctions to beeffective they need to have broad based support.Sanctions by an individual country are unlikely tochange the behaviour of an aggressor as theywill be able to get around the sanctions.Moreover for any country that is a member ofthe WTO imposing sanctions may be consideredillegal allowing the other country to counter themwith similar measures. The problem then is thatthere is no international response to hacking andit is unlikely there will be agreement on such aresponse. When countries like China deny thathacking comes from them are they likely tosupport the use of sanctions against suchactions? Sanctions for much worse actions areoften bogged down when they are attempted atthe international level such as China and Russiavetoing sanctions against Syria in response to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Even taking it at face value that most of thesehackers are independent actors not a part of astate policy there would still be solid reasoningbehind sanctions. That most cyber-attacks havea financial motive implies that sanctions are thebest response; as it is hitting them in an areathat the attackers are clearly interested in. As forthose who are attacking for ‘patriotic’ reasons ifthey are truly patriots they will stop when theysee their efforts are really harming their countrynot helping it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwdfiphwut-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The aim of sanctions does not have to be todirectly affect the individuals doing the hacking,though in some cases this may be possible.Rather the aim is to change the attitude towardsregulation and enforcement by the centralgovernment and possibly by the people as awhole. If the people of a country believe they aresuffering as a result of the hackers in their midstthey will be much more likely to demand theirgovernment make cracking down on suchactivities a priority.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbrphliw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The current leadership of the party have strongconservative credentials and stand in starkcontrast to the increasingly unpopular Obamawho has been deserted by his own party andcertainly the enthusiastic youthful idealists whoelected him. It’;s perhaps a sign of the lack ofboth political and intellectual leadership withinthe Democratic Party that the Iowa Caucus sawmany of those same young enthusiasts whosupported Obama switch dramatically to RonPaul in pursuit of a consistent ideology. Theconsistency of the Republican Party in makingthe argument for lower taxes and smallergovernment stands in stark contrast to the evershifting sands of the Democrats.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbrphliw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Just as with other parties around the world, oncethe dominant argument of a political partyproves to be a busted flush it takes about adecade to recover Both the Labour andConservative parties in the UK, theConservatives in Canada, the Socialists in Franceand many others all over the world have gonethrough periods of regrouping following extendedperiods in office. Political movements simply runout of fresh ideas after prolonged periods ofgovernment and the Republican Party is goingthrough such a period. The Bush Mantra of apresumption in favour of financial deregulationand in favour of tax cuts to create a trickle-downeffect have both been proven to be wrong – or atleast were taken to too great an extreme. Thecountry needs to rebalance just as theRepublicans need to find new ideas and newstandard bearers. Future leaders of the party likeMarco Rubio and Tim Pawlenty may haveinteresting ideas by 2016 but the currentleadership is a busted flush [i] . [i] 2016", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbrphliw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The Tea Party represents not only a communitythat has been largely ignored in recent electionsbut one that is also the mainstay of both theRepublican Party and of the American Heartland.Namely, white, working class Americans, whoseviews and interests have been swept away by aparty and national establishment that thoughttheir votes could be taken for granted. Whileboth parties sort out the votes and support of bigcompanies, organised labour, and minorityvoting blocs the average American was taken forgranted. The current approach of the Republicanleadership has corrected that directly as a resultof the Tea Partiers, returning the party to itstraditional values and core voters.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbrphliw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The leadership of the Republican Party simplyhas nothing to do with its membership as aresult no candidate has, or can, capture theimagination. It’s difficult for a predominantlyworking class party to get all that excited aboutthe choice between a range of millionaires. TheBush presidency made it all too clear that theinterests of the rich are the primary interest ofthe party and that it fails to deliver on areas suchas a commitment to smaller government. Asparty activists becomes ever more obsessed withissues such as gay marriage or the flag-burningamendment, it simply fails to address theconcerns of most Americans to whom it has littleto say. Until it has a clearer and reasonableeconomic message, there is little it has to sayand less worth listening to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbrphliw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Like all parties in a democracy the leadership ofthe party responds to the concerns of members.Millions of ordinary Americans have genuineconcerns about the state of modern Americaparticularly in relation to the encroachment ofevery day government into their lives and valuesand imposing the opinions of a small coastal eliteonto communities that want nothing to do withthem. The Republican Party increasingly reflectsthe historical background of the country as wellas a position that reflects the belief of mostAmericans; historically and culturally Christianand mistrustful of an over-mighty state.Although there are nuances between presidentialcandidates, those statements would besupported by all of them and they appear dividedbecause they are in the middle of a primarycampaign.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbrphliw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The Republican Party has been hijacked by theTea Partiers who simply don’t have a coherentmessage or ideology The Tea Party movementhas hijacked the Republican Party, bullyingelected representatives to pursue a very narrowpolitical agenda that has more to do with theirmoral outlook than the traditional role of politics.The Tea Party has little in the way of a politicalprogramme and nothing in the way ofunderstanding the nuances of local politics or therealities of electoral politics. While the partyremains in thrall to this vociferous butunrepresentative minority, it has little to offerthe wider party and les to offer the widerAmerican public. Although they are strident interms of what they are against, they have littleto offer by way of a substantive contribution tothe national debate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbrphliw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The Republicans are simply left with nothing tosay and nowhere to go. As is traditionally thecase for politicval parties following a long periodof dominance they tend to degenerate intointernecine squabbling while they thrash out anew platform for government; one thing that isclear is that they haven’t found it yet. Theapproach they are taking both in terms offighting their battles in public and demanding acertain orthodoxy of their candidates that is,frankly, unelectable suggests that they need atleast another four years to work through theirideas. The media are not bringing some liberalbias to this they are even masking many of thedivisions. However, the reality is the party isdivided and, more astonishingly, those divisiontake place within an incredibly narrow ideologicalspectrum.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbrphliw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It is simply untrue to present the Republicans asthe party of small government. The twopresidents under whom the size of governmentgrew the fastest - both in terms of personnel andexpenditure – were Reagan and Bush Jr. WhenRepublicans says they are interested in smallgovernment they simply mean that they want itto be small enough to get under the bedroomdoor; making it more interventionist notless. They have been reduced to a fringeorganisation obsessed with a handful of issues,endlessly mouthed as soundbites to prove theirorthodoxy to the most extreme wing of theirparty which does nothing to endear them to alargely uninterested electorate. In an age ofeconomic austerity, the party simply has nothingmeaningful to say on this, the most crucial,matter of the day.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbrphliw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "All parties represent a range of opinions andcoalesce around and promote their core valuesand the Republican debate is simply an exampleof that Although there are nuances of belief anddifferences of approach within the RepublicanParty, as there are in all political parties, theycontinue to promote the core values that definethe party and the wider movement. As theprimary process demonstrated the is diversity ofbelief within the party and a healthy sense ofdebate and that is to be welcomed. However,the values that the party represents – God,family and patriotism – remain their values ofthe party’s leadership and the American people", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbrphliw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The Republican Party is, yet again, suffering fromthe inability of the mainstream and liberal mediato accurately cover political debate theyconstantly wish to portray healthy discourse assplit and schism It would be deeply unhealthy ifthere were not a lively discourse in any politicalmovement but the media fails to reflect that fact.Disillusionment with Obama has been growingalmost since day one of his presidency and looksset to continue through the rest of 2012, theRepublicans, by contrast have a clear messagewith growing support at all levels. The very factthat they have been so successful in thwartingthe more dangerous of Obama’s policiesdemonstrate that they have both the argumentsand the acumen to defeat him in Congress, justas they do for the presidency.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbrphliw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Having won the economic argument during theReagan years – both with Russia and theDemocratic Party – the Republicans now addresssocial concerns and do so with a consistentmessage. Having won the argument over theprimacy of the Free Market under Reagan,modern Republicans have turned their attentionto other concerns, primarily surrounding the sizeand role of the federal governments and thesocial attitudes that are acceptable for the nationto adopt as a whole. Although the liberal mediamay grow weary of the message that themajority of Americans hold certain values andexpect those to be respected by the government,it remains the case. The Republican Party has,and continues to be, the strongest and mostconsistent voice on these matters; defendingtraditional families and their values.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbrphliw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The Republicans have been highjacked by theextreme right of their party, making themvirtually unelectable. In any other circumstanceObama should be looking like a sitting duck, withthe disarray in the Republican party, it seemsunlikely that they will be able to coalesce in anymeaningful way around any candidate. Theconstant acts of regicide against the only crediblecandidate they have, Mitt Romney, suggests thathe simply won’t have the support he needs comethe general election. The very fact that he isunpopular with the party because he doesn’tconfirm to an extreme of ideological purity is thevery thing that makes him electable. UntilRepublicans recognise that electoral reality, theyare doomed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Most developed nations are representativedemocracies, in which we elect people torepresent us and make decisions on our behalf.We retain the ultimate control over theserepresentatives at the ballot box, and if wedisagree with the decisions they have made wecan vote for different candidates at the nextelection. Just because we can consult the publicmore easily nowadays, that is no reason todestroy a system that has generally served uswell for decades and, in some cases,centuries. Furthermore, electronic voting is stillin its infancy, and liable to fraud and technicalproblems. [1] [1] ”E-Voting Rights”, ElectronicFrontier Foundation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Modern technology makes consultation easierthan ever. In the past, it was impractical toorganise frequent referendums due to thedifficulty and expense of holding them. But withthe advent of the internet and mass media, it isnow easier than ever to consult the public onissues of concern to them. For example,Switzerland regularly holds referendums on allsorts of issues in an efficient manner whichcommands widespread public support. [1] [1]Gerlach, Jan; Gasser, Urs. “Three Case Studiesfrom Switzerland: E-Voting”, Internet andDemocracy Case Study Series, March 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "Referendums can lend greater validity to politicaloutcomes Particularly on contentious orcontroversial issues. Laws passed by publicapproval in this way will be less open tochallenge, with all sides having to accept the willof the electorate. This is especially true ofminority or coalition governments who may faceaccusations that they do not have a mandate forcertain policies, [1] or situations where minoritygroups are exercising their right toself-determination. [2] [1] May, Colin.“Canada’s Questionable ‘Coalition’”. C2C CanadaJournal of Ideas. 22nd June 2009. [2] Tierney,Stephen. “Referendums today:Self-determination as constituent power?”.European Journal of International Law blog,February 9th 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Most people are apathetic about politics becausethey find it dull or do not believe that it affectsthem. This may be regrettable but it is hard tosee how increasing the number of votes they areasked to participate in will have a positive effecton this trend. On the contrary, many of thosewho do not like politics will quickly become evenmore bored and irritated if they are constantlybombarded with campaign literature, televisionadverts and activists ringing on their doorbells.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Improves standards in political governance. Thetrend in developed countries tends to be towardsgreater centralisation, and concentration ofpower in the hands of a small number ofrepresentatives. This, in turn, leads to thecreation of a separate political class who will insome cases be more concerned with their owninfluence and enrichment than that of the voters,and makes it possible for wealthy individuals orcompanies to lobby politicians for lawsfavourable to their interests. Increased use ofreferendums would potentially reduce theinfluence of lobby groups and corporate donorson the political system. [1] [1] Knutsen, John.“Blueprint for a new European Confederation”,Basiclaw.net, January 2004.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Redresses imbalance between state andindividual. Governments exist to serve the willof the people, not the other way round;politicians take their instructions from theirconstituents, or should do. But in the modernstate this relationship is often inverted. Byobliging our democratic institutions to takegenuine account of public opinion, and returningreal political power back to those to whom itrightly belongs – the people – we can put therelationship between the individual and the stateback on a healthier footing. In principle, peopleshould have the right to decide for themselveson matters of importance to their lives. [1] [1] .Beedham, Brian: “Power to the people: The casefor Direct Democracy”, Civitas Review. Vol.3Issue 2, June 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The public already has an effective veto onlegislation, and retains the ultimate power over apolitician’s career through its vote at generalelections. When governments break theirpromises, or govern contrary to the preferencesof their voters, they are punished by beingejected from office at the subsequent election.This is already an effective way to ensure thatpublic opinion is never ignored for long.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Increased use of referendums is unlikely to makemuch difference to the quality of governance.Governments and state commissions will retainmost of their power, as only a small proportion oflaws will be put before the public vote even if useof referendums is increased. It will certainlymake no difference to the level of corruption. Asfor corporate lobbyists, it can be argued thatincreased use of referendums will actuallyincrease the influence of such groups. (SeeOpposition argument five, below.)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "Major constitutional changes such as thesecession of South Sudan may well beappropriate for referendums, but using them toimprove the democratic legitimacy of agovernment is misguided. Many policies touch onissues of human rights and the simple fact that amajority votes in favour of a particular policy willnot be enough to convince opponents that theresulting law is fair or just.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "If none of the parties support a policy it isprobably because it has no significant supportamong the people! Much of modern politics isreactive; policies are tested by focus groups andcarefully crafted to appeal to as many potentialvoters as possible. People may tell pollsters thatthey favour a particular policy (such as thereinstatement of the death penalty in theexample from the Proposition side), but thatdoes not necessarily mean that there is agrounds well of support for changing the law.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Reduces public apathy about, anddisengagement from, politics. People areapathetic about politics because they only get tovote once every few years. Even then it is notdirectly for policies but for competing politicalparties who promise to implement them (butoften reverse position when in office). They feelthat politicians do not listen to them betweenelections, and disengagement with the politicalprocess grows and grows. More frequentreferendums would stimulate interest in politicsbecause people would actually get a say indecisions. For example, evidence from the USshows that states with frequent use of ballotinitiatives tend to have higher voter participationin elections. [1] [1] Tolbert, Caroline; Grummel,John; Smith, Daniel. “The Effect of BallotInitiatives on Voter Turnout in the AmericanStates”. American Politics Research Vol. 29 No.6, November 2001.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Ensures that all views are represented in politicaldebate. Many countries have two or three partysystems in which there is no spread of opinionbetween these parties. The parties reflect sterilemainstream consensus and do not offer voterswhat they really want. Consequently, largesectors of the public find their viewsunrepresented. Referendums will remedy thisand increase engagement with the politicalsystem, because people will know that theirviews simply cannot be ignored. For example, amajority in the UK favour the return of the deathpenalty, but no party among the main threeoffers this. [1] Whatever your views on thisissues, it seems unfair that there is simply noway for voters’ views to be represented. [1]Cafe, Rebecca. “Does the public want the deathpenalty brought back?”. BBC News, 4th August2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "People are bored with politics because they thinkthat it is irrelevant to them and that politiciansare not interested in their opinions. Increasingthe use of referendums is an excellent way ofincreasing engagement with the general public;it forces the political establishment to listen topopular opinion, and gives ordinary people amuch greater say in how their country is run.See Proposition argument 3, above.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It is true that a responsible government shoulddraft legislation with a view to its long termbenefits. However, many governments do not dothis; programmes are often set up, laws changedor taxes cut with a view to short term electoralbenefit and narrow party political gain, not thegood of the country. Arguably, the electorate aremore likely to vote on issues for the “right”reasons than are their electedrepresentatives. Saying that government shouldlead public opinion, rather than follow it, issimply another way of saying that the stateshould ignore the will of the public. It is hard tosee how it can be justified for governments topass laws which they know do not commandpublic support. Clearly there may be exceptionsin extreme situations - such as the abolition ofslavery in the 19th century – but, broadlyspeaking, the citizens of a country should havethe right to order their society in the way theythink is best.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Public opinion is changeable Unless there is aminimum threshold for valid votes, freak resultswill occur. If the threshold is too high, on theother hand, then public aspirations may bethwarted, as for example with the Scottish HomeRule referendum of 1979, where a majority ofthose who voted supported devolution but notenough to get the proposal passed into law.[1] Furthermore, public opinion changes overtime. Once you have introduced the principlethat issues of national concern are to be settledby referendums, there will be nothing to stop thesame question being put to the public vote timeafter time. [1] “The path to devolution”, ScottishParliament history pages.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Referendums are very artificial. The results areoften strongly influenced by factors unrelated tothe proposal on the ballot, such as; the timing ofthe referendum (controlled by the government);the point in the electoral cycle; media coverageof the issues, which may be biased orirresponsible; and the amount of money spent onadvertising by each side. For example, in the2005 referendum held by France on theEuropean Union Constitution, the Yes lobby wassupported by the majority of the politicalestablishment and almost all the media, andoutspent the No campaign by a significantmargin. Opponents argued that the referendumwas not conducted on a level playing field.[1] [1] Wyatt, Caroline. “French media inreferendum ‘bias’ row”. BBC News, 21st May2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "People are currently bored with politics. The lastthing they want is more votes. This will only leadto greater overall apathy and even lower turnoutin general elections. California is a classicexample of frequent referendums failing to igniteany noticeable interest among its people. The2011 referendum on electoral reform in the UKwas similarly ignored by the public. [1] [1]Davies, Caroline. “Apathy and anger dominate asAV decision looms”. The Guardian, 15th April2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The job of a government is necessarily longterm. It is right that once the people have givenit a mandate it should be able to carry outlegislation with long term aims. Often goodlegislation is unpopular at first, but effective andpopular in the long run. Such legislation wouldnever survive a referendum. It is only fair thatthe government is given a chance to see if itslegislation does indeed work. The people canthen vote the government out of office if itfails. Similarly, it is government’s job to leadand not to follow, especially on social legislation.For example, the US civil rights movement in the1960s, and the equal marriage movementcurrently, might not command majority supportfrom the public as a whole; [1] in order toadvance equal rights, responsible governmenthas to get out in front of public opinion, andmake the argument for policies which are not yetpopular enough to be passed in areferendum. This approach is justified becauseparliamentarians are representatives not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is perfectly possible to construct a model forincreased use of referendums which reduces to aminimum the distorting factors cited by theOpposition. For example, the timing, wordingand conduct of the polls could be overseen by anindependent commission. Rules could also beimplemented to restrict spending by both sidesto fair levels. Media, too, are bound by law inmany countries to provide equal coverage toboth sides. [1] [1] “A comparative look atreferendum laws”, Institute for International Lawand Human Rights, February 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgglgvhciu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is possible to avoid freakish results by onlyallowing a referendum to be valid if a certainpercentage of the population votes, say 30%. Orindeed by implementing a threshold for settingup a referendum in the first place. There is noreason to think it would be hard to find a formulathat avoids these sorts of problems. It may beformally true that the same referendum questioncould be put to the public again and again, butthe same can be said of any political question inthe status quo. Once a referendum has beenheld on an issue, politicians are unlikely to riskthe wrath of the electorate by making them voteon the same question repeatedly.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbuhsbap-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A directly elected upper house obfuscates thepolitical process. An upper house has a differentrole in the political process than the lower house:the lower house has to channel public opinionwhereas the upper house has to provide criticalscrutiny and sober second thought. Its legitimacytherefore doesn't stem from backing in publicopinion but from careful reflection and wellthought-out arguments.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbuhsbap-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A directly elected upper house is moreeffective When an upper house is directlyelected, it will be perceived to be more legitimateby the public, because the public sees theirpolitical views directly translated into alegislative branch, albeit in a different way thanthe lower house. This enhanced legitimacy willhelp the upper house in performing theirconstitutional duties: whenever the upper housedisagrees with either the lower house or theexecutive, the upper house can now strengthentheir position by pointing to the public support ithas.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbuhsbap-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Appointers and electors have to think about theirreputation more. Unethically andunprofessionally behaved members of the upperhouse can still be sent away, either by thepoliticians who appointed or elected them or byindependent inquiry. An example of this is of aSenator in the Netherlands, Sam Pormes. Afteran opinion magazine revealed he once aidedfreedom fighters in an assault on the Dutchgovernment, he was sent away after carefulinquiry. [1] [1] Expatica, ‘Senator told to resignover 'guerrilla training''. 22 November 2005. lastconsulted August 15, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbuhsbap-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A directly elected upper house is moredemocratic Democracy means self-governanceby the people, wherein citizens have thefundamental right to decide how they are to begoverned and by whom. An appointed orindirectly elected upper house violates thisprinciple, because allows a group of individualsto exercise power without having to explain orjustify themselves to the public", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbuhsbap-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Democracy isn't just 'direct elections'.Democracy is a means to ensure goodgovernance. Stating that an appointed orindirectly elected upper house is 'undemocratic'is not enough. Instead, the proposition shouldshow why an appointed or indirectly electedupper house hinders good governance.Moreover, given the fact that the upper house iseither appointed by the directly electedexecutive, as in Canada, or elected by directlyelected provincial legislatures, as in theNetherlands, the people still have the right todecide how they are governed, only indirectly.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbuhsbap-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "A directly elected upper house discouragespatronage Politicians who elect or appoint themembers of the upper house have an incentiveto put their friends an allies there, because thiswill make their decision making easier. This ispatronage pure and simple: the public will have ahard time sending them away when, if ever, ascandal breaks because the members of theupper house don't depend on public opinion toremain in their seats. An example is the case of asenator in the Netherlands, Sam Pormes. Afteran opinion magazine revealed he once hadpartaken in terrorist activities, it took almost ayear and several mediation attempts to get himremoved from parliament. [1] [1] Expatica,‘Senator told to resign over 'guerrilla training''.22 November 2005. last consulted August 15,2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbuhsbap-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Feedback in the legislative process reeks ofcronyism. Ensuring policy is feasible by checkingit with target groups and implementing partnersis important. Governments often do this bycalling for position papers and organizing focusgroups. Using an upper house for this only reeksof cronyism: for example, why would thegovernment award a seat to one big oil companybut not to the other?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbuhsbap-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Sober second thought is undemocratic. A directlyelected upper house can also provide an extracycle in the legislative process if this is deemeddesirable. When it comes to 'halting hypes', weneed to realize that what constitutes a politicalhype is also a political choice. Democracy isdefined as 'rule by the people'. If public pressurefor a certain law is mounting, this means thatapparently a large part of the public is urgentlyin favor of it. If democracy truly means 'rule bythe people', then the legislative should respondto this kind of public pressure and not effectivelyhinder the rule of the people out of somemisguided notion of 'political hype'.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbuhsbap-con02a", "title": "", "text": "An appointed or indirectly elected upper houseprovides more room to involveexperts Appointment or indirect electionprovides space to involve eminent or expertpeople into politics. Often, expert and eminentpeople don't have the time or resources to workon building a career in politics. An example isveteran professional hockey coach JacquesDemers, who was appointed by Canadian PrimeMinister Stephen Harper to become a Senator.Demers has been nearly illiterate for all his lifebut has been a very successful coach. As aSenator, Demers helped raise awareness andgenerate policy to enhance literacy acrossCanada. [1] [1] TSN, ‘FORMER NHL COACHDEMERS TO BE NAMED TO SENATE’. 27 August2009. last consulted August 15, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbuhsbap-con03a", "title": "", "text": "An appointed or indirectly elected upper househelps policy implementation Appointment orindirect election provides space to involveleaders of business and civil society in politics.Just like above-mentioned experts, they oftendon't have time to build a career in politics. Butthey do have first-hand knowledge of the effectsof policy on their businesses and associations. Byco-opting them in the legislative process, policymakers don't have to wait until policy is fullyimplemented to receive feedback on thefeasibility of their ideas.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbuhsbap-con01a", "title": "", "text": "An appointed or indirectly elected upper houseprovides 'sober second thought' An extra cyclein the legislative process creates more time toreflect on the pros and cons of each piece oflegislation. Moreover, the lower house ispressured by public opinion to react fast to anykind of political hype that comes up. The upperhouse is more free from public pressure and canthus afford to halt pieces of 'hype-legislation'.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-ghbuhsbap-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Expert opinion shouldn't play a role at thelegislative stage of political decision making.Expertise is relevant for policy making, butdoesn't have a place in the legislative. Thelegislative is a place for deliberation andnegotiation amongst public interests. Expertopinion should inform policy making either viaexpert policy makers who work for ministries anddepartments and help draft legislation before it islaunched, or via the public, whom they informand persuade via articles, talk shows andpublicizing research.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Labour can be bold without turning to the left. Itcould endorse bolder action on climate change,much greater local democracy, and increasingthe use of new technologies. The concern shouldnot be about a policy being left or right wing butabout its beneficial (or otherwise) consequences.When labour has won in the past it has been bytaking centerist trends and making them theirown – for example Wilson’s ‘white fires ofindustry’. [1] [1] Skelton, David, ‘What does theLabour party do now?’, Demos Quarterly, 31 July2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Presents a bold new path Since the start of the1990s Labour has moved to the right to contestthe ‘centre ground’ of politics. This worked in1997 when the Conservatives were a spent forceafter 17 Years in power. Tony Blair successfullystole the conservatives moderate policies.However this has resulted in the centre groundmoving to the right with policies such asausterity and welfare cuts becoming aconsensus. Labour needs to move left to fight ontheir own ground forcing other parties to matchtheir more populist policies such asrenationalising the railways.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is false that there is a lack of choice now.There are plenty of other parties that voterscould vote for if they believe the main twoparties do not provide them with the choice theywant. On the right there is UKIP and on the leftthe Greens and also other much smaller moreextreme parties standing pain a fewconstituencies. If there were sufficient numberswho want to vote for a more left wing agendathen the Greens would be doing much betterthan they are – they currently only have oneseat.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Brings labour back to its core values The originalvalues of the Labour party were “the commonownership of the means of production,distribution, and exchange” and even today theLabour party aims to “serve the public interest”as well as to create “a just society, which judgesits strength by the condition of the weak as muchas the strong”, “an open democracy, in whichgovernment is held to account by the people”,and “a healthy environment”. [1] In the lastparliament Labour supported there being a capon welfare spending. [2] More recently Labourabstained on a Conservative welfare bill thatmany felt was too harsh in its cuts. [3] Corbyn,and a move to the left, will bring Labour back toits core values rather than supportingConservative policies and austerity that harmsindividuals. [1] Clause IV, Labourcounts, ,accessed 15 September 2015 [2] Wintour,Patrick, ‘Miliband: Labour not abandoning itsvalues with cap on welfare spending’, TheGuardian, 6 June 2013, [3] Eaton, George,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Old values are just out of date values. There islittle point in Labour appealing to the workingclass as the party they are supposed to representwhen those same people have been abandoningit for decades; in 1966 69% of manual workersvoted labour, this was only 45% by 1987 [1] –long before Labour dropped its left wingideology. Going back to core values if those corevalues are the values that the electoratewants. [1] O’Neill, Brendan, ‘Labour lost theworking-class vote a long time ago’, TheSpectator, 12 May 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "“I'm fed up with the Punch and Judy politics ofWestminster, the name calling, backbiting, pointscoring, finger pointing.” Not Jeremy Corbyn,David Cameron in 2005 when he becameopposition leader. [1] Every new opposition partyleader starts out saying they want to changeWestminster’s style of politics; Miliband was thesame. Yet they get sucked in all the same. Therobust Punch and Judy style is part and parcel ofBritish politics having happened during periodswhere the parties were ideologically far apart inthe past; there were comnplaints about jeeringand interuptions in the 1970s. [2] [1] Cameron,David, ‘Leadership acceptance speech,BritishPoliticalSpeech.org, 2005, [2] Parkinson,Justin, ‘Is Prime Minister’s Questions reallygetting worse?’, BBC News, 18 February 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Provides greater choice Corbyn in his lastcampaign rally argued “fundamentally manypeople are turned off by a political process whenthe major parties are not saying anythingdifferent enough about how we run theeconomy”. [1] This lack of choice has been acomplaint by voters for years – ever since TonyBlair made New Labour electable by moving tothe centre. Jeremy Corbyn now gives theelectorate a real choice compared to theConservative party; tackling the deficit throughtax rises (rather than cutting spending,nationalising the railways, peoples QuantitaiveEasing, don’t replace trident, and rent controls.[2] [1] Wintor, Patrick, ‘Corbyn: it’s time for anew kind of politics’, The Guardian, 12September 2015 [2] Magazine, ’24 things thatJeremy Corbyn believes’, BBC News, 13September 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Lack of difference encourages Punch and Judypolitics The public “are totally turned off by astyle of politics which seems to rely on the levelsof club house theatrical abuse that you can throwacross at each other in parliament and across theairwaves.” [1] This style is necessary toextentuate the small areas where there aredifferences between the parties. Introduce realdifferences on the big issues of government,particularly the economy and society, then suchminor point scoring fades into insignificance. [1]Wintor, Patrick, ‘Corbyn: it’s time for a new kindof politics’, The Guardian, 12 September 2015", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Corbyn is not tied to the past and his agenda isnot going to simply be a rehash of Michael Foot’smanifesto in 1983. The policies Corbyn isadvocating now would not have been consideredparticularly left wing in 1983 and most are notparticularly radical even now. Policies like rentcontrols, peoples’ QE, and renationalising therailways may be statist but are potentiallypopular solutions to issues that concern voters;the cost of housing, that QE benefited the banksand no one else, and that commuting is crampedand costly.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The biggest news of the last few years in politicshas been the fragmentation of the electorate;the increase in voting for the Scottish NationalParty, Greens, and UK Independence Party. Itcan no longer be certain that Labour will pick upmost votes by staying close to the centreground. In all but the very safest seats there aremore non-voters than there are people who votefor the winning party. It was notable that manyof the safest seats in the country, held by Labourin 2010, were toppled by the SNP in 2015including Glasgow North East that had an almost16,000 majority in 2010 fell to the SNP with amajority of over 7,000. [1] [1] Glasgow NorthEast (UK Parliament constituency), Wikipedia,last checked 16 September 2015", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Labour party is deprived of talent on thefront bench Numerous former front benchersand government ministers under the last Labourgovernment will not serve in a Corbyn shadowcabinet. Most obviously two of the fourleadership contenders; Liz Kendall and YvetteCooper. [1] This deprives the party ofexperienced parliamentarians who knowgovernment and what it takes to winelections. [1] Wintour, Patrick, and Watt,Nicholas, ‘Labour frontbenchers rule out servingin Corbyn’s shadow cabinet’, The Guardian, 12September 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Going left is step back not a step forward Labourhas tried left wing politics in the past – in the1980s – in what was described by GeraldKaufman, himself in the shadow cabinet at thetime, as “the longest suicide note in history”. [1]Going leftwards means moving back to thesepolicies rather than carving out new progressivepolicies that can energise and excite. Why shouldLabour be backing coal rather than renewables?Should Labour not be looking to give more powerto the people rather than brining it back to thestate through nationalisation? [1] Clarck, Neil,‘Not so suicidal after all’, The Guardian, 10 June2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-con01a", "title": "", "text": "A shift to the left means labour is no longer aparty of government A shift to the left meansthat Labour is no longer a real contender forgovernment. This is not only bad for Labour butbad for the country as a whole. Voters need tohave a choice between parties that stand arealistic chance of getting into power to have areal choice. By moving away from the centrewhere most of the votes are labour is no longer aserious contender. In the UK it is already thecase that the average voter for a party holdsmore centrist, or moderate, policy positions thanthe party they vote for. [1] [1] Voters’ PolicyPreferences Much More Centrist than those ofPolitical Parties, Compass, June 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-yppplhbmlgl-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Far from depriving the Labour Party of talent hehas been drawing new talent into the party.Labour gained 15,000 members in the threedays since Jeremy Corbyn’s victory on top ofthose who signed up during the leadershipcampaign. [1] Ultimately it is the membershipand its size and diversity that provides the talentof the future, not an elite clique of individuals atthe top. [1] Withnall, Adam, ‘More than 15,000join Labour party as full members in wake ofJeremy Corbyn victory’, The Independent, 13September 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is difficult to envision how this ban could beeffectively implemented without compromisingthe principles of free speech and unfetteredpolitical discussion that lie at the core of westerndemocratic liberalism. If side proposition pursuea broadly construed ban on negative tactics bycandidates, campaign groups and the media,free and open debate is likely to beendangered. Democratic political parties arediverse and plural entities. Even the mostauthoritarian or charismatic candidate cannothope to have complete control and oversightover every member of his campaign team. Underthe widest interpretation of the resolution, acareless comment by an over-enthusiastic partyactivist could breach a negative campaigning banas surely as an ad hominem attack advert.Indeed, such comments are much more likely tobe made on the door step than they are in thepress. This being the case, how would theactivities of a candidate’s staff be policed? Wouldthey be subject to constant surveillance? If so,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Existing methods of disciplining and controllingcandidates are ineffective. Many politicalparties- even those in operating in the US- claimthat regulation of the content of politicalcampaigns is unnecessary. Parties assert thatthey supervise and monitor the content of theircandidates’ statements. Self-regulation isclaimed to be in parties’ own interests. However,ensuring that individual candidates maintaingood standards of conduct and are disciplined forinfractions goes only half way to ensuring thatcampaigning remains honest and equitable.Articles written and speeches made bycandidates can easily be surveiled and monitoredfor misleading or litigious content. However, themost damning and intractable forms of negativecampaigning often occur indirectly, without beingexplicitly associated with a particular politicalfigure. Due to the frequency with whichcandidates’ activists and survey staff makecontact with voters, there is the danger that theycould be used to propagate negative messages", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Politics is a tough game, and those that decide toplay it should expect to come away bruised.Politicians, almost by definition, seek publicityand the attention of the media. They should,therefore, be prepared to accept that positivepress coverage will inevitably turnnegative. Much as debaters are trained tocontinue delivering clear and structuredspeeches in the face of badgering POIs,indifferent judges and poorly behavedopponents, we should expect our politicians to betough enough to give a robust defence of theirpolicies and actions, no matter how perniciousthe attacks launched against them. This is theonly way in which we can be certain of their skillsas a political operator and their commitment tothe ideological cause they claim tosupport. Politicians with families are consistentlyperceived as more trustworthy and competentthan those who lack familial ties. A family is auseful general indicator of a politician’swillingness to set aside personal ambition and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Negative campaigning creates voter apathy andprevents accurate reporting of candidates’policies and ideologies. The contemporarypolitical environment throughout much of thedemocratic world- and especially the USA- ismired in negative and aggressive campaigning.Tactics of this type breed apathy and anomieamong groups within society who havepreviously been politically engaged. Politiciansare increasingly portrayed as uniformly corrupt,incompetent or both. Research published byStamford University in the late nineties haslinked an overall decline in voter turnout(approximately 10% between 1960 and 1992) [i]and a further decline in voter roll-off (thelikelihood that an individual will vote for a highoffice, but neglect to vote for state or federallegislative positions) to increased reliance onattack ads and negative campaigning amongAmerican politicians. The authors of theStamford report identify several causativefactors underlying this connection. Firstly, the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is fashionable to exaggerate the pervasivenessof the “negative campaign environment”, butdemocracy still functions perfectly well in almostall liberal states. People still vote when their votewill matter the most. Voter turnout in the 2008[i] American presidential election and in the 2010UK general election [ii] was significantly higherthan in previous years. Both of these electionstook place against the backdrop of a rapidlyevolving financial crisis. Both elections focussedon candidates promoting a wide range of newand radical ideas. Both elections produced apreponderance of attack adverts that focussedon the content of policies, ideologies and thereliability of evidence showing the candidates’previous policy success. With one or twoover-reported exceptions, the politics of thepersonal was largely absent in both the US andthe UK. Moreover, liberal-democratic idealspromote openness and transparency within boththe government and the political class. Votersare entitled to information on a candidate’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "It is not possible for a politician to win on ano-policy platform. As proposition points out,negative campaigning does little to convince itstarget’s supporters of the wisdom of theattacker’s policies. A politician who decides touse attack adverts in his campaign will not beable to transfer support from his opponents’tickets to his. Thus, a politician who wants toemploy negative campaigning tactics mustalready be confident that he has an existingsupport base and policies that other voters willbe attracted to. Policy making and analysisremains the meat and drink of politics. Thepolitics of the personal is reserved forcampaigning season. Moreover, negativecampaigning tactics are reserved for closelyfought constituencies, states or districts. Sideproposition does not give politicians credit forrecognising that voters are rational individualsmotivated by reasoned arguments. Wherenegative campaigning is used in public polls, it isusually deployed at the end of a protracted a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Negative campaigning reduces the diversity andrepresentativeness of government. Many able,idealistic and talented individuals arediscouraged or excluded from participating in thepolitical process by aggressive negativecampaigning [i] . Bright potential candidatesmay be concerned about intrusion by politicalopponents into their private lives or backgrounds[ii] . They may be opposed in principle toparticipating in a political culture that obligesaspirant office holders to engage in smear- andfear-lead campaigning. Under the status quo,only those able to stomach the confrontationaland bullying tactics that have grown up aroundcontemporary electioneering will dare enter thepolitical arena. Moreover, such trends in politicalculture favour candidates with close links to themedia. Individuals able to command the ear ofnewspaper owners, or who possess aprofessional background in journalism orpublicity will be better able to manipulate orevade attacks launched via television and mass", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Negative campaigning leads to negativegovernance. Information on demographics, ontaxation rates, on the state’s finances are madepublically available precisely so that voters canarrive at reasoned, rational and nuanceddecisions as to whom they should vote for.Governments are judged by evidence of theefficacy of their policies. Analysis conducted bypolitical scientists William Riker, Michael Davisand Michael Ferrantino [i] show that wherenegative campaigning is permitted, evenpoliticians with no history of running attackcampaigns will adopt aggressive electoral tactics.If a politician wins on a positive platform- bypromising to implement new policies and reformexisting ones- then his chances of re-election willbe affected by his success or failure in bringingabout those changes. The electorate are able totest and assess a politician’s positive claims.However, if a politician campaigns on a negativeplatform, portraying his opponent asincompetent or his policies as damaging, an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is almost impossible to guarantee that groupsare truly independent, in the sense in which sideopposition uses the word. In America, so called“527” organisations [i] , which profess no directaffiliation with a candidate, are permitted tolaunch campaigns to attack or support particularpoliticians, without being subjected to the samefunding limitations and fair conduct rules aspolitical parties. [ii] Right-to-life groups andreligiously motivated organisations may operateas 527s, along with groups controlled bybusiness organisations. Coordination between527 groups, candidates and political parties isbanned in the US. In practice, however, the closealignment of the groups’ ideological objectivesand the characteristic policies of Republican andDemocrat candidates leads to 527s taking theircues (and their targets) from thepronouncements of politicians and theircampaigns. Groups such as Citizen’s Solidarityand the Indian anti-corruption movementmobilised around Anna Hazare [iii] are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Use of negative campaigning in primaries mayhelp to build support among voters who alreadyidentify with a particular party, but it can alsolower a politician in the view of undecided orswing voters. Primaries, now more than ever,are public contests, given as much attention bythe media as elections themselves. Mudslingingtactics deployed by candidates during a primaryare likely to give ammunition to opponents inany ensuing election. The fact that allparticipants in an election are likely to haveengaged in negative campaigning at one time oranother is beside the point – the activity isharmful in and of itself, because of its ability toengender apathy. Negative campaigning inpolitical primaries fuels further negativecampaigning during general elections. Even if, asopposition suggest, an aggressive primarycampaign is useful for winnowing out weak andcompromised candidates, negative campaigningin the election that follows will prevent those“strong” candidates from disseminating useful,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The difficulty of identifying attack adverts andnegative messages. The content and meaning ofa particular broadcast or print advert will notalways be clear. A piece of campaign media maynot be uniformly and objectively positive ornegative in tone. Words are ambiguous, theirdefinition based partly on the experiences andopinions of observers. Context can also play animportant role in determining how a politicalcommunication may be perceived. When ascandal breaks involving an opponent, is itlegitimate for one of the others candidates in anelection to run positive adverts about their ownbackground on a particular topic. If anincumbent is found to be a cuckold, for example,could a challenger run an advert asserting thathe was a “good family man”? Side propositionmay choose to respond by creating some varietyof independent campaign commission, or byexpanding the role of the judiciary. However, thisdoes nothing to address the basic issue ofsubjectivity highlighted above.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Independent campaign groups. The resolutionignores the possibility that negative campaignsmay occur outside of a partisan context. In India[i] and Korea [ii] , grass roots campaigns withoutspecific party or ideological ties have been usedto highlight corruption among electoralcandidates and legislative incumbents. Thesecampaigns are arguably an expression ofdemocratic political freedom, with individualcitizens banding together to enforce coredemocratic norms. However, as the example ofthe Citizen’s Solidarity movement in South Koreashows, because such actions inevitably involvequestioning the character and conduct ofpoliticians running for election, they frequentlyfall foul of laws designed to restrict negativecampaigning. Similar problems are encounteredby the professional press. Even in countries withliberal electoral and libel law regimes, the pressfrequently find themselves accused of politicalbias if they attempt to highlight mendacity orwrongdoing by a particular candidate. Unless the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Identifying strong, honest candidates. As notedabove, the rougher, ruder, character-orientedtone of a negative campaigning environment actsas a useful test of a politician’s reputation andintegrity. Further, opposition wish to restate theirearly counter-argument on the evolving anddynamic nature of election campaigns. Nocampaign is uniformly negative of positive. Acandidate who is able to stand firm in the face ofattacks against his character and his policies ismuch more likely to be able to act as a strongadvocate in a legislative forum, or whenaccounting for the actions of the executive.Determination and strong argumentation skills inone area imply a similar degree of dedication inother areas. By contrast, how much confidenceshould we have in a politician who would beprepared to appeal to the enforcementmechanism created by the proposition to forciblyexclude a particular statement or allegation froma political debate, rather than respond to it? Theproblems that confront national governments", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pgghwbnap-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is perfectly easy to rule on what is positive andnegative. It is true that some positive broadcastsmight be meant to play up the strengths of onecandidate, precisely because that’s where hisopponent is weakest – but that approach stillrepresents an improvement on the currentsituation, where the majority of campaign mediafocuses on the flaw of a candidate’srivals. Subjectivity has no role to play in theverification of objective facts. Currently, manycampaign adverts are based aroundmisrepresenting the content of an oppositioncandidate’s policies, or making far-fetchedconnections between negative social or economictrends and bills that a particular candidate votedin favour of. Questioning the objective distanceof the body that would enforce the rules createdby the resolution is also ineffective. Judges areappointed based on their ability to analyse andsift complicated arguments based on disputed orcompromised sets of facts. There is no reason toassume that similar principles of neutrality and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dthbismstw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "No doubt Daesh does have long term territorialplans, but in practice Daesh is currently stuck inIraq and Syria unable to conquer either. YesDaesh being territorial makes it very unusual fora terrorist organisation. However this alsoprovides a fixed target to defeat, and that defeatcan be on foreign soil. Daesh has a long shotchance of tearing up the borders of the MiddleEast. However as these borders have long beencriticised as illogical and contrived this would notnecessarily undermine the state system in theMiddle East, it may even benefit from morecohesive populations with national boundaries.[1] [1] Trofimov, Yaroslav, ‘Would new bordersmean less conflict in the Middle East?’, WSJ, 10April 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dthbismstw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The territory claimed by Daesh extends toEurope Daesh territory currently spreads acrossparts of Syria and Iraq. It is this transnationalismthat makes it a dangerous opponent. It is notjust a threat to one state but to every state inthe Middle East and North Africa. Daesh claims tobe a Caliphate which means it claims leadershipover the entire Muslim community. Such a claimwould inevitably include European countries suchas Bosnia and Albania where there are Muslimmajorities. The Caliphate’s legitimacy is tied toits territorial expansion. [1] A threat to theterritorial states system within the Middle East,let alone Europe, is a significant threat to thewest who created that system. Thedeconstruction of the states of the Middle Eastwould destroy western allies, give an extremeorganisation immense oil wealth from the Gulf,and likely make Israel an untenable outpost. [1]Vick, Karl, ‘As ISIS Grows Its Territory, ItBecomes Increasingly Dangerous’, Time, 15 June2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dthbismstw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Daesh ideology and the possibility of terroristattacks resulting from it is undeniably a problem.However the flow of fighters is mostly the otherway; from Europe to Syria and Iraq, five to sixthousand have made this journey. [1] It mighttherefore be said that Daesh is importingterrorism from the west rather than exporting it.We have no way of knowing how many terroristattacks these fighters may have committed hadthey stayed in their home countries. [1]Reuters, ‘Islamic State smuggling terroristsamong the migrants? Unlikely, say experts’,EurActive.com, 28 August 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dthbismstw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Deash has a compelling ideology Daesh has anideology that is a threat to western states,particularly those with Muslim minorities.Although Daesh’s ideology might seemincompatible with west the west an ICM pollfound in 2014 that 16% of French citizens have apositive opinion of Daesh. [1] This means thatwestern countries face an ideological clash withintheir own populations. A majority dislikes andfears Daesh and its ideology while a minoritysupports them despite their violence. Such a splitreduces community cohesion and will likely breeddistrust of Muslim populations (even of thosewho don’t have positive views of Daesh). [2] [1]Grant, Madeline, ‘16% of French Citizens SupportISIS, Poll finds’, newsweek, 26 August2014, [2] Hundal, Sunny, ‘The real threat fromthe Islamic State is to Muslims, not the west’,AlJazeera, 26 August 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dthbismstw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Daesh may have an ideology that is compellingto some people, but that number iscomparatively tiny, nothing like the millions thatwere attracted to western ideology during thecold war. Daesh needs a population to consideritself a success and yet the population of Syriahave voted with their feet [1] – they have fled toneighbouring countries not IS controlled areas.The United Nations has almost 4.3millionregistered refugees, [2] when the 7.6millioninternally displaced are included the numbers arefar higher yet these people are not flooding intoIS controlled areas. [3] [1] Sky, Emma,‘Standing idly by while the Middle East unravelsis not an option’, The Guardian, 26 November2015, [2] ‘Registered Syrian Refugees’ SyriaRegional Refugee Response, updated 17thNovember 2015, [3] ‘Syria IDP FiguresAnalysis’, Internal Displacement MonitoringCentre, July 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dthbismstw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Daesh and the Syrian civil war is nurtureterrorism for export Daesh is a terroristorganisation. [1] There are large numbers ofpeople within Europe who support Islamic Stateand Europeans travelling to fight for Daesh is anongoing problem; more than 700 from the UKalone. [2] There is therefore concern about thesepeople coming back and mounting terroristattacks, as appears to have been the case withthree of those involved in the 2015 Paris attacks;Omar Ismail Mostefai, Bilal Hadfi, and SamyAmimour. [3] [1] Bureau of Counterterrorism,‘Foreign Terrorist Organizations’, U.S.Department of State, accessed 1 September2015, [2] BBC News, ‘Who are Britain’sjihadists?’, 25 June 2015, [3] Farmer, Ben,‘Who were the terrorists? Everything we knowabout the Isil attackers so far’, The Telegraph,20th November 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dthbismstw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Distance does not matter in today’s world.Refugees from Syria are pouring in to Greece butalso enter the EU much further afield throughHungary or Italy. Ideology has its influenceregardless of distance meaning resulting terroristattacks are as likely to happen in Paris as Nicosiaand are as likely to be by those who have grownup in western Europe as those arriving fromSyria itself. Thinking that distance insulates usfrom the threat posed by Daesh is as wrong asthe belief that what a state does matters onlyinside its borders.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dthbismstw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There may be threats that can cause muchgreater damage than Daesh but these areneither immediate nor very likely. Nuclear war isundoubtedly a massive threat, but we succeededin getting through 45 years of cold war withoutthese weapons being used so the probability ofthe threat happening is low. Climate Change onthe other hand is less a security issue than anenvironmental, economic, and societal one.Daesh on the other hand has already struck atwestern states with the Paris attacks, and hassucked large numbers of western citizens into awar against their own countries in Syria andIraq. The threat from Daesh is thereforeimmediate, almost certain, and large.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dthbismstw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Daesh has little impact outside the MiddleEast The main threat from Daesh is to Muslims,and to those who live in and around the areas itcontrols. The main goal of Islamic state is to setup an Islamic caliphate and that means theprimary enemy is the existing states of theMiddle East. Those who support those states,and other ‘apostates’ such as Shia Muslims arealso threatened by IS but this very focus meansthat western states have less to worry aboutwhen considering their own national security. [1]Daesh’s priority quite simply lies within Syria andIraq not in launching attacks against westernstates. It is undeniable that the threat of ISattacks exists, and Daesh has struck backagainst states, France and Russia, that havebeen fighting it but unlike with 9/11 westernintervention caused the terrorist response ratherthan the other way around. [1] Hundal, Sunny,‘The real threat from the Islamic State is toMuslims, not the west’, AlJazeera, 26 August2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dthbismstw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The west is insulated by distance from Daesh Allwestern countries are insulated by distance fromIslamic State. The closest western countries areGreece and Cyprus which is as close as the EUcomes to Syria. But both are separated fromSyria by the Mediterranean Sea. If Daesh weretruly considered a threat of the kind that requiresharsh national security responses then Europecould close its borders to the South and East –its borders with Turkey in particular. This hashowever not happened because the risk ofterrorists (re-)entering Europe is not consideredgreat enough to warrant such a response.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dthbismstw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There are other larger threats. Terrorism byDaesh is undoubtedly a threat to the West. It ishowever a minor one. The largest securityconcern should still be the small chance ofcomplete destruction by nuclear weapons.Tensions with Russia make this more likely thanat any time since the gold war. The Bulletin ofthe Atomic Scientists’ doomsday clock is set at 3minutes to midnight in 1015 – it was last 3minutes to midnight in 1984 at the height of thecold war before Gorbachev gained power in theUSSR. [1] Disasters are increasingly seen as anissue of national security and Climate Change isquite possibly an even greater threat as a resultof the certainly of considerable warming and theresulting disasters it is likely to bring; by 2045the Union of Concerned Scientists say that citiessuch as Atlantic City could face tidal floodingmore than 180 times a year resulting in costlydamage. [2] [1] Bulletin of the AtomicScientists, ‘Timeline’, [2] Union of ConcernedScientists, ‘Encroaching Tides (2014)’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dthbismstw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While Daesh may be focused on its war at homeit is trying to attack those it is fighting wherethey are vulnerable. This is illustrated by thebombing of a Russian Metrojet Airliner leavingSharm el-Sheikh which killed 224 by a Daeshaffiliate [1] not long after Russia began bombingthe Syrian rebels, and Daesh, in Syria. Such anincident may take place in the Middle East butundoubtedly affects those outside of the region.Daesh’s reach has however extended to the westwith the 13th November attacks in Paris whichresulted in 130 deaths across the city. [1]AlJazeera, ‘Russia says plane in Egypt's Sinaibrought down by bomb’, 17th November 2015,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A national primary would disenfranchise largeportions of the country, as candidates would beforced to court the support of only the mostpopulous states as they currently do in thegeneral election. At least with the primarysystem as it stands, candidates have to payattention to all of the states and all sectionswithin the party. Staggered primaries create arelationship of interdependence between thenomination campaigns that are run in variousstates. A poor showing in one state canundermine a candidate’s attempts to make gainsin the following state. American political cultureis much more fragmentary and heterogonousthan European conceptions of the Union mightlead us to believe. Each state is sufficiently largethat what may seem to be a parochial “local”issue within the context of the entire Union maybe of vital importance to a particular state’svoters. The protection and promotion of thepolitically and cultural plural nature of the statesof the Union is a key aspect of the American", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The current system disenfranchises minorities asIowa and New Hampshire havedisproportionately low Black and Latinopopulations The minority populations of both ofthe early states are relatively low, and this canimpact on the outcome of their primaries.Minority populations- such as African and LatinoAmericans- and migrants who have been grantedcitizenship will approach the issues at the heartof a presidential campaign from a differentperspective. Due to high levels of social andfinancial deprivation among minority populationsthroughout the US, African Americans are likelyto vote in a way that reflects concern about lawsand policies that regulate access to educationalsubsidies and state supported health care. Latinovoters may have strong familial ties with southAmerican nation states. Correspondingly,candidates’ positions on cross border trade andthe enforcement of immigration laws are likely toinfluence the voting decisions of LatinoAmericans [i] . There have been a number of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "A lengthy primary campaign gives candidatestime to test each other on a whole range ofissues. Voters, in turn, make their decisionsbased on a balance of candidates’ strengths andweaknesses. Voters can do this because theyhave had the time to get to know the candidateswell, to become familiar with their policies andpositions on various issues and to analyse theirprofessional or political backgrounds. Admittedlythe experience of getting to know- and be knownby- the country is an expensive one. However,Barack Obama’s reliance on small, personaldonations demonstrates that this situation neednot benefit any particular sectional interest. Sideopposition contend that Obama’s grass rootsfunding model provides a viable alternative toreliance on large donation from powerful donors.Moreover, it also serves to expand and fosterpublic engagement in the politicalprocess. There is also little reason to suspectthat the resolution would do much to reduceexpenditure on campaigns. Indeed, eliminating", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The current system is undemocratic as it givesundue influence to the early states As mostprimaries only serve to decide the number ofdelegates who will be bound to vote for aparticular candidate at a party’s nationalconvention, a presidential hopeful will be able toignore contests later in the election cycle if hehas already secured a majority of delegates. Thestaggered nature of primaries under the statusquo allows candidates to determine when theirlead has become unassailable. As aconsequence, candidates will refrain frommounting campaigns in states that poll later inthe election cycle. The later a state votes, theless chance it has of influencing the size of acandidate’s majority. In 2000 and 2004, by thetime New York – the third most populous state inthe union – voted, both main parties had, ineffect, selected their candidate. If that isn’t theperfect example of an undemocratic system,then it would be difficult to think of what mightbe. The current system discriminates against", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The primaries are simply the device by whichparties select their candidates. They are part ofthe internal affairs of America’s independentpolitical organisations and do not require thelegitimacy of the election itself. Movingeverything to one day could end up exacerbatingthe problems of inclusiveness and democraticdeficit identified by side proposition, as thecampaigns and messages of smaller candidateswould be drowned out by larger, wealthier rivalsand those with pre-existing contacts in the newsmedia. Further, under the system that theresolution would bring about, donors are morelikely to provide funding to ‘safe’candidates. However, with a protractedcampaign it is possible for a surprise result toemerge, as has happened on several occasions –for example when incumbents have failed to winkey states. Relatively unknown candidates cantake advantage of the extended duration of thecurrent primary system to build a public profileand to court the attention of the media. This", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The current system is hugely expensive; anational primary would control the scale ofspending in campaigns Immense pressure isplaced on candidates to win in the earlyprimaries and then to deliver repeatperformances across “key” states. Each stage ofthe process is effectively a national campaignand has to be treated- and funded - as such.Even though votes in primaries are limited to thecitizens of individual states, or the members ofstate parties, the media can communicate a poorshowing in the polls or a blunder in a debate tothe entire nation. The overall cost of runningcampaign adverts, researching a candidate’sposition on a huge range of local issues andorganising rallies, debates and press briefingscan quickly become astronomical– hence theneed to establish as decisive lead as early aspossible. A single national primary would bothreduce costs and provide for a clearer result.Moreover, a single national primary wouldcompel candidates to mount campaigns based", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The current arrangement means that a handfulof small states have a massively disproportionateimpact on the primary campaigns. A genuinelynational primary would even that out. Grassrootscampaigns would also have a reasonable basisfor operating on the national stage right up tothe event. Stretching the process out ultimatelyplay to the biggest pockets. Unless grassrootscandidates get an extraordinary result early,they’re knocked out. Trying to fight their waythrough several, effectively national campaigns,means that they only really have one chance atthe moment. It’s only sensible to make that factreality with a structure that means all candidatesare in an all or nothing race rather than afinancial endurance test.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Respecting the interests of the majority inmaking a decision about a candidate to representthem in a national election is not the worst ideain the world. Equally, the state parties wouldneed to be involved as they play a central role inthe general election and it is in the interest ofcandidates to work with them from the start. Asthings stand at the moment many of the largerstates are actually disenfranchised by the sameprocess that allows state parties to portray theirrole in the primary as valuable and significant.There can be no approach to the current primaryelection “narrative” that allows the individualstates to exert a proportionately fair amount ofinfluence over the other states’ choice ofnominee. Candidates with deep pockets – eithertheir own or somebody else’s - can survive earlysetbacks. but it means that many candidateswho do not win support in the first few states canbe ruled out by the end of January. By the timeNebraska comes to make their decision in themiddle of May, the issue may long since have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Primaries encourage organisation and activity ata local level The primaries as they stand makean important statement not only about partystructure, but also about national identity – afederation of states each with a full right to theirtime in the sun. This is not misty-eyednostalgia, but a simple reflection of the realitiesof the constitution. The balance of the rights ofstates, as well as a respect for the views of themajority, is reflected in the process of anextended primary campaign that assumes allstates to be equal. A final decision made at anational convention acknowledges that the viewsof the different and distinct populations of thestates of the union have been weighed againsteach other. The current structure of presidentialprimaries ensures that the separate states of theUnion are fully engaged in the selection process,irrespective of the balance of political power orthe nature of that state’s political culture. Thestatus quo gives an invaluable opportunity to,say, Texan Democrats or Republicans in Vermont", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Iowa and New Hampshire are ideally placed tostart the primary process, specifically becausethey are relatively small Iowa and NewHampshire are the perfect states to kick off theprimary season. It ensures that the openingfocus of the campaigns is outside the usualmedia centers of New York, D.C. and California.This serves to remind political commentators andothers that there is an entire country outthere. Equally, because they are relatively smallstates, campaigns in Iowa and New Hampshireallow candidates to set out their positions withgreater clarity, in contests that popularconsensus regard as highly significant, but whichare also small enough not to threaten anomination bid if lost. Put another way, thewealthy and homogenous nature of NewHampshire and Iowa allows candidate’scampaigning there to focus on making broaderstatements about the policies and normativeprojects that they will implement on a nationallevel. Candidates can position themselves,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "States’ rights Quite apart from the politicallycontroversial contents of the phrase, states’rights describes a vital and highly relevantaspect of the relationship between the individualstates of the Union and the centralgovernment. The powers held by the federalgovernment to control and trammel the conductof the states of the union, and to act on theirbehalf on issues of foreign policy is to becontrasted with states’ freedom to produce theirown laws and legislation on certain issues. Thedebate on the areas of civil life in which a stateretains authority to formulate its own laws,without interference by the federal government,remains controversial, but it can be useful inclarifying the nature of the federal bond thatholds the states of the Union together. Politicalculture in the United States is characterised, notonly by a patriotic attachment to the idea of thefederal republic, but also to the states thatindividual citizens inhabit. As noted above, thecultural, religious and economic tropes of each", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-lvhwhauppsd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Ultimately the primary campaigns, at least forthe main parties, are national campaigns. As aresult of more frequent and more intensivemedia coverage- even during early primaries-candidates have to speak to national issues.Furthermore, Super Tuesday is basically anational primary already, it just happens toexclude some of the states. The early primariessimply work to filter out candidates attempting touse the presidential election to promote a single,poorly developed set of maverick views in frontof a much larger audience than they wouldotherwise have access to. Only in the event ofvery close races are the later states left with anymeaningful decisions. It would be far more usefulto admit that reality and simply hold all nationalprimaries in early February. Contests would stillbe organised by the state parties (in conjunctionwith the state authorities where required) andstates would still record their vote separately.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Women can carry out many of these taskswithout serving in combat roles in the army. Forexample, female medical staff or female militarypolice can be sent to give medical assistance orconduct bodily searches. In both Iraq andAfghanistan, female U.S. military police officershave searched local women for explosives. [1] Iffemale soldiers are perceived as less threateningthan male soldiers, there could potentially beworrying side effects such as a reduction in thedeterrent effect of the military presence in anL.I.C. [1] Schult, Marie, ‘Female Soldiers Assistwith Cultural Sensitivities’, Defend America,March 2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Some combat roles are better suited to womenthan men Modern warfare involves manyL.I.C.s, where the battleground is as much“hearts and minds” as it is physical combat. In aconflict where hearts and minds are importantdelicate handling of local people is required inorder gain their support. In L.I.C.s, women areoften better suited to intelligence gathering,medical assistance, policing and mediation thanmen. They are often perceived as lessthreatening and more understanding. [1] Inaddition, they would be better placed to dealwith women in the local population. Forexample, the job of many of the female U.S.marines killed and injured in June 2005 in Iraqwas to search women for explosives atcheckpoints to avoid the near-universal sense ofhumiliation engendered by a member of theopposite sex conducting an intimate bodilysearch. [2] [1] DeGroot, Gerard J., ‘Women asPeacekeepers’, Toronto Star, 25 July 1999. [2]Reuters, ‘The Female Fallen’, PTSD Support,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There is no immediate pressing need for anincreased pool of recruits for the army indeveloped countries. The late-2000s recessionhas led to an increase in military recruitment;particularly in the U.S. [1] This is as a result ofthere being many more people searching forwork which makes the military a relatively moreattractive career. The number of recruits andtheir talent pool can also be increased in otherways. For example military service can be betterpromoted and greater incentives to enlist can beoffered. For example, educational fundingprovided to U.S. army veterans under thepost-9/11 G.I. bill is a major incentive which hasincreased recruit numbers in recent decades.[2] [1] Bender, Bryan, ‘Down economy boostsmilitary’, The Boston Globe, 1 March 2009. [2]‘G.I. Bill’, United States Department of VeteransAffairs, Accessed June 2nd, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "There should be equality between men andwomen. There is a fundamental principle thatmen and women should be considered equal inall walks of life; and as such should both have anequal role in the military, including being incombat. Not allowing combat roles for womenhas an unfortunate side effect of increasinginequality in terms of ranks. Combat duty isnecessary or highly beneficial for promotion tosenior officer positions in many armies. [1] Ifwomen cannot serve in combat, very few willever reach the highest ranks of the military; thiscreates a glass ceiling that will be very hard tobreak without this change to allowing women toserve in combat. Women have to be given thesame opportunities as men, in the army in orderto have the same opportunities they have to beexposed to the same risks. [1] Jones, Melissa,‘Combat Women’, iVillage.co.uk. Powers, Rod,‘What the Recruiter Never Told You’, About.comguide, Accessed June 2nd, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Differences in physical strength can beovercome Militaries can use ‘gender-blind’recruitment and training processes, treating allcandidates the same regardless of gender. Thisis 100% fair and some women will certainlysucceed in entering combatant roles and willprove themselves the equal or better than themen. For example, several Soviet women havedistinguished themselves as snipers and combataviators. [1] Alternatively, militaries cancalibrate recruitment and training to suit femalecandidates. There is a precedent for this in theU.S. military’s A.P.F.T. (army physical fitnesstest), which has variations for age. [2] If the teststandards can be lowered for older men, theycan also be lowered for women. In the modernhigh technology battlefield, technical expertiseand decision-making skills are often morevaluable than physical strength. For example, inthe American army, performance targets areregularly calibrated for age and position. [3] Aforty year-old senior N.C.O. (non-commissioned", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "If we use ‘gender-blind’ recruitment and training,some women will be able to meet the requiredstandards, but most will not. The small numberof suitable female candidates set against theadditional logistical, regulatory and disciplinarycosts associated with integrating them, meanthat integration is not worthwhile. For example,one test of American army officer candidatesshowed that \"only one woman out of 100 couldmeet a physical standard achieved by 60 out of100 men” [1] Some roles such as those ofsniper and combat aviator clearly require lessphysical strength than most active combat roles.Many tasks that combat soldiers mustaccomplish require high muscle density, whichwomen do not naturally possess. [2] Exampleswould include carrying a wounded soldier,throwing grenades or digging a trench in hardterrain. Older and more senior soldiers make upfor their reduced physical strength with anincreased amount of experience. The samecannot be said for new female recruits. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "This does not mean that women should have toserve in combat. The alternative is that it ispossible to change the promotion policies inarmies to give women a fair chance at careeradvancement. Men and women are both givenopportunities to join the army, but with theunderstanding that different roles requiredifferent physical, emotional attributes. Thisshould mean in turn that there are multipleroutes to promotion so that women have equalopportunities without having to fight take part incombat operations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There are many conflicts which are notL.I.C.s. Recent combat operations have hadhistorically very low casualty rates, the wars thatthe United States has been fighting have beenoperations where the United States had vasttechnological superiority. There is no guaranteethat this will always be the case, a conflictbetween nations with comparatively equalmilitaries would still have much more bloodycombat operations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Allowing women to serve in combat increases thepool for recruits Volunteer military forces facelow recruitment and retention rates as a result ofit being a tough and stressful job where workerscannot work for as long as they do in manycivilian jobs. [1] Injuries and trauma caused byfighting also add to the turnover rate of soldiers.As a result it is necessary to widen the applicantpool in order to be able to ensure there are morecandidates for the army. Allowing women toserve in combat effectively doubles the possibletalent pool available for the military to recruit fordelicate and sensitive jobs which requireinterpersonal skills that not every soldierpossesses. The result will be better and morediplomatic soldiers who will be particularly usefulin L.I.C.s. [2] [1] Cogan, James, ‘US militaryrecruitment crisis deepens’, World Socialist WebSite, 1 June 2005. [2] DeGroot, Gerard J.,‘Women as Peacekeepers’, Toronto Star, 25 July1999.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "All modern military roles are combatantanyway Many modern conflicts are L.I.C.s whichinvolve terrorist groups using guerilla tactics. Inthese situations, there are no clear ‘front-lines’,and no clear difference between combatant andnon-combatant roles. All women serving in themilitary are exposed to “front-line risks”. [1]Attacks on soldiers are as likely to occur on themilitary’s bases themselves as they are when thesoldiers are out on patrol. For example, in lateJune of 2005 in Iraq, two women marines werekilled and about a dozen injured in a pair ofsuicide attacks. [2] That frontline combatoperations are not always much more dangerousthan other roles can be shown by the casualtiesin Iraq comparing the initial invasion andreconstruction phases. The United States lostvery few casualties in the invasion phase of thewar up to President Bush’s declaration of victoryon 1 May 2003 with only 138 dead, [3]compared to an overall death toll of 4422. [4] Ifmen and women are already in practice facing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Male soldiers generally take just as much timeoff as female soldiers, in large part due to theirgreater alcohol and drug use. [1] Of course thisproblem can be easily anticipated. Statistics onthe number or female soldiers not available forcall-up due to pregnancy can be used to factor inthe phenomenon so that the military has enoughpersonnel to deploy at any one time. This isalready done for male soldiers not available forcall-up due to injury. [2] Moreover this shouldnot even be considered as not all women can orwant to have children. In western states, it ismore common for women to become careerwomen and leave having children to later on inlife; this would just as likely be the case withwomen in the military. Women, who choose tobecome active combat soldiers, are unlikely toshirk their duty by becoming pregnant after acall-up as these women have willingly joined thearmy. [1] ‘Sexes: The Military Is Pregnant’,Time, 8 October 1979. [2] ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Clearly, training will be required to facilitate theintegration of women into combat units. Cultureschange over time and the masculine subculturecan evolve too. Many previously masculineprofessions have been successfully opened towomen over the past century – some of them,such as working in factories and many otherroles as a result of war. People involved incombat will attempt to protect each other, this isnatural, and sometimes this kind of act is foolish.But this is something that already happens,involving women in the combat role will notmake much difference. In addition, men can beinformed that acting foolishly to protect womenis unacceptable and reprimanded just as anysoldier acting foolishly for any other reasonwould be. Soldiers can be taught whatconstitutes sexual harassment and abuse andhow to react if they witness it or are victimized.Armies already take such incidents seriously anddisciplinary procedures can be put in place todeal with any increases in such incidents in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "There is a relatively higher female Injury rate Ifmilitaries use gender-blind recruitment andtraining, women will suffer a high rate of injuryas a result of physical differences. The standardsof physical fitness have been set to suit men,and women attempting to reach them willover-stretch themselves. For example, when theU.K. military began using gender-blind training inthe 1990s, the rate of medical discharge offemale recruits jumped from 4.6% to 11.1%.[1] In addition, regardless of recruitment andtraining standards, combat units engage inactivities designed to suit men’s capabilities.Women serving in integrated units will sufferhigher injury rates as a result of this. Forexample, armies march according to the malestride length of 45 cm, rather than the shorterfemale stride length of 38 cm. Women marchingat the male pace are therefore at increased riskof stress fractures in pubic bones. [2] [1]Gemmell, Ian M. M., ‘Injuries among femalearmy recruits: a conflict of legislation’, Journal of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Battlefield Rape is a concern A prevalent themein many nationalist conflicts is both sidesattempting to extinguish the bloodlines of theenemy culture. This ethnic cleansing often leadsto systematic rape of women and mass murderof men. For example, in the Bosnian Wars of theearly 1990s, systematic rape was carried outagainst all ethnic groups, but particular by ethnicSerbs against Bosnian Muslims. [1] This couldpresent a problem in the modern interventionistor peace-keeping activities of many militaryforces, third party combatants are often sent tothe battlefields of conflicts that involve just thiskind of ethnic cleansing. While it is unlikely thatanything will happen to peacekeeping units if oneside does turn on the peacekeepers it is likelythat female soldiers will be treated the same aswomen from the enemy side if the rapementality has been set in the minds of thesoldiers. [1] Osborn, Andrew, ‘Mass rape ruled awar crime’, The Guardian, 23 February 2001.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Female P.O.W.s (prisoners of war) are aliability In wars, soldiers are often captured andbecome P.O.W.s. Male P.O.W.s are sometimestortured or raped. Many societies around theworld value women less than men. Thismisogyny may make female soldiers more likelyto be tortured or in particular raped than malesoldiers if they are captured. [1] At the sametime this threat or reality may lead male soldiers,captured alongside female soldiers, to crackmore easily under interrogation. [2] FemaleP.O.W.s are also more likely than male P.O.W.sto be used in propaganda campaigns at home.This may have an effect on the nation’scommitment to the war effort. For example, thestory of Jessica Lynch, an American marinecaptured in Iraq, was widely reported in theAmerican media, affecting national morale. Themedia paid little attention to the male soldierscaptured at the same time. [3] [1] Cook,Gretchen, ‘POWs likely to endure sexual assault’,Women’s Enews, 2002. ‘Women in Combat", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Pregnancy affects military readiness Womenwho become pregnant are not available to bedeployed into warzones. This reduces militaryreadiness. Additionally, pregnancy means thatwomen need to take time off work, which canhave worse effects in military units than anyother workplace. [1] This effect has beenobserved in army and navy forces in the past. Anincreased number of women in the militarywould make the problem worse. [2] In 1985 upto 10% of active duty women personnel in theUS armed forces were unavailable for call-up andduty due to pregnancy. [3] Pregnancy couldpotentially be a means of avoiding call-up. This islikely with national guard soldiers, who areusually permanently stationed at home and oftenbuild lives and families there, not expecting to bedeployed abroad. This tactic was used during theVietnam war by some men. In 1965, the decisionto expand the military draft to include marriedmen without children was made. [4] [1] ‘Sexes:The Military Is Pregnant’, Time, 8 October", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con05b", "title": "", "text": "No woman will be working by herself. Militaryunits work together, and if a woman were, forexample, on patrol by herself, she is armed andcan legitimately defend herself against anattacker. In fact, women are a better presencein situations where rape is being used as aweapon of war. Local women are not going totrust male soldiers so easily as women, becauseone man in a camouflage uniform looks muchlike another. If a woman has been raped, orseen/heard about someone from theirneighborhood being raped by an armed militia,or by the army, that woman is in a state of fearalready. She will not be able to distinguishbetween soldiers in her panic. However, a femalesoldier is not going to rape the local women. Thismeans there is a greater bond of trust betweenthe two parties and they can work together inthings like delivering aid, rebuildinginfrastructure post-conflict. Local women will alsofeel more comfortable to come forward to reporta crime of rape to another woman, than she", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Integrating women into male combat units cancause men to behave badly Many men who jointhe army maintain traditional gender roles. Thismay lead them to act foolishly to protect womenin their combat units, endangering themselvesand everyone else in the unit. In a recent reviewon the possible introduction of mixed-gendercombat units, the British Ministry of Defensecited this as an issue. [1] At the same time, thesudden presence of women in a masculinesubculture, can lead to resentment and incidentsof abuse. Sexual harassment and assault maybecome more prevalent. Any bad male behaviorwill create tensions, affect morale and weakenthe military. For example, at the three USservice academies, one in seven women reportbeing sexually assaulted, and half have beensexually harassed. [2] Integrating into combatunites is not likely to help these statistics. [1]Norton-Taylor, Richard, ‘Women still bannedfrom combat roles after Ministry of Defencereview’, guardian.co.uk, 29 November 2010. [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The treatment of P.O.W.s is influenced by manyfactors, including their captor nation’s adherenceto the Geneva Convention, discipline within theranks of their captor army, whether the P.O.W. isexpected to possess useful information andwhether the captor army is concerned with theirpublic image. The gender of the P.O.W. is likelyto have a very small influence compared to theseother factors. Upon entering the army, eachapplicant, male or female are aware of the risksand the possibility of being captured, even if thatpossibility is small, and are aware of what mayoccur while in captivity. By deciding to join, eachperson therefore agrees to understanding theserisks and thus making a statement ofacceptance. Stories of P.O.W.s are compelling.They are likely to be used in propagandacampaigns whether or not female soldiers areinvolved. Had Jessica Lynch not been captured,the male soldiers probably would have been atthe center of a similar campaign.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dwsghwawtpc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is possible to calibrate recruitment and trainingstandards to women. Extra pre-training formuscle building can also be used to reducefemale injury rates. [1] As for the increase offemales being discharged in the 1990’s, it isobvious that with an increase of people, theamount of those injured with also proportionallyrise, whether male or female. In order toaccommodate to more females in the military,rather than integrating women into male combatunits, all-female combat units could be created.These would engage in activities designed to suitwomen’s capabilities. [1] Gemmell, Ian M. M.,‘Injuries among female army recruits: a conflictof legislation’, Journal of The Royal Society ofMedicine, Vol.95, No.1, January 2002, pp.23-27.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Peace talks starting just 18 months before allNATO forces have left is clearly leaving it too lateto ensure success. There will be little to persuadethe Taliban to compromise as they believe theirsituation is only going to get better when there isno fear of military defeats. The Taliban haswalked away from talks before and could easilydo so again. It is notable that a Talibanspokesman says “There is no ceasefire now.They are attacking us and we are attackingthem” which makes the chances of breakdown inthe talks high. [1] To make matters worse theAfghan government has only been lukewarmabout the talks complaining that allowing theTaliban an office in Doha “gave the Taliban anofficial identity, something we didn't want” andresponded by suspending negotiations with theUnited States on a security agreement thatwould determine how many US soldiers stay inthe country after the NATO mission has ended.[2] [1] ‘US to hold direct peace talks withTaliban’, Al Jazeera, 19 June 2013 [2] Shalizi,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Negotiations to ensure lasting peace NATO isalso ensuring that peace and security remain inAfghanistan as they draw down by opening upnegotiations with the Taliban. Peace can only beassured by bringing together the sides so thatalmost everyone accepts the status quo and doesnot want to destroy that status quo throughforce. United States officials say “We have longsaid this conflict won't be won on the battlefield”with the deputy national security advisor, BenRhodes, adding “The United States will besupporting a process that is fundamentallyAfghan-led” meaning that NATO is no longer keyto the process. [1] NATO handing over control tothe Afghans and eventually withdrawing entirelywill make peace more likely to succeed as theTaliban “considerers it its religious and nationalduty to gain independence from the occupation”with this goal it wants “to support a political andpeaceful solution”. [2] Lasting peace is then onlypossible when NATO leaves. [1] Roberts, Dan,‘Taliban peace talks: ‘Peace and reconciliation’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Some elections may be better than no electionsbut where the west has control there reallyshould have been exemplary elections. The 2009Presidential elections in particular have beenaccused of having been riddled with fraud. Theelection observers from the National DemocraticInstitute said “polling was marred by widespreadfraud” and the opposition candidate AbdullahAbdullah pulled out of the run off pointing tothere being no measures taken to prevent thefraud recurring. [1] If Afghan elections are somarred by fraud when the US and NATO stillhave a lot of control over the country how badwill it be when there is no outside check? And ifdemocracy may not survive the transition fromNATO control what hope is there for humanrights and particularly women’s rights? [2] [1]National Democratic Institute, ‘The 2009Presidential and Provincial Council Elections inAfghanistan’, 2010 [2] UN News Centre,‘Georgette Gagnon: Raising the bar on respectfor human rights in Afghanistan’, un.org, 28 May", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "NATO has brought peace and security “NATO’sprimary objective in Afghanistan is to enable theAfghan authorities to provide effective securityacross the country and ensure that the countrycan never again be a safe haven for terrorists.”[1] The invasion of Afghanistan was initiallyabout destroying al-Qaeda and with the killing ofOsama bin Laden in 2011 in Pakistan thisobjective has been met. There are still efforts todestroy al Qaeda but these have mostly movedout of Afghanistan and into Pakistan and othercountries such as Yemen. NATO has alsobrought Afghanistan to the point where theAfghani’s can look after themselves and exercisetheir own security. On 18th June Afghanistantook over the lead from NATO on securitynationwide having previously been taking controldistrict by district. Handing over security alsoitself improves security with Afghanis inKandahar saying “Now that the foreigners aregone, the security situation in the city and in thedistricts is much better”. [2] [1] ‘NATO and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The conflict clearly is ongoing in Afghanistan; in2012 there were 245 drone strikes inAfghanistan compared to only 44 in Pakistan and28 in Yemen. [1] Even if those drones are notbeing used to attack al Qaeda but instead theTaliban in Afghanistan it is impossible to say thatpeace and security has been brought to thecountry. It is also impossible to say that thehandover to Afghan forces shows that the NATOmission has been a success; a handover couldoccur no matter how peaceful or otherwise thecountry is. In Vietnam the United States declaredvictory by signing the Paris Peace Accords andhanding over to South Vietnam only for thecountry to be overrun two years later in thespring of 1975. [2] [1] Woods, Chris, and Ross,Alice, K., ‘Revealed: US and Britain launched1,200 drone strikes in recent wars’, The Bureauof Investigative Journalism, 4 December2012 [2] The Learning Network, ‘April 30, 1975| Saigon Falls’, The New York Times, 30 April2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There are still immense problems withinfrastructure in Afghanistan, more roads andrailways are needed if large scale investment byChina and others is to be made a success. Thereis little point in huge investment in mines if theproduct of those mines then can’t be transportedout of the country to the markets as a result ofeither poor infrastructure or security concerns.There are also cases where infrastructure builtby the US military has been allowed todeteriorate when handed over to Afghan control;there have been problems maintaining almosthalf the infrastructure projects built by the US inLaghman province. [1] [1] Boak, Josh,‘U.S.-funded infrastructure deteriorates onceunder Afghan control, report says’, WashingtonPost, 4 January 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Democracy has been brought toAfghanistan Some of the biggest benefits of theNATO occupation have been through the increasein democracy and human rights. While thesewere not specific aims of the NATO mission theywere among the goals set out by the UnitedNations. [1] There have been two Presidentialelections, one in 2004 the other in 2009, and twoparliamentary elections, 2005 and 2010 nonehave been perfect but it is a clear advance fromno elections at all. The most notable humanrights increase has been in women’s rights.Under the Taliban Afghanistan strictly limited theactivities of women but today 27.3% of therepresentatives in the Parliament are women(better than in the UK or US) and the first femalegovernor is in office. The literacy rate is still lowbut they now make up 36.6% of those in primaryschool up from almost nothing. [2] There havebeen similar gains in other human rights such asa reduction in the use of corporal punishmentssuch as amputating hands for theft. [1] Annex", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Investment in Afghanistan; rebuilding theeconomy The ‘rehabilitation’ of Afghanistan’sinfrastructure has not been an immense successdue to the continuing bombing campaign whichinevitably damages infrastructure but there havebeen big economic benefits from the NATOpresence. There have been more than 4,000schools built and 175,000 teachers trained,although more is needed this is an immenseboost to education in Afghanistan. [1] Anotherbenefit of increased stability is a renewal ofoutside investment, from China in particular.China has been investing billions, Several miningfirms have made a $4.4 billion investment in oneproject; an immense undeveloped copperreserve in Aynak. [2] In total there is more than$20 billion being invested in infrastructure byAfghanistan’s Asian neighbours, as theseinvestments are looking for profit they are clearlybelieved to be sustainable, by comparison theUnited States has only funded $1.6billion since2006. [3] [1] ‘Afghanistan’, USAID, February", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There will still be aid after NATO leaves andAfghanistan is not simply going to be abandonedas the troops go home. Economic growth sincethe fall of the Taliban has been spectacular withaverage growth of 9.1% of GDP since 2009 whileit is true that this has been in part fueled by aidthere are more sustainable sources of growth inthe form of the mineral wealth of Afghanistanwhich can go to the giant and growing economiesof India and China. [1] [1] Al Jazeera andagencies, ‘Afghanistan’s economy at a glance’, AlJazeera, 19 February 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "In a country where the insurgents are moreopposed to the foreign occupiers than theirnominal opponents in the Afghan governmentthe complete withdrawal of troops will actuallybe good for peace and security. Yes Afghanistanis still dangerous but the aim is not necessarilyto provide security through NATO forces but totrain Afghan forces to do it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Taliban will likely take over when the NATOforces leave Even if they are willing to negotiatea peaceful US exit this does not mean theTaliban will not wish to use force when theUnited States has left. In their statement onpeace talks they highlighted “the establishmentof an independent Islamic system and truesecurity which is the want and aspiration of thenation.” [1] They also style themselves as theIslamic Emirate of Afghanistan clearly showingtheir political goal is regaining power inAfghanistan which would mean overthrowing thedemocratically elected government. SomeAfghan experts such as Gilles Dorronsoro believethat this is what will happen “After 2014, thelevel of US support for the Afghan regime will belimited and, after a new phase in the civil war, aTaliban victory will likely follow” though thiswould have the advantage of bringing stability asthe Taliban did before the US invasion it wouldrepresent a complete failure for the US. [2] [1]Taliban, ‘Taliban agree to peace talks with US", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con04a", "title": "", "text": "An Afghanistan dominated by warlords. Underthe Taliban up to the US invasion Afghanistanwas at least united. Today however there is littlecentral control beyond the NATO forces; theTaliban clearly controls some areas but there arealso powerful warlords. Appointments are basedon nepotism and tribal affiliations not on merit oreducation and those who were part of thenorthern alliance that fought on the US side(Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Hazaras) are takingadvantage of the opportunity of the overthrow ofPashtun dominance in the country to grab powerand resources. [1] Already the conflict has anethnic dimension as almost all of the Taliban ismade up of Pashtuns. The Taliban meanwhilebelieves that the other ethnicities want apartition of the country through a verydecentralised federal state. In almost any peacescenario with NATO gone there is a large chancethat one faction will walk out setting off a civilwar and fragmentation of the country. [2] [1]Noor, Ahmad, ‘Power Politics of ethnic groups", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "NATO has failed to solve Afghanistan’s economicproblems While some progress has been madeon the economic and development front inAfghanistan it is difficult to consider it a success.There are still 20% of households who arechronically food insecure and another 18% inneed of assistance in some of the year with theresult that nearly 40% of children under threeare malnourished. [1] Afghanistan is immenselydependent on aid for its economic progress withforeign aid to the country representing 100% ofGDP in 2011 which makes the country vulnerableto a change in priorities. Clearly the withdrawalwill represent such a change; when NATO goesaid, and spending as a result of the militaryoccupation, will drop at the very leastconstraining growth and likely taking the Afghaneconomy with it. [2] Already the InternationalLabour Organisation has been warning that thiswill mean increasing child labour in the countryas lower profit margins force families to use theirchildren to boost incomes. [3] [1] UNDP", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Afghanistan is still a dangerous place Peacetalks or no peace talks, NATO military leadershipof Afghan would all appear to make nodifference. Only hours after the Taliban said itwould hold peace talks and the United Stateshanded over control of military operations to theAfghan National Army four US soldiers werekilled in a mortar attack at Bagram Airbase oneof the centres of NATO operations. [1] Clearlythen NATO has not brought peace and security toAfghanistan. The effect of handovers to theAfghans have already been seen; August toOctober of last year saw a 28% spike in killingsfrom the same period the year before at a timewhen NATO was handing over control implyingthat the Afghan army is not yet ready to protectcivilians. [2] [1] Roberts, Dan, ‘Taliban peacetalks: ‘Peace and reconciliation’ negotiations totake place in Qatar’, The Guardian, 19 June2013 [2] Borger, Julian, ‘Can Afghan troops holdoff the Taliban after Nato withdraws?’, TheGuardian, 1 January 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con04b", "title": "", "text": "In a country as rugged as Afghanistan there isalways going to have to be a lot ofdecentralisation and at the moment this meanswarlords having a lot of power in individualareas. However this is better than the alternativeof a centralising Taliban which would still havemany factions and elements but these would bemuch more extreme than today’s warlords. It isalso difficult to see how this impacts on thesuccess of NATO in Afghanistan. They can be badbut can also bring benefits as they have anincentive to deliver stability and reconstructionto their local areas. [1] [1] Milhopadhyay,Dipali, ‘Warlords as Bureaucrats: The AfghanExperience’, Carnegie Papers, Number 101,August 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-dtwhbnhsa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is little reason to believe that the Talibanwill succeed in rapidly forcing the Karzaigovernment out of power. The Taliban has beenfailing to retake the ground they have lost afteroffensives by NATO forces so even if the AfghanNational Army fails to take more ground it seemsunlikely the Taliban will quickly succeed indriving on Kabul. [1] In the unlikely event thatthe Taliban does begin winning the US and otherNATO states are not going to sit back and let theAfghan government fall. David Cameron, theBritish Prime Minister has said “The clearmessage is to the Taliban that you can't just waitthis out until foreign forces leave in 2014. Wewill be firm friends and supporters to Afghanistanlong beyond that.” [2] [1] American EnterpriseInstitute, ‘Why we must win in Afghanistan’, 17October 2012 Biddle, Stephen, ‘SalvagingGovernance Reform in Afghanistan’, Council onForeign Relations, April 2012 [2] Mason,Rowena, ‘David Cameron: Taliban could bewaiting for British troops to leave before trying to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There is no age at which you start to be taxed.Rich children with investment funds and childstars all earn money at a young age and aretaxed on it. This does not mean that the votingage should be lowered so that these individualsare represented. Similarly every visitor to the UKpays VAT on any goods they buy, this does notentitle them to a say in government.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "No taxation without representation It is unfair tohave taxation without representation. Many 16year olds work and pay tax on their earnings justas any other worker would. Yet unlike otherworkers at present they are not allowed to havea say in how the government spends theirmoney, nor in how much should be collectedfrom them in taxes. This was famously thegrievance of the thirteen colonies that sparkedthe American revolution. In 2011 in the UK 7.2%of 16-18 year olds were in employment but notbeing given fair representation. [1] Policies suchas the minimum wage and working hours andconditions are also set by governments, and ifyoung people are old enough to have jobs theyshould be able to have their say in theseissues. [1] ‘Participation of 16 to 18 year olds ineducation and training, England’, Department ofEducation, 21 February 2013, Table 1", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Earlier voting is not a solution to the low turnoutproblem, the electoral commission in the UKconcluded .here is evidence to suggest thatextending the franchise will actually create lowerturnout and projections about if it would gethigher cannot be sufficiently determined [1] Atthe moment 18-25 year olds are the least likelyto cast a vote at election time. Youthmembership of political parties is falling.Lowering the voting age still further is thereforelikely to reduce turnout even more. Most peopledon’t vote because they think the electionsystem is unfair, their vote does not count, orbecause they don’t trust any of the politicalparties on offer - lowering the voting age won’tsolve these problems. Instead with a generationthat is increasingly online, to take the UK 21million households (80%) had internet access in2012 [2] , and there are over 6.4 million iPhoneusers, [3] the answer is therefore to engagethem digitally not through trying some magicbullet at the ballot box. [1] The Electoral", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "16 year olds are mature enough to vote 16 yearolds are mature enough to make importantdecisions such as voting. If the governmentagrees that 16 year olds can have sex, join thearmy, and apply for a passport, then surely theyare mature and responsible enough to decidewho runs their country and makes importantdecisions that affect them. Their bodies are fullyadult, they have been educated for at least 10years, and most of them have some experienceof work as well as school. By this time, it is likelya teenager will have developed “Advancedreasoning skills...the ability to think aboutmultiple options and possibilities. It includes amore logical thought process and the ability tothink about things hypothetically”. [1] Thismeans they are able to form political views andthey should be allowed to put these across atelection time. Indeed by 16 children are astolerant as adults and their political skill (theperceived ability to participate effectively in civillife by writing to political leaders and by speaking", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The UK electoral commission agrees that “thereis no single definition of maturity” [1] . Howeverit is not the case that most 16 year olds aremature enough to vote. Rather, teenagers areemotionally immature and tend to behave asthough “they are “on stage” with the attention ofothers constantly centred upon their appearanceor actions. This preoccupation stems from thefact that adolescents spend so much timethinking about and looking at themselves”. [2]The large majority still live at home and go toschool. They may have adult bodies, but theirminds are still those of children who have to beprotected. By 18 young people have becomemuch more independent and are able to maketheir own way in the world. Their political viewsare likely to be more thoughtful compared to 16year olds, who may just copy their parents’opinions or else will pull away from their parentsand as a result “the peer group takes on aspecial significance... Members of the peer groupoften attempt to behave alike, dress alike... and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Since 18-24 year olds already ignore their abilityto vote there is no reason to expect that 16-18year olds will be any more interested. At themoment over 50% of 18-24 year olds don’t voteeven though they are eligible. [1] So this kind ofchange is hardly going to offset aging. It is alsowrong to suggest that voters vote according totheir age; the elderly are likely to havegrandchildren whose interests they may wellrespect when voting. [1] Dunleavy, Patrick, andGilson, Chris, ‘Is the UK Electorate Disengaged?’,British Politics and Policy at LSE, 12 March 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Voting at a lower age would increaseparticipation There is a problem of apathy inmany western countries, with low turnouts atelections. Young people are taught citizenship orcivics at school with the aim of building“Knowledge and understanding about beinginformed citizens...Developing skills of enquiryand communication...Developing skills ofparticipation and responsible action” [1] howeverthey don’t get a chance to put this knowledgeinto practice for several years. Is it surprisingthat they lose interest in public affairs during thistime? Because national elections are usually onlyheld every four years or so, many people have towait until they are 20 or 21, years after that civiceducation, before their first chance to cast animportant vote. It is noticeable that politicalinterest is much higher among those in educationthan those who are not. In Austria it was foundthat 68% of 16 to 18 year olds in education wereinterested in politics against only 45% of thosewho are working. [2] By demonstrating trust and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Voting at 16 would help rebalance votingages There is a notable difference between howyoung people and the elderly are treated. Givingthe vote to teenagers would force politicians totake them seriously. Policies on education (e.g.student loans) would have to take their viewsand interests into account for the first time. 16year olds today are well-educated andmedia-savvy, so they can express informedopinions. But at the moment young people’sviews are easily ignored by those in powerbecause they don’t have the vote. The vote for16-18 year olds would help redress the growingage imbalance which is occurring as a result ofaging. In the rich world by 2050 one in three willbe a pensioner and one in ten over 80. [1] Thesevoters will clearly be looking after their benefitsat the expense of the young. [1] The Economist,‘A slow-burning fuse’, 25 June 2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Young people are not the only ones who vote forextremists, the elderly are also more likely tovote for far right parties. [1] It is important in ademocracy to include as wide a range of opinionas possible; a tendency to vote for more radicalideas should not be a reason for disenfranchisingsomeone, or even more so disenfranchising awhole group. There are however also reasons tobelieve that 16 to 18 year olds could potentiallyuse their votes more wisely than their elders.When looking at Austria it was found that thosein education paid more attention to political newsthan those in work. 30% of people workingfollowed political news less than once a weekcompared to only 15% of those in education. [2]As students are therefore better informed itwould seem to be likely they would use theirvotes more wisely. [1] Arzheimer, Kai, andCarter, Elizabeth, ‘Political OpportunityStructures and Right-Wing Extremist PartySuccess’, European Journal of Political Research,2006, p.4 [2] Zeglovits, Eva, and Schwarzer,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This is an odd idea; should parents not be votingfor themselves not their children? If they arevoting for their children rather than themselvesare they not themselves disenfranchised? Thefact is that children and their parents havedifferent interests on account of the age gap thatis likely to be at least 20 years. Someone who is16 is much more interested in university feesthan someone who is 40 who will be moreinterested in how much they will have atretirement. Furthermore with turnouts that areoften less than 50% a great many children arenot being represented by their parents at all.Adults have the choice to not vote, when theirparents are choosing not to vote children don’tget this opportunity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Rights should be gained progressively Justbecause 16 year olds have the right to do somethings, it doesn’t mean that they should usethem. If all 16 year olds left home at 16 andstarted families it would be considered adisaster. And not all rights are given at 16 - mostcountries have a higher age for important thingssuch as drinking alcohol, serving on a jury,joining the military, etc. It makes sense fordifferent rights to be gained at different times asyoung people mature and get used to moreresponsibility. The more difficult and complex thechoices involved in that right and the greater theimpact the later a right should be given. Becausevoting is so important, involves complex decisionmaking, and can potentially have a large impact,it should be one of the last rights to be gained. Itthen makes sense that it voting should begranted at the time we consider adulthood to bebeginning, which was agreed in the declarationof the rights of the child is 18. [1] [1] Archard,David William, ‘Children's Rights’, The Stanford", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-con04a", "title": "", "text": "There needs to be a cut off Everyone wouldagree that there has to be a minimum votingage. Most people believe that the line should bedrawn at 18 rather than 16. Although some 16year olds may be mature enough to vote, mosthave not yet formed political views of their ownyet. On average, young people are much morelikely to be ready for the responsibility of votingat 18. There is then no reason why 16 wouldmake a better cut off point than 18. At both agessome rights are given, at both there will be somewho pay tax who are not given representation, atboth some will be immature. There is no cleardividing line so there can be no clear reasoningfor lowering the voting age to 16.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Young people would be more likely to misusetheir vote It would be dangerous to give youngpeople the vote. They might use it in foolishways. For example they will be more likely tomake their decision on which party had the bestimage; so will vote for parties that put upcelebrities. They are also more likely to vote forextremists into power or vote without thinking onsingle issues (e.g. making drugs legal, freeuniversity places, cheap beer!). It is notable thatin late 1990’s Russia 80% of the Communistparty’s members were under 30, and a far rightnationalist party, the Liberal Democratic Party ofRussia, has called to lower the voting age to 16.[1] A study from the University of Nijmegenfound that younger people are over representedin voters for extreme right wing parties, [2] andthe same goes the other way with youngerpeople more likely to support left wing populistmeasures at the expense of democracy, rights,and freedoms. [3] [1] ‘Extremists push foryoung voters’, Times Higher Education, 7", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Parents are guardians and should be trusted tovote in their children’s interests Governmentsdo things which affect every age group but thatdoes not mean everyone deserves the vote.Should 12 year olds get the vote because schoolpolicies affect them? Should toddlers get thevote because health services affect them? No -we trust parents to cast votes after thinkingabout the interests of their families. And thereare other ways for young people to have a say -they can write to elected representatives andnewspapers, sign petitions, speak at publicmeetings, join youth parliaments, etc. It isnotable that sixteen year olds themselves aredivided on whether they should have the vote,[1] if many of them trust their parents to votefor them should not the government? [1] TheElectoral Commission, ‘Voting age should stay at18 says the Electoral Commission’, 19 April 2004", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This applies equally to having the cut off at 16rather than 18. If it is questionable at both agesthen since this is an issue of human rights weshould err on the side of caution and give thevote to as many as possible. This would meanlowering the voting age.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-vhwlva1-con02b", "title": "", "text": "16 year olds already have other rights. Forexample, in many countries they have the rightto leave school and leave home, and the rights tohave sex, marry and have children, they can rentaccommodation and consent to surgery [1] . It isnot reasonable to have different ages fordifferent rights. It makes sense for the right tovote to be at a younger age precisely becausethe individual has fewer changes to deal with ata younger age, they will therefore find it easierto learn to vote. [2] If young people areconsidered old enough to make importantchoices about their own future, why can’t theyhave a say in deciding the future of theircountry? [1] Thesite.org, ‘What age can I?’, 5May 2013 [2] Franklin, Mark N., at al., ‘TheGenerational Basis of Turnout Decline inEstablished Democracies’, Acta Politica, March2004, pp.8-9", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The general claim here is that opinion polls canbe subject to error and lead to questionableinformation and decision-making by voters. Also,it has been claimed that opinion polls can bemanipulated consciously or inadvertently whichthen should justifies their damnation. Theopposition claims that any tool which gathersinformation could be manipulated orinadvertently misused. Audience polling is simplya method to gather group opinion and audienceanalysis is as old as Aristotle as a method forspeakers to better understand audiences.Audience response is often sought in regard toattitudes and to isolate opinion polls as notuseful or necessary because of possible error orcorruption. This denies the need for thoseadvocating to understand the position of thosethese seek to persuade. To say that opinion pollsshould not be used because of these reasonswould suggest that audience feedback never beused because of possible errors in conclusions. Itis far better to understand the nature of polling", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Opinion polls are subject to bias and oftenproduce faulty information on which decision aremade. Since opinion polls are the products ofresearch, they can also be heavily manipulatedby the organization performing or commissioningthe poll in question. A bias can easily be createdby selecting a certain target group, such as a2011 AP opinion poll which asked moredemocrats than republicans, [1] or more usuallythrough asking certain questions or phrasingthem in a particular way. For example it hasbeen found that Americans are more likely tosupport spending for the ‘poor’ than for ‘welfare’.[2] This information can generate falseinformation and untrue or exaggerated claims.Even if the research is done with an objectivemindset, the research technique or reportingmethod can skew the results. For example, theopinion polls seldom report the measure ofuncertainty of the conclusions, by for examplereporting standards deviations from means,sample size, etc. These measures are usually not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The proposition claims that tactical voting is badbecause unintended consequences could occur.However, tactical voting is a legitimate tool ofthe democratic process. Voting is used as a voiceto sway majorities and the methods toaccomplish a long range goal are part of thepolitical process. The very nature of tacticalvoting includes an element of chance and is astrategic method to influence the outcome. Anyactivity involving chance and risk could haveunintended outcomes. Opinion polls have oftenexisted in the past when the outcome wasdifferent than expected whether tactical votingwas a strategy in play or not. Tactical votingcould occur whether opinion polls existed or not.Therefore, the publication of opinion polls stillremains a legitimate tool of the democraticprocess in which voters have a right toparticipate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Politicians will be less likely to engaged inpolitical marketing and speak more directly tosubstantive issues. When opinion polls becomethe constant focus of the media, politicians areforced to pander to an ever-changing publicmarketplace instead of developing a consistentparty or personal philosophy. Candidates becomeoverly involved in defending and explaining polldata. Voters become the consumers of politicalmarketing. The democratic process is diminishedwhen changing opinion polls interruptssubstantive dialogue. Without the excessive useof poll data, a candidate’s message can be morethan an advertisement. Rather than themarketing of a person, important political ideasand public policy discussion occur. Even thoughpoll data would be available during the earlierelection season, a plan to control opinion pollswould begin to diminish such a focus. Theadvantage would be less political marketing androom for better democratic discussion.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": ": Opinion polls are harmful to the democraticprocess because they stifle debate Indemocratic nations public opinion matters as it isthe public who ultimately decides who wins officeand opinion polls measure that opinion. As aresult politicians have become obsessed with theshifting whims of public opinion upon which themedia focuses forcing politicians also focus onpopular opinion even between elections. Sincethe media carries the news, the active use ofopinion polls by the media drives the policyagenda. Lack of information on critical issues islikely to result as politicians focus only on areaswhere the opinion polls highlight. Democracy isalso harmed by the publication of opinion polls assubsequent citizen voter behaviour can beinfluenced. When , for example, an opinion pollportrays a huge majority for a certain subject, orfor a particular party, its opponents might be lessvocal since they feel “outnumbered” or thatdecisions have already been made thusdiminishing democratic dialogue. Undecided", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Even though polls may alter public dialogue, anexplanation of what stifles debate is notsufficiently provided by the proposition. Theyseem to infer that ‘stifling’ by opinion pollssuggests a that debate shuts down whereas weclaim that a politician’s responses to publicopinion is exactly what is sought by the public tomake them better informed. The stifling ofdebate does not occur. So even though, the propsuggests that stifling debate is hindering debate,this has not been proven since responses bypoliticians to opinion polls are simply part ofdialogue and not necessarily hinderingdiscussion. The observation that voter behaviouris some- how unfairly influenced throughstrength of numbers doesn’t include all of theclose results which are often reported betweenplatforms or candidates. The assumption thatvoters feeling outnumbered will often occur andwill change their vote as a result cannot bemade. Most citizens are already aware of theirpolitical leanings regardless of opinion polls or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Even though the proposition promised thatpolitical dialogue would improve when focusedon substantive issues, the opposition believesthat this is simply a promised hope. Politicalcampaigning is advertising by its very nature.Citizens are informed throughout the campaignthrough a variety of “advertising” methods fromslogans to claims about the product itself. Andcampaigns always do an analysis of theconsumer. Opinion polling is not unique. And, tomake the assumption that substantive issues willmore likely be addressed without opinion pollssuggests that they alone have the power toinfluence the nature of the dialogue. There arefar too many other factors which determine thediscussion and debate from immediate eventswhich occur during the campaign to longstanding political positions which relate to thedevelopment of party consistency or personalphilosophy. The outcome the proposition hopesfor cannot be guaranteed nor can a position besensibly made that a political campaign is not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The propositions plan restricts the publication ofpolls only for 2 weeks before the election.However, such restrictions would not make asignificant impact on the harms of opinion pollsthat have been outlined by the proposition. The 2week window would not diminish all the prioropinion polls which existed and were published.The frequency of these polls have alreadyflooded the media as they have been deemednewsworthy. Many voters have already come toconclusions based on the dialogue conducted upto this point. Only the uncertain and apatheticvoter could be influenced and that may not be asignificant number to restrict freedom ofexpression. We have no facts about the size ofthis population. The dialogue during electionsshould be a continuous process of freeexpression and never be unnecessarily limitedfor uncertain proof that these opinion polls posea serious harm. If the polls were considered topresent harm, then why would they not becensored completely? The two week plan of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Opinion polls can lead to tactical voting whichmay have unintended outcomes. Tactical votingis the purposeful casting of votes to sway anoutcome. When the outcome is predicted in anopinion poll, it can influence voters to possiblycast a ballot differently than had that pollinformation not existed. This means that thevotes are being cast based upon inaccurateassumptions. For instance, in the 1992 U.K.elections all polls predicted a Labour victory.However, against all expectations, theConservatives won. It is wholly possible thatmany people, ensured of a seeming Labourvictory, then decided to vote for theConservatives tactically to ensure that therewould be a balance in the House of Commons –or even out of sympathy, the ‘underdog effect’.[1] Or decided to vote for their first preferenceminor party, such as the liberal democrats,because they believed the Conservatives wouldbe voted out without their needing to cast theirvotes tactically for Labour. Thus, it is possible", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Opinion Polls should not be published 2 weeks inadvance of an election. This would ensure amore democratic discussion immediately prior tothe decision making process of voting. This doesnot harm free expression because it is serving aspecific purpose at a specific time. For instance,during times of national security or disastercertain citizen behaviour is restricted. Sincethere is information on public opinion in all of theother weeks of the year, this two weekmoratorium would solve some of the harms ofpublished opinion polls. There would be lessstifling of discussion, voters would not besubjected to possibly biased information ormisused statistics at this critical time of thinkingand making a wise choice. Tactical voting is likelyto be used less, and minority voices are not aslikely to be overshadowed by popularly “claimed”opinions. Therefore, we propose that opinionpolls not be published 2 weeks prior to anelection.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There can be no denial to the position that votershave a right to select their own criteria formaking choices. We on the proposition believe inthe individual choice of citizens. This position,however, does not change our position thatopinion polls diminish public dialogue. Of course,people develop their own criteria; however, ourresponsibility here is to discuss the value of theopinion poll not the value of religion orastrological predictions as a criterion of choice.The criteria may but up to citizens, but thediscussion of what criteria is appropriate isvaluable to address. We believe that publishedopinion polls are not a worthy criteria not thatcitizens do not have a choice in that criteria.Since elections are a public shared event, thenthe criteria for voting is the legitimate discussionin which we are now engaged. The propositionbelieves that the focus of our debate is upon theworthiness of opinion polls.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The claim that opinion polls are public expressioncannot be denied. Although freedom ofexpression is acknowledged within a democracy,absolute freedom of expression does not exist.There are restrictions related to the public good.The right of free expression to cover all aspectsof public speech is limited. Some restrictions areconsidered legitimate within a democraticsociety. Also, the claim that any attempt torestrict free expression is bad because of thepossible consequences which follow is faulty inreasoning. Stating that one thing “could” lead toanother is speculative and not sufficient reasonto reject a legitimate need to restrict someexpression. Opinion polls do contain someinformation which may assist in transparency.However, since as has previously been noted,polls can be biased and manipulated and socould be equally untrustworthy in providing acheck on fraud or corruption in the votingprocess. Therefore the claims provided by theopposition do not by themselves lead to a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Citizens should be respected for theiropinions Opinion polls may vary in their quality,but we should trust our citizens and politicians tobe critical when using them as a basis fordecision making. This is a compelling reason topublicize them as much as possible. The moreopinion polls on a topic, the more specificquestions can be asked, and the greaterpossibility for critical analysis. Additionally,there are many opinion polls and there iscompetition between opinion poll firms. Thereare differences about how studies are conductedas well as their reliability. Thus opinion pollsthemselves possess a certain level of credibility.The media and citizens discern the least valuablepolls and those with less scientific reliability.Some are likely lose legitimacy, whereas themost trustworthy polls gain more attention. Forexample, in the U.S., the polls that Fox Newsruns are seen differently than polls conducted byPew Research which is likely to receive morewidespread recognition. A well conducted poll", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Opinion polls provide useful information topoliticians. They provide important informationabout what people think of their performanceduring the election process. Politicians have theright to change tactics if need be and opinionpolls often provide voter feedback about how acandidate is perceived. Informed candidates canbetter speak to voter concerns, thus increasingdialogue prior to elections. Candidates whospeak more specifically to issues develop abetter public trust as well as commitmentregarding their future performance to which theycan be held accountable. Since candidates orplatforms which win the election influence futurepolicies, citizens benefit from informed politicianswho can speak to the concerns of citizens andissues of the nation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Tactical voting is legitimate within thedemocratic process. The proposition highlightshow tactical voting can be affected by opinionpolls. However there is nothing wrong withtactical voting. In fact, it is a crucial feature of ademocracy that citizens are not only able to votefor the government they want, but also for thetype of opposition that that government will face.Tactical voting also avoids wasted votes underthe First-Past-the-Post system Britain andAmerica both use. To enable tactical voting,opinion polls are necessary to inform voters whatway they should vote if they wish to votetactically. That this may sometimes lead tomistakes, is an unfortunate but necessaryby-product. Banning opinion polls can thereforehave unintended results. In the 1981 FrenchPresidential election once the seven day banstarted Chirac’s campaign suggested that theircampaign was taking off and he would gothrough to the second round – which wouldmake it two conservatives in the run off. This", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Citizens have a fundamental right to vote onwhatever the basis they choose. It is their rightto select the criteria for making decisions. Eventhough it is assumed, certain criteria exist suchas prior experience or party affiliation. However,some citizens might turn to astrology or tarotcards to decide their vote. Others may consider acandidate’s religion or appearance. Many decidebased upon the opinion of respected others.However much one might personally dislike someof these criteria, every citizen has a right todetermine the basis of her/his vote. Thereforeopinion polls are a legitimate choice to provide.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-con05b", "title": "", "text": "It has been claimed by the opposition thatopinion polls provide useful information topoliticians and are necessary for dialoguebetween the candidate and the public. Theproposition however would like to focus upon theterm “useful”. Published opinion polls by theirvery nature present only a few and briefly statedattitudes of voters which is not useful. Knowingthe level of support or agreement with acandidate reveals very little useful informationabout why a voter holds that attitude or howfirmly that attitude is held. Thus polls by theirnature do not provide useful information but onlybroad trends. Audience surveys and othermethods of gathering feedback provide muchdifferent and more specific information on thenature of voter attitudes and beliefs. Yet, we arenot discussing voter feedback, but rather thespecific tool of published audience polls. Thequestion remains then whether usefulinformation is provided to the candidate throughthe availability of published opinion polls which", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Opinion polls are a forum for public expressionand should be protected They publicize theopinions of large numbers of citizens andtherefore can be considered an exercise in freespeech. Any attempt to restrict the freeexchange of opinion damages the marketplace ofideas. Citizens have a right to expressthemselves and for their expression to beheard. Restricting opinion polls would be a badprecedent and could become the basis for otherrestrictions of free speech. For example, in Indiasome have proposed banning the publication ofhoroscopes during the electionperiod. Democracy itself is safeguarded byopinion polls which represent public expressionfor they also ensure transparency in public willand choices and can thus discourage or revealelectoral fraud and vote-rigging. Suchinformation could be observed both nationallyand internationally. In fact, those regimes whichban or heavily restrict opinion polling are thosewhich are either undemocratic or where corrupt", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Tactical voting may be legitimate within thedemocratic process but that does not deny thefact that unexpected outcomes could occur.These unexpected outcomes mean that the willof the people is less likely to be served which isthe consequence with which we are concerned.Whether tactics is legitimate does not deny thefact that it may not be good or even dangerous.Tactics can vary in outcomes whether it comes tofinancial investment, competitive sport orelection strategy. Therefore, the tactic of votingone way to achieve another outcome couldachieve the desired result or it could not. Thattactical voting is a choice available does thatmean that it serves the democratic process well.Sometimes it is valuable to limit the choices ofcitizens so negative unexpected consequences donot occur.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-pggvhbophd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Of course, citizen opinion and intelligence shouldbe respected and we do not disagree on thisissue. Our differences lie in the nature of howmediated messages are presented to citizens aswell as fair questions into the motives of thoseresponsible for polling and media outlets whichprovide them to the public. First, the nature ofmediated messages requires that they bereduced to brief and simply forms. There is anabundance of messages in competition forlisteners’ attention. Therefore the detailsregarding polling activity is not provided(purposely or not) and citizens are left withinsufficient information on which to make criticaljudgements. Second, even though theopposition hopes that the natural process ofcredibility will check this possibility, it cannot bedenied that manipulation can occur to theunaware voter. So due to this vulnerability ofinaccurate information being disseminated, it isbetter to acknowledge the problems which occurin mediated messages which are often the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Corporate entities have the right to beanonymous if they choose. American electionshave to reach an extremely large and spread outaudience, and this requires large amounts offunding, which is provided by corporations andindividuals. There simply shouldn’t be parity withcorporations and individuals because they arenot the same thing- it is like comparing apples tobeef, you can eat both of them but they arenothing alike. Corporations can representthousands of people that they employ or aretheir shareholders. They are speaking on behalfof their organisation, not as individuals. They aresupporting candidates that they believe will helptheir business so they are speaking for thosewho wish to keep their jobs at the company. Itis however wrong to assert that citizens united isjust about corporations – it is about all groupsand therefore about individuals. The SupremeCourt in this case recognised that limitingpolitical spending limits speech by limitingcitizens ability to deliver their view. In practice", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "More parity is necessary between corporationsand the regular individuals. There is a need tocreate more parity between individuals andcorporations. There is much more campaignfunding where there is non-disclosure, there hasbeen little money flowing into ‘super-PACs’ thatmust disclose donors instead it goes to taxexempts organizations that are not subject to thedisclosure requirements. [1] As non-disclosuremeans higher fundraising figures, then itbecomes optimal for every politician to adopt astrategy of opacity in order to fare better thanhis or her opponents. The culture of corporateelectioneering aided by legally-sanctionedanonymity would likely demoralize voters andfunnel candidates’ priorities towards courting bigbusiness at great cost to the average Americancitizen during and after the election. While itmay be a stretch to assert that Citizens Unitedgranted corporations “personhood,” the impactsof the ruling are far-reaching for campaignfinance law. Even small corporations have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Opponents have expressed other problems withthe language of the DISCLOSE Act, includingseemingly arbitrary exemptions for large andlong-standing organizations—criteria whichcapture most labor unions. This makes theDISCLOSE act like any other campaign financereform; essentially it is party political benefitingaimed at the Republicans by the Democrats whopassed it who have exempted those in their owncamp who might be affected. [1] It is designedto benefit the party that passed it rather thanreally increase transparency. [1] Smith, BradleyA., ‘The Myth of Campaign Finance Reform’, inBoatright, Robert G. ed., Campaign Finance,pp.46-62, p.53", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Elections should be controlled by the people notpowerful interests President Obama famouslyeschewed large corporate donors in favor ofgrassroots fundraising and social media in 2008,casting a wide net of supporters. [1] By electionday his facebook page had 3.4million supporters,his website My.BarackObama.com had 2millionmembers, the campaign had an email list of 13million and there were 1 million text messagesubscribers showing how campaigns should berun by mobilizing people not powerful interests.[2] Following a similar strategy, the 2012campaign garnered hundreds of thousandssupporters in the first several months, shattering2008 records. [3] President Obama has stated inthe public record his support for increaseddisclosure for corporate and individual donors aswell as efforts to limit the high-valuecontributions from corporations that arepermitted under Citizen United v. FederalElection Commission [4] . In response to thesupreme court decision on Citizens United v", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Corporations have just as much stake in thecountry as individuals do, they are affected justas much by decisions taken by the president;what regulations there should be, should therebe subsidies, should free trade or protectionismpromoted etc., and so have just as much interestin being able to make their voice heard inelections. Corporations are unable to vote so theonly way for them to do this is to financecampaigns. It is also wrong to suggest thatcorporations funding campaigns gives themundue influence. When looking at voting patternsin congress it appears that candidates votingbehavior is almost entirely based on their ownbeliefs and their party’s preferences andcampaign contributions have next to no impact.[1] In fact it makes so little difference thatAnsolabehere et al. in their conclusion say “thequestion is not why do corporations, unions andother interest groups give so little, but why dothey give at all?” [2] [1] Ansolabehere,Stephen, et al., ‘Why is There so Little Money in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Obama has already attempted to increasetransparency. Disclosure laws are intended tobring transparency to the electoral process. Byscrutinizing the sources of campaign funds,voters can gain insight into how candidatesintend to appoint justices and pass laws while inoffice. Obama’s attempt at transparency, theDISCLOSE Act, has so far failed to gather amajority of votes in Congress in 2010 [1] but itshows how Obama would like to proceed. Thiskind of transparency is necessary today becauseduring the 2010 midterms the groups that don’tneed to disclose contributions outspent the PACsthat must disclose donors by 3 to 2 spending$100million on issue ads. [2] Without strictdisclosure rules, the legislative agendas ofelected officials become more opaque, and thepublic has fewer ways to hold them accountable.Voters would be forced to rely on the goodwill oftheir elected officials to voluntarily disclose thesources of funding, a system which generatesnegative incentives to bury the information that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Romney’s claim that there needs to be reform tocampaign finance law are most likely emptywords; his complaint over the disadvantage overthe use of primary campaign funds demonstratesthis because it is only an advantage that onecandidate every eight years gets, essentially thisthen is a complaint at a very marginal advantagethe incumbent Obama has over him. Campaignfinance needs much more than just the reformthat Romney suggests. It needs a completeoverhaul to stop allowing for large corporatespending which in turn results in elected officialsbeing more accountable to corporations ratherthan their constituents. That is why Obamasupports the overturning of the Citizens Unitedcase. [1] [1] Pilkington, Ed. ‘Obama wants tosee Citizens United Supreme court rulingoverturned’. Guardian.co.uk, 29 August 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Supreme Court was right with its judgmenton the Citizens United case. A principledcommitment to freedom of speech under theFirst Amendment should not distinguish, throughintent or impact, protected speech on the basisof its content or source. The ability of nonprofitand for-profit corporations to directly and freelydonate to candidates does not warrant asufficient governmental interest – decryingnegative effects of distortion on elections doesnot merit federal intervention. Furthermore, theunique harm of corporate speech has yet to bedemonstrated. The Citizens United case allowsunlimited spending by non-profit corporations aswell as unions so benefits both Republicans andDemocrats equally. The Super PAC Priorities USAAction has spent over $20 million supportingPresident Obama. [1] Current campaign financepolicies could be improved, but the system as awhole is fair, and repealing corporate free speechwould be unconstitutional. [1] ‘Super PACs.’Open Secrets: Center for Responsive Politics. 14", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There needs to be reform to campaign financelaw. Republican presidential nominee MittRomney has supported campaign finance lawreform. Most of Romney’s recent comments onreform have been in regard to laws governingspending during primaries as opposed to generalelections. Primary campaign funds areearmarked as such and forbidden for use ingeneral election campaigns until after theRepublican National Convention, so theRepublican nominee is at a disadvantage againstthe Democratic candidate if the conventionnomination outcome is evident before August 27.Over the years, Romney has advocated variousstances on spending limits: in 1994, hesupported capping congressional spending, butin 2007, he disparaged McCain-Feingold warning“We step into dangerous territory whenpoliticians start eviscerating our fundamentalfreedoms in the name of amorphous principles,like campaign finance reform. If I am electedPresident, a top priority will be to push for the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-politics-eapvovrdcfu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Campaign spending caps make constitutionalarguments about whose speech ought to beprotected and under what circumstances. Thefact remains that for-profits corporations canhave a much larger say than non profits orindividuals. The pharmaceutical company Pfizerspends over $11 million PER YEAR on lobbyingirrespective of elections, and this goes up to $13million in an election year. [1] While PresidentObama may have received $20 million forPriorities USA Action pales in comparison to the$82, 491, 407 that Romney has received fromthe Super PAC Restore Our Future. [2] [1]‘Lobbying: Pfizer Inc.’ Open Secrets: Center forResponsive Politics. 14 August 2012. [2] ‘SuperPACs.’ Open Secrets: Center for ResponsivePolitics. 14 August 2012 .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "If the expectation of violence or reprisal isadmitted as a legitimate reason not to undertakean action which is protected under freedoms ofpress and speech, then that effectively stifles agreat degree of discourse. This ultimatelyundermines the purpose of the rights, such as afreedom to publish, and the functioning ofwestern societies like Denmark’s. It alsoincentivizes groups who would resort to violenceto achieve their aims; if terrorists know thatDenmark and other European nations will shyaway from certain seemingly controversial oroffensive actions if they threaten to kill manypeople every time, then they can much moreeasily achieve their goals. We should notwelcome violence, but we should not allow it togovern us either. As the cultural editor who ranthe cartoons said, “Words should be answeredwith words. That’s all we have in a democracy,and if we give that up, we will be locked in atyranny of silence.” [i] [i] AFP, ‘Danish bookabout Muhammad cartoon controversy to go", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Violent reactions to the cartoons could have beenpredicted and should have been avoided Printingthe cartoons caused the severe exacerbation ofalready existing tensions between Muslims andWestern communities in Europe and around theworld. [i] The terrorist attack on 9/11, the warsin Afghanistan and Iraq, and the Israel-Palestineconflict had already set the stage for increasedcultural animosity in the prior few years, and thiswas added fuel to the fire that resulted in violentattacks on Danish embassies around the world.As a result of this, innocent people died in riotsin Afghanistan and Pakistan when riot policestepped in. Organized terrorist groups like the AlQaeda network led by Bin Laden threatenedviolence against America and the EuropeanUnion. [ii] Not only did this cause an emotionalimpact among Danish and European citizens as aresult of increased worries of terrorist attacks,but given the number of terrorist plots that havecited the cartoons controversy as part of theirinspiration, there is good reason to believe that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The publication of the cartoons also resulted in avigorous debate in Denmark, which saw itsMuslim community participate in discourse in theform of debates, opinion pieces in newspapers,protests, and other democratic methods.Ultimately, then, it may well have caused agreater deal of civic integration thandiscord. Denmark and journalistic institutionswithin it ultimately have little sway over thepolitics and cultures of all the various Islamiccountries all around the world. Newspapers inDenmark cannot reasonably be expected togauge what the expected political reactions andemerging dynamics of Muslim communities inevery other country might be because of thepublication of an article or cartoon. Thisparticular event was exceptional; newspaperspublish potentially inflammatory articles andimages quite regularly, but this does not result inan international reaction.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The cartoons constitute a religiously motivatedhate crime The cartoons effectively constituted aseries of religious hate crimes, specificallydesigned to offend and target the Muslimcommunity, whom the editors very well knewwould be up in arms over the publication of thecartoons. This is the deliberate association of avenerated religious figure with terrorism. Notonly is this in violation of Danish laws andEuropean norms protecting minorities, but it isalso simply malicious and immoral. There wasalready a widespread tendency to conflateMuslims with terrorists before the cartoons; thishigh-profile incident risked exposing peacefulMuslims to prejudice, discrimination, and evenphysical danger from increased xenophobia. Thecartoons controversy was soon followed by thedesecration of Muslim graves at a cemetery inDenmark, for instance. [i] Many US journalismcompanies had the better judgment to report onthe issue without reprinting the cartoons. [ii]Similarly, the Danish newspaper could have run", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The cartoons were intended as a democraticchallenge to self-censorship, and the Danishcourts recognized this when they rejectedlawsuits that Muslim groups in Denmark filedagainst the newspaper on the grounds of hatespeech. [i] Furthermore, the cartoons weretargeted against the extremist fringe of Islam,and were narrowly tailored to object to the useof violent means in furthering religious causes.There is nothing wrong about pointing out thehigh incidence rate of terrorism and violencewithin radical components of a worldwide Islamiccommunity that encompasses many differenttypes of people spread over many nationalities.Ever since 9/11, terrorism and conservativeinterpretations of Islam have constantly been onthe public mind and constitute a legitimate topicfor discourse. It is not a hate crime to publicisecartoons that highlight this; cartoons innewspapers target groups who are otherwise inthe news all the time, bankers for example, thisdoes not mean they are inciting hatred against", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Individuals are the best actors to determine forthemselves what causes they are willing to makesacrifices for. This is why we allow individuals tovolunteer for wars they believe are just, to serveas humanitarian aid workers in impoverishedcountries, or for any number of unpleasant andpotentially dangerous things. If they wanted to,no one can tell the editors and cartoonists thatthey were wrong to take the actions they did onaccount of personal safety. But anyway, it isclear that they did not comprehend the scale ofthe risk they were running by publishing thecartoons, so they cannot be blamed for bringingthis upon themselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Radical and anti western voices in Islamiccommunities gained authority and legitimacy asa result of the newspapers' actions Thepublication of the cartoons empowered theradical fringes of many Muslim populations, byenabling them to point to the cartoons astangible evidence of an anti-Muslim bias andanti-Muslim agenda in the West. [i] For instance,in Pakistan, these were used against thepresident, General Pervez Musharraf, who wasperceived as being too closely aligned with theUnited States. Religious leaders who wanted tomake the case that Denmark was deliberatelyoffensive and a hostile environment for Muslimswere able to conflate popular knowledge aboutthe cartoon controversy with other incidents(some of them not even in Denmark) and swaysupport to their anti-ecumenical causes. [ii] Thisset back reasonable discourse in Muslimcommunities about how best to integrate withthe West, and ultimately resulted in theweakening of internal forces that encourage", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Factors motivating publication of thecartoons On the individual level, the cartoonistsand editors would have been wiser to look totheir own selfish motivations forself-preservation; they have received manydeath threats from religious leaders andorganizations spanning the globe, in a situationreminiscent of Salman Rushdie’s publication ofThe Satanic Verses. That Rushdie’s book had metwith a similar reaction means that it should haveserved as a precedent showing what the reactionwould be. As the editors should have been ableto anticipate the threats they would receive ifthey were interested in their safety they shouldnot have published.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "In as volatile an atmosphere as 2000s Europe,where rates of immigration from Muslimcountries into an aging Europe are high, it isclearly not wise to openly antagonize acomponent of your population that is alreadyhaving a great deal of difficulty integrating.Unlike America, Europe generally cracks down ona variety of xenophobic and hateful actions muchmore stringently, and should have in this case aswell. Europe is a sufficiently enlightened place torestrict individuals from burning crosses ormarching in salute to the Nazi party; one wouldhope these practices would extend to Islam aswell. There therefore in some instances is to acertain extent a right not to be offended – or atleast not to have certain offensive thingspublicized.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is press freedom, and there is good taste.Simply because some things are permitted in ademocratic society, is not an argument for whythey should be done. It would have beensimilarly distasteful if the newspaper had postedcartoons of Jews in concentration camps undergas showers, for instance. Where there aremultiple ways to make a point, one must seek toconvey one’s message in a manner that is leastlikely to gratuitously offend others. The editors ofthe newspaper were simply seeking to causecontroversy and garner attention.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Chilling effects of excessive culturalsensitivity Art should be given a great deal oflicense. Many European and American media andart outlets create art or journalistic pieces thatare offensive to or poorly received by Christiansand Jews, or other minorities. By limitingdiscourse in the form of art, we risk not onlyunjustly suppressing the artists’ vision, but alsocheapening and the artistic community andrendering it more homogenous. Satire has beenused with extreme effectiveness in makingpolitical statements before, and this was noexception. The cartoons express the cartoonists’own views and beliefs, and the newspaper wassimply providing a medium, not dictating whatthey should draw.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Controversy, integration and civicparticipation The controversy has actuallyresulted in a much higher degree of civicparticipation by Danish Muslims than hadpreviously been achieved, including townhall-style meetings, opinion columns, and radioand TV debates. This may have been better thananything else at integrating the Muslimcommunity in Denmark into Western liberaldemocratic norms of how to resolve conflicts.Just because violence happened elsewhere in theworld, where democracy does not currently holdsway, does not mean this was not a victory forDenmark. [i] [i] Rose, Flemming, ‘Why IPublished Those Cartoons’, The Washington Post,19 February 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Citizens of western liberal democracies shouldnever be required to adhere to religious normsthat they do not hold There is no right not to beoffended. It is one thing to show a religionrespect. One respects Islam by removing shoeswhen visiting a mosque. However, following thetaboos of a particular religion in public societydoes not constitute respect, but submission, andadherence to the principles of that religion, whichis never required. The nature of a democraticsociety is that there will sometimes bedisagreements about how individuals should act;insofar as Denmark has not democratically cometo the conclusion that it would be better for it tobe illegal to depict the prophet Mohammed inpublications, it is permitted and that right musthold. [i] [i] Rose, Flemming, ‘Why I PublishedThose Cartoons’, The Washington Post, 19February 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Free expression and journalisticintegrity Publishing the cartoons was not only animportant expression of press freedom, but fulfilsthe fundamental journalistic mission of exposingthe public to important information, by forcingthe examination of topics that would otherwisego unexamined. Self-censorship in Islam is animportant issue that deserves consideration by ademocratic public. There is a clear norm thatcauses Islam and Muhammad to be treateddifferently in the Western press than theChristian or Jewish faiths or their leading figures,and the editors felt it was important to violatethat norm as a demonstration of a socialphenomenon. [i] They were well within theirrights to do so, and this furthered legitimatediscourse about religion within Denmark and theWest. It should also be remembered thatdemonization of Israel and the West usingChristian and Jewish figures is not uncommon inthe Islamic press – this is therefore a perniciousdouble standard. [ii] Ultimately, the reaction by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This has not benefitted integration, but rathermade Muslims in Denmark feel as though theyare under assault and unwelcome in theircountry. Particularly for new or newerimmigrants, this creates a tendency to formenclave communities around a shared religion orculture and resist the mainstream society as abloc. All the Muslim organizations in Denmarkbanded together against their oppressors. Thefew Muslims that spoke out in defence of freespeech were severely ostracized by their fellows.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mrrtdnsnhpc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is a difference between a governmentbanning art, and having the good sense not to docertain things in art. Further, the “artistic skill” indrawing a provocative cartoon is rather minimal;it is not as though cartoonists are held toparticularly high technical standards of drawing.Rather, cartoons are usually a vehicle by which acartoonist conveys a joke (usually at someone orsome group’s expense) for a cheap laugh.Cartoons no more constitute art than graffiti withan offensive statement on a factory wallconstitutes art – that is to say, not at all.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There are three counter-points that can be usedto challenge the proposition. Firstly, theopposition maintain that the Monarchy is highlycost-effective when compared to the expense ofmaintaining a Presidency with a large staff andequally stringent security requirements.Secondly, Royal residences are held in trust forthe nation, and would require the same upkeepcosts whether they were inhabited by a monarchor not. Thirdly, and possibly most importantly,the Monarchy more than pays its way through itsgeneration of tourist revenue as millions visitsites associated with royalty, and through its rolein promoting trade and industry abroad on royalvisits. There is also evidence to suggest that thenation actually benefits financially from theCrown Estate. Figures suggested by ProfessorDavid Flint [1] are that in 2009/10 all paymentsto the Crown came to about £30 million. But theBritish government received £211 million fromthe Crown Estate. So the government made avery substantial profit from The Queen – about", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Supervising and protecting a monarchy is anunjustifiable public expense The costs ofmonarchy are unjustifiable. Typically monarchsand their immediate family receive substantialamounts of money from the state to maintainluxurious lifestyles, complete with servants,expensive holidays and hobbies. The state alsospends a great deal to maintain and run palacesand other royal residences, which are seldomaccessible to the general public who supportthem through their taxes. In the UK what isofficially termed as 'Head of State Expenditure'amounted to £40 million in the 2007-8 financialyear. However, this excludes the cost of securityfor the numerous family members andresidences. Although the security costs have notbeen confirmed, it is estimated that it exceeds£50 million a year [1] . [1] The Monarchy inBritain, How much do they take from ourpockets, available at (accessed 31/05/2011).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "On the other hand, the Monarchy could insteadbe seen as an institution that retains animportant symbolic role as a focus for nationalunity. The Monarch has a less formal role as'Head of Nation'. The Sovereign acts as a focusfor national identity, unity and pride; gives asense of stability and continuity; officiallyrecognises success and excellence; and supportsthe ideal of voluntary service. [1] Since they areunelected figures which are above politicalconflict and can therefore help countries to avoidthe political gridlock that can result from conflictbetween two differently elected bodies, forexample within the U.S.A. between theRepublicans and the Democrats. Not only doesthe Monarch provide a symbol of National unitybut also a symbol of world-wide unity. QueenElizabeth II is the Monarch of 16 independentcountries and the Head of the Commonwealth of54 nations across the globe. [1] The officialwebsite of the British Monarchy, The Role of theMonarchy, available at (accessed 31/05/2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Monarchies, no matter how vestigal, areundemocratic The concept of Monarchy isundemocratic. If the monarch retains anysignificant political powers, as they do in Belgiumand the U.K. for example, these are unjustifiable.Why should the opinion of just one person, inoffice purely by accident of birth, be able toinfluence the outcome of elections or call agovernment. Legally, in the UK the Monarch hasthe power to; choose the Prime Minister, dismissministers and governments, dissolve parliament,refuse to agree to legislation passed byparliament, pardon convicted criminals, declare astate of emergency and raise a personal militia.[1] And in some countries like Saudi Arabia theyhave much more absolute power. A recentexample where the Monarch had a role in theUnited Kingdom was within the 2010 electionswhere no party achieved an overall majority, theQueen therefore had to sign her approval for theConservative and Liberal Democrat coalition. [1]The Monarchy in Britain, What power do they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While the Monarchy has legal rights, the realpowers of European Monarchs are negligible. Forexample, while the Monarch legally has thepower to dissolve parliament, no Monarch hasdone this since William IV in 1834. Technicallythe Monarchy also has the power to veto anylegislation that comes through Parliament,however, this power has not been exercisedsince Queen Anne in 1708 [1] . To the point ofthe concept of the Monarchy, Canadian historianJacques Monet has suggested that ''in choosingto leave the selection of their head of state tothis most common denominator in the world --the accident of birth -- Canadians implicitlyproclaim their faith in human equality; their hopefor the triumph of nature over politicalmanoeuvre, over social and financial interest; forthe victory of the human person.\" [2] [1]Republic Organisation UK available at (accessed31/05/2011) [2] Canadian MonarchistOnline (accessed 31/05/2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The head of government will already be elected.There is no need to create a competing centre ofpower that has the same popular legitimacy. Justas there are worries that an elected house oflords would want more powers due to its newfound legitimacy an elected head of state coulddemand the same. Such a change would bedisruptive and is not necessary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "There is no divine right to leadership orprivilege Monarchs no longer have divine rightto rule. For centuries the main justification ofroyal authority was a religious one. Catholicrulers had their legitimacy supported by thePapacy, Protestants rulers often headed theirown state churches; in both the monarch’srightful authority was preached in church everySunday, while the ruler in turn protected a singlenational church. Currently, the Monarch istermed 'the defender of the Protestant faith'. Sheor he is required to be a member of the Churchof England and is not allowed to marry aCatholic. Today societies are increasinglymulti-faith, indeed, fewer than 5% of adults inthe United Kingdom are practising Anglicans, andmany people have no religion at all; hardlyanyone believes the monarch has a spiritual rightto exercise authority. Indeed, those whosereligion differs from that of the monarch (oftenethnic minorities) may be actively alienated bythe way in which a particular faith seems to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "A presidential position enable the democraticselection of a head-of-state The alternative tothe monarch is obvious. Many states around theworld have Presidential systems, either like theUnited States where the President fulfils both therole of the Head of State and the Head ofGovernment combining the two roles. Or as inItaly or Germany where there is both a head ofstate (usually president) and a head ofgovernment (usually Prime Minister, althoughGermany’s is Chancellor) where the head of stateis respected but is mostly a ceremonial role.Finally there may be both a head of state andhead of government where both are powerful asin France. Therefore the head of state can still bein whatever role the state requires. Mostimportantly in all these cases the head of state iselected rather than simply gaining the positionon account of birth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Conversely, it could be argued that instead ofprotecting the Nation's heritage, the Monarchyhas largely become an embarrassment. In anage of mass-media monarchies are no longerable to maintain the mystique which once setthem apart from the common man. Insteadkings, queens, princes and princesses arerevealed to be mortal, fallible and sometimesfoolish creatures. As their wardrobes, squabblesand failing marriages have become constantsources of media scrutiny, so any remainingrespect for monarchy as an institution haswaned. One key example from the U.K. memberof the Monarchy Prince Harry, was his decision toattend a fancy-dress party dressed as a Nazi. Notonly was this a horrific lack of judgement but italso under-minded the fact that opposing theNazis was arguably one of the finest moments ofBritish National Heritage.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Monarchs are not always above politics eitherand often become national embarrassments whoalso cannot act as a unifier for the nation. In anage of mass-media monarchies are no longerable to maintain the mystique which once setthem apart from the common man. Insteadkings, queens, princes and princesses arerevealed to be mortal, fallible and sometimesfoolish creatures. As their wardrobes, squabblesand failing marriages have become constantsources of media scrutiny, so any remainingrespect for monarchy as an institution haswaned.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Separating the positions of the head-of-state andprime minister of the government makes greatpractical sense The Monarchy undertakes muchof the ceremonial work at home and abroad thatwould be necessary whether there was amonarch or not, leaving the Prime Minister freeto focus more effectively upon governing. SinceThe Queen's first official overseas visit to SouthAfrica in 1947, overseas visits have become oneof her most important duties. The Queen paystwo outward State visits each year, accompaniedby The Duke of Edinburgh. She also regularlytours her other realms and member countries ofthe Commonwealth, so far the Queen has paidover 60 State visits to foreign governments. Aswell as overseas state visits, each year theQueen and other members of the Royal Familypay nearly 3,000 visits throughout the UnitedKingdom. Official functions often featureprominently in such visits, including opening newbuildings, meeting local dignitaries and visitingbusinesses, schools, hospitals and other public", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The monarchy can serve as public rolemodels. Although above party politics, modernmonarchs have proved able to raise importantand sometimes unpopular issues that wouldotherwise have been ignored. For example, inthe U.K. Prince Charles has legitimised discussionof environmental issues and stimulated a livelydebate about the purpose of architecture, whilePrincess Diana’s work with Aids sufferers helpedshift public opinion. Charities are an importantpart of the Royal family's work, About 3,000organisations list a member of the Royal Familyas patron or president. The Queen has over 600patronages and The Duke of Edinburgh over 700.[1] [1] The official website of the BritishMonarchy, Charities and patronages, availableat (accessed 31/05/2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The monarchy is an important preserver of anation's cultural heritage The Monarchy acts asa guardian of a nation’s heritage, a livingreminder of the events and personalities thathave shaped it. The Monarchy is the oldestinstitution of government. Queen Elizabeth II isdirectly descended from King Egbert, who unitedEngland under his rule in 829. As such it is apowerful focus for loyalty, the Queen's title inBritain is 'Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace ofGod of the United Kingdom of Great Britain andNorthern Ireland and of Her other Realms andTerritories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth,Defender of the Faith'. [1] The Monarchyprovides a source of strength in times of crisis,for example World War II, and a reminder ofenduring values and traditions. Royal traditionssuch as the changing of the guard are stillcarried out today. [1] The official magazine forBritain, The Monarchy, available at (accessed31/05/2011).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The head of state should be a position that isseparate and distinct from politics Monarchy ispreferable to the alternative; an electedPresidency. It avoids the partisan nature of aPresidency, inevitably associated with one of thepolitical parties, and thus incapable of uniting thenation as monarchy can. For example in theUnited States there has been a campaign againstPresident Barak Obama with the most extremeviews in the ‘birther’ movement who deny hewas even born in the United States. It would beimpossible for him to unite the nation while onein four Americans think their President was notborn in the USA. [1] In all countries public trustof politicians is sinking to new lows, anotherreason why an elected Presidency fails to providea focus for national feeling. Constitutionalmonarchy is also a more effective system ofgovernment, vesting real power clearly in thehands of democratically accountable leaders witha mandate to govern, without all the dangers ofpolitical gridlock that can result from conflict", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This could be contested due to the fact thatthese issues and many more like them werebeing campaigned for long before the Royalfamily was involved. While they did provide afocal point for the eye of the media, the mediaprefer to focus on celebrities fighting for causes.Prime examples are campaigns such as ComicRelief with involves a great deal of celebrityinvolvement to promote a cause. For example, inthe 2011 Comic Relief which raised £102 million,a series of high profile challenges took placeincluding Chris Moyles and Comedy Dave’s 52hour non-stop radio marathon which raised over£2.6 million and won a Guinness World Record.While nine celebrities took part in the BT RedNose Desert Trek across the Kasuit Desert inKenya and raised over £1.3 million in theprocess. The official Comic Relief mentions thatthe government contributed £16 million and thatthe public raised £86 million, however, nowheredoes it mention any contribution made by theRoyal family. [1] Supporters of the Republic UK", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tpghwam-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There are others who could carry out theseduties apart from the Prime Minister, forexample, Deputy Prime-ministers for this exactpurpose. Some of the key responsibilities of aDeputy Prime Minister involve both home andforeign affairs. The Deputy Prime Minister hassignificant responsibilities in other key CabinetSub-Committees, notably chairing the HomeAffairs Committee which coordinates domesticpolicy issues including those relating toconstitutional and political reform, migration,health, schools and welfare. The Deputy PrimeMinister has an important foreign policy role,with responsibility for building a range ofstrategic relationships in Europe and across theworld and for championing the Government’scommitment to the Millennium DevelopmentGoals. He is also Deputy Chair of the NationalSecurity Council which oversees all aspects ofthe nation’s security. [1] Those in favour of aRepublic also argue that Britain has aprofessional diplomatic corps to represent the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-thrhwbbc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There is nothing wrong with judging peopleprimarily on their physical prowess - we do thisall the time in competitive sport, where fitnessand strength are major determinants of success.Moreover doing so is little different from judgingpeople on non-physical qualities such as intellect.Every competition, of every kind, values certainqualities over others - we recognise that beingable to lift heavy weights isn’t the primedefinition of human worth, but we can still giveprizes for weightlifting; similarly, we can give aprize to a beautiful woman for her beautywithout implying that beauty is all that mattersabout anyone.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-thrhwbbc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Beauty contests objectify women Women inbeauty contests are judged on their physicalappearance rather than on any other qualitiesthey may possess (the existence of a ‘talent’element in many such contests is all very well,but ugly women simply aren’t going to win).Judging women, but not men, primarily on theirlooks contributes to the subjugation of womenbecause other qualities, such as intelligence, arenot seen as part of ideal femininity and thereforenot as things to which women should aspire.Ideal masculinity, while in itself potentiallydamaging to men, tends to be construed in muchwider and less restrictive terms - it is notablethat male beauty contests, judging men on theirphysical appearance, are much less popular thanfemale ones.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-thrhwbbc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Riots often have many causes and it is only thespark that is picked up upon. The example of theriots in Kaduna is misleading; there were seriousunderlying tensions that were the root cause.[1] Beauty contests, like sport, can be animportant focus of national or regional pride.Despite the declining popularity of competitionssuch as Miss World in the UK, they hold animportant cultural place in many parts of theworld. The victories in recent years of Miss India,Miss Turkey and Miss Nigeria in Miss Worldcompetitions made many Indians, Turks andNigerians proud, and were seen as symbolic ofthose countries’ progress in competing with morepowerful countries on their own terms. [1] Astill,James, ‘The truth behind the Miss World riots’,The Guardian, 30 November 2002", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-thrhwbbc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Beauty contests are patriarchal Beauty contestspromote an ideal of female beauty to which onlya minority of women can realistically aspire, butwhich adds to the pressure on all women toconform to it. This can be harmful to women byencouraging dieting, eating disorders andcosmetic surgery, or simply by making them feelinadequate and ugly by comparison to this ‘ideal’that is promoted. Moreover, these contests forcethe models and contestants to look even slimmerand perfect all the time, thus encouraginganorexia and bulimia. Naomi Wolf argues that\"in terms of how we feel about ourselvesphysically, we may actually be worse off than ourun-liberated grandmothers.\" Why? Because ofhow \"cruelly images of female beauty have cometo weigh upon us.\" [1] This pressure hastherefore forced a backwards step that reducesfreedom of women when in almost every otherarea of life there have been great advances. [1]Naomi Wolf, ‘The Beauty Myth’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-thrhwbbc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Beauty contests are culturally insensitive Theimage of female beauty promoted by beautycontests is culturally specific and western - itdoesn’t matter how many Asian women win MissWorld, they can still only do so if they take partin the swimsuit competition, which may well notbe considered appropriate dress in their culture.This clash of cultures has led to numerousprotests, demonstrations and even violencewhen beauty contests are going on. There weredemonstrations against Miss World by feministsand Hindu nationalists when it was held inBangalore in 1996. Riots in Kaduna in northernNigeria over Miss World 2002 left more than 200dead and led to the contest being moved toLondon. [1] [1] CNN, ‘Obasanjo blames mediafor Miss World riots’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-thrhwbbc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Beauty Pageants do limit the choice of othersdue to putting pressure on women to conform tothis ideal of beauty which is promoted. This islimiting the lifestyle choices of many morewomen than choose to take part in the pageants.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-thrhwbbc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Beauty contests are part of the system thatvalues women solely on their appearance. It isbetter to break down that system than seek towork within it. Beauty contests fail to challengeharmful political attitudes to women. Despitepaying lip-service to feminist keywords such asempowerment and self-confidence, they donothing concrete to aid the liberation of women;indeed, by reinforcing looks as the mostimportant feminine quality, they harm women’sliberation in general. The fact that the organisersof Miss World 2002 had no problem with holdingthe contest in Nigeria at the same time as ahigh-profile case in which a woman was due tobe stoned for adultery exposes the competition’shypocrisy. [1] Assigning scholarship funds basedon physical appearance rather than academicmerit is unfair because it neuters the aspirationsof many regardless of how hard they mightwork. [1] Bloom, Alexis and CassandraHerrman, Frontline World, ‘Nigeria – The RoadNorth’, PBS, January 2003.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-thrhwbbc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Beauty pagents are about moral than physicalaesthetics Modern Beauty pageants havemandatory talent portions and are more aboutestablishing and striving for an ‘ideal’ than ratingphysical beauty. This was specifically mademandatory by Lenora Slaughter in the 1938 MissAmerica Pageant in order to attract “ladies” toparticipate in the competitions. The modern formof the beauty pageant was designed by womenin order to attract women. [1] [1] Hilary LeveyFriedman, ‘There She Goes: A TrailblazingFeminist Beauty Queen’, Huffington Post, 15March 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-thrhwbbc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Self defined feminists do not have the right todictate how other women relate to theirfemininity A ban is a very blunt instrument withwhich to attack a practice. Banning beautycontests would do little to destroy the ideal ofbeauty as it is prevalent in many other areas ofsociety which are unrelated to Beauty Pageantssuch as advertising, fashion and theentertainment industry. The only result of a banwill simply be to reduce the choice of women –who of course do choose to participate. Choice isfundamentally a good thing and everyone shouldhave as much choice as possible so long as theyare not limiting the choice of others.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-thrhwbbc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Beauty contests are an avenue of opportunitythat women are entitled to pursue In anenvironment where women are valued on solelyon their appearance, and in which there aremore opportunities for men, beauty contests givewomen an opportunity to improve theirsituations. Winning a beauty contest can be afirst step toward a successful life in the future;the most attractive earn 12% more. [1] ManyHollywood actresses are former beauty queens,and they would not have reached their successwithout the beauty contests they won. Inaddition, the winners of high-profile beautycontests are able to publicize charities andcauses they feel strongly about - they have apublic platform they could not otherwise havegained. Beauty pageants can also empower inother ways: The Miss America competition is thelargest provider of scholarship assistance forwomen in the world [2] , indeed it pioneeredassistance for women in higher education in the40’s and 50’s. [3] [1] Day, Elizabeth, ‘Honey", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-thrhwbbc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This is a red herring – beauty pageants areprimarily about physical attractiveness.Broadcasting data shows that viewers turn offMiss America for the talent and interviewportions of the show while continuing to watchthe swimsuit portion. [1] [1] Peterson, Ivan, ‘AChallenge for Miss America in Reality TV Era’,The New York Times, 9 April 2005", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Each of the three approaches to proving acorrelation between violent video games andcriminal behaviour has its flaws. Studies thatlook for correlations between exposure to violentvideo games and real-world aggression cannever prove that the games cause physicalaggression1. Randomized tests, which assignsubjects to play violent or nonviolent games andthen compare levels of aggression, depend onlab-based measures of aggression that aredifficult to compare with real-life aggression.Finally, longitudinal tests, which assessbehaviour over time within a group, are a middleground between the other two but similarlycannot prove it was the video games specificallythat leads to increased aggression. In contrast tothe claim that the effects of violent video gamesare worse than those of TV, a Potter study in1999 found that 'children are more likely to beaffected and more likely to imitate aggressiveacts if the violence is depicted morerealistically.'2 1 Schaffer, A. (2007, April 27).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Research has shown violent video gamesencourage criminal and anti-socialbehaviour Both experimental andnon-experimental research have shown thatviolent video games damage young peopleplaying them in both the short and long term,leading to criminal and anti-social behaviour.Exposure to violent video games causesaggressive thoughts and feelings. It also createsunwanted psychological arousal and belief in a'scary world', especially among young children.This is particularly significant as video gamegraphics develop to become ever more realistic.The effects of violent video games are evenworse than those of films and TV because of theinteractive element that exists in video games.In addition, most video games are played alone,whereas cinema and television are usually asocial experience, allowing social pressures tofilter the experience of violence upon the viewer.An Australian Senate Committee established tolook at this issue in 1993 concluded 'there is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Violent video games, far from causingpsychological disturbances, are beneficial to themental health of children. Experiments showvisual, tracking benefits from video games,particularly shoot-em-ups: US scientists ShawnGreen and Daphne Bavelier, were commissionedto perform a study in 2003 by the NationalInstitute of Health. According to the BBC, \"theyfound that regular players of shoot-em-ups, suchas Half-Life and Medal of Honour, have muchbetter visual skills than most of the population1.The researchers have shown that gamers wereparticularly good at spotting details in busy,confusing scenes1. Experimental tests showpositive focus effects of video games: USscientists Green and Bavelier found focusbenefits from shoot-em-up games, even to theextent that they could be used as a beneficialtool to treat Attention Deficit Disorder2. 1 BBCNews. (2003, May 28). Video games 'good foryou'. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from BBC News: 2Olsen, S. (2005, November 8). Attention deficit", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Violent video games desensitise users Violentvideo games do not only affect individuals butalso society as a whole. The sole purpose of aplayer in these games is to be an aggressor. Theheartlessness in these games and joy of killinginnocent people create a desensitization anddisinhibition to violence that can ultimately leadto a more violent society. A Bruce Bartholowstudy in 2011 proved for the first time the causalassociation between desensitisation to violenceand increased human aggression1. They are alsoa very selfish, lonely form of entertainmentwhich undermines the structure of an ordered,interdependent society. A study conducted bypsychologists in 2007 found that of 430 primaryschool children, 'the kids who played moreviolent video games changed over the schoolyear to become more verbally aggressive, morephysically aggressive and less helpful toothers.'2 1 University of Missouri-Columbia.(2011, May 26). Violent video games reducebrain response to violence and increase", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Desensitisation is not altogether a baddevelopment. 'For patients suffering fromarachnophobia, fear of flying, or post-traumaticstress disorder, therapists are beginning to usevirtual realities as a desensitizationtool.'1Furthermore, society has decided toembrace violent video games, which as a resultare very profitable. These games are written foradults, rather than children, and the ratingssystem warns of any violent content. In amodern world, the role of protecting youngpeople should lie with responsible parents whoknow their kids best and take an active interestin their leisure time, discouraging or barringthem from unsuitable activities. In this case,there is not enough justification for governmentsto intervene in people's leisure time. 1 Schaffer,A. (2007, April 27). Don't Shoot. Retrieved June2, 2011, from Slate:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The government has no such right to restrict theright of free speech inherent in all video games.In a 2011 judgement, the American SupremeCourt ruled \"while states have legitimate powerto protect children from harm, 'that does notinclude a free-floating power to restrict the ideasto which children may be exposed.'\"1 This is inpart due to the fear that to restrict violent videogames would be a step towards the banning orrestriction of books considered antithetical to theviews of the government. A state could ban allbooks or films that paint a negative image ofsociety or encourage revolution, however that isclearly the action of a dictatorial or authoritarianstate. Stan Lee, the creator of comic bookcharacters like The Hulk and Spiderman, sees acomparison to the attempt in the 1950s torestrict the sales of comic books. \"Comic books,it was said, contributed to 'juvenile delinquency'.A Senate subcommittee investigated and decidedthe U.S. could not 'afford the calculated riskinvolved in feeding its children, through comic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Violent video games can cause psychologicaldisturbances Multiple groups contend that theinteractive nature of computer gamesconsiderably blurs the line that separates fantasyfrom reality1. As a result, game players are likelyto become psychologically disturbed by theviolence contained within these products. It isconceivable that many young gamers will viewthe new age of video games as fair depictions orrepresentations of reality, real-world themes,real-world personalities, real-world violence.Because violent video games frequently developand an exaggerated level of violence anddestructiveness, they may arouse a belief that ina \"scary world\". If this is true, a greater level offear and paranoia can be expected from suchgamers in the real world than is justified. Thismay have the potential to lead to many adversesocial effects from these gamers, such as socialdisengagement. 1 Gentile, D. A., Lynch, P. J.,Linder, J. R., & Walsh, D. A. (2004). Theeffects of violent video game habits on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The government has a right to restrict the sale ofviolent video games, in order to protect law andorder. The government has the right, andindeed the obligation, to impose restrictions thatincrease the security of citizens and encouragepeaceful relations between them. The foundationof the social contract is the state providingsecurity for all participating citizens. If the statebelieves that violent video games increase thepropensity of users to commit violent acts, it isobligated to impose restrictions that will preventsuch effects. The rights of individual citizens todo as they wish, and play the video games theylike most, however violent, is subordinate to thegovernment's right to increase security throughthe enforcement of restrictions. For example,one accepts the government's right to restrictwhat we carry onto aircrafts in order to preventviolent attacks. That is not to say there aren'tlimits to what we can carry on, just as violentvideo games are still available to adults we canstill carry laptops and mobile phones onto", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-con03b", "title": "", "text": "If restrictions on the sale of alcohol can beeffective, there is no reason to believerestrictions on violent video games cannot alsobe similarly effective. The primary role of agovernment is, ultimately, to protect its citizensfrom damaging themselves and society as awhole. It is considered acceptable and beneficialfor governments to restrict the sale of dangerousthings such as alcohol and tobacco to minors oreven to enforce movie ratings or the use ofseatbelts. Though illegal downloadingprogrammes would permit the download of old,violent action games, video game creators wouldnevertheless be forced to turn their creativecapacities and technology towards better, lessviolent games that would, over a short space oftime, saturate the market.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The fact there are many other contributingfactors to aggressive behaviour should not leadto a blind eye being turned to the effects ofviolent video games. As Dill & Dill found in1998, 'if violent video game play indeed depictsvictims as deserving attacks, and if these videogames tend to portray other humans as targets,then reduced empathy is likely to be theconsequence…thus putting the player at risk forbecoming a more violent individual’1. AnAnderson and Dill study in 2000 also found that‘students who had previously played the violentvideo game delivered longer noise blasts to theiropponents’2. Whilst it is a truism to say that thebanning of violent video games will not preventyouth aggression, it will no longer be able to actas the catalyst for it in certain cases. 1 Goldstein, 2001. 2 Walsh , 2001.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Video games are an outlet for childhoodaggression Video games are a useful outlet forchildhood aggression. As psychologist CherylOlson writes, kids 'use games to vent anger ordistract themselves from problems.'1 Playviolence has always been a natural part ofgrowing up, especially for boys. In the past itwas considered normal for young people to actout violent fantasies in harmless way, forexample with toy guns in games of cops androbbers, cowboys and Indians, war, pirates, etc.These games were often inspired by films,television or comic books and magazines, just ascomputer games commonly are today. Now thatthese traditional activities are frowned upon and\"enlightened\" parents prevent children fromhaving toy guns, aggressive play has simplymoved indoors, on to the computer screeninstead. Suppressing these natural instincts isnot only pointless, it is probably more dangerousto remove yet another harmless outlet foraggression from the young. 1 Schaffer, A.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Restrictions would be ineffective Not only is itwrong for the government to takecensorship-like steps against violent videogames but it is also impossible to do soeffectively. Violent video games will still beavailable on the internet and, in fact, byrestricting the sale of violent video games thegovernment will push would-be users to illegaldownloading programmes (through file-sharingsystems such as Limewire) and therefore to anincreasingly prevalent black market.Furthermore, most games are bought by parentsor with their consent. According to industrystatistics, 9 out of every 10 video games are soldto adults. Moreover, there is little evidence tosay that parents don't know what they arebuying because a very descriptive labellingsystem exists for violent video games since theestablishment of the Entertainment SoftwareRating Board (ESRB) in 1994.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There is no causal link between violent videogames and aggressive behaviour Manyresearchers 1/2/3 conclude that there is nocausal link between violent video games andaggressive behaviour. Other influences, such associal environment, family background and peerpressure cause aggressive behaviour.Additionally, even if video games might createviolent thoughts, according to researchers thereis no reason for these thoughts to displaythemselves in action more than the aggressivethoughts caused by frustration in non-violentvideo games, or by the fast pace of action films(rather than their content). The small number ofpeople who would be affected by such aggressivethoughts are people who already are habituallyviolent. 1 Scott, D. (1995). The Effect of VideoGames on Feelings of Aggression. Retrieved June2, 2011, from The Journal of Psychology: 2Funk, J. B. (1993). Reevaluation of the impact ofviolent video games. Clinical Pediatrics, 86-90. 3Provenzo, E. F. (1991). Video kids: Making sense", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-vgcpiyhwrvv-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Video games are not useful outlets for childhoodaggression. Modern video games cannot be fairlycompared to traditional childhood play.Computer gaming is a largely solo experience,with none of the team play involved in games ofwar, cowboys, etc. Playing alone also makes iteasier for the boundaries between fantasy andreality to become blurred, especially with thehighly realistic graphics possible with moderntechnology. In any case, civilisation is abouttaming our base instincts, not celebrating theworst parts of human nature. Furthermore, andunique to video games, aggressive behaviour orits imitation at least is rewarded and repeatedduring gameplay1. Video games thereafter arenot merely an outlet for aggression, but thefostering and feeding of that aggressive urge. 1Gentile, D. A., & Anderson, C. A. (2003,October 16). Violent Video Games: The NewestMedia Violence Hazard. Retrieved June 2, 2011,from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Violence towards women is a common andworld-wide phenomenon, occurring on everycontinent and throughout history. Therefore itseems crazy to suggest that levels of domesticviolence are related to this small sub-culture ofmusic that depicts violence towards women. Ifwe are arguing that it exposes people tosituations where they hear (in lyrics) or see (inmusic videos) then it could be countered that ifanything this music is just highlighting theseincidences of violence that are still occurring andwe might as well ban the news or televisiondrama as they expose people just as muchwithout an age reference.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Music depicting violence to women causes andsustains the cycle of violence. Music depictingviolence to women causes and sustains the cycleof violence. The Scottish Home Affairscorrespondent Lucy Adams reported in 2005 thelevels of domestic abuse committed by 16-18year olds grew by around 70%. One of thereasons suggested for this dramatic raise is theculture of music that depicts and glorifiesviolence towards women [1](heraldscotland.com). Journal of Personality andSocial Psychology reports that a study conductedin a variety of US states illustrated that musicthat depicted acts of violence 'led to moreaggressive interpretations of ambiguouslyaggressive words, increased the relative speedwith which people read aggressive vs.nonaggressive words, [...]The violent songsincreased feelings of hostility withoutprovocation or threat'. Although they are quickto assure that it is NOT the music type that hasthis affect, it is simply the lyrics, as even", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The difficulty with this is that games, DVD's andfilms are all very visual medium, whereas musicis audible and arguably a more imaginativemedium. Other non-visual mediums, such asliterature, are not restricted by age ratings andtherefore it seems unfair to restrict music onthese grounds.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "This type of music is degrading to everyone, notjust women. While music depicting violencetowards women appears on the surface to onlydemean women, it can be offensive anddegrading to a range of people. One popularculture reference to a situation like this comesfrom the British television show called The Office,in the episode 'Merger'1. In this episode thecharacter David Brent tells a racist joke andwhile this did not offend the black characterpresent, many other characters were stilloffended by this joke. People may be offendedby the ideas behind the music, as it seems thatpeople who glorify violence towards women insong appear to think that this violence isacceptable. Men could be offended by theseideas just as much as women might. As songslike this become 'mainstream' in some cultures,everybody in that culture becomes affected by it,and some men and women may feel degraded bythis association. Finally some people may arguethat the person who writes and/or sings lyric that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The issue of whether music is degrading towomen or any other demography in society isirrelevant to the question of whether itencourages violence or aggression towardswomen. In fact, the proposition undermines itselfthrough this claim by suggesting that this musicshould encourage violence to all segments ofsociety; should we therefore ban all music?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The music is not the reason for the lack ofrespect for women; rather it is a much broaderproblem that cannot be prevented simply bytargeting music. Within the part of that culturethat is music the problem is not that musicdepicting violence toward women providesnegative role models but rather that there are nopositive role models to balance this. Banningmusic depicting violence towards women wouldnot solve the problem as it still would not providepositive role models in order to replace theprevious depiction. Therefore rather than puttingenergy into banning music depicting violencetowards women, we should create a counterculture of strong, independent women who willnot stand by domestic abuse or violence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "It would be easy to apply restrictions onmusic. We already give films, DVD's and gamesan age appropriate rating. In the United States,the Motion Picture Association of America ischarged with the responsibility of providingratings to consumers [1] . It would seem that itwould be simple to stretch these criteria to asimilar music body. Therefore people would onlybe subjected to violent lyrics when it is deemedthey are old enough to hear or buy this material,and it would stop younger people from beingexposed to this kind of music. This also meansthat no new state-run institution needs to becreated; it would operate, like the MPAA,independently of government control. As such,claims that any form of music censorship wouldsuffer from practical problems are short-sighted,we simply need to extend the medium thatalready exists. [1] Motion Picture Association ofAmerica", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Music depicting violence against womenencourages men (and women) not to respectwomen. Asha Jennings began a boycott ofmisogynistic music in hip-hop, resulting in the'take back the music' campaign supported byessence magazine. Jennings claims that this typeof rap/ hip hop music is 'telling people [blackwomen] are bitches and hos and sluts and notworthy of respect [...] And that's exactly howsociety is treating us'1. She continues thatimages of women 'tends to be objectified,degrading, very stripper-like' or as naggingvicious and manipulative money grabbers1.Jennings' worry is that in these videos womenare depicted as menial, subservient and purelyas the object of men's entertainment. The lyricsthat go with these music videos compound theseideas of women as undeserving of male respecte.g. 'wouldn't piss on fire to put you out'(Eminem), 'Then I straight smoked the ho [...]and she thanked me' (NWE) (All lyrics in full arein the scrapbook). These images in themselves", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "However, while freedom of expression isdefinitely an important concept to consider, suchfreedoms can only go so far. When it comes tolanguage that promotes violence then freedom ofexpression is no longer sufficient reason not toban something as a physical harm outweighs theright to freedom of expression. Many countriessuch as Canada, England, France, Germany, theNetherlands, South Africa, Australia and Indiaban hate speech because it has severelydamaging effects injuring people's dignity,feelings and self-respect and potentiallypromoting violence.1 Similarly, if we accept thearguments in the proposition arguments above,and we believe that this type of music can beharmful, then it seems that perhaps freedom ofspeech can be over ridden in order to protectthose that this music injures (i.e. some women).Furthermore the banning of music which glorifiesviolence towards women may perhaps overtimelead to people's attitude toward this style oflyrics changing, and therefore any harmful", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "None of these arguments pose a significantproblem. While setting criteria may be difficultand there will always be cases where it is amatter of interpretation this is not a reason notto create a strict and detailed set of criteria.There could be an appeals process to make surethat a song is not banned based purely on oneindividual's opinion. That a ban on recording andselling the music could be avoided throughpirating or songs being passed down orally doesnot matter as if this was happening the banwould already have enough of an impact. Theban does not have to be totally comprehensive inorder to have the desired effect of reducingviolence towards women simply that it preventsmany people listening to the music. Theaudience would be reduced to a tiny minority andthose who remain would be aware of the lyrics asthey would have to specifically seek out themusic rather than simply being exposed to it withlittle thought of what it may contain. Finallythere is unlikely to be a large forbidden fruit", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "To ban this type of music encourages the viewingof women as helpless, victim figures. Manyfeminists criticise the idea of banning music thatglorifies violence against women, as theyperpetuate the idea of women as helpless victimswho cannot cope with male criticism or violentlanguage. One such group of people are 'powerfeminists'1 These power feminists believe that bycomplaining that men are depicting violentlanguage towards women, and attempting to getthis banned, the gender stereotype of women asa victim is reinforced; thus undoing any feministprogress that tries to assert men and women areequals. Power feminists believe that insteadwomen should take this language in hand,assert/ defend themselves and retaliate in orderto state that women are equals to those whoproduce this violent music. 1 Campbell , R. L.Part I: Power Feminist or Victim Feminist? 24March 2004.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The 'Slippery-Slope' Argument Banning musicthat glorifies violence is at risk of the'slippery-slope' of censorship, which occurs ontwo levels. Firstly that while music depictingviolence towards women may be banned for thebest intentions, this censorship may end upextending to other unpopular pieces of art,literature, film or news stories. It may follow thatonce music depicting violence is banned, thatdefinition of violence may be expanded,afterwards that it is easier to ban songs thatcontain a political message as there is alreadyprecedent. While it is unlikely that it would everbe carried to such an extreme this couldcontinue, until simply anything that is disliked bythose in control of the banning is prohibited. Itmay also discourage people to say or publishexpressions of their own for fear of them beingconsidered pornography and being prosecuted1.Equally likely would be the spread of such bansto other forms of media as mentioned inopposition argument one.The second concern of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "To ban music that encourages violence againstwomen would be done with the intention ofprotecting women; if it is necessary to paintthem as the victims of violence that they are,that is a small price to pay. Furthermore, banson child pornography would Many of those whoargue that censorship of music depicting violencetowards women would be a bad thing do so onlibertarian grounds. That is, they believe that torestrict the creation, circulation and consumptionof this type of music would result in a restrictionof people's freedom of speech/ expression. Assome people enjoy and relate to the type ofmusic that depicts these images, to deny peoplethe right to listen to this music is to unfairlyrestrict their enjoyment and marginalise theirtastes. Some people take this further to say thatmorbidity is part of the human condition. Aconsequence of our highly developed brains isthat we become very conscious of our mortality,we become fascinated with violence as wellbecause it is so closely linked to death, and we", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It would be highly impractical to ban this musicglorifying violence. There are many reasons itwould be impractical to ban certain types ofmusic: First, who would choose what musiccounts as inappropriate and on what criteria?This would include concerns such as the RollingStone's song, 'Brown Sugar' which depicts sexualviolence towards a slave by a slave owner (seescrapbook). It would be up to this censor toassert whether this song is highlighting andmocking a distressing moment in history, orwhether it is glorifying this incident or merelydescribing it with no moral judgement. Thecensor would also have to then choose which ofthese where fitting reasons to ban the song. Thisis just a matter of opinion and thus no-one canbe unbiased in making a decision. If this is truethen it seems that no-one should have the rightof it over someone else's opinion. Second whilethere could be a ban made on recording orselling songs that depict violence towardswomen, or prohibit them being played on the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "No 'slippery slope' situation exists. It would beclear that the ban only applies to music thatglorifies violence. This is not a justification thatcould be infinitely expanded to cover more andmore music and art. It could not be considered aprecedent to ban music with a political messageas most political messages do not promoteviolence. Far from stifling creativity it is likely tostimulate it. Artists would need to find new stylesof music and would attempt to find ways aroundthe ban while still keeping their music as near toits previous style as possible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-amcghbmgvaw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "To ban music that encourages violence againstwomen would be done with the intention ofprotecting women; if it is necessary to paintthem as the victims of violence that they are,that is a small price to pay. Furthermore, banson child pornography would not be met withclaims that their ban merely encourages the viewof children as victims (as an argument againstthe practise). Why is that any different in thiscase? improve this We desire freedom ofexpression.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This argument is just specious. There have beenplenty of times in history when medicine was‘learnt on the job’, it didn’t make it a good idea.However, and medicine is an excellent example,we now realise that there is a huge benefit tohaving students acquire a theoreticalunderpinning of their discipline before going onto get some hands on experience. Of coursethere is some need for practical training butthere is little reason why universities cannot offerthis rather than individual artists.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The Arts should be learnt on the job – it’s acraft The idea that the best place to learn anartform is a classroom is fantastically modern.The idea of teaching them at all is fairly recent. Ifever there were an example of ‘those who can,do; those who can’t, teach’, then it���s the arts.Novelists, poets, painters, dancers, composers,musicians and others have been learning fromeach other as they practiced their art for, quiteliterally, millennia. Practitioners learning bydoing has worked perfectly well for most ofhistory and produced, for example, theextraordinary works of the renaissance orclassical art mostly without the benefit of auniversity degree. All a degree in this area doesis extend the period of delusion that an individualis good enough to cut it as a professional artist[i] . [i] Goldman, Jeremy, ‘Actors dilemma:Theatre major vs. No theatre major’ USA Today,25 June 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This isn’t an either/or discussion. Despite Prop’sefforts to suggest that there are masses ofhomeless, would-be engineering studentsroaming around university campuses, the realityis that universities pack their bankable coursesjust fine and ensure that they have the capacityto do so. The fact that universities do not justchurn out an endless round ofvocationally-focussed graduates is hugely to bewelcomed. If nothing else, it ensures that theuniversity experience itself is a well-roundedone. The very fact that students continue toapply for these courses, and universitiescontinue to meet that demand, suggests thatapplicants are interested in something more thanmoney. Presumably the very students who areapplying for such a degree – and will shoulderthe repercussions of having one – form part ofsociety and are quiet happy to ‘afford’ theirdegree.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Creative arts graduates are rarely wellrewarded It is a simple fact that degrees in theArts offer less earning potential than those in allother sectors (except Education and social work)[i] . As well as being an issue for the individual,this affects wider society, as those on lowerincomes are more likely to become dependent onthe state at some point in their life and are lesswell placed to stimulate other sectors of theeconomy through their own consumption. Themedian earning figure across Arts degrees is,itself deceptive. The median in the US is $45,000but this disguises the lower end of the scale, with25% earning $30,000 a year or less. Unlikeeducation and social work which at least tend tohave the consistency of a government salary, theArts are also fantastically unreliable as anemployment sector. Teachers and social workersmay have comparatively low salaries but at leastthey can be assured of job security. The Artsoffers low and unstable wages, frequently at anongoing expense to the taxpayer, when the jobs", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Very few go into the arts expecting a highincome, they do so because they enjoy it.Likewise, the very fact that people pay for thearts – both through their own purchases andsocial funding, suggests that the pleasure thatperformance - and other creative arts – gives isrecognised by wider society. The output of theArts sector provides entertainment and pleasureto others in a way that really cannot be said of,for example, banking or derivativesbrokerage. By the by, it would also beinteresting to see how any graduates in, say, thehumanities are likely to match the earningpotential of a movie star or an ‘it’ artist.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Arts degrees limit opportunities for Universitiesto offer other courses Universities have toprovide a range of courses, some of which aregoing to be more financially viable than others,that fine. However, investment in one areainevitably means that there are resources notbeing focused elsewhere. It’s not a huge factorbut some subjects – creative arts, Theology anda few others do represent a ‘back door’ intouniversities for those who didn’t get the gradesto get onto more demanding courses. Thosestudents still need to sleep, study and socializesomewhere – in place of those who could havetaken their places on Engineering, Medicine,Economics or similar courses had the space beenavailable. By keeping these courses, universitiesare turning away students for other disciplinesand those studying the arts courses are learningin a way that may not be the most productive –as mentioned in the previous argument. It’sdifficult to see who wins.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Opp’s case sounds excellent, and reasonable andsensible. And complete nonsense. Thosecountries that have changed their feearrangements for students in recent years, suchas the UK, have seen that students are veryconcerned with whether their degree is likely tocover the cost of taking it – now that they areexpected to pay for it. When it is society at largefooting the bill, unsurprisingly, they are lessconcerned. Of course the financial outcome ofdoing a degree is of paramount interest to boththe student and wider society, suggestingotherwise is sophistry.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Opp makes an excellent case for further refiningthe role of Higher Education but not a verysatisfactory one for keeping it structured as itcurrently is. The whole point here is that nobodybenefits – not the graduate, not the Arts and notthe society that is footing the bill. The benefit tosociety of art would remain if the arts were nolonger taught as university degrees.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Arts pay their way in film, heritage anddesign industries The major film, theatrical,dance and other artistic ventures of any nationprovide an enormous benefit in terms of reasonsto visit as country, or travel within one. Going tothe theatre, for example, has knock on benefitsfor the catering, transport, and retail sectors aswell as crating employment in its own right formany who never went anywhere near a degreein the Arts [i] . For many nations one or two keysectors of the arts are massive revenuegenerators – especially film, television andmusic. Theatres and galleries have considerablymore pulling power than heavy industry or highfinance for tourists [ii] – and Prop has been veryquiet on the subject of architecture, withoutwhich the bankers and financiers they so admirewould be homeless. The arts may not square upto banking in terms of the amount of moneyearned for the economy but they also have muchless of a record of damaging the rest of theeconomy through sparking crises. Even just", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The notion that money is the best way of judgingvalue is far more damaging to society than theArts If the value of a degree is judged purely onthe likely salary at the end of it, then society hasa very real problem. Even without rehearsing thefact that other disciplines would vanish by thewayside, it also ties into the myth that a degreeis simply a vocational tool to increase the salaryof the person taking it [i] . The mindset thatinsists that everything can be reduced to thelevel of individual income has also brought us theobscenity of the bonus culture in high financeand, so far, five years of recession. The value ofthe arts is primarily non-monetary; it comesfrom the psychological benefit of well-designedbuildings [ii] or the happiness and creativitystimulated by engaging with a work of art.[iii] University fulfills a far wider societal role interms of training the mind and socializing theindividual. For the vast majority of students, italso provides a respite between the constrictionsof the family home and those of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The Arts provide huge benefits to society; easilycomparable to humanities or theoreticalscience It has already been mentioned thatthere are plenty of degrees where it is unlikelythat graduates will ever use the knowledge theyacquire, per se, in their later careers. Propositionhas failed to give a reason – other than earningpower – as to why the creative arts should besingled out on this ground [i] . However, interms of the general utility provided to widersociety, it would be hard to point to a disciplinethat out performs the arts. Every TV drama,theatre production, concert and so on is likely toinclude at least a smattering of participants whostudied the subject. It is in the nature of the artsthat its audience massively outnumbers thoseparticipating in its production. Beyond that thetrickle down affect of knowledge into every areaof public life from ideas and concepts initiated byartists is enormous. However, if Prop’s entirecase is that artists should be paid more for theenormous amount of good they do, we are quite", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-aeuhbdcaal-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This is a little like saying that the petroleumindustry benefits from medicine because of theneed for ambulances. People would still go outfor dinner and still take holidays. More to thepoint, as has been suggested, they will still gothe theatre or cinema, where people will still act.The issue here is that Universities areunnecessary in the process of training creativeartists.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Reality TV does not discourage hard work oreducation, rather it creates a society whereby wehave shared experiences and a strong sense ofcommunity. As such, reality TV provides animportant social glue. Once upon a time therewere only a few television channels, andeverybody watched the same few programmes.The sense of a shared experience helped to bindpeople together, giving them common things totalk about at work and school the next day –“water cooler moments”. Reality programs like‘Survivor’ play that role in contemporary societywith viewership being ‘almost a culturalimperative’, the experience sharedsimultaneously with friends andfamily.1 Furthermore, even if it were the casethat the moral lessons of reality programmes arenot always advisable, just as viewers canempathize with characters in the Godfatherwithout wanting to be them, the same applies toquestionable characters and actions in realityshows.2 1 Sanneh, K. (2011, May 9). The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Reality TV encourages people to pursue celebritystatus, and discourages the value of hard workand an education Reality shows send a badmessage and help to create a cult of instantcelebrity. They are typically built aboutshameless self-promotion, based on humiliatingothers and harming relationships for theentertainment of each other and the viewers athome. These programmes suggest that anyonecan become famous just by getting on TV and\"being themselves\", without working hard orhaving any particular talent. Kids who watchthese shows will get the idea that they don'tneed to study hard in school, or train hard for aregular job. As John Humphrys points out, 'wetell kids what matters is being a celebrity and wewonder why some behave the way they do' 1 AsAmerican lawyer Lisa Bloom fears, 'addiction tocelebrity culture is creating a generation ofdumbed-down women.'2 Reality showsencourage such addictions and promote thegenerally misguided belief that they should", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Reality TV programmes are not corrupting. Theydo reflect our society, which isn't always perfect,but we should face up to these issues rather thancensor television in order to hide them. WhenAdam Lambert, an openly gay contestant onAmerican Idol, lost in the final of the showdespite being widely regarded as the best singer,many rightfully pointed out what it demonstratedabout the homophobia of American society. Toderide reality shows as 'corrupting' therefore ismisguided; it is society who is corrupt and realityshows that offer a potential solution. To solve aproblem first requires accepting one exists, andreality shows provide a means to do that; theyare a window into society, permitting everyoneto reflect on the issues that are most harmful tosociety. As such, reality show producers shouldnot be accused of a lack of creativity or lazinessfor their programmes, but congratulated fordrawing attention to important issues.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The sheer number of reality programmes is nowdriving TV producers to create filthier, morecorrupt reality shows Reality TV is actuallygetting worse as the audience becomes moreand more used to the genre. In a search forratings and media coverage, shows arebecoming ever more vulgar and offensive, tryingto find new ways to shock. When the British BigBrother was struggling for viewers in 2003, itsproducers responded by attempting to shock theaudience that little bit more1. \"Big Brother\"programmes have also shown men and womenhaving sex on live TV in a desperate grab higherratings to justify their continued existence.Others have involved fights and racist bullying.Do we let things continue until someone has todie on TV to boost the ratings? When reality is\"constructed\" then it substitutes the \"natural\"reality. This in turn has adverse effect on thenatural growth of the children who are eitheractively involved into it or as audience become apassive recepient. We therefore in a pursuit of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Reality shows are not becoming more corrupt ormore filthy. What has changed is rather what thepublic defines as acceptable viewing. In otherwords, the gap between what is actually real andwhat is presented as reality is closing thanks tomodern reality programs. And the gap is closingdue to popular demand to see reality on their TVscreens. For example, the sex shown onScandinavian episodes of Big Brother is notshocking or unrealistic, it is only unusual in thecontext of what we expect to see on television.The fact it was shown only illustrates that thegap between what is actually real and what ispresented as reality on television is closing. Ifthe proposition has an issue therefore with whatmodern reality shows are presenting, they havean issue with society at large, not realityprograms. Even if were the case that realityprogrammes are getting more corrupt and filthy,viewers should take the advice of former U.S.President Bush Jr. and 'put the off button on.'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Reality shows are real; they are real peopleoperating without scripts and often, live. The factthat characters are often cast to encouragedisagreements or tension does not take awayfrom the reality of the program, in fact it onlyadds to it. The unrealistic settings of shows likeBig Brother and Survivor do not take away fromthe educational value of observing how theycope. In fact, without such shows, most peoplewould have little concept of how a group ofstrangers would be able to survive, co-operateand develop in such environments. As Timedescribes, 'they provoke, they offend but at leastit's trying to do something besides help you getto sleep'. The insight therefore into the humancondition is invaluable, and it is little surprisethat viewers are eager to watch such programs.What is real is not always the same as what isnormal, the events on Survivor Island are no lessreal for being in an unrealistic setting.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Reality shows make for bad, lazy and corruptingtelevision, encouraging such behaviour insociety Reality shows are bad, lazy andcorrupting television. They mostly show ordinarypeople with no special talents doing very little. Ifthey have to sing or dance, then they do it badly– which doesn’t make for good entertainment.They rely on humiliation and conflict to createexcitement. Joe Millionaire, where a group ofwomen competed for the affections of aconstruction worker who they were told was amillionaire, was simply cruel. The emotions ofthe contestants were considered expendable forthe sake of making viewers laugh at theirignorance. Furthermore, the programmes are fullof swearing, crying and argument, and oftenviolence, drunkenness and sex. This sends amessage to people that this is normal behaviourand helps to create a crude, selfish society. OneAmerican reality show, “Are You Hot?”, in whichcompetitors submit to a panel of judges for‘appearance-rating’, was blamed by eating", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Reality shows are not 'real', therefore they haveno education value Reality TV is dishonest – itpretends to show “reality” but it actually distortsthe truth to suit the programme makers. Theshows are not really “real” – they are carefullycast to get a mix of “characters” who are not atall typical. Mostly they show a bunch of young,good-looking self-publicists, who will do anythingto get on TV. Usually the programme makers tryto ensure excitement by picking people who arelikely to clash with each other. They then placethem in unnatural situations, such as the BigBrother house or the Survivor island, and givethem strange challenges in order to provokethem into behaving oddly. In The Bachelor,where a group of women compete for theaffections of an eligible male, the ‘intimate dates’they go on are filmed in front of any number ofcamera; that is not reality (Poniewozik, 2003).1Finally the makers film their victims for hundredsof hours from all angles, but only show the mostdramatic parts. Selective editing may be used to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Reality shows are driving out other sorts ofprogrammes, so that often there is nothing elseto watch. Reality TV is cheap and series can goon for months on end, providing hundreds ofhours of viewing to fill schedules. TV bosses likethis and are cutting back on comedy, music,drama and current affairs in favour of wall to wallreality rubbish. This is even worse when realityshows crowd the schedules of public servicebroadcasters. Stations such as the BBC in theUK, France Télévisions, or Rai in Italy have aduty to inform and educate the public. Theyshould be made to meet that responsibility – asRai has by saying it won’t have any more realityshows.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Reality television is not what audiences want, itis watched simply because it is ‘there’. It is whatJohn Humphrys calls ‘carbohydrate television’, it‘probably hasn’t done you much harm and if itleaves you feeling a bit bloated…well you cansearch out of a bit of quality stuff’. [1] With tensof television channels and twenty-four hours ofprogramming to fill, reality is simply a cheapmeans to ensure there is always something onTV to watch. In Italy, the evidence supports suchclaims, with the state broadcaster Rai deciding toscrap reality programmes in 2008 due to lowdemand. [2] As Rai’s President stated, ‘I don’tbelieve they are the type of shows the majorityof our viewers expect or want from a publicservice broadcaster’. [3] [1] Humphrys, John.“Take this oath: First, do no harm.” 28 August2004. The Guardian. 4 July 2011. [2] Fraser,Christian. “Italian TV bins reality shows.” 3 April2007. BBC News. 4 July 2011. [3] Fraser,Christian. “Italian TV bins reality shows.” 3 April2007. BBC News. 4 July 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Reality TV can be educational and have realeffects in society in a way other televisionprogrammes do not Reality TV can be veryeducational. They educate people by displayingdisastrous consequences of someone'sbehaviour, thus deterring others from doingunplanned and silly actions. Programmes such as\"The Apprentice\" have made people think aboutbusiness. Jamie Oliver has raised issues of youthunemployment and poor diet, and \"Fit Club\" hasgot people thinking about health and fitness.Jamie Oliver's inaugural reality show, 'Jamie'sKitchen', offered jobless youngsters the 'chanceto train and lead a nationwide campaign toimprove the quality of school meals'1. Withoutthe TV show's popularity funding the initiative,the youngsters involved would not have had suchan opportunity and school meals would stillreflect what kids want to eat, not what theyshould be eating. Such effects on society arebeneficial and should be encouraged, notrestricted. 1 Jury, L. (2007, January 4). The Big", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Reality television forces us to analyse our ownbehaviour as a society Reality TV actually has alot of value to our society; they are effectivelyanthropological experiments, allowing the publicto study people and societies from the comfort oftheir living rooms1. Humans are endlesslydifferent and endlessly interesting to otherhumans. In these programmes we see peoplelike us faced with unusual situations. Shows likeSurvivor, which place a group of strangers inremote environments, make us think about whatwe would do in their place, and about whatprinciples govern human behaviour in general. Italso shows us people who look and act verydifferent from us, and helps us see that actuallywe have a lot in common with them. MTV'sreality show 'Making the Band 2', a 'hip-hopAmerican Idol', gives centre stage to inner-citykids who would be portrayed as criminals orvictims on a cop drama. There is nothingimmoral about reality shows, merely the societywhich demands them; these shows are just a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The public can always just turn realityprogrammes off, or watch somethingelse Television provides a wide mixture ofprogrammes, including reality television. Forthose who want it, there is high quality dramasuch as \"The Sopranos\" or \"Pride and Prejudice\"whilst the BBC, CNN, Al-Jazeera and otherinternational broadcasters also cover news andcurrent affairs in great depth. Wildlifeprogrammes on the National Geographic orDiscovery bring the wonders of the natural worldinto our living rooms. More sports are covered inmore detail than ever before. So, ultimately,reality shows have not ruined television as awhole, they have merely added another optionfor viewers. Indeed, because they make a lot ofmoney for broadcasters to spend on other typesof programmes, they are actually good for allviewers, regardless of personal taste for genres.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Reality television is popular and TV producersshould give audiences what they want Realitytelevision programmes are very popular withaudiences of all ages and types. They may not behigh culture but most people do not want thatfrom television. Most viewers want to beentertained and to escape for a while from theworries and boredom of their everyday life.American Idol rejectees who stubbornly insistthat they have talent provide such escapism. [1]Furthermore, and importantly, such contestantsare good natured in doing so, they are notexploited but offer themselves to reality shows.[2] Therefore, there is no harm in giving thepeople what they want – that is what the freemarket is all about. Reality shows are alsopopular because they exploit new technology sothat millions of people can participate in theprogramme – typically by voting. Britain isbelieved to have had as many as 176 reality TVshows in a single year. [3] Such supply can onlybe driven by excessive demand. [1] Poniewozik,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Reality TV is less about exposing society andallowing us to evaluate our own behaviour than itis about 're-inforcing particular social norms'1.As such, it is deliberately misleading. If it isportrayed as being real, it implies authenticityand honesty, two things that most reality TVprogrammes are not. They serve not to challengeour views of society, but reinforce the often falsenotions we already collectively hold. Forexample, the US reality show \"Are You Hot?\"asks competitors to submit to appearance-ratingby judges, only re-inforcing the false premisethat one is defined solely by the way they look2.Furthermore, even if accepted that reality showsdo present a 'real' image of society, programmeslike Big Brother and Survivor erode thedistinction between public and private, turning'people with real lives and real problems and realchildren (into) entertainment'3. Society'sentertainment cannot be allowed to come at theexpense of the privacy that protects families andchildren. 1 Sanneh, K. (2011, May 9). The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgmmcthbrt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The few reality TV programmes that areeducational and beneficial do not balance the badmajority. The majority are not educational,either to the public or the participants, and theinsight they purport to offer into the humanpsyche are misguided. As Vanessa Feltz, acontestant on the British Big Brother series,describes, contestants and viewers alike'subscribe to this utterly specious notion thatfame is entirely desirable' (BBC News, 2001),whilst Narinda Kaur, another contestant on theshow, admitted \"I came away from thisexperience thinking 'oh my God, did I really saythat?\" (BBC News, 2001). As Claudio Petruccioli,head of the Italian state broadcaster Rai, notes,'reality TV shows put people into environmentsthat are both unrealistic and coercive'1 Anylessons learned are therefore inapplicable toreal-world situations. 1 Fraser, C. (2007, April3). Italian TV bins reality shows. Retrieved July4, 2011, from BBC News:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mthspsb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "PSBs are a thing of the past. People no longer sitaround the Television together. Commercialbroadcasters provide more cultural freedom andchoice for people. The idea of TV bringing anation together no longer holds any merit infragmented globalizing media markets whereindividualism dominates. TV is now more oftenthan not a solitary experience rather than acommunal one. This can be demonstrated by theamount of TV sets owned per household. Amarketing report from Nielsen shows that in1980 49% of US households had only 1 TV setand that 15% had three or more. Compare thatwith data from 2010 and only 17% of people inthe US own only 1 TV set whereas 55% have 3or more. [1] [1] Nielsen (2010) U.S. Homes AddEven More TV Sets in 2010. [Accessed 1st June2011] Available at:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mthspsb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "PSBs bring nations and people together and arean actively positive force within themediasphere As well as airing programming forminorities which the private broadcasters wouldnot provide, by providing and presenting contentin a manner that resonates with the society inwhich they operate and by offering universal andaffordable access to such content (see definitionin the introduction) PSBs can also help bringpeople together and thus promote socialcohesion. PSBs are able to put people andsociety first before financial and commercialinterests. For example the BBC in its 2005“Building Public Value” report states that it “aimsto serve its audiences not just as consumers, butas members of a wider society, with programmesand services which, while seeking to inform,educate and entertain audiences, also servewider public purposes”. [1] [1] BBC (2005)Building Public Value. [online] [Accessed 1stJune 2011] Available at:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mthspsb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The same could be said equally about PSBs. Theyare unlikely to broadcast items which maydamage their funding stream. In the case ofnetworks using the underwriting model they arealso unlikely to broadcast things whichunderwriters do not approve of. Due to thefragmented and competitive broadcasting marketplace there will always be a home forprogramming which challenges businesses andother entities if there is enough public interest inthe given issue.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mthspsb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "PSBs provide quality and original content thatcan cater for niche or commercially unattractivemarket segments PSBs create unique contentwhich private broadcasters would be unable toproduce as they strive for mass market appeal tosatisfy the demands placed upon them bycommercial interests looking to purchaseadvertising. PSBs create more educational andminority output which enriches society ratherthan just entertaining it. PSBs can concentrateon creating high quality programming across allgenres rather than simply producing mediocrepopulist programming such as low-cost gameshows and reality TV. For example it is unlikelythat commercial broadcasters would have airednightly university lectures as the BBC did with itspartnership with the Open University. PSBs areusually among the highest investors in thedomestic content industries and nurture localcreative talent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mthspsb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Commercial broadcasters have to directlyinteract with their audience to ensure that theprogramming being provided is what the publicactually wants to consume. Commercialbroadcasters have to pull in audiences whereasthe (partly) publicly funded PSBs have a financialsafety net which allows them to push contentonto the audience in an elitist manner and allowsthem to essentially tell their audience what isgood for them. It is also erroneous to suggestthat minority tastes are not served bycommercial broadcasters. Technology hasallowed for a greater number of broadcastchannels and as a result many of these specializeto cater for particular niches, for example, TheHistory Channel.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mthspsb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "PSB are better equipped than privatebroadcasters to air accurate, objective andimpartial information andprogramming Advertising limits the types ofprogramming and stories commercial networkswill run as they may fear losing lucrativeadvertising deals with large corporations. AsPSBs do not rely (solely) on advertising they aremore likely to air programming which is criticaltowards the practices of large corporations andserve the public interest. For example, In August2011, PBS aired Food Inc., a documentary that‘lifted the veil on (the US’) foodindustry…exposing the underbelly that’s hiddenfrom the American consumer with the consent of(the) government’s regulatory agencies’. [1] [1]PBS (2011). “Food, Inc. – Synopsis”. [Accessed6th September, 2011]. Available at:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mthspsb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Public ownership of broadcasting is good for thecitizen/consumer, as it is free once your licensefee or taxes have been paid. With the erosion ofadvertising revenues streams, privatebroadcasting companies are seeking to makepopular programming (such as sports events,concerts or films) subscription based, a trendwhich risks excluding poorer audiences andthreatens social cohesion. Nor is it in the interestof current private broadcasters to see their publicrivals privatized and forced to accept advertising,as the overall increase in advertising spacewould drive down the amount broadcasters couldcharge advertisers for a spot, reducing theirrevenues and profits.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mthspsb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It is true that government should not be alloweda monopoly over broadcasting, but that is veryrare outside totalitarian states. Usually countrieshave at least one privately owned broadcastingnetwork competing with the public media and solimiting political manipulation by the State. Inaddition, corporatization, as with the BBC in theUK, or CBC in Canada, sets the broadcaster upas accurate and impartial, allowing for thebenefits of public ownership without the risk ofpolitical interference. Instead, the greatest riskof bias lies within a purely private broadcastingsector, where the high costs of entry andtechnological development encourageconsolidation to the point where powerfulindividuals, such as Silvio Berlusconi in Italy, canmanipulate the broadcast agenda in their owninterests. Without the balance guaranteed bypublic service media, meaningful participation byall citizens in the social and political lives of theirsocieties and fair elections might becomeimpossible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mthspsb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Privatising PSBs would improve the efficiency oftheir operations and the quality of theirprogramming Privatization would be good forpublic broadcasters, exposing them to thebracing impact of proper competition and forcingthem to focus more effectively upon theirstrengths while producing efficiencies. When itwas privatized, it was expected that New JerseyPublic Television could save the state $11milliona year. [1] Freed from government control, theywould be less exposed to political decisions aboutthe level of license fee or direct subsidy, andbetter able to raise finance in the capitalmarkets. This would allow them to competeinternationally in the changing digitalmarketplace, developing commercial operations,and ploughing increased profits back into betterprogram making for their domestic market. [1]McGlone, Penny. (2011) “N.J. public television toundergo name change, cuts in staff”. TheStar-Ledger, 7 June 2011. [Accessed 23 August2011] Available at:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mthspsb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "PSBs funding sources give them an unfairadvantage in the broadcasting market, harmingcompetition. Public ownership of the mediadistorts competition, harming private companiesin their domestic marketplace and their ability tocompete internationally. It does this because thegovernment is funding a service that could besupplied profitably by the private sector - forexample, a pop music radio station or thebroadcast of sporting events. The market shareof private companies inevitably suffers, alongwith their ability to raise advertising revenuebased upon the size of their audience. Thismeans that private broadcasters end up with lessmoney to spend on their programmes and areless well placed to compete internationally.James Murdoch, son of the medal mogul RupertMurdoch, in his MacTaggart Lecture at theEdinburgh Television Festival in 2009 echoed thisopinion stating that the free news output by theBBC “\"threatens the provision of news in Britain\".[1] [1] The Independent (2009) The BBC’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mthspsb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The relationship between governments and PSBscan be problematic The broadcast media has somuch power to form opinion that it is dangerousto give politicians too much influence over it.Once in government, a political party can usepublic ownership and control of television andradio stations to manipulate both the newsagenda and its editorial policy - as manyMiddle-East regimes did during the 2011 ArabSpring. For example in Egypt, during sustainedand substantial protests aimed at removingPresident Hosni Mubarak from office the staterun media described protestors as “... ‘Vandals’and ‘hooligans’. A few hours after Mubarak’s fall,the ‘vandalisers’ had become ‘heroes’, and what[they] had previously described as ‘chaosinstigated by foreign powers’ had suddenlybecome ‘a glorious revolution.’” [1] [1] Diab, O.(2011) New Egypt, New Media. [Accessed 1stJune 2011] Available at:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mthspsb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "PSBs are already exposed to competition as theiraudience figures are compared with those oftheir private rivals, and they constantly have tojustify the level of their license fee or subsidy.Outsourcing most actual program making, as theBBC does, provides a competitive environment inwhich costs can be controlled effectively. Nordoes public ownership prevent organizationsfrom raising money - government bodies oftenresort to bond issues to fund investment. TheBBC has successfully launched BBC Worldwideand developed a profitable commercial arm whileremaining a public corporation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Indigenous populations have no more right tospecial government treatment than otherminority groups. Even indigenous populations didnot inhabit their current territory from the dawnof time, and many ethnic groups around theworld live where they do because they werepushed out of some other territory hundreds orthousands of years ago. Virtually every ethnicgroup in the world has been conquered andabused by some other group. Tracing theentirety of human history to determine whichgroup owes reparations to which other group isunproductive; rather, governments should moveforward to promote a better standard of living forall citizens.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Existing states are responsible for thedestruction of indigenous populations and theirsocieties, and thereby have an obligation to helpreverse the effects of their actions The IndianRemoval Act of 18301, the 1871 IndianAppropriations Act, and the 1887 GeneralAllotment Act are just a few examples oflegislation used to destroy Native Americancommunities in the US2. Settlers in Australia aresimilarly responsible for a multitude ofmassacres3, as well as several decades of forcedseparation of aboriginal children from theirparents in an effort to \"Christianize\" them4.While the current citizens of Canada, the US, andAustralia are not guilty of the crimes of theirpredecessors, they nevertheless reap thebenefits of those atrocities while today'sindigenous populations still suffer from thelasting impact of oppression. When chemicalcompanies make huge profits at the expense ofdamaging the surrounding community'senvironment, those companies are expected to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The government should rely on just legalsystems to protect the rights of indigenouspeople, not cultural preservation. A constitutionthat enumerates rights and a court system thatscrutinizes government activity is a much moredirect and reliable venue of protecting indigenousrights than sporadic funding for culturalprograms.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "All of society benefits from protection ofindigenous culture Across the United States,Australia, and Canada, native customs are oftentied closely to the land. For example, whiledescendants of the Sioux Indians of theAmerican Midwest may no longer hunt buffalo,learning about traditional means of hunting,animal use, rituals involving the surroundingwildlife, means of ensuring a sustainable foodsupply, and other cultural norms related to theland gives people a greater appreciation for theland they now inhabit. Exposure to traditionsthat have been practiced in one's land forthousands of years helps us to appreciate thelegacy we have inherited. This does not justbenefit the direct descendants of those practicingthese traditions but the whole of society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Protecting indigenous culture is unlikely to havea significant impact on the general population.Native groups often live in relative isolation,thereby having little contact with people outsidethe community. Furthermore, antiquated formsof hunting and cultivating food that were usedover a hundred years ago have little relevance tothe modern environment in which people live.Learning about these traditions is unlikely toimpact the public's perception of its environmentbecause the public is unlikely to make anemotional connection between these traditionsand their modern homes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Governments also ignore or destroy culture allthe time. Historic and significant buildings arebuilt to build infrastructure, traditions are lostthrough an unwillingness to provide funding toprevent it from dying. When governmentsprotect culture they inevitably protect one overthe others. This is nearly always the culture ofthe majority. Instead it is not for the governmentto promote or protect any culture over othersrather it should be left to private individuals andeach cultural group to promote their own culture.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The preservation of displaced cultures isimportant in preventing futureoppression. Notions of cultural superiorityvirtually always influence displacement andabuse of indigenous cultures. For example, whenthe government of Botswana expelled theKalahari Bushmen from their land in 2002,President Mogai defended his actions bydescribing the bushmen as \"stone agecreatures.\"1 This cultural insensitivity, inaddition to the incentive of material gains, ledthe Botswani government to violate the tribe'srights. By preserving indigenous culture,governments recognize the value of these groupsand prevent future hostility. 1 John Simpson,\"Bushmen Fight for Homeland,\" BBC, 2005", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Governments protect culture everyday Governments already protect culture so it isnot a big step to apply the same protections toaboriginal culture as well. In school, studentslearn about traditional art and their nationalhistory. For example, the state of Californiacompiles reading lists that largely includeShakespeare, Virgil, and John Steinback, thoughalso including ethnic authors like Maya Angelou1.Governments recognize days like Christmas andNew Years and fund programs that promote thearts. States recognize marriage and structuredivorce and custody laws based on culturalnorms of gender roles and family responsibility.If a government can protect the norms on oneculture in society, there is no reason that thegovernment should not also protect the cultureof those who first inhabited the land. This currentprotection makes it easy to build on, to makehighlight more aboriginal culture, recognize theirfestivals etc. 1 California Reading List, CaliforniaDepartment of Education, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Mainstream cultural norms are so pervasive inevery aspect of society that without an activeeffort, indigenous values and traditions will belost. Preserving culture often involves funding-whether it is for a theatre group, art show,language program, or other means of culturalexpression. In countries like the US andAustralia, indigenous groups make up less than3% of the current population; 1;2 withoutassistance from the government, it is unlikelythese groups would be able to sustain suchcultural efforts and as a result their culture wouldnot have any chance to evolve. 1 Race -Universe: Total Population, U.S. Census BureauAmerican Fact Finder, 2009. 2 ExperimentalEstimates and Projections, Aboriginal and TorresStrait Islander Australians, 1991, to 2021,Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Cultural preservation enriches society; justbecause it cannot be measured quantitativelydoes not mean it is not worthwhile. Withoutgovernment assistance, many museums andtheaters would have to close down, or would betoo expensive for the general public to access.Government support for cultural enrichmentcontributes towards the public's education andallows citizens to develop an appreciation fortraditions other than their own. This does notmean arguing that the government shouldabandon its basic duties, but simply that a smallportion of the budget be dedicated topreservation of indigenous culture.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Government interference is not necessary topreserve culture Plenty of ethnic groupsimmigrate to countries like Canada and the USand preserve their culture without governmentaid. They do so through religious education forchildren, speaking their native language athome, schools at the weekends that teach theirculture and communication and cooperationwithin the ethnic community. This culturalpreservation demonstrates that governmentassistance is unnecessary and thereby a form ofexcessive government involvement.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Culture is an incredibly complex concept Culturecontains many elements; it is the food one eats,the clothing one wears, the holidays onecelebrates, and the names of the spirits oneworships. However, it is much more than that;culture dictates parent-child relationships,courting customs, family size, gender roles,healthcare, education, and every law, regulation,and standard a society holds. Governmentsrarely give blanket approval to an indigenouscustoms; children are often compelled to attendschool and receive vaccines, substances used inreligious rituals may be banned, and customsthat infringe on the rights of group members arenot permitted. These restrictions may bereasonable, however, they create a false senseof cultural preservation. Rather than ostensiblyprotect aboriginal culture, governments shouldleave it alone.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Culture evolves over time and is largely impactedby improved standards of living and exposure toother cultures Virtually all cultures around theworld have changed radically over the past twohundred years; if a government takes actiontowards \"preserving\" an indigenous culture, it isinterfering with the group's ability to mold theiridentity to fit the modern world on their ownterms. For example, the Australian and Americangovernments have tried to appease nativegroups by offering land for reserves where theymay lead a traditional lifestyle. Nativeindividuals, however, often do not want to live inisolation, and would rather adapt their culture toan urban environment where they can have ahigher standard of living.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Culture provides no tangible benefit that justifiesthe use of government funds to preserve it. Ifindigenous populations feel strongly that theirunique culture is worth preserving, they maydirect their attention and funds towards thisendeavor. However, a government's first prioritymust be services that improve the standard ofliving for its citizens. Society, includingindigenous people, would be better served if taxdollars were spent on services like healthcareand law enforcement.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Anarchy is not necessary for culture to exist.Legal restrictions do impact cultural norms; forexample, Native American use of peyote forreligious ceremonies is permitted only at thediscretion of state governments1. However,restrictions on drug use have not turned nativecultural expression into a meaningless practice.Rather, the fact that native groups must conformto external standards is more reason for thegovernment to make an active effort to protectindigenous culture. In the previous example, theUS government acknowledged that NativeAmerican use of peyote in religious ceremonies isdifferent from typical drug use, and consequentlypermits such peyote use (with limitations). It isthis active effort to respect native culture thatallowed Native Americans to preserve theirreligious practice. 1Elijah Sweete, \"Peyote inShort Supply,\" The Moderate Voice, 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-tphwpac-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Immigrant populations generally do not retaintheir cultural distinctiveness in the long run;while the first generation may be heavilyinfluenced by their parents' culture, thisinfluence fades by the second generation.Immigrant assimilation is actually proof thatgovernment assistance would be useful to nativegroups.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Anyone setting out on such a career is aware ofthe legal requirement to undertake service in thearmed forces. There is absolutely nothing to stopthem doing it before they start their career.There are plenty of jobs where it is inconvenientto have to take an extended break. Anythingrelating to technology or research, for example,where there is a need to keep up to date with thelatest developments in the field is fairlyunforgiving of such a break and so people buildtheir careers around it, knowing that at somepoint they will be out of the loop for 24 monthsor so. To suggest that it is more important thata pop star is able to keep on recording but that itis for scientist and technicians in the most wiredcountry in the world to keep up with changes intechnology is as inconsistent as it is unfair. Thecase of the performer is clearly weaker it’ssimply that they have the status and fame tomean that they can make a big fuss about it andpeople will notice. Whatever the vanity ofcelebrity may suggest it’s just another job and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Celebrities are in the unusual position ofrequiring constant media attention The careerpath of celebrities is unusual in that it accretesover time on the basis of the performersstanding in the public mind. Unlike otherprofessions this does not lend itself to taking twoyears out of the limelight, especially years whenfame is coming to its height. The media isnotoriously fickle and equally well-known forhaving a short memory. It generally struggles tostay interested in a celebrity if they’re out of thelimelight for more than a few weeks. It is simplyunfeasible that they would remain interestedwhen someone has been out of the spotlight forover two years. In effect this means that for aKorean musician or actor their career will finishat the age of 29. In other profession it ispossible to build a career around national serviceand employers know that at some point anyyoung man they employ will need to undertaketheir military service but celebrities simply aren’temployed in this way.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Again, there is nothing to stop celebrities doingtheir military service before they startperforming but, even were that not the case,military service is not something that isundertaken because it is convenient or easy butrather something that is done because it isnecessary. The country is at risk of invasion, it isstill technically at war with the North and in thelast Kim Jong-Il has become increasinglyerratic. Of all professions surely performers,with their peculiar interest in the combination ofa consumer society and the right to freedom ofexpression have the greatest interest in insuringthat the north doesn’t invade. Neither wars nordictatorships are particularly known forencouraging the performing arts.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Celebrities, like athletes, enhance the nation’simage and generate revenue The South Koreangovernment issues occasional exemptions toathletes who have won an Olympic gold medal orachieved a similar feat. If we accept that the lawought to be consistent then there is no reasonwhy entertainers should not be proffered thesame opportunity. Both professions tend tofavour the young and the requirement thatmilitary service needs to be completed beforethe age of thirty mean that either career wouldbe interrupted just at the point when theindividual is likely to be at the height of theirskills. Equally both groups bring prestige forKorea as a nation. Entertainers like Jung-Ji Hoon(Rain) have just as much of a following asathletes such as Park Ji-Sung who, along with histeam mates on the Korean national team wasexempted from military service for reaching thesemi-finals of the world cup [1] . Indeed Rainpredominantly works in Korea and has afollowing throughout the country and the region", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Celebrities, unlike athletes, work for themselveswhereas athletes represent the country. Militaryservice means representing the nation to the restof the world as does being an athlete, that’s thereason for the exemption, not simply a matter ofcelebrity. The psychologist Hwang Sang-Min [1]has made clear that “Entertainers are thought towork for their own sakes. That’s thedifference.” Park Ji-Sung and his teammateswere representing their country and achieved anational first. Granting an exemption recognisedtheir accomplishment on behalf of the country.In a very literal meaning of the phrase theyperformed national service. Equating such anaccomplishment with a performer who is simplydoing their job – for which they are well paid –misses the point of the exemptions. Singers andactors happen to be Korean; they are not actingor singing for Korea. Indeed given the speed withwhich some performers have given up theirnationality in a bid to avoid national service,comparing it to a genuine national", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Having the age of 30 as the cut-off point isuniquely unfair to performers as this is the agewhen they are likely to be at the height of theirfame and towards the end of their career. Formost professions, getting military service out ofthe way early in one’s career makes sense.Nobody would suggest that members of otherprofessions should be expected to interrupt itwhen they are at the height of their profession.In reality for most people this would be whenthey are in their fifties. For professions likeacting and music this tends to be the latetwenties and early thirties. Indeed, for popsingers in particular their career is likely to beover when they are 35. In the light of thissetting the age limit where it is is uniquely unfairto performers – just as it is to athletes. Militaryservice anywhere in the world is considered to besomething you undertake before your career, notin the middle of it. Regulations should reflectreality, in this instance that means allowingperformers to get on with their careers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There may well be a case to be made that certainother professions or groups should be givenexemptions. That does not, however,demonstrate that celebrities should not. Thissimply reflects the fact that, by definition,celebrities are not typical citizens. They providea valuable role in society and that should berecognised. They provide entertainment andglamour in peoples’ lives, they promote Koreaaround the world and they are also very few innumber. News reports whenever a celebrityundertakes national service are always keen tostress that they will not receive specialtreatment, it is difficult to see why. Historically,entertainers serving in military forces around theworld are always used to build national moraleand yet in South Korea they are not. It is thisinstance that is the exception to the rule.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It could be done in much the same way as withsportsman where ‘exceptional achievement’ isrecognised concept and, while difficult to define,is easy to apply. As long as the whole processtakes place transparently it should ensure that itis not abused. The issue is not so muchintroducing exemptions to the universality of thecurrent system but, rather, ensuring thetransparency of the process. There are alreadyabuses of the system with the children of thepowerful, the so called ‘sons of gods’ oftenfinding ways around the law. That is not adifficulty of definition, it’s simple corruption.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con02a", "title": "", "text": "One of the great strengths of national service isthat it demonstrates that everyone is equal Boththe Constitution and the National Security Act[1] make it explicitly clear that there areoccasions when individuals in South Korea mustsurrender some of their liberty in the interests ofpreserving the state. These pieces of legislationand others reflect the reality of living next doorto North Korea. The whole point of legislationthat preserves the state is that it applies toeverybody. Particularly in the instance ofnational service, the moment it becomes optionalit ceases to work. No doubt many of those whohave been arrested under the NSA took theattitude that it really didn’t, or shouldn’t, applyto them. It does. Even if a compelling case couldbe made for celebrities to have the right not toserve, it is inconceivable that such a case couldbe made exclusively for celebrities. It is hard tosee how the national interest is well served byhaving someone appear in a soap opera or arecord sleeve but not by having someone in an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Celebrities are respected by young people andthis is a way in which they can act as a rolemodel and set a positive example. At a timewhen the 1950-53 war is becoming less relevantto peoples’ daily lives and all generations,particularly the youngest, are becoming reluctantto fulfil their duty in a country that is still at war,celebrities have a powerful opportunity to act asrole models for others to fulfil their nationalservice obligations. Allowing them an opt outwould set a terrible example. By definition theyare of a generation with others entering themilitary and there is a powerful symbolism intheir doing so as well. By contrast allowing theman exemption would encourage others to try andfind a way out of serving. Although it seemsprobable that in the event of a conflict the mainprotagonists would be the USA and China ratherthan the conscript armies of North and SouthKorea, there would seem to be a definite benefitin having the male population trained sufficientlywell to take on civil defence duties and to be able", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There are many professions that could moresensibly be given exemption such asteachers Only in a world truly and unhealthilyobsessed with the cult of celebrity would popsingers and soap stars be at the top of the list forexemptions to military service. Surely scientistsand surgeons would have a better claim. Indeedwith shortages of professionals reported in bothscience and technology [1] it would seem tomake far more sense to offer opt outs there in aneffort to encourage more people to study thesubjects at university and to make their careersin those areas. On the basis that people are noteven given an exemption on the basis ofreligious or moral conviction, it seems perverseto give exemptions on the basis of fame [2]. [1] [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con01a", "title": "", "text": "In practical terms how would you define whoshould be given an exemption and how do youprevent abuse? The advantage of the currentsystem is its universality, it does not require anyinterpretation of who is and is not included. Whoexactly is a celebrity? How do you define thatand how do you insure that it isn’t used to coverthe children of law makers and other influentialindividuals? Celebrity, almost by its nature, isimpossible to define and the moment youattempt to do so – ‘all professional singers’ forexample – you create a loophole that people willrush through.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It seems, frankly unfair to ask people to destroytheir careers on the basis that it will encourageothers to do something that the law alreadyrequires of them. The legislation for nationalservice was structured on the basis of a countrythat was very different from modern day Korea.In 1953 Korea was the poorest country in theworld and national service was, among otherthings, a useful tool for training and providingemployment for the young. That is simply nolonger the case. The legislation and theprincipals that underpin it are simply notdesigned to deal with a Korean in their twentieswho is already recognised around the world andhas a staggeringly successful career. It’s clearthat the framers acknowledged that there was atleast one profession where people could excelwhile still young – hence the exemption forhighly successful athletes. The fact is that 60years ago the idea of a rapper, singer or actorwho could genuinely promote Korea around theworld was simply not there.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-cgpdhwecns-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Celebrities fulfill two important roles that allowthem to demonstrate that they are better servingthe national interests by pursuing their careers.The first is the unifying and moral building effecton the nation. It is even possible to argue assome scholars have [1] that in an increasinglyfractured society, celebrities may be the onlypeople who can have a unifying effect. Thesecond role is taking an international profile.They act as a constant reminder to the world ofthe existence of South Korea and that it is a freecountry with a thriving arts scene. These rolesmake a far greater difference to the process ofprotecting the state and the freedoms for whichit stands than they could ever do as just anotherman in fatigues. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mcthdwcj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "A white Christmas is not traditional. Even innorthern countries such as Great Britain snowhas always been very rare in December – it ismuch more likely to fall later in the winter. It’s allCharles Dickens’ fault – he grew up in theunusually snowy 1810s, and later wrote snowyscenes into his popular Christmas stories, suchas “A Christmas Carol”. Even in the 19thCentury, snow at Christmas was uncommon, andin many places today it is quite rare (WesternEurope, most of the USA) or impossible(southern hemisphere countries like Australia). Itis better to enjoy Christmas for what it is ratherthan feeling sorry every year that it doesn’t liveup to some storybook picture.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mcthdwcj-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Christmas is inextricably linked with an image ofa snowy wonderland. We all love the traditionalwhite Christmas. When we think of Christmas wesee snowy scenes, with people skating andsledging, and children making snowballs andsnowmen. Later the families gather insidearound a warm fire to celebrate. This is the sortof Christmas shown on greeting cards andcelebrated in so many songs (for example, WhiteChristmas, Jingle Bells, Frosty the Snowman,Walking in a Winter Wonderland, etc.). It isn't aproper Christmas without snow. \"The interest insnowy Christmases has its origins in the colderclimate of the period 1550–1850 when Britainwas in the grip of a ‘Little Ice Age’[2] That way,the traditional image was created.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mcthdwcj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It might suit the non-religious people who runmuch of the media to say that, but it stripsChristmas of all real meaning. The truth is thatanyone can celebrate Christ's birth at Christmas,whether they are in snowy Lapland, summeryAustralia or tropical Africa. Christmas hasnothing to do with snow; it is the celebration ofJesus Christ's birth in a Bethlehem stable. Snowis not mentioned in the Bible story and it is very,very rare in Bethlehem. Seeing the holiday asjust a snowy winter festival is a way of takingChrist out of Christmas.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mcthdwcj-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The dream of a white Christmas satisfies a needfor hope deep within us. The ideal of a whiteChristmas also speaks to the old pagan festivals.The winter solstice (Yule, Saturnalia) was a timeof hope in the cold and darkness, as nightsstopped getting longer and people looked for thepromise of new birth in springtime. The ChristianChurch recognized the power of existing winterfestivals and chose December 25th for their ownnativity celebrations. People still feel a need tomove in time with the seasons, and snowrepresents winter at its most extreme. For thesereasons the dream of a white Christmas satisfiesa need deep within us.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mcthdwcj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "If the idea of a white Christmas is pagan then weshould drop it. We are not pagan anymore andwe have a modern understanding of the seasons.If the festival was all about the shortest day,then much of the world's population would be leftout. Everyone in the southern hemisphere wouldhave to celebrate the festival in June. Those nearthe equator would never get to celebrate at all.Christmas should unite humanity, not split itapart.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mcthdwcj-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Wishing for a white Christmas shows a desire toreturn to the true nature of the holiday For mostpeople Christmas today is not about a religiousfestival, but about consumption, greed andshopping. Wishing for a snowy white Christmasis about turning the clock back to a time whenlife was simpler. Instead of focusing on gettingpresents, getting fat and getting drunk, a whiteChristmas is something money can't buy. Itsymbolizes time with family, playing outdoors inthe snow, making your own entertainment andenjoying the wonder of nature. Who wouldn'tprefer a Christmas like that?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mcthdwcj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Human cleverness means that a white Christmasis within reach. Modern technology includessnow-making machines — commonly in use inmany ski resorts. So whenever it is cold enough,we can spray fake snow all over our towns todelight young and old alike. And even if outdoortemperatures are too warm, we can refrigeratehuge buildings in order to create Christmassywinter wonderlands.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mcthdwcj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Snow is actually a lot of fun. It makes even thedullest countryside or ugliest town look beautiful,even magical. Snow changes everything, yet it isfragile and short-lived. Children love to stampand slide in snow, to crunch it together to createsnowmen and play snowballs. Young peopleenjoy healthy winter sports like skiing andskating. Older adults enjoy sharing the romanceof a snowy landscape over a warming drink, andremembering happy childhood winters. There isno wonder people dream of a white Christmas;it's a magical image.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mcthdwcj-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Global warming has made White Christmas animage of the past Global Warming means thatfew people will ever get to see a whiteChristmas. Many of the most populated areas ofWestern Europe and the USA could once expectsnow at Christmastime, so perhaps the idea of awhite Christmas once had real meaning. Now wehave to accept that those days have gone.Mankind's damage to the world's climate meanswe have to get use to a coldish, greyishChristmas each year. There is no point dreaming,and denial can even be harmful, as we will bedisappointed every year. We need to learn tolove Christmas for what it is in the modernworld.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mcthdwcj-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Linking Christmas with snow denies it to somecountries Dreaming of a white Christmas alsosuggests that some countries have a specialrelationship with Christmas (e.g Finland,Norway), and that hot countries (e.g. largelyChristian Kenya, Ethiopia and Mexico) orSouthern hemisphere countries (e.g. Australia,Argentina, South Africa) cannot celebrateChristmas properly — surely the opposite of thetrue Christmas message.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mcthdwcj-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There is nothing Christmassy about snow. Snowcan look lovely but the novelty soon wears off.Snow is cold and wet and the ice that comes withit is dangerously slippery. Every year even lightsnow causes broken bones and other injuries.Heavy snow is worse – it can leave elderlypeople trapped in their houses, bring downpower lines, shut down transport systems andcause deaths through both cold and caraccidents. None of this is remotely Christmassy.Snow can even wreck Christmas for manyfamilies, as travel hold-ups prevent relativesfrom reaching them for the celebration. As theBBC wrote in December 2010, “The wintryweather has caused chaos for many thousands oftravelers trying to get to their destination ofchoice for Christmas.\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mcthdwcj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "White Christmases may not be common anymore but we can still dream of them. Thescientists say that climate change is warming theworld and many places that used to get snow inwinter (e.g. Moscow, New York) will see it muchmore rarely in future. But our desire for a whiteChristmas just like the ones we used to knowsymbolizes our awareness of climate change.This issue could help shift public opinion in favorof tackling global warming.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is true that newspapers cannot adapt asquickly as other types of media to breaking newsevents, however there are advantages to havingslower news. Reporting news events immediatelyas they happen often leads to speculation as thebigger picture is often unknown by thejournalists, therefore having time to digest thegiven event can allow for more accurate anddetailed reporting rather than broadcasting factswhich may not be immediately confirmable, alonger time before publication then is likely toresult in more accurate, less speculativeinformation. For example many TV news outletswere reporting, when the first plane to hit theWorld Trade Center on the 11th September, thatit was an unfortunate accident. It of course lateremerged to be the work of terrorists.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "In the internet age immediacy is everything,newspapers can often contain out of dateinformation by the time they hit the shelves. Inan interconnected global world wherebytechnology allows us within seconds tocommunicate across the globe in a variety offorms the newspaper medium becomes obsolete.In the time it takes to write, edit, print anddistribute a newspaper the events being coveredmay very well have changed, when we have thetechnology to overcome this problem it seemsunlikely that newspapers will continue to existbecause who wants to read old news? Anexample of newspapers not being able to adaptto changing events can be seen with the killing ofOsama Bin Laden on 2nd May 2011, the storybroke too late for the morning newspapers in theUK to be able to change their pages to includethe story, it was then subsequently reported aday late on the 3rd May. 1 1 Front Pages Today(2011) Newspaper Headlines from UK for 3 May2011. [online] [accessed 27th July 2011]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Newspapers do still have a place in the modernmedia landscape; the environmental argumentagainst them is flawed, for example theNewsprint and Newspaper IndustryEnvironmental Action Group (NNIEAG) statethat: “Recycled paper made up 77.4% of the rawmaterial for UK newspapers in 2010” 1 so theclaim regarding the amount of waste newspapersgenerate is not actually as high as is beingsuggested. What the argument also neglects tostate is that electronic media is not entirelyenvironmentally friendly in itself, much of thepower required not only by personal digitaldevices but also the infrastructure needed tokeep it working does not on the whole come fromrenewable sources, whereas printed media doesmakes greater use of environmentally friendlysources for its production. A report byPricewaterhouseCoopers states that: “Forestry,paper and packaging are among the mostsustainable industries in existence.'” 2 1NNIEAG (2011) Newsprint and Newspaper", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "People no longer consume media in a linear way,people prefer to pick and choose what news theyconsume With the development of Digital VideoRecorders (DVRs) and more generally theinternet people have come to no longer simplyconsume media in a linear fashion, they take amore fragmented approach. In newsconsumption people no longer want to simplyhave one newspaper with a vast array of topicsinside. They want to pick and choose whichstories and columns they consume, people nowprefer to pull the content they want rather thanhave it pushed on them. In a digital world thenews consumer can become their own editor andno longer need to rely entirely on old hierarchicalstructures.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The positive side of a newspaper IS the fact youhave a vast array of topics, which you would notusually consume. It broadens the mind as youmay often come across stories you never usuallytake notice of. This opens up a whole new worldof interest, whereas if people are given the roleof editor they would most likely simply choose toread what already interests them and theirchannels of perception will become narrower. Inaddition to this, newspapers are not necessarilylinear. They do not have to be read in a linearfashion, people can choose which stories theywish to read and reject those they do not.Newspapers are far more flexible than they aregenerally portrayed 1. Modern newspapers haveadapted their design to increase theirconsumption by the public. One good exampleof this is the change in size of many Britishnewspapers, from broadsheet to tabloid 2. 1.Daily Beast, 2009 2. BBC, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "This argument overstates the situation.Newspapers are less profitable than they were attheir peak, but newspapers have been affectedby other media ever since the invention of theradio. Much of the evidence the proposition hasraised focuses on the Western World. Accordingto the World Association of Newspapers, morenewspapers are being published than at any timepreviously. There are strong growth markets inAsia, Eastern Europe and South America. TheMiddle East and Africa also sustain strongmarkets, though there is less growth1. Furthermore, Newspaper advertising is aneffective revenue source. Advertisements in thetraditional print tend to get more attention fromreaders than on the internet, because peopleread papers more intently. Finally, somenewspapers are actively engaging with theinternet by charging for premium content to theirservices. Even if they lose some customers, thisis made up by a net increase in revenue2. 1World Association of Newspapers (2010) World", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Newspapers cannot be environmentallysustained. Newspapers have no place in themodern media landscape as they are notenvironmentally friendly, they are a waste ofpaper when there are many other my efficientways in which news can be disseminated. Forexample a single annual subscription to the NewYork Times roughly generates 520lb of wastewhich equates to approximately 4.25 trees beingcut down per reader per year 2, when you takeinto account all the other publications thatprinted throughout the world this equates to a lotof wastage of increasingly scarce naturalresources which could be avoided. Using digitaltools to distribute news is more efficient as youonly use resources when the content is actuallyrequired rather than the print media method inwhich the product is printed when it may not benecessarily purchased and consumed. 1 ID2(2011) Facts about Paper and Paper Waste.[online] [accessed 18th June 2011]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Newspapers are financially unviable In theinternet age, Newspapers are no longerfinancially profitable businesses. They arestruggling to encourage investment and tosurvive in the long-term. Revenue is fallingacross the three main streams available tonewspapers: sales, advertising andsubscriptions. Sales and subscriptions aredropping as consumers move to the internet forinformation (often the website of the newspaperthemselves!)1 Advertising is not as profitableeither, as increasingly advertisers look to pop-upsystems on websites and buying space on searchengines. Many newspapers have resorted tocutting costs (firing staff, reducing the length ofthe paper) and raising prices. Yet it does notseem likely that people will be willing to paymore for less. 1. Keevey, R., Sattin, D and Hale,T. (2009) The Newspaper Crisis. PrincetonUniversity, 1st May 2009. Policy ResearchInstitute for the Region: Princeton University.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "As newspapers are funded by private companiesthey can be accused of avoiding to publishinformation which may damage their revenuestreams, independent bloggers often do not havethis issue so can be much more free in what theypublish which is ultimately good for democracy.In addition to this journalists may vastly distortthe truth in their reporting in order to satisfyadvertisers which seek certain demographics,whereas independent bloggers do not have thisconcern. A consequence of online freedom is ofcourse that anyone can publish anything but itshould be down to the reader to decode what hasbeen blogged and make up their own mind as toits accuracy, it is demeaning to suggest thatconsumers of news information are simplypassive consumers. Professional journalists,even when based in an official setup and with acode of ethics, are not entirely guilt free inregards to publishing inaccurate informationeither, there are many instances where falseinformation has been published, for example", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Normal backlighted displays can be bad for theeyes, however there are other digitaltechnologies which address this issue, forexample Amazon’s Kindle e-reader using atechnology called e-ink which simulates ink on apage and requires natural light to be read 1. Itcould be argued that the tactile argument isflawed, because if people did prefer the tactileexperience, newspapers would not be in a stateof severe decline. Furthermore the concept ofwhat constitutes a better reading experience issubjective. Shorter, more to the point text andthe ability to hyperlink to related pieces ofcontent and access information in a non-linearway could be considered a much betterexperience compared to reading long passagesof text in a linear fashion. 1 Popsci, (2010)Testing the Best: The Kindle's E Ink Pear Display[online][Accessed 2nd September 2011]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Newspapers provide higher quality journalismthan other media As newspapers are a slowmedium, having a daily output most typically,they can produce better quality material thanother news sources which strive for immediacy.Professional journalists and experts have time toconsider the issues and write well structured,coherent and highly informed pieces which othertypes of media cannot compete with. Ademonstration of the high quality of journalismfound in newspapers can be seen in the fact thatquite often newspapers set the news agenda forthe rest of the day for other media outlets 1.Perhaps most importantly, modern graduates ofschools of journalism still tend to favour workingfor newspapers as their long term careerambition. This is because the working conditionstend to be far superior, as is the regularity ofpayment and job security. Those blogging in theonline media note their treatment assecond-class outlets, long hours and poor pay.The best and the brightest head to newspapers", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The internet edits what you can see without yourknowledge When you purchase a newspaper youknow what biases they may contain, gettingnews online can be more troublesome asservices such as Google and Facebook usealgorithms which personalize content for youbased on your interest. This creates what isknown as a “filter bubble”1 whereby onlineservices filter out news which may not be ofnormal interest to the reader, the problem withthis is that it is often done without the user beingaware of it, which clearly raises issues oftrust. 1 Praiser, E. (2011) Beware Online 'FilterBubbles' [online] [accessed 15th June 2011]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The balance of analysis and relevancy is betterstruck by newspapers The argument thatinternet news tends to offer small passages oftext compared to newspapers is to be liberal withthe truth, due to the vast nature of the internet itoffers a variety of styles and is arguably morelikely to provide longer passages thannewspapers as there is not space restriction asthere is with newspapers which can only be acertain size, due to advertisements and printingagreements. With the ability to both search forand easily share content via social networks, theargument that newspapers are better as theyprevent information overload feels weak becausethere are many ways in which content can befiltered to ensure that both the news you actuallywant and the style and perspective you prefercan be easily accessed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Newspapers are a more trustworthy source ofinformation than independent bloggers Onlineanyone can launch a blog and start publishing,these articles could potentially be false,badly-researched or overly bias to name but afew issues, this raises the question of qualitycontrol of information online and itstrustworthiness. For example a blog purportedlywritten by a gay woman in Damascus trying toavoid state persecution over her sexuality turnedout to be a hoax, the identity of the bloggerturned out to be straight 40 year old US manliving in Edinburgh. 1 As newspapers are mostoften subject to regulations regarding what theyprint as well as being subject to market forces itis on the whole unlikely that they will publishsomething that is factually inaccurate, at leastnot with intent. Journalists working atnewspapers are well trained and more often thannot sign up to voluntary ethic codes in order tobe accepted as trustworthy sources 2. Bloggerson the other hand can publish without any formal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-con05b", "title": "", "text": "While algorithms may filter out content whichdoes not normally appeal to a particular readerthe internet itself does not block access to anyinformation, if someone wishes to seek outanother view on a topic it can be easily found bychanging a search term. The idea that havingnews personalized behind the scenes makesonline news less trustworthy is a weakproposition as the personalization constantlychanges along with the users unlike inflexiblenewspapers chasing particular demographics.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Newspapers offer a better reading experiencethan digital alternatives The experience ofreading from a newspaper is a far better userexperience than reading from a screen, readingfrom a screen for long periods of time is not onlybad for the eyes but quite often becomesuncomfortable. A newspaper however requiresnatural light to be read and therefore is not asharsh on the eyes. It could also be suggestedthat people actually prefer the tactile physicalexperience of a newspaper or book over holdingan electronic device, a poll taken on theGuardian 1 website found that 76.1% preferredbooks, i.e, a physical experience, over a digitalone. Video and audio-based advertisementsplaced online around the text can also disruptthe reading process, a problem, which does notafflict newspapers. 1 Guardian (2008) E-booksor Real Books? [online] [accessed 13th June2011]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The argument that internet news tends to offersmall passages of text compared to newspapersis to be liberal with the truth, due to the vastnature of the internet it offers a variety of stylesand is arguably more likely to provide longerpassages than newspapers as there is not spacerestriction as there is with newspapers which canonly be a certain size, due to advertisements andprinting agreements. With the ability to bothsearch for and easily share content via socialnetworks, the argument that newspapers arebetter as they prevent information overload feelsweak because there are many ways in whichcontent can be filtered to ensure that both thenews you actually want and the style andperspective you prefer can be easily accessed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-culture-mmchbnatp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Other types of media can produce equally, if notbetter, pieces of journalism than newspapers:it’s more just a matter of style. While many TVnews outlets do often strive for immediacy intheir coverage they also feature special reports,such as the BBC’s flagship Panorama program,which are much more detailed and can stand onan equal footing with newspaper journalism.There are many newspapers, such as tabloidswith little journalistic quality. So, the matter ofquality does not come down to the type ofmedium being used, as this only affects style, itcomes down to the person or people behind thegiven output.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is wrong that civil society should have reducedinfluence over the governance of the internetwith governments making all the key decisions.Many governments around the world are notdemocratic and so cannot be said to representtheir people while even those that aredemocratic are prone to advancing the interestsof minorities of their constituents as shown bytreaties and legislation such as SOPA and ACTA.Governments of all stripes whether authoritarianor democratic do not have a good record oftransparency; ICANN on the other hand does.[1] ICANN works on a \"bottom-up,consensus-driven, multi-stakeholder model\"meaning that ICANN is very inclusive bringingtogether governments, experts, privatecompanies and ngos, potentially even individualscan get involved and have their say. [2] [1]‘ICANN Accountability & Transparency’,Internet Corporation for Assigned Names andNumbers. [2] ‘About Us’, Internet Corporationfor Assigned Names and Numbers .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Governments not ‘civil society’ must be in controlof internet governance It is governments whoare in charge of setting public policy withincountries so it makes sense that these samegovernments should set public policy in theinternational sphere; [1] this is why internationalorganisations have been set up and why it isgovernments that are represented in them.Internet governance should also be the purviewof governments on account of the wide range ofissues it covers. These include who gets accessto the technical resources of the internet,intellectual property, participation in the onlineeconomy (which now has an immense impact onthe physical economy as well - just consider howthe financial markets around the world areinterconnected in part as a result of theinternet), freedom of expression, and securitywhich ultimately can affect national security andthe high politics if balance of power. [2] Privatecompanies and civil society will inevitably onlyrepresent a minority of opinions within these", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The United States is unlikely to give up controland no one can force it to do, the ITU itself hasaccepted that it could not do so, [1] so creatingCIRP would really be a pointless increase inbureaucracy. There is already governmentinvolvement in ICANN through the GovernmentalAdvisory Committee [2] so there is little need foranother body giving governments more controlover the internet. If the United States does notgive up control voluntarily then there is likely tobe added problems arising from conflictsbetween the ICANN and CIRP. [1] Kelion, Leo,‘US resists control of internet passing to UNagency’, BBC News, 3 August 2012. [2] ‘Aboutthe GAC’, ICANN GAC.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Internet governance must be multinational Theinternet is global, things on the internet do notjust affect one country, indeed they often don’tjust affect a small group of countries but affectevery country. This is especially true of issues ofinternet governance as setting the rules for theinternet and the architecture has to be for thewhole internet not isolated bits of it. The functionthat ICANN currently performs is one that shouldrightfully be done internationally in the interestsof all the nations. This is not the case at themoment as the United States has essentially hasa monopoly on internet governance. WhileICANN is an independent non-profit body it isunder contract from the U.S. department ofCommerce and is subject to U.S. laws. [1] TheUnited States already abuses its control over theinternet. It has become commonplace for theU.S. to seize domains, as it did with Bodog.com,regardless of where their domain name registrar,or the owner of the website, is based. It can dothis easily because the companies that have the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While the US government may have moreinfluence over ICANN than other governments itdoes not control ICANN. This lack of control isdemonstrated by the organisation being willingto do things that the United States is opposed to.For example ICANN the rolled out of the new toplevel domain names which both the UnitedStates and European Union were opposed to, andwas incidentally were supported by developingcountries. [1] [1] Mackinnon, Rebecca, ‘TheUnited Nations and the Internet: It’sComplicated’, Foreign Policy, 8 August 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Simplicity One of the best things about theproposal to create CIRP is that it simply bringsthe internet into line with other areas ofinternational communication and the globaleconomy by bringing the internet into the UnitedNations system. The InternationalTelecommunications Union (ITU) for example isthe body that allocates radio spectrums andsatellite orbits, in other words it does fortelecommunications what ICANN does for theinternet, and it is a United Nations agency. [1]The ITU has 193 countries as members but isalso open to the private sector and academia,just as CIRP would be. [2] Having internetgovernance working through the United Nationswould therefore mean using a tried and testedmethod of governance. [1] ‘About ITU’,International Telecommunication Union. [2]‘Membership’, International TelecommunicationUnion", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "ICANN has not been very supportive of growth inthe developing world, as is to be expected of abody that is dominated by rich worldgovernments and corporations. Sub-SaharanAfrica for example only has three accreditedregistrars that provision domain namescompared to the four that Denmark alone has.[1] Changing to CIRP would help rebalance thecontrol of the internet to the global south wherethe majority of future growth is bound to occur.Even if ICANN has been successful in managingthe growth of the internet as it spread throughthe developed world it is not in a good position tobe as successful in the future. Moreover as theinternet becomes more ubiquitous politics willinevitably intrude regardless of whether thosecontrolling the internet want it to or not.Creating new top level domain names isinherently political. Saudi Arabia for exampleobjected to a number of proposed domain namessuch as .gay, .bar, .islam, and .baby, [2] it isclear that in cases like this governments need to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "While this might be a valid argument if theUnited Nations Committee for Internet RelatedPolicies means handing over governance to anindividual state it is difficult to question thatcollectively through the United Nations systemstates have generally worked to improve citizensquality of life and human rights. CIRP will be justsuch a multilateral institution so will not be athreat to freedom on the internet. It is evensuggested that the mandate for the neworganisation include “the promotion andprotection of all human rights, namely, civil,political, social, economic and cultural rights,including the Right to Development”. Even thosewho don’t want governmental control accept thatthere is a need for some form of constitutionwith a bill of rights and some kind of board forreview [1] – thus showing that under ICANN theinternet is not governed in the interests of theusers. [1] ‘ A plaything of powerful nations’, TheEconomist, 1 October 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "CIRP would place power in the hands ofauthoritarian governments The intention for thecreation of CIRP is to give more power togovernments, and particularly to authoritariangovernments that wish much greater controlover the internet. If CIRP is meant to enable“enhanced cooperation to enable governments,on an equal footing, to carry out their roles andresponsibilities in international public policyissues pertaining to the Internet” [1] this mayresult in CIRP becoming an internationalorganisation that would impose censorship onthe internet. This is practically an inevitableresult as the main tool of government isregulation. In the case of the internet suchregulation will mean more controls on what userscan and cannot do online. The result is likely tobe similar to the U.N. Human Rights Councilwhere many of the world’s biggest human rightsabusers are regularly elected and Israel and theU.S. are constantly investigated while a blind eyeis turned to many abuses. [2] At the very least", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The status quo has been very successful; don’tfix something that is not broken. The currentsystem for control of the internet has beensuccessful in managing phenomenal growth inthe internet with very few problems. ICANN hasbeen a success precisely because it does notfocus on politics but on making the internet asefficient as possible, in contrast thetelecommunications sector remained static andcostly for a long time as a result of governmentinterference. [1] Experts such as Rajnesh Singhargue ICANN’s “multi-stakeholder approach hasproven to be nimble and effective in ensuring thestability, security, and availability of the globalinfrastructure, while still giving sovereign nationsthe flexibility to enact and enforce relevantInternet legislation within their borders… Thismodel has been a key contributor to thebreathtaking evolution and expansion of theInternet worldwide.” [2] It is this openness thathas contributed to the internet generating 10%of GDP growth in the rich world over the last", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The internet should be governed in the interestsof freedom The internet is used by everyone andso should be governed in such a way as reflectsthe desires of the users of the internet; and thisis somewhere where internet users are often atodds with their governments. Where the freedomof individuals are concerned it is undoubtedly thebottom up system of ICANN which will be lessrestrictive than the option of top down controlthrough an international organisation in whichgovernments have the lion’s share of the power.While governments are meant to be protectingthe interests of their people and their rights it israre that this is actually the case. More usually itis states that are violating the rights of theircitizens both online and offline as is shown bythe human rights records of countries like Iranand China. On the internet governmentinvolvement equally regularly means attemptsby states to create restrictions and prevent theinternet from being a place where citizens havefreedom of expression. This can even be the case", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fesngbunc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "CIRP would give some influence to authoritariangovernments; among 50 governmentsrepresented some are bound to be fromnon-democracies. This influence would howeverbe counterbalanced by the democracies that arerepresented. The United Nations have a goodtrack record of including as many as possiblethrough the tradition of making decisions byconsensus [1] which will prevent states thatmight wish to use CIRP in ways that other stateswould not agree with from succeeding. [1]Kurup, Deepa, ‘Who controls the World WideWeb’, The Hindu, 27 May 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Historical precedent does not apply to theinternet. It is very different to media reportingduring times of unrest; the internet is not just ameans of disseminating information but also formany people their main form of communication;the U.S. government has never tried to banpeople from using telephones. There are severedownsides to the censorship of informationduring times of war or civil unrest, the mostnotable one being that it is used to hide the realcost and consequences of war from thepopulation which is expected to support it.Conversely, in a world where every mobile phoneis now connected to a global network, people allaround the world can have access to anunparalleled amount of information from thefield. Curtailing such internet access is to theirdetriment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Historical precedent. Historically, governmentshave always controlled the access to informationand placed restriction on media during times ofwar. This is an entirely reasonable policy and isdone for a number of reasons: to sustain moraleand prevent predominantly negative stories fromthe battlefield reaching the general public, and tointercept propaganda from the enemy, whichmight endanger the war effort [1] . For example,both Bush administrations imposed mediablackouts during wartime over the return of thebodies of dead American soldiers at Dover airport[2] . The internet is simply a new medium oftransmitting information, and the same principlescan be applied to its regulation, especially whenthe threat to national security is imminent, like inthe case of disseminating information for theorganization of a violent protest. [1] Payne,Kenneth. 2005. “The Media as an Instrument ofWar”. Parameters, Spring 2005, pp. 81-93. [2]BBC, 2009. “US War Dead Media BlackoutLifted”.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Other means can be employed to ensure thesafety of the population without disruptingaccess to the internet, like deploying securityforces to make sure protests don’t get out ofhand or turn violent. In fact, being able tomonitor online activity through social media likeFacebook and Twitter might actually aid, ratherthan hinder law enforcement in ensuring thesafety of the public. London’s police force, theMetropolitan Police, in the wake of the riots hasare using software to monitor social media topredict where social disorder may take place.[1] [1] Adams, Lucy, 2012. “Police developtechnology to monitor social neworks”.Heraldscotland, 6 August 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "National security takes precedence. Internetaccess is not a fundamental right as recognizedby any major human rights convention, if it canbe called a right at all. [1] Even if we accept thatpeople should have a right to internet access, intimes of war or civil unrest the governmentshould be able to abridge lesser rights for thesake of something that is critical to the survivalof the state, like national security. After all, in awar zone few rights survive or can be upheld atall. Preventing such an outcome at the expenseof the temporary curtailment of some lesserrights is entirely justified. Under current law, inmost states, only the most fundamental ofrights, like the right to life, prohibition againsttorture, slavery, and the right to a fair trial areregarded as inalienable [2] . [1] For more seethe debatabase debate on internet access as ahuman right. [2] Article 15 of the EuropeanConvention on Human rights: “In time of war orother public emergency threatening the life ofthe nation any High Contracting Party may take", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "In July 2012, The United Nations Human RightsCouncil endorsed a resolution upholding theprinciple of freedom of expression andinformation on the internet. In a special report, italso “called upon all states to ensure thatInternet access is maintained at all times,including during times of political unrest” [1] .While access to the internet has not yet had timeto establish itself legally as a human right, thereare compelling reasons to change its legal status,and the UN is leading the charge. Even beforeinternet access is recognized as a human rightthe idea that national security should takeprecedence over ‘lesser rights’ is wrong; statesshould not survive at the expense of the rights oftheir citizens. States exist to protect theircitizens not harm them. [1] Kravets, David,2011. “UN Report Declares Internet Access aHuman Right”. Wired.com, 6 November 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The internet as a threat to public safety. Theinternet can be used as a tool to create animminent threat to the public. If public officialshad information that a massive protest is beingorganized, which could spiral into violence andendanger the safety of the public, it would beirresponsible for the government not to try toprevent such a protest. Governments areentrusted with protecting public safety andsecurity, and not preventing such a treat wouldconstitute a failure in the performance of theirduties [1] . An example of this happening wasthe use first of Facebook and twitter and then ofBlackberry messenger to organise and shareinformation on the riots in London in the summerof 2011. [2] [1] Wyatt, Edward, 2012. “FCCAsks for Guidance on Whether, and When to CutOff Cellphone Service.” New York Times, 2 March2012. [2] Halliday, Josh, 2011. “London riots:how BlackBerry Messenger played a key role”.Guardian.co.uk, 8 August 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Being able to witness atrocities from the field inreal time does not change the internationalcommunity’s capacity or political willingness tointervene in such situations. If anything, it hashad the unfortunate side effect of desensitizinginternational public opinion to the horrors of warand conflicts, like the one in Syria where therehave been thousands of videos showing theactions of the Syrian government but this hasnot resulted in action from the internationalcommunity. [1] The onslaught of gruesome,graphic imagery has made people more used towitnessing such scenes from afar and less likelyto be outraged and to ask their governments tointervene. [1] Harding, Luke, 2012. “Syria’svideo activists give revolution the upper hand inmedia war”. Guardian.co.uk, 1 August 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of expression, assembly, andinformation are important rights, but restrictionscan be placed on all of them if a greater good,like public safety, is at stake. For example, onecannot use her freedom of expression to inciteviolence towards others and many countriesregard hate speech as a crime. [1] Therefore, ifthe internet is being used for such abuses ofones rights, the disruption of service, even to alarge number of people, can be entirelywarranted. [1] Waldron, Jeremy, The Harm inHate Speech, Harvard University Press, 8 June2012, p.8.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Disrupting internet service is a form ofrepression. The organization of public protests isan invaluable right for citizens living under therule of oppressive regimes. Like in the case ofthe Arab Spring, internet access gives them thetools to mobilize, make their message heard, anddemand greater freedoms. In such cases, underthe guise of concern for public safety, thesegovernments disrupt internet service in anattempt to stamp out legitimate democraticprotests and stamp out the dissatisfied voices oftheir citizens [1] They are concerned not for thesafety of the public, but to preserve their owngrasp on power. A good example of this are theactions of the government of Myanmar when in2007 in response to large scale protests thegovernment cut internet access to the wholecountry in order to prevent reports of thegovernment’s crackdown getting out. [2]Establishing internet access as a fundamentalright at international level would make it clear tosuch governments that they cannot simply cut", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The prevention of atrocities during war andunrest. In the past, horrific crimes could becommitted in war zones without anyone everknowing about it, or with news of it reaching theinternational community with a significant timelag, when it was too late to intervene. But withthe presence of internet connected mobiledevices everywhere, capable of uploading livefootage within seconds of an event occurring, theentire world can monitor and find out what ishappening on the scene, in real time. It letsrepressive regimes know the entire world iswatching them, that they cannot simplymassacre their people with impunity, and itcreates evidence for potential prosecutions ifthey do. It, therefore, puts pressure on them torespect the rights of their citizens during suchprecarious times. To prevent governments fromviolently stamping out public political dissentwithout evidence, internet access must bepreserved, especially in times of war or politicalunrest. [1] [1] Bildt, Carl, 2012. “A Victory for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The right to internet access as a fundamentalright. Internet access is a “facilitative right”, inthat it facilitates access to the exercise of manyother rights: like freedom of expression,information, and assembly. It is a “gatewayright”. Possessing a right is only as valuable asyour capacity to exercise it. A governmentcannot claim to protect freedom of speech orexpression, and freedom of information, if it istaking away from its citizens the tools to accessthem. And that is exactly what the disruption ofinternet service does. Internet access needs tobe a protected right so that all other rights whichflow from it. [1] The Internet is a tool ofcommunication so it is important not just toindividuals but also to communities. The internetbecomes an outlet that can help to preservegroups’ culture or language [2] and so as anenabler of this groups’ culture access to theinternet may also be seen as a group right – onewhich would be being infringed when the statecuts off access to large numbers of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gtdfais-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Democratic change can come about in a varietyof ways. Violent public protests are only onesuch way, and probably the least desirable one.And now, with access to social media nearlyuniversally available, such protests can beorganized faster, on a larger, more dangerousscale than ever before. It encourages oppositionmovements and leaders in such countries to turnaway from incremental, but peaceful changesthrough political negotiations, and to appeal tomass protests instead, thus endangering the lifeor their supporters and that of the generalpublic. Governments that respond to violence bycutting off access are not responding withrepression but simply trying to reduce theviolence. Cutting internet access is a peacefulmeans of preventing organized violence thatpotentially saves lives by preventingconfrontation between violent groups and riotpolice.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Any country’s first duty is to its own citizens, andthis includes countries that promote humanrights and freedom abroad. It is difficult to seewhy pronouncements by a country shouldmorally oblige it to act in a particular way.Rhetoric and high minded pronouncements arethe bread and butter of politics, as is not livingup to that rhetoric. These countries may act inresponse to the desire of their own people to actbut this is then done not out of a duty to those inother country but to the electorate of their own.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Western democracies have a moral duty to aidthe liberation of oppressed people where it caneffectively do so Western democracies makefrequent declarations about the universality ofcertain rights, such as freedom of speech, orfrom arbitrary arrest, and that their system ofgovernment is the one that broadly speakingoffers the most freedom for human developmentand respect for individuals. They make avowalsin the United Nations and other organizationstoward the improvement of rights in othercountries and the need for reforms. Take forexample Obama addressing the UN Generalassembly in 2012 where he said “we believe thatfreedom and self-determination are not uniqueto one culture. These are not simply Americanvalues or Western values; they are universalvalues.” [1] By subverting internet censorship inthese countries, Western countries take anaction that is by and large not hugely costly tothem while providing a major platform for thesecuring of the basic human rights, particularly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "As with all messages this will not make a “clearand emphatic statement about free speech”rather it will be a message that is muddied byhypocrisy. Autocratic ‘repressive’ regimes are notthe only states to enable some form ofcensorship on the internet. Britain has a blacklistthat is not even run by the government but leftto a charity called the Internet WatchFoundation, [1] Iceland is considering banninginternet pornography, [2] and western Europeancountries have bans on holocaust denial whichapply online as well as offline. [3] The messageis then anything but clear. States on thereceiving end of such action will rightly accusetheir antagonists of the hypocrisy of wanting tocontrol their own internet while not allowingother that they deem to be ‘less free’ to do thesame. As a result the statement is if anythingone of aggression that may cause retrenchmentor even a dangerous reaction. [1] Davies, C.J.,‘The hidden censors of the internet’, WIRED, 20May 2009, [2] Associated Press, ‘Iceland seeks", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Repressive governments rely on internetcensorship to stifle dissent and entrench theirpower The internet has become the ultimateplatform for dissent within repressive regimes. Itbreaks the government monopoly on informationand communication. As the technologygovernments have to keep control of their peopleincreases, with access to high-tech surveillancetechnology, CCTV, wiretaps, etc., the internethas become the only means of people to expresstheir anger and to organize that is not entirelyunder state control. The Jasmine Revolution inTunisia wherein people mobilized to overthrowtheir dictator, Ben Ali, involved numerousinternet tools to share information andcoordinate their efforts. [1] Yet in manycountries the internet too is highly censored,with security services investigating onlineposters and bringing them in for their version ofjustice, denying access to parts of the internetthrough state censors, and even orderinginternet service providers to abide by strict", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Internet censorship is a problem, but it is hardlythe biggest one facing people in these countries.Internet access is often limited to only the moreaffluent segments of most poor countries, and itis thus not the best mode of building grass rootsmovement for reform. This means it is often noteven the best platform for dissent, it is notablethat the ‘twitter revolution’ may have had someof the organisation through the internet but itwas action on the ground through protests thatoverthrew Ben Ali. [1] At best Westernintervention in this case would simply promptoppressive regimes to utilize more conventional,often more violent methods of quellingdissent. [1] Ash, Timothy Garton, ‘Tunisia’srevolution isn’t a product of Twitter or WikiLeaks.But they do help’, The Guardian, 19 January2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "This would make a powerful statement in favourof freedom of expression and againstrepression Western governments pursuing thispolicy serve to make a clear and emphaticstatement about free speech in an arena it hassignificant power to influence. By taking thisaction it makes it clear to repressive regimesthat their efforts to stifle all dissent will not betolerated by the international community. [1]The power of regimes to enact their agendasoften comes from Western unwillingness to puttheir money where their mouth is. By fundinginternet freedom Western countries do this, andin a way that is unambiguously positive in itsadvocacy of freedom of speech, and that cannotbe imputed with alternative agendas by critics.Even repressive states usually claim officially tovalue freedom of speech, the People’s Republicof China for example in article 35 of itsconstitution states “Citizens of the People'sRepublic of China enjoy freedom of speech, ofthe press, of assembly, of association, of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Western companies must be governed by codesof ethics. These should not merely stop at theborder of their home state. If they are to beethical actors they must uphold the freedomsthey claim to value. If this means not being ableto profit massively in markets so be it. Westerngovernments should have little sympathy forfirms profiting from and aiding in the oppressionof peoples.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Appeasement does not work to increase internetfreedom. This has been shown time and timeagain with China. China has slowly beenbecoming more and more accepted into theinternational system; it gained Security Councilmembership in 1971, joined the WTO in 2000,and held the Olympics in 2008 to celebrate itsnew role on the world stage. Yet this has notmeant they have relaxed internet censorship, farfrom it, it simply becomes more refined anddifficult to detect. [1] Even China’s version oftwitter is very fast at censoring posts, despitethere being 70,000 messages per minute, almosta third of deletions are completed within 30minutes. [2] Engagement simply shows thatthere is no cost to repressive regimes if theycontinue as they have been. It is thereforeenabling them to continue their repression. [1]Roberts, Eric, ‘Where Censorship in China isHeaded’, International Trends concerningFreedom of Information on the ElectronicCommons, 2008, [2] Mozur, Paul, ‘Just How", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Circumvention of internet censorship willgalvanize more severe, physical repression tocompensate its need for security Oppressiveregimes will not be any less oppressive justbecause Western states seek to undermine theirability to censor the internet. They still rely onfear and force to control and cow the populationinto submission, and have honed many means ofdoing so. Technology has aided in doing this,including things like advanced surveillanceequipment. But they have always relied heavilyon, and have their greatest expertise in, physicalrepression and the strength of the securityservices. Even if dissidents are able to access theinternet more effectively, the security serviceswill feel it all the more necessary to crack downby more conventional, far less sightly means. Atthe same time as cutting off the internet inBurma the authorities were engaged in brutalarrests in a crackdown that killed severalhundred dissidents, it was this that was moreimportant. [1] Western governments do very", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-con03a", "title": "", "text": "It results in Western companies getting kickedout of the countries, damaging significantWestern businesses Western businesses havebeen seeking entry into external markets, someof which could well be classified as oppressive.These firms have invested significant time,money, and manpower into building up theirbusinesses. By enforcing this policy they will facehuge challenges in growth, and even maintainingtheir place in these countries at all. Internetservice providers and other technology firms inparticular will suffer. Google and Yahoo haveclaimed that their efforts in these countries,much like those of Western governments, havehelped soften regimes, much more than notengaging at all at least. [1] As Westerncompanies face more and more competition ininternational markets they, and the Westerneconomies of which they are a part, cannotafford to undermine themselves for the sake ofmaking a political statement, one that wouldultimately not necessarily serve to further the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-con01a", "title": "", "text": "This policy alienates the oppressive regimes andstifles the change that discourse and positiveinteraction can bring When a repressivegovernment sees its power directly attacked byWestern democracies, and sees them activelytrying to subvert their power by empoweringdissidents they consider unlawful criminals, it willnaturally react badly. These states will be lesswilling to engage with the West when it playssuch an open hand that effectively declares theirgovernment, or at least its policies, illegitimate.The most effective way for Western countries toeffect change is to engage with repressiveregimes and to encourage them to reform theirsystems. By not directly antagonizing, butinstead trading, talking, and generally buildingties with countries, Western states can put to fulluse their massive economic power and politicalcapital to use in nudging regimes toward reform.[1] Burma (Myanmar) faced sanctions fordecades yet it was not western policies aimed atattacking the Burmese state that brought change", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehbwdsot-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There is only so much that governments can doto oppress their people. Even if this policy didembolden repressive states to ramp up theirother means of control, the genie of the internetwould be out of the bottle. Without it, dissidentgroups would find it impossible to eversuccessfully organize and rebel. It is not atrade-off of one form of oppression for another,but is rather a recognition that Western countriesmust accept that oppressive regimes will takenasty decisions in reprisal in the short term,while being unable to maintain their firm grip onthe public once it is armed with the informationand organizational power the internet provides.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Tax avoidance is not illegal, and it should not betreated as if it were by the prying media andwould-be class-warriors. Even if one might thinkit unpleasant to look for loopholes to protectprivate wealth, it is really only natural for peopleto wish to pay no more than they have to in tax.Mitt Romney was simply using the skills thatallowed him to be a great business success tokeep his costs as low as possible. Trying to makea political issue out of these sorts of dealingsonly serves to obscure from the real policyissues, and to focus the debate on divisive andunhelpful issues of class war.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Financial dealings can indicate candidates’willingness to circumvent the system/play by therules A lot of politicians come from positions ofprestige and power before seeking public office.Many politicians have wealth in their own right,or a base of wealthy supporters. Understandingwhere that wealth came from and how they usedtheir privileged position is very important tocitizens when choosing their leaders. Access tocandidates’ financial information allows goodcandidates to show their honesty and financialuprightness, and sometimes even to display theirtalent and acumen that allowed them to succeed.More importantly, it allows people to scrutinizethe dealings of politicians who used their oftenprivileged position to avoid paying high taxesand to shield their wealth from the public takingits legal due. What these insights provide is avaluable snapshot of what candidates are willingto do to promote their own interests versusthose of the state and society. It shows if there isa propensity to engage in morally dubious", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Personal finances mean little when it comes tofinancial policy. Trying to glean any sort offinancial acumen on the macro scale from privatedealings is extremely misguided. Successfulbusiness leaders often make poor politicalleaders, as the world of business is very differentfrom the horse-trading of politics. [1] In terms ofleading others as one leads one’s own life, thereis no reason to assume that a candidate who hasused the system to his or her advantage woulduse the additional power of office to enrichthemselves or their friends further. Mitt Romneywas an effective governor of Massachusetts, andwas willing to increase taxes that werepersonally costly to him. [1] Jenkins, H. “GoodBusinessman, Bad President?”. Wall StreetJournal. 23 October 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Voters have a right to know the background oftheir would-be representatives, includingfinancial background In any society, no matterhow liberal, rights of every kind have limitations.Rights are general statements of principles thatare then caveated and curtailed to fit the publicinterest across a range of circumstances. Whenan individual seeks elevation to public office, heor she must accept that the role they areapplying for requires extra transparency. As therepresentative of the people, the politician ismore than just the holder of a job appointed bythe people, but is the elected servant, whoseduty is to lead, including by example. It is astrange relationship, and it is one that demandsthe utmost confidence in the holder. This politicalpower will often involve power over the publicpurse so it is essential for the public to know ifthe candidate is financially honest and not goingto use his election for corrupt purposes. [1]Thus, when citizens place their political power inthe hands of an elected representative, they gain", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "So long as politicians do their duty byrepresenting the interests of those that electedthem, they are fulfilling their end of the covenantwith the people. To demand the financial recordsof candidates will not offer more than crudesnapshot of one aspect of their lives, not givingthe desired insight into their character, whilemassively intruding on the politician’s personallife. As is often the case here the right to knowconflicts with the candidates right to privacy. Ofcourse it is right to know if a candidate pays histaxes, but do they need to know every expensehe has incurred over the last few years or howmuch a candidate earned years ago?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "This information offers valuable texture to thefinancial proposals candidates offer as potentialpolicy When candidates make proposals forpublic spending they often seek to use their ownfinancial stories as evidence of their credibility.Without public knowledge of their actual financialrecord, besides what can be gleaned fromsecondary sources and their words, these claimscannot be evaluated fully by the voting public.Publishing their financial records allows thecitizens to get a genuine grasp of their–would-be representatives abilities. Moreimportantly, the proposals of candidates can bescrutinized in relation to how the candidate, andthose of the same financial stratum as thecandidate, would benefit from them. When MittRomney proposed new tax and spending reformsin the last US presidential election, it was clearthat his policies inordinately favored the rich andincreased the tax burden of the middle class. [1]Understanding Romney’s personal position ofgreat wealth served confirm to the public their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While elections should of course focus a greatdeal of attention on policy, it is also critical thatvoters understand who exactly it is they arevoting for. That means looking beyond themanifesto and getting an understanding of thecandidate’s character and private dealings.Having access to their private financial recordscan go a long way toward revealing thisinformation, as they provide valuable insight intoboth the candidate’s financial abilities, and his orher attitude toward the state.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Privacy is a right but it is not sacrosanct, andcertainly should not be for people who serve thepublic. Freedom of speech is considered sacredin a free society, but anyone reasonable wouldagree that shouting “Fire!” in a crowded theatreis not given such protection, showing that eventhe most treasured rights are curtailed in thepublic interest. Both the special position ofpoliticians as the effective embodiment of thepeople’s will, and the special power they wield,which is far vaster than that of any privateagent, demands a higher level of scrutiny intotheir backgrounds, which means looking intotheir financial records, which can divulge muchabout their competence and character.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Fixating on candidates’ financial records fuels thefire of class war More and more the financialdealings of candidates are used against them inpolitics. In past decades, politicians in manycountries were proud to run on the basis of theirsuccesses in the private sector. Today, however,that success has often become a liability. Oneonly need look at the paradigmatic example ofthis occurrence, Mitt Romney. When running forgovernor in Massachusetts, his strong record inbusiness was touted as a quality favoring him.Yet in the presidential election, Romney’s wealthwas touted as an example of capitalist excess, ofoften ill-gotten gains. [1] The change in rhetorichas indicated marked shift in politics in a numberof countries, most visibly the United States, butalso places like France, where the developmentof wealth and success are deemed to be themarks of greed and unfairness. These trendswould only be compounded with the release ofcandidates’ financial records. People with recordsof wealth and financial ability will be further", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The focus of elections should be on policy, notpersonal issues like financial records Discussionof candidates’ personal finances serves only toobscure the real issues facing society. When thefocus becomes on how much tax Candidate Xpaid and what loopholes he or she exploited, themedia tends to latch onto it. It sells morenewspapers and gets more hits online to make asalacious story about the financial “misdeeds” ofa candidate than to actually discuss what he orshe stands for. It fuels the growing tendency ofthe media to attach itself to petty commentaryrather than real investigation and analysis.Ultimately, an examination of the personalfinances of a candidate tells voters little aboutwhat he or she stands for on the issue of statefinances. Throughout history, personal financialsuccess has been shown to not necessarilycorrelate with political acumen. For example,William Pitt became the young, and one of thelongest-serving Prime Ministers of the UnitedKingdom, yet he was in extreme debt when he", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Individuals have a right to privacy, including totheir own financial records Privacy is afundamental human right, one that should bedefended for all citizens, including those whogovern us. [1] What people do with their ownfinances is their own business. People generallyspeaking have a basic respect for privacy.Politicians don’t owe the electorate any specialprivileges like their financial history. A politicianis effectively an employee of his constituents andthe citizens of the polity. His or her duty is not sospecial as to demand the handing over of allinformation on one of the most critical aspects oftheir private life. Financial affairs like income andtaxes are a private matter, and should be treatedas such by voters and governments. This is evenmore the case when it comes to financial history,much of which may have happened long beforethe individual decided to become a politician.Making politicians’ financial affairs fair game forreporters and others who would exploit theinformation only serves to undermine the rights", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthwpffha-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, personal wealth may not be indicative ofpolitical belief. Wealthy people can be advocatesfor higher taxes and workers’ rights. Secondly,maybe creating class awareness is not such abad thing. The revelation of candidates’ personalfinances will help show average voters what theirleaders are actually like, that they have acquiredgreat wealth and seek to protect it.Consciousness about these things can only helpto galvanize political participation and to stokereal discourse about things like the properdistribution of wealth, issues that often fall foulof the political mainstream of party politics.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Certainly parents should help their children tomake most of their time with the computer andtheir phone. However, monitoring children inorder to do so is lazy, or more precisely a form of‘remote-control parenting’. Parents abuse oftheir children’s inherent right to privacy and feelthat they have satisfactorily fulfilled theirparental role when instead they are just lazy andunwilling to talk to their child personally aboutbeing a responsible netizen. [1] How are childrento develop a healthy relationship to sharinginformation and privacy protection if they areconstantly being surveilled by their own parents?More effective parents would instead choose topersonally and positively teach their childrenabout time management. [1] Shmueli,Benjamin, and Ayelet Blecher-Prigat. “Privacy forChildren.” Columbia Human Rights Review. Rev.759 (2010-2011): 760-795. Columbia LawSchool. Web. May 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Monitoring allows parents to correct children whoare wasting their time. Parents also need tomonitor their children to ensure that they areproperly using the time they have with thecomputer and the mobile phone. According tothe Kaiser Family Foundation 40% of 8- to18-year olds spend 54 minutes a day on socialmedia sites.[1] and that “when alerted to a newsocial networking site activity, like a new tweetor Facebook message, users take 20 to 25minutes on average to return to the originaltask” resulting to 20% lower grades. [2] Thus,parents must constantly monitor the digitalactivities of their children and see whether theyhave been maximizing the technology at theirdisposal in terms of researching for theirhomework, connecting with good friends andrelatives, and many more. [1] Foehr, Ulla G.,Rideout, Victoria J., and Roberts, Donald F.,“Generation M2 Media in the Lives of 8- to18-Year-Olds”, The Kaiser Family Foundation,January 2010, p.21 [2] Gasser, Urs, and Palfrey,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Indeed it is important to consider that childrendo not receive or send sexually disturbing media.However, as proposition has already statedparents are much less likely to be digitally savvythan their children. Should they wish to learnchildren are likely to be able to penetrate anyelaborate digital monitoring set by a parent. As itis, Defcon, one of the world’s largest hackerconventions, is already training 8- to 16-yearolds to hack in a controlled environment. [1]That pornography is so widely available and sodesirable is the product of a culture the glorifiessexuality and erotic human interaction. Theeffects on childrens well-being are by no meansclear, indeed it can be argued that much of whatparents are no able to communicate to theirchildren in the way of sexual education iscommunicated to them through Internetpornography. While this brings with it all mannerof problems, aside from the outrage of theirparents there is little scientific data to suggestthat mere exposure to pornography is causing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Monitoring prevents cyberbullying. Socialapproval is especially craved by teens becausethey are beginning to shift focus from family topeers. [1] Unfortunately, some teens may resortto cyberbullying others in order to gainerroneous respect from others and eliminatecompetitors in order to establish superficialfriendships. Over the last few years a number ofcyberbullying cases have caused the tragicsuicides of Tyler Clementi (2010), Megan Meierwho was bullied online by a non-existent JoshEvans whom she had feelings for (2006), andRyan Halligan (2003) among others. [2]Responsible parents need to be one step aheadbecause at these relevant stages, cognitiveabilities are advancing, but morals are laggingbehind, meaning children are morallyunequipped in making informed decisions incyberspace. [1] One important way to make thisguidance more effective would be if parentschose to monitor their children’s digital behaviorby acquiring their passwords and paying close", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While cyberbullying is indeed a danger tochildren, it is not an excuse to invade theirpersonal life-worlds. The UNCRC clearly statesthat “(1) No child shall be subjected to arbitraryor unlawful interference with his or her privacy,family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawfulattacks on his or her honour and reputation,”and that, “(2) The child has the right to theprotection of the law against such interference orattack.” These ‘interferences’ or ‘attacks’ notonly apply to third parties but to parents as well.[1] Moreover in less traditional ‘offline’ spaceschildren have far greater ability to choose whichinformation they share with their parents andwhat they do not. As online spaces are notinherently more dangerous than those offline, itseems reasonable to suggest that similarlimitations and restrictions on invasions ofprivacy that apply online should also applyoffline. What a parent can do is to be there fortheir children and talk to them and supportthem. They should also spend time surfing the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "While it is certainly beneficial for parents toimmerse themselves in the digital world, it maynot be good for them to be partially andinformally educated by simple monitoring.Especially for parents who are not alreadyfamiliar with the internet, monitoring may simplycondition them to a culture of cyberstalking andbeing excessively in control of the digitalbehavior of their children. As it is, a number ofchildren have abandoned Facebook because theyfeel that their parents are cyberstalking them.[1] Besides, there are other ways of educatingoneself regarding ICT which includecomprehensive online and video tutorials andlibrary books that may cater to an unfamiliarparent’s questions about the digital world. [1]“Kids Are Abandoning Facebook To Flee TheirCyber-Stalking Parents.” 2 Oceans Vibe News. 2Oceans Vibe Media. 11 Mar 2013. Web. May2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Monitoring decreases children’s involvement withpornography. A 2005 study by the LondonSchool of Economics found that “while 57 percent of the over-nines had seen porn online, only16 per cent of parents knew.” [1] That number isalmost certain to have increased. In additionsexting has also become prevalent as researchfrom the UK suggests “over a third (38%) [of]under 18’s have received an offensive ordistressing sexual image via text or email.” [2]This is dangerous because this digital realityextends to the real world. [3] W.L. Marshall saysthat early exposure to pornography may incitechildren to act out sexually against other childrenand may shape their sexual attitudes negatively,manifesting as insensitivity towards women andundervaluing monogamy. Only with monitoringcan parents have absolute certainy of what theirchildren are doing on the Internet. It may notallow them to prevent children from viewingpornography completely, but regulating thedigital use of their children in such a way does", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Monitoring raises digital awareness amongparents. Parents who are willing to monitor theirchildren’s digital communications also benefitthemselves. By setting up the necessarysoftware and apps to secure their children’sonline growth, parents familiarize themselveswith basic digital skills and keep up with thelatest in social media. As it stands there is aneed to raise digital awareness among mostparents. Sonia Livingston and Magdalena Boberin their extensive survey of the cyber experienceof UK children and their parents report that“among parents only 1 in 3 know how to set upan email account, and only a fifth or fewer areable to set up a filter, remove a virus, downloadmusic or fix a problem.” [1] Parents becomingmore digitally involved as a result of theirchildren provides the added benefit of increasingthe number of mature netizens so encouragingnorms of good behavior online. [1] Livingstone,Sonia, and Magdalena Bober. “UK Children GoOnline: Surveying the experiences of young", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While it is practical to use these parentalcontrols, it is not always realistic to set suchlimited parameters to the digital freedom ofchildren. Children need to understand that theyhave the capacity to breach their parents’ trust.[1] This not only allows a child to understandhow to interact sensibly with the internet, but toexperience taking an initiative to actually obeyparents in surfing only safe sites. Selectivelyrestricting a child’s digital freedom does not helpin this case. Thus, monitoring is the only way forchildren to experience digital freedom in such away that they too are both closely guided andfree to do as they wish. Moreover, this is alsoself-contradictory because opposition claimedthat children are capable of circumvention whichchildren would be much more likely to do whenblocked from accessing websites than simplymonitored. [1] Shmueli, Benjamin, and AyeletBlecher-Prigat. “Privacy for Children.” ColumbiaHuman Rights Review. Rev. 759 (2010-2011):760-795. Columbia Law School. Web. May 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The individual right to privacy must certainlyencompass the digital realm as proposition says.It is also undeniable that individual privacyenhances individuality and independence.However, this privacy can and should beregulated lest parents leave children ‘abandoned’to their rights. [1] “One cannot compare readinga child’s journal to accessing his or herconversations online or through text messages,”says Betsy Landers, the president of the NationalParent-Teacher Association of the US andexplains, “It’s simply modern involvement.” [2]Thus, Hillary Clinton argues, “children should begranted rights, but in a stage-by-stage mannerthat accords with and pays attention to theirphysical and mental development andcapacities.” [1] Applying this principle, childrenshould be given digital privacy to an equitableextent and regulated whereby both conditionsdepend upon the maturity of the child. [1]Shmueli, Benjamin, and Ayelet Blecher-Prigat.“Privacy for Children.” Columbia Human Rights", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Monitoring is lazy parenting. The propositionsubstitutes the good, old-fashioned way ofteaching children how to be responsible, withinvasions of their privacy, so violating aninherent rights [1]. Such parenting is calledremote-control parenting. Parents who monitortheir children’s digital behavior feel that theysatisfactorily fulfil their parental role when in factthey are being lazy and uninvolved in the growthof their child. Children, especially the youngest,are “dependent upon their parents and requirean intense and intimate relationship with theirparents to satisfy their physical and emotionalneeds.” This is called a psychological attachmenttheory. Responsible parents would instead spendmore time with their children teaching themabout information management, when to andwhen not to disclose information, and interactionmanagement, when to and when not to interactwith others. [2] That parents have the ability totrack their children is true, but doing so is notnecessarily likely to make them better adults [3].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Monitoring is a hindrance to formingrelationships both outside and inside thefamily. If children are being monitored, or if itseems to children that they are being monitored,they would immediately lose trust in theirparents. As trust is reciprocal, children will alsolearn not to trust others. This will result in theirdifficulty in forging human connections, therebystraining their psychosocial growth. For them tolearn how to trust therefore, children must knowthat they can break their parents’ trust (as saidby the proposition before). This will allow themto understand, obey, and respect their parentson their own initiative, allowing them to respectothers in the same manner as well. [1] Thisgrowth would only be possible if parents refusethis proposition and instead choose to educatetheir children how to be responsiblebeforehand. [1] Shmueli, Benjamin, and AyeletBlecher-Prigat. “Privacy for Children.” ColumbiaHuman Rights Review. Rev. 759 (2010-2011):760-795. Columbia Law School. Web. May 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Other parental controls are more practical andreasonable to administer. Monitoring would beextremely tedious and time-consuming. Manyteens send over 100 texts a day, it would clearlybe very time consuming to read them all alongwith all other digital communication.[1] Bycontrast content filtering, contact management,and privacy protection parental controls, whichcan be used to block all incoming and outgoinginformation, require only minimal supervision.Parents who meanwhile deem their childrenimmature when it comes to social networkingand gaming can instead impose user restrictionson the relevant websites and devices. [2]Administering these alternative parental controlsleave for more quality time with children. In thiscase, only when children acquire sufficient digitalmaturity and responsibility can these controls belifted. As they have learnt to be mature in thedigital environment the children would mostlikely continue to surf safely even when theparental controls are lifted. [1] Goldberg,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con01a", "title": "", "text": "This proposal is simply an invasion ofprivacy. Children have as much right to privacyas any adult. Unfortunately there is yet to be aprovision on the protection of privacy in eitherthe United States Constitution or the Bill ofRights, though the Supreme Court states thatthe concept of privacy rooted within theframework of the Constitution. [1] Thisambiguity causes confusion among parentsregarding the concept of child privacy. Manymaintain that privacy should be administered toa child as a privilege, not a right. [2] Fortunately,the UNCRC clearly states that “No child shall besubjected to arbitrary or unlawful interferencewith his or her privacy, family, home orcorrespondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his orher honour and reputation,” [3] making childprivacy an automatic right. Just as childrenshould receive privacy in the real world, so tooshould they in the digital world. Individual rights,including right to privacy, shape intrafamilialrelationships because they initiate individuality", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is true that trust is a cornerstone ofrelationships. Admittedly, the act of monitoringmay initially stimulate feelings of distrust whichare particularly destructive in relationships. Butnonetheless, trust is earned, not granted. Theonly proactive way to gauge how much trust andresponsibility to give a child in the digital world ismonitoring. By monitoring a child, parents cometo assess the initial capability of the child indigital responsibility and ultimately the level oftrust and the level of responsibility he or shedeserves and to be assigned subsequently.Ideally, the initial level of monitoring andfollow-through should be maximum in order tomake clear to the child that he is being guided.Only when a child proves himself and grows indigital maturity can monitoring andfollow-through be gradually minimized and finallylifted. [1] [1] Bodenhamer, Gregory. Parents inControl. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995Inc. Web. May 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-sfydfphwap-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Opposition claims that monitoring is ‘laziness’.Admittedly, monitoring makes digital parentingmore efficient and comprehensive. But, suchtechnology makes parenting practical, not ‘lazy’.As it is, many people blame technology for theirown shortcomings. [1] Thus, parents need toknow that monitoring will not do all the work forthem. It is not lazy to monitor your children, it isclearly essential that children are monitoredwhen involved in activities such as sports. Theinternet is a dangerous environment just as thesports field is and should have similar adultsupervision. [1] Bradley, Tony. “BlamingTechnology for Human Error: Trying To Fix SocialProblems With Technical Tools.” About. About.30 Mar 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "These arrangements are so onerous that theywill serve as a very real disincentive touniversities taking public funding. Universitiesare rational in their decision-making, and theywill be less likely to approve or participate inresearch projects that end up being of no longterm benefit to them. The profit motive, even inthe vaunted halls of academia, should besomething to harnessed, not fought against.Furthermore, much public funding is used for thepurpose of funding teaching hours anyway, andnot into profitable research pursuits, which tendto be more amenable to other investors. Thestate’s role should only to be fund research whenthe private sector won’t, otherwise its fundingshould be ensuring the education of the country’scitizens.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Research produced with public funding is tooimportant to be left in the hands of universitiesalone The creators and producers of novel work,literary, scientific, other research, etc. enjoylarge and sweeping protections due to theintellectual property rights enshrined in law in alldeveloped countries. These laws restrict publicuse of these researches, which can only occurwith the express permission of the owners ofthese works. But the research that is deemedworthy of state funding must pass a test ofimportance, and must be of enough socialsignificance to make it worth doling out limitedresearch and development money. Universities,as the important and vibrant centres of learningand research in the world, are a critical part ofstates’ efforts to remain relevant and competitivein a world of rapid technological change. Statesfund many universities, in much of Europeaccounting for the vast majority of universityfunding as a whole, across the EU almost 85% offunding is from public sources, [1] and they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Universities that could build valuabletechnologies and explore new avenues ofacademic research and development are facedwith a disincentive to accept public funding, andto pursue unprofitable research that might bedependent on state support. Universities are acritical part of a nation’s research infrastructure,and by harnessing the profit motives of thoseinstitutions, not spurning them, it can use itsmoney to most effectively promote broaderdevelopment. It should be remembered thatprofits made by universities will simply beploughed back into education and more research,which is all to the benefit of society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Academic work produced by means of publicfunds belongs to the public Everyone benefitsfrom the public spreading of knowledge andinformation. Universities are central loci of thepursuit of knowledge and exploration of science,technology, history, the arts, and all many andvaried forms of intellectual enquiry. When thestate opts to fund research and development inthe university setting, it becomes a part-ownerof the ideas and creation that springs forth fromthat funding, just as it belongs to the researcherswho directly produce it. State funding is given touniversities not simply to further the bounds ofhuman discovery for its own sake, but so thatthose boundaries can be pushed for the benefitof the citizens of the polity. This is because thestate is fundamentally a servant of the people,using the people’s money to further the society’saims, such as better health and a moreproductive workforce. Ultimately the purpose ofthe state in all its functions is to provide safetyand services so that people can all avail of what", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "As an investor in university research, the statemay claim some ownership over the revenuesthat might arise from that research. But that isnot the same as an entitlement to strip allownership from the originators of the researchand throwing it wholesale into the public arena.That is an overbalancing in the extreme thatreduces universities ability to benefit from theirresearches and efforts.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The opening up of information to the publicencourages further research anddevelopment By making publicly fundedacademic work freely available to society, thestate throws open the door to far more long termprogress and invention that has been so longshut by the jealous hoarding of information andresearch. The arenas of science, literature,critical theory, and all other fields of academicpursuit, benefit most from a proliferation ofvoices and opinions, this is why the peer reviewsystem exists. This is much as howcrowdsourcing and openness helps with softwaredevelopment, there are more eyeballs to spotmistakes, as a result research, particularly oflarge data capture projects is increasingly beingcrowdsourced itself. [1] By expanding the rangeof people able to utilize the informationproduced, more new and interesting things canbe developed from it. The state funds importantwork, work that might never be able to attractprivate investment but is still important to the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The expansion of knowledge that throwing allinformation generated in universities withstate-funded research into the public domainwould precipitate a vastly more influential effecton the process of research and development. Farfrom stifling innovation, more people would beable to examine and build upon research,magnifying the value of the initial work. What islost from the disincentives of some institutionsfrom taking public funding will be more thanmade up for by the vast knowledge base of thewhole of society that now has the ability togenerate derivative works for everyone’s furtherbenefit.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Publicly funded research is not the sole propertyof researchers, indeed Universities demand tokeep the rights not the individual researchers sothe individual inventor or researcher is notbenefiting at all from any profits. [1] When thestate chooses to fund an area of academic workit is doing so for the benefit for all of society, notjust for the profit of a single researcher, group,or university organisation. The only way for thestate to fully do its duty in providing for itscitizens is for it to demand that the products ofits funding be made available to the public whopay for its development. [1] Anon. (28 July2005) “Guidelines on the Ownership of DataUniversity of Louisville”, University of Lousiville.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "It reduces the ability of universities to beself-sufficient and to fund other less potentiallyprofitable pursuits Universities often use therevenues from their more profitable researchesto fund the less financially valuable intellectualfields. This often takes the forms of patentrevenues from science and engineeringdepartments going to pay for philosophy andEnglish departments. While there is always achance a new development in polymers orchemicals will generate some future profit, this israrely the case for experts in medieval history.Yet universities, as the centres of learning andknowledge in society, value all avenues ofacademic exploration. State funding tends to gotoward the development of new technology andother “hard” disciplines, as they can be explainedto voters as valuable investments in society’sfuture. It is easy for them to sell investment inengineering projects. It is much harder for apolitician to explain the need for funding a studyin 19th century feminist critical theory. The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The disincentive to take public funding will stifleadvancement in valuable fields that rely on theuniversity infrastructure Research anddevelopment relies on the profit motive to spur iton, even in the hallowed halls of academia.Without the guarantee of ownership over theproducts of state-funded research the desire toengage in such activities is significantly blunted.This is a major blow to the intellectualdevelopment of society because it serves as abreaker between two institutions that work bestwhen their interests are aligned, the state andthe university. Universities are the great bastionsof learning, institutions that bring together thebest and brightest to dedicate themselves to thefurtherance of human understanding. The statehas the resources of a nation to deploy in thepublic interest. By funding academic research inuniversities, the state can get more valuableinformation more cheaply it can through settingup its own research institutions. The universitieshave the expertise and the basic infrastructure", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "A publicly-funded inventor or researcher stilldeserves to profit from their efforts Thedeveloper of a new idea, theory, technology,invention, etc. has a fundamental intellectualproperty right. Academics in universities,through deliberate effort create new things andideas, and those efforts demand huge amountsof personal sacrifice and invention in order tobear fruit. State funding is often given topioneering researchers who eschew traditionalroads in pursuit of new frontiers. Often there areno obvious profits to be immediately had, and itis only because of the desire of these individualsto expand the canon of human knowledge thatthese boundaries are ever pushed. It is a matterof principle that these academics be able tobenefit from the fruits of their hard-won laurels.[1] The state stripping people of these rights iscertainly a kind of theft. Certainly no amount ofpublic funding to an institution can alter thefundamental relationship that exists betweencreator and the product of their endeavour. The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwcs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "If universities want to invest in pursuits that willnot have any tangible benefit for society thenthey are welcome to do so. But they should notexpect to be able to do that on the governmentdime. If people want to study the humanitiesthey can pay the tuition fees needed, anduniversities should be able to prioritize itsfunding as they prefer. The state acts best whenit serves the public interest. By making theresearch and work of academics who receivestate funding available to the public it does itsjob by freeing people to use vast amounts ofinformation to the betterment of all. If thatmeans a few less books about Marxist-Feministliterary theory, then that is a cost the stateshould be willing to pay.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "To use such websites governments already needto be committed to democracy. Promotingdemocracy in already-democratic countries isirrelevant. Countries that are not democratic,and seek to maintain autocratic rule will not beimpacted by the availability of those resourcesand harness the internet only for continuedrepression 1. 1. Joyce, Digital Activism Decoded,2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Websites can strengthen democraticinstitutions. The promotion of democracy is notonly about forming new democracies;strengthening existing democratic institutionsaround the globe. To do so, transparency andgovernment-citizen communication is necessary.Britain has set up two websites that achieveexactly that. Writetothem.com is a websitewhere people can figure out who theirparliamentary representatives are, and write tothem about their problems in an effort to createa stronger relationship, and channels ofcommunication between MPs and theirconstituents1. 130,000 people were using thewebsite in 2009. Theyworkforyou.com is anotherwebsite where people can find out who theirrepresentatives are, and then read about theirrecent actions in parliament. This site receivesbetween 200,000 and 300,000 hits per month2.Elections are also strengthened by the internet.Voting can be conducted online which makes theprocess easier and can reduce intimidation at the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The internet is only a place for coordination andcannot replace real-life action so if people arenot willing to take to the streets, then theinternet is not going to help—and even withoutthe internet, disgruntled masses can still maketheir points known, as in the French Revolution1.Egypt shut down internet and phone serviceduring part of the revolution, yet it continuedindicating that this movement is not basedonline2. Therefore the internet is not necessarilythe force that propels people towards change.SMS has been a very important part of theorganization of these protests, which is entirelyseparate from the internet3. Close to 5 billionpeople use cell phones and SMS, therefore theimpact of the cell phone cannot be distinguishedfrom the internet so it is inaccurate to say thatthe internet is contributing to democratizationwhen it is very possibly thanks to mobilephones4. 1. Wikipedia, French Revolution 2.BBC, “Egypt’s opposition pushes demands asprotests continue”, 2011 3. Joyce, Digital", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The internet promotes the free flow ofinformation both in and out of a country, which isessential for a truly free democracy. Media canbe one of the most important factors indemocratic development. If governmentssuccessfully control the media, they can directinformation towards their constituents that caststhe regime in an undeniably good light. They canprevent news of faked elections, protests,violence, repression, and arrest from everreaching the people subject to those violations 1.Without external sources of information peopledo not question government propaganda, whichdecreases the likelihood that they advocate fortheir civil liberties and democracy. The internetpromotes the free flow of information that leadsto social consciousness and enhancesdemocracy. News of political corruption andscandal in China can go viral in a matter ofminutes among its 540 million internet users 2.Even when the government blocks certainwebsites, and makes avid use of firewalls for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "overnments still successfully censor information.Take China for example. Often the governmentshuts down Facebook and Twitter, arrestsbloggers, and takes down content. Terms like‘Tiananmen Square’ and ‘Inner Mongolia’ provideno search results because of the protests thathave gone on there1 Governments’ ability tocensor information is advancing. Therefore theidea that the internet promotes the flow ofunbiased information is not necessarily true,which counters the claim that the internetpromotes democracy. Further, the internet is notalways used for access to Western news sources,but instead, over 500 million sites in the indexesof search engines are pornographic. In 200325% of internet use was for accessing porn. Fiveof the twenty most visited internet sites aredownload sites for video games and porn 2. Theinternet is not largely used for access toinformation, but instead other forbiddenresources, and therefore cannot be directlylinked to democratic development. 1. Shirong,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "For many countries, communication with outsideactors does not make any difference. Iran hassome internet freedom and access to outsideinformation, yet president Ahmadinejad casts theWest as a great evil trying to destroy Iran'sculture1 . The government remains a theocracyand while there have been some protests, thereare many that still support the system ofgovernance2 . Additionally, China may havemade reforms, but it is not a democracy eventhough they have extensive contact with theWest3 . Therefore, contact does not necessarilyindicate that values will be adopted. When itcomes to information flowing out of oppressivecountries, the international community mightmake matters worse. When the West getsinvolved in local movements, often it can makeleaders hold a tighter grip on their power, andturn the blame for the situation on the Westleading to violence, and hindering democraticdevelopment. This is similar to the situation inLibya4. 1 CNN Wire Staff, 'The West is to blame", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The internet allows political dissidents tocommunicate, organize, and grow a grassrootsmovement. Another extremely importantrequirement for successful oppositionmovements advocating democratic reform is theability to organize mass numbers of people. It isone thing if you hate your government, but don’tthink anyone else does. It is entirely different ifyou can access the thoughts of thousands ofothers and realize that you are in fact not alone1. Proportionally the number of people benefitingfrom repressive authoritative regimes is verysmall in comparison to the people who aresuffering. Therefore, if the people who are hurtby the regimes realize the numbers that theyhave, it spells trouble for the governments. Theinternet has 2 billion users, and 950 millionpeople have mobile broadband 2. Mobile phoneswith pay-as-you-go access plans are moreavailable and affordable than ever before.Protesters do not need to own a computer: theycan access social networking and news sites from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The internet enhances communication betweencountries. The internet does not only makeinformation available to oppressed people withina country, but also communicates that situationto the rest of the world. People also learn aboutother authoritarian—anddemocratic—governments around the world. Forexample, the internet allowed information aboutTunisia’s revolution to reach Egypt, which madeit clear that overthrowing a government wasentirely possible1. Information about the actionsof other countries, and their governments canlead to a push for democratic reforms around theworld. In addition, as information flows out of acountry it becomes more difficult for the globe’spowers to ignore the events that are ensuing,and makes it more likely that they will takeaction. This action can create the internal andexternal pressure necessary for democraticreform as was seen in both the revolutions inEgypt and Tunisia2. Contact between countriescan also have a more subtle impact as well. It", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con03b", "title": "", "text": "With any tool there are going to be people whomisuse it, yet cases of misuse do not outweightimes when the internet has proven to be animportant force for democracy. Internet and SMShave helped to organize almost every uprising inthe Middle East and the Orange Revolution inGeorgia1. Cases of citizen misuse are few and farbetween in comparison to the change that hasbeen made partially thanks to the internet.Further, the internet provides tools tosuccessfully catch the abusers and preventcontinued undemocratic actions through trackingIP addresses and other tactics. The same goesfor targeting terrorist networks. 1. Joyce, DigitalActivism Decoded: Digital Activism in Closed andOpen Societies. 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The quantity of information on the internet, andthe number of talented computer users makes itvery difficult for the government to fully censorinformation. The more information there is, theharder it becomes for the government to controlit. The US is investing $19 million intoresearching how to break the firewalls of Chinaand Iran1. There is plenty of easy to usesoftware to evade firewalls2. Internet censorshipcan be evaded. Therefore, regimes cannotentirely maintain control over information, andany external information can be considered goodinformation. Furthermore, regimes like Chinaand Iran are not the only countries to “watching”their populations. Many democracies includingthe US and most of Western European use digitalsurveillance to safeguard their population- watchout for possible activity that may be harmful tothe state. 1. Gaouette, Nicole, 'U.S. LaunchesNew Effort to Evade China's Internet Firewalls',Bloomberg.com, 11 May 2011 2. Irish Times,'Bunnies Hop the Great Firewall', 2 February", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The digital divide leaves the same people inplaces of influence and power. The internetdoesn’t necessarily put power in the hands of thevulnerable; in many places it strengthens theinfluence of the traditional elite. In low-incomecountries the cost of broadband is 900% ofaverage monthly income1. Most people simplycannot afford to have internet access. Internetpenetration is not up to par in low income,developing, and traditionally non-democraticcountries. For example, Africa has 15% of theworld’s population and only 5% of its internetusers. There are only about 100 million internetusers on the continent, which accounts for only11% of its population2. As the lower incomemembers of society remain unable to affordinternet access, the power that the internetboasts remains with those who can afford it. Thetraditional elites are the ones that maintain theability to access the internet, and they can use itfor their own purposes and to strengthen theirposition and power – i.e. the internet may", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The internet can be used to quash democraticmovements. The internet makes it much easierfor states to target and locate dissidents. Theycan be located by their IP addresses or recordskept by internet cafes. It is almost impossible bytoday’s standards to remain anonymous on theinternet1. Surveillance used to be the onlytechnique for governments to track downdissidents, however the internet has madegovernments’ task of quashing opposition easier.Since 2003, 202 bloggers have been arrestedaround the world and 162 of the arrests were forpolitical reasons. The government doesn’t need atrue reason because only 37 of the cases weretried in the judicial system. Political parties,ethnic and religious groups, civil rightsmovements, and leaders can all be targetedthrough government internet surveillance2.When the government can find the names ofpolitical dissidents and arrest them, it makes itmore difficult for successful movements to occur,because they lack leaders and potential", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Citizens often use the internet in ways thatdetract from democracy. The idea that theinternet promotes democracy also operatesunder the assumption that the people withinternet access will use the tool for ‘good’. Yet,this is also not the case. The internet is theprimary medium of coordination for Jihadistgroups looking to undermine the fewMiddle-Eastern states which are in the process oftransition to democracy. In April 2007, groups ofhackers (allegedly backed by the Russiangovernment) attacked the websites of keypoliticians, ministries and utilities in Estonia inretaliation for the removal of a Soviet warmemorial. Hackers can block access, destroycontent, and organize in malicious activity as inthe case of terrorism and the Estonian ‘hactivists’1. Information can also be misused.In the US,neo-Nazism has always been an issue ofcontention and use the internet to furtherpromote their viewpoints.For example, UKanimal rights activists post information about", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The internet can be successfully censored so thatit only promotes pro-regime propaganda. Theinternet is said to promote democracy based onthe claim that it leads to the free flow ofinformation. Unfortunately, this is false in manyparts of the world. 40 countries around the globeactively censor the internet, and 25 have blockedGoogle over the past few years1. This gives theirgovernments a false legitimacy by removingmaterial critical of anti-democratic policies andas acting as a psychological bulwark againstdiscontent and dissent. The government retainsthe ability to control the information that itscitizens have access to and can use this power topromote pro-regime information and preventanti-regime, pro-democratic content from everseeing the light of day. The internet is a newtool, but governments can become moresophisticated as well and harness the internet torepress dissent2. For example, China has almostno internet freedom and the terms “TiananmenSquare” and “Inner-Mongolia” provides no", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Governments cannot always get away with thetargeting of internet dissidents. Bloggers areoften famous and followed intently by manypeople. If a popular blogger all of a suddendisappears it is more likely to generate increasedsupport for the blogger and the cause than leadsupporters to defect to the government1.Further, the government cannot arrest everyone,and the internet provides a tool for socialmovements to be poly-centric2—they have manyleaders and anyone can step in. 1. DigitalActivism Decoded: New Casualties: Prisons andPersecution. 2. Digital Activism Decoded: DigitalActivism in Closed and Open Societies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-aihbied-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There are ways to make the internet affordable.Internet cafes and purchasing multiple SIM cardsand pay as you go plans for cell phones canaddress the need to have a computer andtherefore decrease the cost of internet use1.Further, the internet is a jumping off point. Notevery low-income person needs to have internetaccess but if a handful do, then they can be partof the organization of protests and movementsby taking the information available online anddisseminating it through networks of peoplethrough SMS, calls, and word of mouth. Tunisiawas not a rich country; in fact, people wereprotesting the pervasive poverty. Even so, theywere able to successfully organize a revolution,with the help of the internet2. 1. Joyce, DigitalActivism Decoded: The Power of Mobile Phones,2010 2. Jerome, Deborah, 'UnderstandingTunisia's Tremors', Council on Foreign Relations,14 January 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Hate speech will happen regardless. A significantamount of online hate speech is made throughaccounts under the real life name of the speaker.It is notable that Facebook has required its usersto use their real names since 2011, [1] but hasstill had significant issues with hate speech longafter that. [2] The fact is that an enormousamount of hate speakers see what they aresaying as entirely legitimate, and are thereforenot afraid of having it connected to their real lifeidentities. The fact is that 'hate speech' islocalised and culture-dependent. Since theInternet brings many cultures together, hatespeech will happen almostinadvertently. Additionally, online hate speech isvery difficult to prosecute even when connectedto real life identities, [3] so this policy is unlikelyto be effective at making those who now wouldbe identified see any more consequences thanbefore. In the Korean example the law wassimply avoided by resorting to foreign sites. [4]The similar lack of consequences is likely to lead", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Reducing hate speech. Openly racist, sexist, orotherwise discriminatory comments madethrough public forums are much more likelywhen made anonymously, as people feel theyare unlikely to see any consequences for voicingtheir hateful opinions. [1] This leads firstly to apropagation of these views in others, and ahigher likelihood of attacks based on this hate,as seeing a particular view more often makespeople feel it is more legitimate. [2] Moreimportantly, it causes people from the targetedgroups to feel alienated or unwelcome inparticular places due to facets of their identitythat are out of their control, and all people havea right not to be discriminated against forreasons such as these. The proposed policywould enormously reduce the amount of onlinehate speech posted as people would be too afraidto do it. Although not exactly the same a studyof abusive and slanderous posts on Koreanforums in the six months following theintroduction of their ban on anonymity found", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Moves illegal activity in harder to monitor areas.Those partaking in planning illegal activity willnot continue to do so if hiding their identities isnot possible. Instead, they will return to usingmore private means of communication, such asmeeting in person, or using any online servicesthat do guarantee anonymity such as TOR. Whilethis may make planning illegal activity moredifficult, it also makes it more difficult for lawenforcement officials to monitor this behaviour,and come anywhere near stopping it: at leastunder the status quo they have some idea ofwhere and how it is happening, and can use thatas a starting point. Forcing criminals furtherunderground may not be desirable. Theauthorities in cooperation with websites areusually able to find out who users are despite theveil of anonymity for example in the UK thepolice have arrested people for rape threatsmade against a campaigner for there to be awoman on UK banknotes.1 1 Masters, Sam,'Twitter threats: Man arrested over rape-threat", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Reducing cyberbullying. When internetanonymity is used for bullying, it can make thesituation much worse. Firstly, perpetrators aremuch less likely to hold back or be cautious asthey are less concerned with the possibility ofbeing caught. This means the bullying is likely tobe more intense than when it is done in real life.[1] Additionally, for victims of cyberbullying,being unable to tell who your harasser is, oreven how many there are can be particularlydistressing. [2] Anonymous posting beingsignificantly less available takes away theparticularly damaging anonymous potential ofcyberbullying, and allows cyberbullying to bemore effectively dealt with. [1] ‘TraditionalBullying v. Cyberbullying’. CyberBullying, GoogleSites. URL: ‘The Problem of Cyberbullies’Anonymity’. Leo Burke Academy. URL: [2]‘Cyberbullying’. Netsafe. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Stopping anonymity does not meaningfullyprevent bullying. Internet anonymity is notessentially to bullying: it can be done through anearly infinite number of media. Importantly, itis not even essential to anonymous bullying. Forexample, it is quite simple to send anonymoustext messages: all that is required is access to aphone that the victim does not have the numberof. It is similarly easy to simply write notes orletters, and leave them in places where thevictim will find them. Anonymous posting on theinternet is far from the only place where thesekinds of anonymous attacks are possible. All thispolicy does is shifts the bullying into areas wherethey may be more difficult to monitor. Ratherthan sending messages online that can be, albeitwith some difficulty, traced back to theperpetrator, or at least used as some kind ofevidence, bullies are likely to return to covertclassroom bullying that can be much moredifficult to identify.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Similar prevention can be achieved throughraising internet awareness. In the case ofchildren, parents taking a more pro-active role inmonitoring and controlling their children’s onlineactivities is likely to be more effective than themeasures of this policy. Indeed, signalling thatthey do need to monitor their children canactually put their children in more danger, asthere are considerable risks to children onlineeven without anonymous posting. Other kinds offraud can be similarly avoided by raisingawareness: people should be made to realisethat sending money or bank details to peopleyou don’t know is a bad idea. In fact, theremoval of internet aliases may even encouragepeople to trust people they don’t know, but doknow the real names of, even though that is nomore advisable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Reducing currently illegal activity. Internetanonymity is very useful for planning andorganising illegal activity, mostly buying andselling illegal goods, such as drugs, firearms,stolen goods, or child pornography, but also, inmore extreme cases, for terrorism orassassinations. This is because it can be useful inmaking plans and advertisements public, thusenabling wider recruitment and assistance, whileat the same time preventing these plans frombeing easily traced back to specific individuals.[1] For example, the website Silk Road openlyoffers users the opportunity to buy and sellillegal drugs. Sales on this site alone have doubleover the course of six months, hitting $1.7millionper month. [2] This policy makes it easier forthe police to track down the people responsiblefor these public messages, should they continue.If anonymity is still used, it will be significantlyeasier to put legal pressure on the website andits users, possibly even denying access to it. Ifanonymity is not used, obviously it is very easy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Reducing fraud using fakeidentities. Anonymous posting can be used tomake people believe you are someone who youare not. This can be done in order to acquiremoney from victims either by establishing adishonest relationship or offering fraudulentbusiness opportunities. [1] It is also a frequentlyused tool in child abduction cases, where theperpetrator will pretend to be a child or evenclassmate to gain enough access to a child inorder to make abduction viable. It is estimatedthat nearly 90% of all sexual solicitations ofyouth are made in online anonymous chatrooms. Additionally, in the UK alone over 200cases of meeting a child following onlinegrooming, usually via anonymous sites arerecorded. [2] These are enormous harms thatcan be easily avoided with the removal ofanonymous posting online. [1] ‘Online Fraud’.Action Fraud. URL: [2] ‘Online child grooming:a literature review on the misuse of socialnetworking sites for grooming children for sexual", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Protest of this kind is less meaningful. When anorganisation such as this is criticised only byanonymous individuals, who are likely to bedifficult to contact or learn more about, it is lesslikely to lead to any kind of long-term meaningfulresistance. In the case of Anonymous and theChurch of Scientology, there have been nonotable acts of resistance to the Church ofScientology other than Anonymous. Anonymousresistance makes other kinds of resistance lesslikely to happen, and rarely leads to significantchange or action.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Freedom from consequences is not a necessarycomponent of freedom of speech. If someone isfree from legal restraints surrounding their abilityto speak, they are free to speak. Freedom ofspeech does not entitle an individual to absolutefreedom of consequences of any kind, includingsocial consequences to their speech. Whilesomeone should certainly be free to state theiropinion, there is no reason why they should beentitled to not be challenged for holding thatopinion.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Limiting ability of oppressed individuals to seekout help and community. Anonymous postingmeans people who are made to feel ashamed ofthemselves, or their identities within their localcommunities can seek out help and/orlike-minded people. For example, a gay teenagerin a fiercely homophobic community could findcyber communities that are considerably moretolerant, and even face the same issues as them.This can make an enormous difference toself-acceptance, as people are no longersubjected to a singular, negative view ofthemselves. [1] Banning anonymous postingremoves this ability. [1] ‘In the Middle East,Marginalized LGBT Youth Find SupportiveCommunities Online’ Tech President.URL: ‘Online Identity: Is authenticity oranonymity more important?’ The Guardian. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Limiting ability to experiment with identity. Theability to post anonymously on the internetmeans that people can create a new identity forthemselves where they will not be judged interms of what they have done before. This canbe particularly useful for people who areattempting to make significant positivereformations to their lives, such as recoveringaddicts, thereby facilitating self-improvement.Banning anonymous posting reduces individual’sabilities to better themselves in this way. [1] [1]‘Online Identity: Is authenticity or anonymitymore important?’ The Guardian. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Reducing the extent to which large and powerfulorganisations can be criticised. Organisationswith lots of wealth and legal power can bedifficult to criticise when one’s name andpersonal information is attached to all attemptsat protest and/or criticism. Internet anonymitymeans that individuals can criticise these groupswithout fear of unfair reprisal, and their actionsare, as a result, held up to higher levels ofscrutiny. For example, internet anonymity wereinstrumental in the first meaningful anddamaging protests against the Church ofScientology by internet group Anonymous. [1]Similarly anonymity has been essential in themodel for WikiLeaks and other similar efforts likethe New Yorker’s Strongbox. [2] [1] ‘JohnSweeney: Why Church of Scientology’s greatestthreat is ‘net’. The Register. URL: ‘Anonymousvs. Scientology’. Ex-Scientology Kids. URL: [2]Davidson, Amy, ‘Introducing Strongbox’, TheNew Yorker, 15 May 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Damaging to freedom of speech. People are onlytruly free to say what they wish when they donot have to worry about being personallypersecuted, either by peers, strangers, or theirgovernment, for what they are saying. [1]Removing the right to post anonymouslyincreases the pressures people feel to post in aparticular way, and thus limits the extent towhich they can speak freely. [1] ‘Anonymity���.Electric Frontier Foundation. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Self-improvement through an alias or falseidentity is unlikely to lead to genuineself-improvement. When individuals havemultiple identities, they may think of them asdistinct from one another, and are thus unlikelyto transfer self-improvement from one toanother. For example, a recovering addict mayonly have a renewed attitude in their onlineidentity, and not in real life where it is moreimportant. This is unlikely to be beneficial, andmay be actively harmful in terms of limiting theimprovement of real life identities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-piidfphwbaa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Small reduction in ability to seek out help andcommunity outweighed by a large reduction inhate speech. Anonymity is not essential toseeking out help and community. The internet isa large and expansive place, meaning that if anindividual posts on an obscure site, people thatthey know in real life are very likely to see it.Even having your real name attached is unlikelyto single you out unless you have a particularlydistinctive name. Anonymity adds very little totheir ability to seek out this help andcommunity. Additionally, anonymity isfrequently used as a tool to spread hate speech,[1] which the people this point is concerned withare the primary victims of. Even if a lack ofanonymity means a marginal reduction in theirability to seek out a supportive community, thisis a worthwhile sacrifice for a significantreduction in the amount of hatred directed atthem. [1] ‘Starting Points for Combating HateSpeech Online’. British Institute of HumanRights. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Providing such mechanisms does not helpactivists and can even harm them. Theseactivists will have few guarantees that thetechnology will work. Previous technologiesmeant to give anonymity have often not workedor else the governments will come up with waysto break them. Haystack is a good example of atechnology meant to help dissidents that couldhave ended up causing more harm than the goodit did.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Providing secure channels is the easiest way tohelp dissidents and democracy activists Ifdemocracies are to provide money to helpdissidents then this option of funding researchinto and distributing software to defeat censorsis the easiest way in which to help thesedissidents. Those who are trying to exercise theirfreedom of speech do not want help in the formof military intervention or diplomaticrepresentations rather they want to have thespace and capacity to exercise those freedoms.The internet means that for the first time it ispossible for external actors to provide thatplatform for freedom of speech without having totake those who wish to exercise these freedomsoutside of the country that is violating thosefreedoms. The internet is very important in theeconomies of many authoritarian regimes. InChina for example there are 145 million onlineshoppers and the e-commerce market is worthalmost $100 billion and could be worth over$300 billion by 2015. [1] As a result", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Funding such technologies is unlikely to result inlarge benefits or will result in escalating costs.China has billions invested in its onlinecensorship activities. Any attempt to fund waysto counter this censorship would likely becomeinvolved in an online arms race if it wanted to domore than temporary good. This could end upbeing a costly on-going operation with very fewbenefits. The money would be better spenthelping the truly needy from hunger thanallowing the global middle classes to exercisetheir freedom of speech.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "We all have an obligation to help maintainfreedom of speech. Article 19 of the universaldeclaration of human rights defines freedom ofspeech as “Everyone has the right to freedom ofopinion and expression; this right includesfreedom to hold opinions without interferenceand to seek, receive and impart information andideas through any media and regardless offrontiers.” [1] It is something innate in humansto have opinions and to want to express them toothers and within a few limits governments havea duty to allow this freedom of expression.Where governments are not allowing thisfreedom of information this affects not onlythose whose opinions are being suppressed butthose who cannot hear their opinions. The rightto the freedom to receive and seek thisinformation is just as important as the right tovoice these opinions. Moreover as stated inArticle 19 this is “regardless of frontiers”; thoseoutside a country have just as much right to hearthese opinions as those inside. Government aid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "That there is a right to freedom of speech doesnot mean that we have an obligation to makesure that everyone around the world hasfreedom of speech. Freedom of speech andexpression is indeed a human right in theuniversal declaration of human rights howeverthis is something that it is obligated forgovernments to uphold for their own peoplerather than for other countries to enforce. Ifgovernments are infringing on the freedoms oftheir people the correct way to counter this isthrough international diplomacy rather thanseeking to undermine that state. Theresponsibility to protect, itself controversial, wasonly ever meant to apply to the very worsthuman rights violations - such as the genocide inRwanda. If there are massacres of civilians andall other options have failed then there may be aneed to intervene to prevent more killing.However violations of freedom of speech are notsomething that is time dependent. Diplomacymay often take a long time but can eventually", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Funding technologies to evade censorship couldhave immense benefits for very little cost Mostgovernment aid budgets are small and havenumerous other important calls on theirresources such as development aid. Between2008 and 2011 the United States Congressfunded the effort against internet censorship with$76 million. [1] While this may sound like a lotcompared to the $168 million of aid to Liberiaand $152 million to UNICEF in 2011 it is not alarge commitment. [2] Yet due to the nature ofthe internet small investments can haveimmense benefits. Money spent on food aid willbuy enough food to feed a limited amount ofpeople yet if a technology is developed thatallows internet users to get around censors andnot be tracked then hundreds of millions wouldbenefit. It would at the same time have theincalculable benefit of making it more difficult forauthorities to track and crack down on those whoare breaking the authorities’ censorship. [1]Burkeman, Oliver, ‘Inside Washington’s high risk", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While most of the population may not beenraged enough by censorship to attempt to getaround it this does not mean they would notbenefit from having the capability to do so.Governments often intrude into social discussion,music and even games by banning them andtaking down discussions. These people would bemuch freer if they had complete freedom ofchoice rather than a government controlled setof boundaries on the internet.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Far from being a violation of sovereignty itshould be considered that the internet is a globalcommons that needs to be defended against theencroachment of sovereignty. As Hillary Clintonhas argued “The internet has become the publicspace of the 21st century – the world’s townsquare, classroom, marketplace, coffeehouse,and nightclub. We all shape and are shaped bywhat happens there, all 2 billion of us andcounting.” [1] This means that nationalsovereignty cannot be considered to apply to theinternet. If one part of the internet becomesfenced off then it affects the rest of the internetas well. [1] Clinton, Hillary, ‘Secretary of StateHillary Clinton’s Speech on Internet Freedom*updated*’, Secretaryclinton, 15 February 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Funds could be better spent on helpingdevelopment Access to the internet is not themost pressing concern that foreign aid should beused to solve. Instead aid should help the1.4billion who live on less than a dollar a day, [1]the 216 million people infected with malariaevery year, [2] or the 42 million people whohave been uprooted by conflict and naturaldisaster. [3] Internet access while it hasexpanded immensely is still something that onlythe relatively rich have access to, not the kind ofpeople that aid money should be spenton. Finally if money is to be spent on theinternet it should not be on the issue of evadingcensorship but focusing on the potentialeconomic benefits of increasing internetpenetration to the poorest. [1] World BankUpdates Poverty Estimates for the Developingworld’, World Bank, 26 August 2008. [2]Malaria, World Health Organisation, Fact Sheetno. 94, April 2012. [3] ‘UNHCR annual reportshows 42 million people uprooted worldwide’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con04a", "title": "", "text": "This will needlessly antagonise non-democraticcountries The relationships which democraticcountries have with non-democratic countriesare much too important to jeopradise with suchinterference. Democracies and non-democraciesneed to be able to live peacefully with each otherand engage in economic contact. Havingdemocracies supporting segments in anon-democracy’s population that is seen to beundermining the state not only sours relationsbut provides a direct point of contention thatcould potentially lead to conflict. Democraciesalready show that they are aware of the conflictthey create through their promotion of humanrights by toning down their rhetoric in relation tothe most powerful non-democratic countries. TheBritish Council has for example invited Liu Binjie,China’s censor in chief, to lead a delegation tothe London Book Fair which is celebratingChinese Literature. [1] It is double standards tobe lauding autocrats in public and yet seeking toundermine their countries through helping", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Evading censorship is already possible andcensorship does not prevent the use of theinternet. Proposition itself concedes thatauthoritarian states in the vast majority of casesare unlikely to cut off access to the internet fortheir population entirely. For many people theinternet is not about free speech but abouteconomic benefits. Most don’t want to protestbut rather carry on inane social discussions, playcomputer games and listen to music. Things thateven authoritarian governments are happy tooccur. This money is therefore not aimed ataddressing the concerns of the vast majority ofnetizens. Those few who are concerned arealready able to find ways around censorship forexample proxies can be used to access externalsites. China’s censorship system may be vast butit is only 40,000 attempting to watch hundredsof millions. Even China’s censors sometimeswork at cross purposes as for example whereweibo censored the official Xinhua news bulletinthat Bo Xilai, former party chief in Chongqing,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Violation of Sovereignty Sovereignty is theexercise of the fullest possible rights over a pieceof territory; the state is ‘supreme authoritywithin a territory’. [1] The sovereignty of nationshas been recognised by all nations in article 2 ofthe UN charter. [2] Funding attempts by citizensof a nation to avoid its own government’scensorship efforts is clearly infringing uponmatters that are within the domestic jurisdictionof individual states and is as such a violation ofsovereignty. It is also clear that when it comes toenforcement of human rights there is a generalrule should be followed that states should havethe chance to solve their own internal problemsdomestically before there is internationalinterference. [3] Censorship by governmentscan be there for the good of society; for exampleSouth Korea censors information about NorthKorea and forces internet users to use id cardsand real names when posting on forums andblogs making them easy to trace. [4] This doesnot however mean that democracies should be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This implies that without efforts by democraciesto ‘undermine’ non democratic regimes theinternet would be nice and peaceful andeveryone could get on with what they like doingon the internet. Nothing could be further fromthe truth. There is already a significant amountof conflict on the internet both in the form ofinsulting each other on forums and criminalactivity. There have been numerous attempts,particularly originating from authoritariancountries, to attack the internet presence ofother countries firms or governments or to hackand steal state secrets. This kind of behaviour ismuch more likely to cause conflict than anyfunding of research towards bypassing censors.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwufafra-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Money will be spent on development anyway.However trade is often the best way toencourage growth and reductions in poverty.These technologies by making communicationeasier will make doing business in that countryeasier. Breaking through communication barrierson the internet could have much more impactthan 'development' aid.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Governments have, prima facie, a differentrelationship with their own citizens than theyhave with those of other countries. In addition,as with the previous argument, extending theright of access does not, per se, require totalaccess. The approach is also simply impracticalas it would require every nation on the planet totake the same approach and to have comparablestandards in terms of record keeping and datamanagement. At present most states publishsome data but the upper and lower thresholds ofwhat is made public vary between them. Toabolish the upper limit (ministerial briefing,security briefings, military contractors, etc.)would require everyone to do it, otherwise itwould be deeply unsafe for any one state to actalone. The likelihood of persuading some of theworld’s more unsavory or corrupt regimes to playball seems pretty unlikely. The first of those isimprobable, the latter is impossible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Compelling public bodies to publish informationensures that non-citizens, minors, foreignnationals and others have access to informationthat affects them. Genuine transparency andaccountability of government action is not only inthe interests of those who also have the right tovote for that government or who support itthrough the payment of taxes. The functioning ofimmigration services would seem to be a primeexample. Maximising access to informationrelating to government decisions by dint of itsautomatic publication of information relating tothose decisions ensures that all those affectedwill have recourse to the facts behind anydecision. If, for example, a nation’s aid budgetis cut or redirected, why should the citizens ofthe affected nation not have a right to know why[i] ? If, as is frequently the case, it has happenedbecause of an action or inaction by their owngovernment, then it is important that they know.Equally if such a decision were taken for electoralgain, they at least have the right to know that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The idea that, presented with a vast mass offrequently complex data, everyone would be ableto access, process and act on it in the same wayis fantasy. Equally the issue of ‘who guards theguards’ that Proposition raises is a misnomer;exactly the groups mentioned are already thosewith the primary role of scrutinizing governmentactions because they have the time, interest andskills to do so. Giving a right to access wouldgive them greater opportunities to continue withthat in a way that deluging them withinformation would not.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "If public bodies do not have an obligation topublish information, there will always be atemptation to find any available excuses to avoidtransparency. The primary advantage of puttingthe duty on government to publish, rather thanon citizens to enquire is that it does not requirethe citizen to know what they need to knowbefore they know it. Publication en masse allowsresearchers to investigate areas they think arelikely to produce results, specialists to followdecisions relevant to their field and, also, raisesthe possibility of discovering things by chance.The experience of Wikipedia suggests that evenvery large quantities of data are relatively easyto mine as long as all the related documentationis available to the researcher – the frustration,by contrast, comes when one has only a singledatum with no way of contextualising it. Anyother situation, at the very least, panders to theinterests of government to find any availableexcuse for not publishing anything that it is likelyto find embarrassing and, virtually by definition,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Relying on a right of access would also haveaddressed the concerns set out by Propositionbut would do so in a way that would notendanger actual concerns of national security byallowing citizens the right to challenge suchdecisions. An independent review coulddetermine where the motivation is genuinely oneof national security and those where it is reallypolitical expediency. The right to information forcitizens is important but should not jeopardizethe right to life of combat troops.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "It seems unlikely that total publication wouldsave much in the way of time or money. If thedata was not indexed in some way it would beabsurdly difficult to navigate - and that takestime and money. There are advantages tobuilding a delay into systems such as this, if apiece of information genuinely justifies a newsstory, then it will do so at any time. If it’s only ofinterest in the middle of a media feeding frenzy,then it seems unlikely that it was all thatimportant.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Even the most liberal FoI regime tends to panderto certain groups in society full disclosure levelsthat playing field People have many differentinterests in the accountability of governments;different areas of concern, differing levels of skillin pursuing those interests and so on. Theydeserve, however, an equal degree oftransparency from governments in relation tothose decisions that affect them. Relying on aright to access is almost certainly most likely tofavour those who already have the greatestaccess either through their profession, their skillsor their social capital. The use of freedom ofinformation requests in those countries wherethey are available shows this to be the case, asthey have overwhelmingly been used byjournalists, with a smattering of representationfrom researchers, other politicians and lawyersand so on. In the UK between 2005 and 2010 thetotal number registered by all ‘ordinary’members of the public is just ahead ofjournalists, the next largest group. The public", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "A faster, cheaper and simpler process There arecost concerned with processing FoI requests bothin terms of time and cash terms. [i] To take oneexample Britain’s largest local authority,Birmingham, spends £800,000 a year dealingwith FoI requests. [ii] There is also a delay fromthe point of view of the applicant. Such a delay ismore than an irritant in the case of, for example,immigration appeals or journalisticinvestigations. Governments know thatjournalists usually have to operate within awindow of time while a story is still ‘hot’. As aresult all they have to do is wait it out until theattention of the media turns elsewhere to ensurethat if evidence of misconduct or culpability werefound, it would probably be buried as a minorstory if not lost altogether. As journalismremains the primary method most societies haveof holding government to account, it doesn’tseem unreasonable that the methodology forreleasing data should, at least in part, reflect thereality of how journalism works as an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There are, of course some costs to having a trulyopen and accountable government, but aneffective right of access would allow much of thatinformation to be made available. After all whatthe public sector bodies are paying in commercialtransactions is of great interest to the public. Ifpublic bodies are getting a particularly good ratefrom suppliers, it might well raise the question of“Why?” For example, are they failing to enforceregulations on a particular supplier in return for agood price. In that instance, their othercustomers and their competitors would seem tohave every right to know.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Although it would be time-consuming toapproach so much information, it is notimpossible to manage it effectively. As Wikileakshas demonstrated, given access to largequantities of information, it is a relativelystraightforward process to start with records thatare likely to prove interesting and then followparticular routes from there. In addition,governments, like all organisations, haveinformation management systems, there wouldbe no reason not to use the samemodel. Additionally, the very skill of journalismis going beyond the executive summary to findthe embarrassing fact buried away in appendixnineteen. That would still be the case under thismodel, it would just be easier.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Public bodies require the ability to discussproposals freely away from publicscrutiny Knowing that everything is likely to berecorded and then published is likely to becounter-productive. It seems probable thatanything sensitive – such as advice given toministers by senior officials – would either not berecorded or it would be done in a way so opaqueas to make it effectively meaningless [i] . Bycontrast knowing that such conversations, tofocus on one particularly example, are recordedand can be subjected to public scrutiny whenthere is a proven need to do so ensures thatgenuine accountability – rather than prurience orcuriosity, is likely to be both the goal and theoutcome. None of us would like the process ofhow we reached decisions made public as it ofteninvolves getting things wrong a few times first.However, there are some instances where it isimportant to know how a particular decision wasreached and whether those responsible for thatdecision were aware of certain facts at the time –", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "It is reasonable that people have access toinformation that effects them personally but notinformation that relates to their neighbours’,employers’, former-partners’ or other citizenswho maythose who work for public bodies. Theright to access allows people to see informationthat affects them personally or where there isreasonable suspicion of harm or nefariouspractices. It doesn’t allow them to invade theprivacy of other citizens who just happen to workfor public bodies or have some other association[i] . Unless there is reason to suspectcorruption, why should law-abiding citizens whosell goods and services to public bodies have thefull details of their negotiations made public fortheir other buyers, who may have got a worsedeal, to see? Why should the memo sent by anotherwise competent official on a bad day bemade available for her neighbours to read over?A presumption in favour of publication wouldensure that all of these things, and others, wouldbe made a reality with the force of law behind", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Considering the amount of data governmentsproduce, compelling them to publish all of itwould be counterproductive as citizens would beswamped. It is a misnomer in many things thatmore is necessarily better but that is, perhaps,more true of information than of most things.Public bodies produce vast quantities of data andare often have a greater tendency to maintaincopious records than their private sectorequivalents. US government agencies will createdata that would require “20 million four-drawerfiling cabinets filled with text,” over the next twoyears. [i] Simply dumping this en masse wouldbe a fairly effective way of masking anyinformation that a public body wanted kepthidden. Deliberately poor referencing wouldachieve the same result. This ‘burying’ of badnews at a time when everyone is lookingsomewhere else is one of the oldest tricks inpress management. For example Jo Moore, anaide to then Transport Secretary Stephen Byerssuggested that September 11 2001 was “a very", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-gthbtsbp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is frequently useful to see the generalapproach of a public organisation as reflected inroutine discussions. Opposition is wrong tosuggest that such information would only cast alight on ideas that were never pursued anywayso they don’t matter. It would also highlightideas that agencies wanted to pursue but feltthey couldn’t because of the likely impact ofpublic opinion, knowing such information givesuseful insight into the intentions of the publicagency in question.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The state is rarely an efficient service provider.Conventionally, it provides a shoddy servicewhen it faces no competition, and when itcharges low prices it is usually at the expense ofthe infrastructure and quality of service. Whenfree of market forces, the state is even morelikely to rest on its position of monopoly andprovide insufficient service. But even with a stateservice, prices cannot be guaranteed to be keptlow, but rather states can well overcharge andexploit their privileged position.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "It would provide an efficient service foreveryone A single, universal provider ofbroadband would allow the government torationalize the management and development ofthe service. Multiple private service-providersultimately end up causing three seriousproblems. The first two are straightforward, thatprivate firms competing in the same area wastemoney creating multiple distribution channelsthat are unnecessary for the number ofconsumers, and that when they opt not tocompete they end up dividing up territory intoeffective utility monopolies. The third problem isespecially salient to the state when it isattempting to provide for everyone: many areasare too sparsely populated or economicallyunderdeveloped that private firms are unwillingto invest in them; these areas are entirelydependent on state intervention to allow them toget broadband access. Thus for example, in theUnited States 19 million people in the UnitedStates still have no broadband access. [1] Much", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Broadband is a necessary evolution of internettechnology that firms would be wise to avail of ifthey wish to remain competitive. But it is thisvery desirability that makes the provision ofbroadband a lucrative business in which manyfirms participate. Business on a large scale israrely organised in diffuse patterns, but clusteredin major population centres. Economicdevelopment can be furnished by the privatesector investing in broadband where there is amarket. Growth will not be slowed just becausesome farmers in Nebraska have slower internet.Singapore is an aberrant example, as it is sosmall and its population so dense that it wouldbe impossible to compare its provision ofbroadband access to most other countries.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The information age demands a right tobroadband access As information technologyhas come more and more to pervade people’slives, it has become abundantly clear that a newset of positive rights must be considered. In theforefront of this consideration stands broadband.Broadband allows for far more rapid access tothe internet, and thus access to the world ofinformation the internet represents. Today, acitizen of a free society must be able to accessthe internet if he or she is to be able to fullyrealise their potential. This is because the abilityto access the fundamental rights to freedom ofexpression and civic and social participation arenow contingent upon ready access to theinternet. Thus access to the internet has itselfbecome a right of citizens, and their accessshould be guaranteed by the state. This right hasbeen enshrined by several countries, such asFrance, Finland, Greece, and Spain, thus leadingthe way toward a more general recognition ofthis service as a right in the same way other", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Internet access is not a fundamental right. It is auseful enabler of rights. But that is not reason toguarantee it to all, any more than states owedevery citizen access to a printing press a fewcenturies ago. Even were it a right, internetaccess could be provided far more efficiently andeffectively through the private, rather than thepublic, sector.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "States can develop new power-grids withoutneeding to furnish all citizens with broadband inorder to avail of the smart grid. The cost ofdeveloping these technologies and implementingthem across the board are woefully high, and theinefficient nature of government services meansthey would only be more costly to the taxpayer.A better solution would be to liberalize theenergy markets in order to encourage privatefirms to invest in the development of the smartgrid.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Broad-based access to broadband is essential forcountries to be competitive and toexcel Information technology is critical to thesuccess of contemporary economies, with eventhe simplest business ventures. Uneven ornon-existent penetration of broadband is a majordrag on economic progress. [1] The privatesector has been unable to effectively adapt witha holistic approach to the provision of data spaceand internet speed. The state providing theseservices would guarantee a high quality ofservice, and penetration across the country,linking all citizens to the network. For a countryto compete internationally it needs broadband,and the surest way to provide it, since theprivate sector has resolutely failed to do so, andwhere it does provide services, it tends toovercharge. [2] As the Western world is leftbehind by the internet speeds of erstwhiledeveloping states like Singapore, which hasalmost total penetration of high quality,state-sponsored broadband, it needs to refocus", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Universal broadband is a necessary prerequisiteto developing more efficient and effectivepower-grids Advanced infrastructure technologyoften relies on the existence of broadbandtechnology universally installed across the grid.Countries like South Korea and Japan havesucceeded in expanding their power grids bymeans of “smart grids”, power-grids that are farmore efficient than existing structures inpreviously leading states like the United States,that make use of the broadband network in theprovision of power. The US government hassince committed to creating its own new grid,one that would increase efficiency, supply andmanagement, and lower costs of energyprovision to its citizens. [1] Such grids dependon the reliable and advanced broadbandnetworks. The incentive for states to employbroadband across their territory is tremendous,beyond mere access to fast internet. This is whyprivate firms will never be sufficient in efficientprovision of broadband, because they do not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "If the state overstepped in its regulation, nodoubt private competitors would be able to fillthe void. But such an eventuality is ratherunlikely given the robustness of civil institutionsin free societies and the willingness of people tocome out in arms against attacks on theirfreedoms. The state is not a bogey-man. Rather,it is the best outlet by which to deliverinexpensive, efficient broadband service.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "State firms do not necessarily crowd out privatefirms. Rather, they can furnish services in areasthat private firms consider unprofitable, and cancoordinate infrastructural process on a widerarea, allowing for gains in economies of scale.Eircom provides an example of this too as itsreduction in investment in broadband postprivatisation meant that the government had tobegin reinvesting in broadband itself. [1] Privatefirms will still have incentives to develop newtechnologies because there will still be profits tobe made. But absent private firms, innovationwill still exist. State investment in innovation andnew technology can be very effective, as was thecase with the Space Race. [1] Palcic, D., andReeves, E., “Privatisation and productivityperformance in Ireland”, P.200", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The state can work more effectively through theprivate sector If the state is worried aboutprovision of broadband in areas too sparselypopulated or disadvantaged, they can providesubsidies to private firms to develop the areasthat are not profitable without needing todevelop full government-operated companies.Just because the state is not providing theservice does not mean that there cannot becompulsory to provide access to everywhere,many countries post offices for example areobliged to deliver to every address. [1]Government employees tend to be overpaid andunderworked, leading to chronic inefficienciesthat would be absent in a private firm, even onebacked with government money. Furthermore,the cost to the state is prohibitively expensive togo it alone, because state contracts have amarked tendency to go over budget, ultimatelyharming the taxpayers. These overruns are astandard part of government projects, but theycan be ruinous to large scale information", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "It would give undue power to the governmentover access to the internet Monopoly, ornear-monopoly, power over broadband is far toogreat a tool to give to governments. States havea long history of abusing rules to curtail accessto information and to limit freedom of speech.Domination of broadband effectively gives thestate complete control of what informationcitizens can or cannot consume online. ISPsfunction generally under the principle of NetNeutrality, in which they are expected to allowthe free transit of information online. If they arethe sole gatekeepers of knowledge, people maywell be kept from information deemed againstthe public interest. It is harder for opponents ofgovernment regulations to voice their opinionsonline when they have no viable alternative tothe state-controlled network. The internet is aplace of almost limitless expression and it hasempowered more people to take action tochange their societies. That great tool of thepeople must be protected from any and all", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "State intervention would crowd out privatefirms The imposition of a powerful state firmdominating the broadband market would serveto reduce the ability of private providers tocompete. The greater resources of the statewould be able to give it the power to dictate themarket, making it less attractive to privateinvestment. Creating a monopolistic providerwould be very dangerous considering that this isa sector upon which much of future nationaldevelopment relies. [1] Crowding out privatefirms will make them less inclined to invest innew technologies, while the state provider isunlikely to fill the gap, as traditionally stateutilities rely upon their power of incumbency andsize rather than seeking novel services. Anexample of this is Eircom which, when it was thestate utility, provided broadband of a lowerquality and at higher price than most privateproviders. The end result of state dominance andreduction of private competitors is a loss ofinnovation, a loss of price competition, and an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-dfaihbssp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The private sector will never be able to meet thedemands governments would make in order tobuild a working broadband network and thesubsequent smart grid because their profitmotives cannot internalize the social benefits ofthe new grids and technology. Unfortunately theprivate sector will only build the infrastructure inprofitable densely populated areas neglectingrural areas. The state must therefore fill the gap,either by subsidizing private firms to provideservice to unprofitable areas, or to service themitself. Furthermore, it can provide the servicemore freely and more fairly in order to guaranteethat citizens get the services they deserve andneed to succeed in the 21st century.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Collaboration in editing does not encouragedemocratic principles, but merely privileges theloudest voice, or in this case, the most regularuser. As such, creating knowledge by consensusis inherently flawed. A fact is not true simplybecause lots of people think so. Traditionalencyclopaedias are written and edited byacademics and professional experts, whosereputation is put on the line by the articles theyproduce. They have the credentials and expertisethat give them the authority to write withoutrequiring widespread communal feedback.However, anyone can write a Wikipedia article,regardless of how much or how little knowledgehe or she has of the subject. Worse yet, becausecontributors are effectively anonymous, it isimpossible to assess the quality of an article onan unfamiliar topic by assessing the credentialsof those who have produced it. Collaboration,therefore, becomes a barrier to the provision ofreliable, accurate and up-to-date information.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Collaboration in editing encourages democraticprinciples The process of collaboration requiredto create and maintain an up-to-date, factualsource of information encourages democraticpractices and principles. Wikipedia seeks toachieve its democratic goal of the spread of free,open material by democratic means. As anopen-source project it relies upon thecollaboration of tens of thousands of people whoconstantly add, check and edit articles.Disagreements and disputes are sent up the lineto moderators, who oversee the editing process.This “socialisation of expertise” as DavidWeinberger puts it [1] ensures that errors andomissions are rapidly identified and correctedand that the site is constantly and accuratelyupdated. No traditional encyclopaedia can matchthis scrutiny. Indeed, “Wikipedia has thepotential to be the greatest effort in collaborativeknowledge gathering the world has ever known,and it may well be the greatest effort involuntary collaboration of any kind.” [2] Not only", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Wikipedia is a common starting point forenquiries, but not because it is excellent; it hasbecome a standard source of reference becauseit is free and easy to access. Wikipedia, throughits popularity, is often the first search resultfound when using public search engines likeGoogle, which draws users to its informationregardless of the reliability that other sourcesmay offer. Many of its users are students, withtoo little experience to ascertain the quality of anarticle but anxious to find the quickest andostensibly most efficient path to the informationthey require. Overdependence on Wikipediameans that students in particular never developproper research skills and increasingly acceptthat an approximately right answer is goodenough. [1] , [2] Middlebury College’s historydepartment even banned students from citingWikipedia in papers, [3] and Wikipedia founderJimmy Wales himself has asserted that changesto Wikipedia are necessary to make it a suitableresource for college students. [4] , [5] [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Wikipedia models, in an accessible form, theprocess of knowledge creation throughwriting. hrough the process by which its articlesare constructed, Wikipedia supports “notions ofrevision, collaboration, and authority” that manyacademics value and helps to make visible theknowledge-making process. [1] With itsDiscussion and History pages, Wikipediaillustrates the peer review process academicwriting goes through as well as the iterative,recursive nature of public writing. Thus, it candisabuse students of the notion that good writinghappens in isolation in one sitting. Therefore,Wikipedia can be an excellent teaching tool. [2][3] [1] Purdy, J. P. (2009). When the tenets ofcomposition go public: A study of writing inWikipedia.” College Composition andCommunication 61(2), W351-W373. RetrievedMay 9, 2012. [2] Wilson, M. A. (2008, April 1).Professors should embrace Wikipedia. RetrievedApril 1, 2008, from Inside Higher Ed. [3] Lundin,R. W. (2008). Teaching with wikis: Toward a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Wikipedia provides free, open access toknowledge Wikipedia exists to provide free,open and easy access to information andknowledge. Its goal is to ‘distribute a freeencyclopedia to every single person on theplanet in their own language, and to anastonishing degree (it) is succeeding’. [1] Italready has over 3.5 million articles in Englishalone. [2] This is more than ten times those ofEncyclopaedia Britannica, its nearest printedrival. Traditionally, reference works were veryexpensive, which meant previously thatknowledge was restricted to the wealthy, orthose with access to well-funded public libraries.Wikipedia liberates that knowledge and providesvolumes of online information to anyone withaccess to a computer, or even a smartphone,and the internet. Its impact is only restrained bythe reach of internet providers and the desire ofpeople to learn. Users do not need to be able toafford particular print objects but can accesscontents of Wikipedia from any location with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Wikipedia does not provide free, open access toknowledge, for it only applies to those whoalready have access to both a computer andinternet access. Furthermore, since very fewcomputer retailers or internet service providersare willing to provide their services free ofcharge, to declare Wikipedia free isdisingenuous; there are substantial chargesbefore Wikipedia can be utilized. Moreover whileWikipedia may provide free open access toknowledge this is mostly for those who speakEnglish. Those who need this resource are thosewho speak much smaller languages but as yetWikipedia is not a good resource in theselanguages. The Punjabi Wikipedia only has 3,000articles [1] despite it being a language with morethan sixty million speakers. [2] . Lastly, whilstWikipedia has advantages over traditional printencyclopaedias, tangible objects have theadvantage of never going offline and thereforebeing able to provide their informationconstantly. [1] Wikimedia. (2012). List of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Wikipedia may document the process of creationof encyclopaedia articles, but it does notillustrate the kind of research-writing we shouldbe teaching students. Academic peer review islimited to expert readers. While expert readerscan participate in Wikipedia, their voices areoften drowned out by the less knowledgeablemasses. Moreover, Wikipedia discouragesappropriate source use and citation practices.Not only do students frequently plagiarize fromWikipedia, [1] but they also plagiarize incontributing to it. [2] [1] Nagel, D. (2011,November 3). Wikipedia tops list of plagiarizedsources. Retrieved May 9, 2012, from THEJournal. [2] Sormunen, E., & Lehtio, L.(2011, December). Authoring Wikipedia articlesas an information literacy assignment:Copy-pasting or expressing new understandingin one’s own words. Information Research 16(4).Retrieved April 27, 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "No organisation can succeed in being completelyneutral and unbiased as is shown by the numberof complaints the BBC, which is obliged to beimpartial in political matters, [1] gets about biason issues ranging from politics, [2] [3] to Israel,[4] [5] to climate change. [6] Similarly Wikipediacan be criticised for its inbuilt bias, intolerant ofdissenting views. Even Wikipedians themselvesacknowledge that its topic coverage is slanted.[7] Religious conservatives object to the secularliberal approach its editors consistently take andhave found that their attempts to add balance toentries are swiftly rejected. This bias evenextends to the censorship of facts which raisequestions about the theory of evolution. Someconservatives are so worried about thewidespread use of Wikipedia to promote a liberalagenda in education that they have set upConservapedia as a rival source of information.[8] [1] BBC. (2012). BBC Charter andAgreement. Retrieved May 16 2012, from theBBC. [2] Helm, Toby. (2011, December 31).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Wikipedia is an excellent starting point forenquiries Wikipedia pools information thatpreviously was spread far and wide in cyberspaceinto one readily accessible location. Enquiries willnot and should not end at Wikipedia, but itprovides accessible background information aswell as links to additional research andpublication on a topic and is, therefore, anobvious starting point. [1] Nobody at Wikipediahas claimed that it is a definitive account ofhuman knowledge or a replacement for in-depthresearch. But it gives a quick guide to anunknown subject and points the enquirer on tomore specialist sources. It is used to good effectby students, teachers, journalists and evenjudges, among many others – showing it is avalued reference source. Experienced users canquickly assess the quality of an article from itswritten quality and the thoroughness of itsreferences, so they need not accept its contentout of hand. Nothing on the internet should everbe accepted uncritically, but Wikipedia has", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Wikipedia enshrines the principle of freedom ofinformation A key principle for Wikipedia is topresent information as neutrally as possible. Thishas led to Wikipedia being banned in China, afterJimmy Wales refused to censor articles to makethe site acceptable to the Chinese government.[1] Wikipedia, thus, epitomizes the principle thatall should have access to the necessaryinformation required not just to live, but alsoenjoy and cherish our lives. As such, Wikipedia isnot threatened by variants and rivals that alsoseek to promote freedom of knowledge becauseit views them as partners to a mutual goal, notrivals. Its founder, Jimmy Wales, readilyacknowledges it will eventually be superseded byanother way of sharing knowledge on a masslevel. [2] [1] Revill, D. S. (2006, September10). Wikipedia defies China's censors. RetrievedMay 11, 2011, from The Observer [2] Barnett,E. (2009, November 17). Jimmy Walesinterview: Wikipedia is focusing on accuracy.Retrieved May 11, 2011, from The Telegraph.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Wikipedia does offer a better service, notnecessarily in terms of the quality of information,but in terms of the depth, breadth andaccessibility of information. Enquiries will not andshould not end at Wikipedia, but it providesaccessible background information as well aslinks to additional research and publication on atopic and is, therefore, an obvious starting point.[1] Nobody at Wikipedia has claimed that it is adefinitive account of human knowledge or areplacement for in-depth research. But it gives aquick guide to an unknown subject and pointsthe enquirer on to more specialist sources. It isused to good effect by students, teachers,journalists and even judges, among many others– showing it is a valued reference source.Experienced users can quickly assess the qualityof an article from its written quality and thethoroughness of its references, so they need notaccept its content out of hand. Nothing on theinternet should ever be accepted uncritically, butWikipedia has earned its reputation as a valuable", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Studies indicate that the information onWikipedia is, in fact, accurate. The onlysystematic comparison of Wikipedia’s qualityagainst its leading traditional rival, theEncyclopaedia Britannica, showed Wikipedia tobe of similar accuracy. A survey in the leadingjournal Nature compared 42 pairs of articles on awide range of science subjects. [1] Experts ineach topic found that Wikipedia’suser-contributed articles had only 30% moreerrors and omissions overall than Britannica,despite the latter’s much vaunted pride in itsexpert authors and editors. And as Wikipedia is aconstant work-in-progress, these faults werequickly corrected, whereas a traditionalpublication like Britannica will only revise articlesat intervals of years, if not decades, if they everdo. So, over time, errors in traditionalencyclopaedias persist longer than inWikipedia. [1] Giles, J. (2005, December 15).Special Report: Internet encyclopaedias go headto head. Retrieved May 11, 2011, from Nature", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Entries are too easily manipulated Wikipediaentries are far too easily manipulated due to theease at which they can be edited and the lack ofofficial or authoritative oversight. Wikipedia istherefore subject to the worst qualities ofhumanity – as is shown by a number of scandalsaffecting the site. Entries can be deliberatelyvandalised for comic effect (as happens everyApril Fool’s Day), for commercial gain, or formore insidious purposes of libel or insult. Someof these deliberate errors are picked up andcorrected quickly, but others exist on the site forlong periods. Notoriously, respected journalistJohn Siegenthaler was libelled in an almost solelyfictitious addition to an article that was was notdetected for months. [1] Recently one verysenior editor was exposed as a college drop-out,rather than the distinguished professor oftheology he had claimed to be. [2] Suchexamples seem to confirm the doubts of LarrySanger, the original project coordinator forWikipedia. He has since left Wikipedia and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Wikipedia threatens the academic enterprise. IfWikipedia is taken to be an accurate resource,then the academic expertise is threatenedbecause anyone can produce “correct”knowledge. Though academics can continue toparticipate in this work, they are not essential.Normal, ordinary people can do as good a job.Not only does relying on Wikipedia (incorrectly)make academics seem unnecessary, itproliferates the misinformation that academicwork seeks to combat. Overdependence onWikipedia means that students never developproper research skills and come to believe thatan approximately right answer is good enough.[1] Free, open access to huge swathes ofinformation is a threat to both good research andthe teaching of good research-writing skills. [2]Middlebury College’s history department evenfelt so strongly about Wikipedia’s negativeinfluence that in 2007 it banned students fromciting Wikipedia in papers. [3] [1] Graham, L.,& Metaxas, P. T. (2003, May). “Of course", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Wikipedia lacks the necessary coverage One ofthe major problems with Wikipedia is that it hasvery patchy coverage. Traditional referencesources provide consistent coverage over thewhole field of knowledge, with priority given tothe most important topics in terms of space andthoroughness of treatment. By contrast,Wikipedia has very detailed coverage of topics inwhich its main contributors are interested, butweak material on other, much more importantissues. [1] Thus, there is, for example, muchmore on the imaginary language of Klingon thanthere is on the life and philosophy of JohnLocke. [1] Why Wikipedia is not so great.Retrieved November 14, 2004, from Wikipedia.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Wikipedia is driving high-quality encyclopaediasout of business, without offering a betterservice. By providing its articles for “free,”Wikipedia will drive traditional, high-qualityencyclopaedias out of business by destroyingtheir business model. Indeed the traditional printversion of the Encyclopaedia Britannica hasalready been discontinued with the focuschanging to the online version after sales haddeclined from 120,000 in 1990 to only 8000 in2010. [1] Wikipedia may make articles availablefor nothing to those with access to the internet(still only a minority of people in the world), butmany of these articles are not worth reading.The cost of a traditional encyclopaedia may behigh, but it pays for articles written, checked andedited by experts and professionals. Even on theinternet there is no such thing as a free lunch:people have to pay for internet access andcomputers. If Wikipedia makes it harder forordinary people to access reliable information,then the world will be a poorer place. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con05b", "title": "", "text": "“If we see the ongoing evolution of informationin public spheres as a part of scholarly work . . .Wikipedia can enrich, extend, and enliven, ratherthan threaten, the scholarly enterprise.” [1]Wikipedia encourages more people, includingstudents, to participate in scholarly work byasking them to edit and respond to its articles. Inthis way, it makes scholarly work more visibleand accessible. Wikipedia integrates researchand writing in productive ways in the service ofknowledge production, which educators canexploit to teach students. [2] Wikipediatransforms people from passive users of webcontent to active producers of it. [3] [1] Purdy,J. P. (2009). When the tenets of composition gopublic: A study of writing in Wikipedia.” CollegeComposition and Communication, 61(2),W351-W373. Retrieved May 9, 2012. [2] Purdy,J. P. (2010). The changing space of research:Web 2.0 and the integration of research andwriting environments. Computers andComposition, 27(1), 48-58. [3] Bruns, Axel.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The information is not accurate and sometimesundermined by poor writing Wikipedia hasbecome a standard source of reference becauseit is free and easy to access, not because itprovides quality, accurate information. While a2005 Nature comparison of Wikipedia andBritannica found that the online and printencyclopaedias were both inaccurate, [1] theNature study itself was badly skewed, andBritannica disputed nearly half the errors oromissions for which it was criticised. [2] On thisbasis, Wikipedia is not just 30% less accuratethan Britannica; it would be two and a half timesless reliable. Comedian Stephen Colbert haseven publicly skewered Wikipedia for itsinaccuracy. [3] In addition, the Nature studytook no account of the written quality of thesubmissions under comparison. All of Britannica’sentries are edited carefully to ensure they arereadable, clear and an appropriate length. Muchof Wikipedia’s material is a cobbled togetherfrom different contributions and lacks clarity. [4]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Wikipedia is a service that offers informationwhere it is felt most necessary. If there is moreinformation on the imaginary language ofKlingon than the works of John Locke, forexample, that is because more people want toread and learn about Klingon or are unable tofind the information they desire elsewhere. Inthis way, Wikipedia is responsive to audiencedesires and needs. As such, there are fewshortcomings in Wikipedia’s coverage. If Lockewas to come into vogue, then undoubtedly hispage would soon expand to meet that demand.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-ifakhbwfg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Entries are not easily or wantonly manipulated.Wikipedia harnesses the best qualities ofhumanity – trust and cooperation in pursuit of anunselfish goal. Sceptics essentially take anegative view of society, unable to understandwhy people would club together to producesomething so valuable without any financialincentive. [1] Wikipedia is not naïvely trusting.The majority of entries are written by a closeonline community of a few hundred people whovalue their reputations. Examples of abuse haveled Wikipedia to tighten up its rules so that cybervandals can easily be detected and editing ofcontroversial topics restricted to the mosttrusted editors. Overall, Wikipedia is atremendous human success story, which shouldbe celebrated rather than criticised. [1] Ciffolilli,A. (2003). Phantom authority, self-selectiverecruitment and retention of members in virtualcommunities: The case of Wikipedia. FirstMonday 8(12). Retrieved April 27, 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Inefficient or not, artists should have the right toretain control of their creations. Even if they arenot making any money out of it, they still havethe right, and often the desire, to maintaincontrol of the way their art is used. If artists donot desire such control, they can opt to releasetheir works into the public domain, while allowingthose who do not wish to do so to protect theirwork.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Lengthy copyright protection is extremelyinefficient for the dissemination of works Only atiny fraction of copyrighted works ever becomemassive successes, breeding the riches of a JKRowling or the like. Far more often, artists onlymake modest profits from their artistic works. Infact, almost all income from copyright comesimmediately after publication of a work. [1]Ultimately, copyright serves to protect a workfrom being used, while at the same time thatwork does little to benefit the original artist.Freeing up availability of artistic works muchfaster would serve to benefit consumers in theextreme, who could now enjoy the works for freeand engage in the dissemination andreexamination of the works. If artists care abouthaving their work seen and appreciated, theyshould realize that they are best served byreduced copyright. Ultimately, long copyrightstend only to benefit corporations that buy uplarge quantities of work, and exploit it afterartists’ deaths. Notably when the United States", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The problems associated with “orphan works”can be sorted out separate from limitingcopyright length. It simply demands a closerattention from executors and legal professionalsto sort these issues out. In terms of availability,it must be up to the artist to release the work ashe or she sees fit. Encouraging artists and theirsuccessors to release their works into the publicdomain could go a long way to solving thisproblem without recourse to adulterating existingprotections.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Overlong copyright protection stifles thecreativity and saps the time of artists In someinstances, when artists achieve success they facethe enervating impulse that their achievementbrings. They become satisfied and complacentwith what they have, robbing them of theirdemiurgic drive. Worse, and more frequently,successful artists become embroiled in defendingtheir work from pirates, downloaders, and otherdenizens of the internet. The result is artistswasting time in court, fighting lawsuits that sapthem of time to actually focus on creating newworks. Artists should be incentivized to lookforward, not spend their time clinging to whatthey have already made. Obviously, they have aright to profit from their work to an extent, whichis why a certain, reduced length of copyright isstill important. But clearly the current length isfar too great as artists retain their copyright untiltheir death and many years after. Moreover oncethe artist has died it is difficult to see howcopyright can be considered to be enhancing or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The artistic drive to create is rarely stifled byhaving been successful. Individuals deserve toprofit from their success and to retain control ofwhat they create in their lifetime, as much as thefounder of a company deserves to own what heor she creates until actively deciding to part withit. However, even patents, novel creations inthemselves, have far less protection thancopyright. While most patents offer protection fora total of twenty years, copyright extends farbeyond the life of its creator, a gross overstretchof the right of use. [1] [1] Posner, Richard A.,“Patent Trolls Be Gone”, Slate, 15 October 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "While there is value in other artists exploringtheir own creativity by means of others’ work, itdoes not give them an overriding right. Rather,artists should have a meaningful control overhow their art is disseminated and viewed in theworld, as it is ultimately their creation.Furthermore, the protections copyright affordsmeans that the responses that do arise must bemore creative and novel in and of themselves,and not simply hackneyed riffing on existingwork. This helps to benefit the arts by ensuringthat there is regular innovation and change.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Long copyrights serve to severely limit access bythe public to creative works Because copyrightsare so long, they often result in severely limitingaccess to some works by anyone. Many “orphanworks”, whose copyright holders are unknown,cannot be made available online or in other freeformat due to copyright protection. This is amajor problem, considering that 40% of allbooks fall into this category. [1] A mix ofconfusion over copyright ownership andunwillingness of owners to release their works,often because it would not be commerciallyviable to do so, means that only 2% of all workscurrently protected by copyright arecommercially available. [2] The public is robbedof a vast quantity of artistic work, often simplybecause no one can or is willing to publish iteven in a commercial context. Reducingcopyright length would go a long way to freeingthis work for public consumption. [1] Keegan, V.“Shorter Copyright Would Free Creativity”. TheGuardian. 7 October 2009, [2] ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Long copyright stifles creative responses to andre-workings of the original work Artisticcreations, be they books, films, paintings, etc.serve as a spark for others to explore their owncreativity. Much of the great works of art of the20th century, like Disney films reworking ancientfairy tales, were reexaminations of existingworks. [1] That is the nature of artisticendeavor, and cutting it off by putting a fencearound works of art serves to cut off manyavenues of response and expression. Whencopyright is too long, the work passes beyondthe present into a new status quo other than thatin which it was made. This means contemporaryresponses and riffs on works are very difficult, oreven impossible. In the United States toughcopyright law has prevented the creation of aDJ/remix industry because the costs of suchremixing is prohibitive. [2] While a certain lengthof copyright is important, it is also critical for theexpression of art to develop that it occur within anot overlong time. Furthermore, it is valuable for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The vast majority of artistic output results inhaving little lifelong, let alone postmortemeconomic value. Most artists glean all they aregoing to get out of their art within a couple yearsof its production, and the idea that it will sustaintheir families is silly. In the small number ofcases of phenomenally successful artists, theyusually make enough to sustain themselves andfamily, but even still, the benefits accrued tooutliers should not be sufficient reason tosignificantly slow the pace of artistic progressand cross-pollination of ideas. Besides, in anyother situation in which wealth is bequeathed,that money must have been earned already.Copyright is a bizarre construct that allows forthe passing on of the right to accrue futurewealth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Copyright would still exist, and the artist is ableto profit from it, even if the length of copyright isreduced. People deserve recompense, but thestifling force of current laws make for negativeoutcomes. It would be better to strike a moreappropriate balance, allowing artists to profitwhile they can, which in practice is only duringthe first few years after their work’s release, andat the same time allowing the art to reach thepublic sphere and to interact with it in fullerfashion.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Control of an artistic work and its interaction inthe public sphere is the just province of thecreator and his or her designatedsuccessors The creator of a piece of copyrightedmaterial has brought forth a novel concept andproduct of the human mind. That artist thusshould have a power over that work’s use. Art isthe expression of its creator’s sense ofunderstanding of the world, and thus thatexpression will always have special meaning tohim or her. How that work is then used thusremains an active issue for the artist, whoshould, as a matter of justice be able to retain acontrol over its dissemination. That control canextend, as with the bequeathing of tangibleassets, to designated successors, be the trusts,family, or firms. In carrying out the wishes of theartist, these successors can safeguard thatlegacy in their honor. Many artists care abouttheir legacies and the future of their artisticworks, and should thus have this protectionfurnished by the state through the protection of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The promise of copyright protection galvanizespeople to develop creative endeavors Theincentive to profit drives a great deal of people’sintellectual endeavours. Without the guaranteeof ownership over one’s artistic work, theincentive to invest in its creation is significantlydiminished. Within a robust copyright system,individuals feel free to invest time in theirpursuits because they have full knowledge thatthe fruits of their efforts will be theirs to reap.[1] With these protections the marginal cases,like people afraid to put time into actually writinga novel rather than doing more hours at theirjob, will take the opportunity. Even if the numberof true successes is very small in the whole ofartistic output, the chance of riches and famecan be enough for people to make the gamble. Iftheir work were to quickly leave their control,they would be less inclined to do so.Furthermore, the inability of others to simplyduplicate existing works as their own means theytoo will be galvanized to break ground on new", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Artists often rely on copyright protection tosupport dependents and family after, includingafter they are dead Artists may rely on theircreative output to support themselves. This iscertainly no crime, and existing copyright lawsrecognize this fact. Artists rarely have pensionsof the sort that people in other professions haveas they are rarely employed by anyone for morethan a short period. [1] As a result artists whodepend on their creations for their wherewithallook to their art and copyright as a guaranteedpension, a financial protection they can rely oneven if they are too old to continue artistic orother productive work for their upkeep. Theyalso recognize the need of artists to be able tosupport their dependents, many of whom toorely on the artist’s output. In the same wayfinancial assets like stocks can be bequeathed topeople for them to profit, so too must copyrightbe. Copyright is a very real asset and financialprotection that should be sustained for the sakeof artists’ financial wellbeing and that of their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Artists deserve to profit from their work andcopyright provides just recompense Artistsgenerating ideas and using their effort toproduce an intangible good, be it a new song,painting, film, etc. have a property right overthose ideas and the products that arise fromthem. It is the effort to produce a real good,albeit an intangible one, that marks thedifference between an idea in someone’s headthat he or she does not act upon, and an artisticcreation brought forth into the world. Developingnew inventions, songs, and brands are all veryintensive endeavours, taking time, energy, andoften a considerable amount of financialinvestment, if only from earnings forgone in thetime necessary to produce the work. Artistsdeserve as a matter of principle to benefit fromthe products of the effort of creation. [1] For thisreason, robbing individuals of lifelong andtransferable copyright is tantamount to stealingan actual physical product. Each is a real thing,even if one can be touched while the other is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Artists generally desire to create, and will do sowhether there is financial incentive or not.Besides, many artists live and die in relativepoverty, [1] yet their experience seems to nothave put off people from pursuing art as aprofession and passion. The loss of a fewmarginal cases must be weighed against themassive losses to art in general, such as thehuge curtailment of exploration of and responseto existing works, which are often artisticallymeritorious in their own right, and also therendering unavailable of much of the artisticoutput of the world. [1] The Economist, “Art formoney’s sake”, 27 May 2004,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-iphwclcp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Once a piece of art enters the public sphere, ittakes on a character of its own as it is consumed,absorbed, and assimilated by other artists. It isimportant that art as a whole be able to thrive insociety, but this is only possible when artists areable to make use of, and actively reinterpret andutilize existing works. This can only be furtheredby a significant reduction in length of copyrightprotections. It is also disingenuous to suggestthat the artist’s work is not itself the product ofexposure to other artists’ work. All art is aresponse, even if only laterally, to the previoustraditions. While those who gain a copyright getit because of a ‘novel concept’ it is open toquestion just how novel this has to be. A painterwho paints a new painting in a style never seenbefore may well still be using oil and canvas justas thousands of artists have in the past.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Western states, like all states, owe their primaryresponsibility to their own citizens, not those in adistant land claiming to be striving for commonnotions of rights. It is difficult for Western statesto ascertain the actual motivations of the body ofrisers in any given scenario, let alone themotivations of specific individuals utilizing thetechnology. The West is not necessarily aidingseekers after freedom by providing thistechnology, but may rather be abetting crimesand violence worse than the regime beingchallenged. The nature of the technology is thatit would have to be indiscriminate, making itunsuited to the task of aiding in the liberation ofoppressed peoples.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Western states have a duty to aid those strivingfor the ideals they cherish The West stands asthe symbol of liberal democracy to which manypolitical dissidents aspire in emulation. It is also,as a broad group, the primary expounder,propagator, and establisher of concepts andpractices pertaining to human rights, both withinand without their borders. The generation anddissemination of anonymity software intocountries that are in the midst of, or are movingtoward, uprising and revolution is critical toallowing those endeavours to succeed. Thisobligation still attains even when the technologydoes not yet exist, in the same way that theWest often feels obligated to fund research intodeveloping vaccines and other treatments forspecifically external use, thus in 2001 the UnitedStates spent $133million on AIDS researchthrough the National institutes of Health. 1 TheWest thus has a clear duty to make someprovision for getting that software to the peoplethat need it, because it can secure the primary", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "All software can be hacked, even with cruderhardware and software. The ability of Chinesehackers to undermine businesses’ advancedfirewalls in the United States, havingdemonstrated a potent ability to penetrateseveral major media companies. 1 Productsmade in the West with government subsidy willjust have a bloated price tag thanks to the extracosts of production in the West, and thetendency to overrun costs that tends to occurwhen government is involved. The incentive maynot even be enough to persuade many softwarecompanies to work on such a project, as they willwish to maintain their markets in authorotarianstates such as China which such an innitiativewould annoy. China in particular has a history ofblacklisting and retaliating against companiesthat are involved in activities that it sees asbeing against its national interests. 1 Pakzad, X.“Depth of Cyber Attacks from Chinese Hackerson American News Outlets”. IVN. 9 February2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Anonymity software helps to guaranteeprotection for people involved in uprisings Thepast few years have been marked by anexplosion of uprisings around the world,particularly in the Middle East, North Africa, andArab world generally. These uprisings have allbeen marked by the extensive and pervasive useof social media and social networking tools, likeTwitter, BlackBerry Mobile, and other platforms.The Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia, for example,wherein people mobilized to overthrow theirdictator has even been called the TwitterRevolution after the huge number of peopleusing that platform to lead and chronicle thesuccessful uprising. 1 It was the sophistication ofphysical surveillance technology and theresourcefulness of the security forces that forceddissenters onto the internet, which quicklybecame, prior to the start of large scaledemonstrations, the primary mode of expressingdiscontent with governments. But the internet isno safe haven, and technology has caught up,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "First it is wrong to simply assume that this willguarantee protection for people involved inuprisings. Previous attempts at providingsoftware to help dissenters have had securityvulnerabilities that could have allowed theregime to expose its users identities. This wasthe case with Haystack a tool that was meant tokeep users anonymous during the failed greenrevolution in Iran. 1 Second providinganonymity and thus snubbing the regimes thatsurvive uprisings means those states will be lesswilling to envision working with the West towardreforms. When an uprising occurs clearlysomething needs to change. But when the Westis putting such undue pressure on a government,it will not react in a way that would benefit thecivil rights of the people. Operating from aposition of weakness, it will seek to retrench itsstrength, through force if necessary. Anonymitymeans little in this scenario, as governments cansimply round up all participants in protests andenact harsh punishments to deter future acts. 1", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Whether the West thinks it is being clever byhiding behind the intermediary of privatecompanies and acting as if the software they arecreating is not for use in destabilizingundemocratic, or perhaps just unfriendly,regimes, that story will not fly on the ground. Ifthe west wants to support uprisings then it isbetter for it to do so in the open. Without openwestern support authoritarian regimes will feelthey are enabled to crack down on uprisingswhen they occur. When such crackdowns occurdemocratic states can either stay silent and sotacitly endorse the regime or condemn it sosupporting the uprising.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Incentives are the best way to produce effective,affordable software The West has clear reasonsto seek to provide the software necessary foranonymity to people involved in uprisings, and ithas the means. Western countries are the mostadvanced technologically and have been theleaders in creating and developing the internetand thus they are best suited to producing anddisseminating this technology. Firstly, as theyare more advanced in software development, theproducts they distribute will be much moredifficult for the target regimes’ to hack or subvertto their own advantage, or at least significantlymore difficult to than were it produced in anyother locale. 1 Secondly, the efficient productionof software requires special industry clusters.These exist almost exclusively in the West.Silicon Valley, for example is the high techcapital of the world, and were companies thereincentivized to produce software for theparticipants of uprisings it would be a simplematter of efficient distribution, which these firms", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "It is a means of vocalizing support for uprisingsand liberty at a remove, preventing the backlashof direct intervention By enacting this subsidy,the West makes a tacit public statement infavour of those involved in uprisings withoutcoming out and publicly taking a side. This is ashrewd position to take as it blunts many of thefall-backs opposed regimes rely upon, such asblaming Western provocateurs for instigating theuprising. Rather than making a judgment callinvolving force or sanction, the simple provisionof anonymity means the people involved in theuprisings can do it themselves while knowingthey have some protections to fall back on thatthe West alone could provide. This is a purelyenabling policy, giving activists on the groupaccess to the freedom of information andexpression, which aids not only in their aim tofree themselves from tyranny, but also abets theWest’s efforts to portray itself publicly as aproponent of justice for all, not just those ithappens to favour as a geopolitical ally. In", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "In an uprising the government is going to try tolevel lots of accusations. Some will stick, somewill not. In this case the government has a touchmore ammunition on the anti-Western front, butthis is entirely overwhelmed by the boon ofprotecting the leaders and organizers, who are atgreatest risk using the social media needed tocoordinate the uprising, and are the mostessential to a successful outcome. The benefitsof providing anonymity clearly outweigh thetangential costs of giving a bit more mud to thegovernment to sling.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Regimes will paint everyone as looters anddisturbers of order irrespective of anonymity.This software changes that status quo by offeringthe political dissidents, the real people regimeswill be trying to root out during and in theaftermath of uprisings, a means of not fallingimmediately foul of the state security forces.They are the people that need protection in thisscenario because it is on them that the successof the uprising and its ideals rest.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Clandestine aid to dissidents will serve toalienate and close off discourse on policy Reformin oppressive regimes, or ones that have lessthan stellar democratic and human rights recordsthat might precipitate an uprising, is often slowin coming, and external pressures are generallylooked upon with suspicion. The most effectiveway for Western countries to effect change is toengage with repressive regimes and toencourage them to reform their systems. By notdirectly antagonizing, but instead trading,talking, and generally building ties withcountries, Western states can put to full use theirmassive economic power and political capital togood use in coaxing governments toward reform.1 Peaceful evolution toward democracy results infar less bloodshed and instability, and shouldthus be the priority for Western governmentsseeking to change the behaviour of states.Militant action invariably begets militantresponse. And providing a mechanism for armedand violent resistance to better evade the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Western businesses will be forced out of lucrativemarkets The Western firms being incentivized toproduce and distribute this software will requireat least some market penetration to be able toreach these dissidents. This means they havebusiness interests in these countries that maywell be important to their own bottom line and tojobs back home. Putting these relationships andlong-standing business arrangements at riskthrough a risky gamble like software specificallyto help rebels is foolhardy. When regimes thatare the target of these efforts get wind of theseefforts, they will no doubt sever ties, damaginglong term business interests, which is particularlydamaging considering it is in authoritarianregimes like China and Vietnam that technologycompanies see the greatest room for growth. 1The illusory benefits of catalysing regime changeare far outweighed by the huge potentialbusiness costs. Furthermore, the ability ofbusinesses to help effect change in thesecountries is hampered by this policy. It is the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Aiding of the agents of chaos will allow thegovernment to discredit the uprisings as beinginstigated and abetted by the West The fact thatdissidents can be conflated with other riotersgives real power to the government to discreditthe uprising. Firstly, they can report the riotingand looting in tandem with the uprising, as theyhide behind anonymity, making it difficult toascertain specific agents and their directives.Secondly, the regime can identify the West asthe instigator of the unrest. This is what Iran’sleaders did during the Green Revolution, when itblamed the foreign tools of dissent like Twitterand other social media for aiding in the rebelprotests. 1 This two-pronged attack can be usedto drive a wedge between the general public andthe leaders and primary agents of dissentseeking to build a broad base of support, anecessary prerequisite for an uprising tosucceed. While anonymity gives some ability forindividual leaders to hide themselves in thecrowd, they lose their moral authority and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Justice demands that those who seek actualpolitical redress be sorted from opportunisticmarauders The technology of anonymity canhave the effect of providing needed security todissidents seeking to make their country a betterplace, but it is just as likely to provide cover forthe violent opportunists that arise in the midst ofthe chaos. When the state is unable to locate theculprits, and even to sort between those who aredissidents from those who are mere criminals,everyone involved gets blamed for the worstexcesses of the chaos, discrediting the peoplewith legitimate claims. Anonymity is a dangeroustool to give anyone, but particularly so in thecontext of violent uprising where it can be takenup by anyone. All governments, evenauthoritarian ones, have a right to defend theircitizens from violent criminals capitalizing onmayhem. Western governments only make thecause of justice, often a tenuous one in thesecountries, all the more likely to go undefended,as governments are forced to clamp down on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Engagement will still occur. The software existsto aid in uprisings, which is the endpoint of theregime, or at least a signal of its imminentchange. It is a play that Western governmentsshould back on a human as well as political level.The subsidies and incentives, furthermore, canbe sufficient to compensate companies if thingsdo indeed go sour. This would be expected, infact, since the companies, acting rationally willhave to be coaxed into producing and supplyingthis technology.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwiwcb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is often not enough simply to encouragegradual change, many states when given suchencouragement simply take what the west offersand ignores what the west asks. This indeed wasthe case with Mubarak's Egypt for three decades,it took billions in aid from the United States yetdid not reform, the U.S. even strengthened theregime by respecting restrictions on which NGOscould get funding. 1 If people are able to act andorganize with more limited government reprisal,their chance of success is significantly increased.The incentive of the West should be to bet on thedissidents when they rise up and to take thegamble so that they can welcome a new, freerregime into the congress of nations. 1 Bery, S.,“Roots of Discontent: Egypt's Call for Freedom”,Harvard Kennedy School Review, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "By creating celebrities in the first place themedia is often creating artificial demand for suchstories; it is too simplistic to suggest that suchstories are what the public wants in light of this.There will, however, always be a fascination inlearning intimate details about the lives of thepowerful and famous, but this should not be areason to deny public figures the right to privacythat the rest of us enjoy. The media likes toportray itself as an important pillar in society anddemocracy, and while in some respects it is, byundermining the law by disregarding the right toprivacy the newspapers are in fact damagingtheir own justification for their existence. Theargument that many celebrities have courted themedia for their fame is a misnomer, it can oftenbe a bi-product of their career, why should theirlives be necessarily punished via having theirprivate lives scrutinized by the public justbecause it’s what the public may want?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "It’s what the public want to knowabout Newspapers are simply publishing thekind of stories the public want to read, it is noaccident that the best-selling newspapers in theUK are the tabloids which regularly publishstories into the private lives of celebrities andthat some of the highest rating news shows inthe US are loaded with celebrity gossip. TheNews of the World, which pushed the boundariesof intrusion right up to its closure in 2011, wasconsistently Britain’s most-read newspaper. [1]When you enter a career which is in the publicdomain, in particular those such as acting, whichoften requires courting the media to gainpublicity, it is well known that intrusion into yourprivate life may occur. It could even be arguedthat by entering such a profession you agree toforfeit your right to privacy as a condition ofentry. Thereafter, when success has been gainedvia manipulating the press it is hypocritical tocomplain of “press intrusion”. Celebrities shouldnot bemoan the media for simply providing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Much media reporting of private lives is not beingdone under a watchdog mandate but rather tosimply titillate the audience with gossip which isunnecessary for the public to know. Havingdistinct rules as to what can and cannot bereported is important to protect the lives ofpublic figures who are entitled to the same rightsas everyone else. Such firm distinctions betweenwhat is public and private and what can andcannot be reported will of course on occasionlimit the press from unveiling a story which maybe very important for the world to know about.However, on the whole, what such regulationwould do is ensure that the vast majority ofreporting which is of no use to the public and isbeing published at the detriment of someone’sprivate life is severely restricted, if noteliminated. This is the ethical thing to do as itensures that the right to privacy is universal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Those in power need to be held to account Allpeople that are considered public figures have, toone degree or another, the power to affectsociety; be it in an overt way via politics oreconomics or more subtly via changing peoples’perceptions of the world. These people need toheld to account and the media is the mosteffective way of doing this as normal people donot have the time or resources to scrutinizeeverything pubic figures are doing whereas themedia can. If the private lives of public figuresare conflicting with their actual public persona itis in the wider interest to reveal this. Forexample, in 2009 during the UK’s “MPs expensesscandal” it was revealed that some MPs, whoseresponsibility it is to create and review laws,were breaking their own tax laws in their privatelives. This clearly demonstrates a misuse of theirposition and deserves to be known. [1] Anothersuch example can be seen with golfer TigerWoods who was seen to represent excellenceand determination in sport and most importantly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Of course people need to be held to account andin some cases the publication of the privateaffairs of public figures can be justified.However, on the whole, most reporting into theprivate lives of public figures is simply gossipwhich the public has no need to know and isholding no-one to account. Instead it is oftensimply being used to sell media products. Thereare hundreds of examples which could be cited ofsuch intrusion, often involving actors/actressesand models which offer no real justification at allas to why they were printed. Printing storiesabout celebrities on holiday for example is notholding them to account or benefiting society inan actively positive way. This can also extend tothose in more traditional power roles. Is it in thepublic interest to know all the details about theprivate lives of politicians and CEOs if what isbeing reported does not have a direct effect ontheir role? For example Max Mosley, the nowex-president of the Fédération Internationale del'Automobile (FIA), a group which not only", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "No clear dividing line between public and privatecan be made. No clear dividing line can bedrawn between public and private behavior;drawing up rules would be arbitrary and wouldprevent some corrupt, dubious or dishonestbehavior from being exposed. For example,President Mitterrand of France hid his cancerfrom the French electorate for years. Was this apublic or a private matter? He also had amistress and illegitimate daughter, who weresecretly taken on some of his foreign visits atstate expense. [1] Again, is this a private or apublic matter? The creation of solid distinctionswould undermine the power of the press to carryout its watchdog role because in a scenariowhere such strict rules existed something in thepublic interest could be transpiring in the privatelives of public figures and the media powerless toreport it. [1] Allen-Mills, T. (2009) From TheArchive: Mitterrand’s Illegitimate Daughter isRevealed. [online] [accessed 14th July2011](paywall)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-con03b", "title": "", "text": "As previously stated upon entering a professionwhich involves being in the public limelight oneshould expect to be put under such stresses. Ifyou are publicly known, there will be a demandfor information about you and the media issimply obtaining stories which their readershipwish to consume. The Diana example was, as theopposition argument expresses, an extraordinarycase; one which is extremely rare and fromwhich lessons have been learnt. However thereare codes of ethics which all journalists sign upto which contain caveats to ensure that physicaland mental harm is kept to a minimum if inexistence at all. While on occasion a journalistcan fail to live up-to these ethics they are, on thewhole, well adhered to and in those instanceswhen not, professional sanctions often take placeto minimize such an issue from occurring again.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Whether or not a public figure has chosen to be arole model, once they become one then theyhave a moral duty to society to ensure theyrepresent all the things a good role modelshould. While a footballer may just want to be afootballer and simply reach the highest level inthe game, they have to accept that people at thetop of the sport are necessarily role models andit comes with the territory. In addition to this,many sporting personalities and others indifferent fields go on to promote organizations,either for charitable reasons or huge fees. If theirbehavior contradicts the message they arepromoting the public has a right to know this asit is a case of deceiving the public. Being a publicfigure in any of its guises should be seen as aspecial exception to the privacy law as theirsuccess is founded on communicating though themedia in one sense or another.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Unrestricted scrutiny into private lives could be adetriment to democracy Continual probing intothe private lives of public figures actually harmsthe functioning of democracy. Very few potentialpolitical candidates, for example, will haveentirely spotless private lives, free fromembarrassing indiscretions committed whileyoung and irresponsible. The prospect of fierceand unforgiving press scrutiny will thus determany from seeking public office and deny theirtalents to the public good. Those who do presentthemselves for election will therefore tend to berather unrepresentative individuals of apuritanical nature, whose views on sex, familylife, drugs to name but a few may be skewed andintolerant as a result. The sex scandals of ElliottSpitzer and Anthony Weiner, to use just NewYork politicians, are not therefore representativeof New York as a whole, but rather a system thatis only attractive to those who believe in theirown invincibility and potentially lack thenecessary humility to truly represent their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The media could be endangering peoples’ mentaland physical health. Pursuing stories regardingthe lives of public figures could be putting thehealth of the person being pursued and theirfamilies lives in danger. The most extreme andinfamous case of this would most arguably bethe events which are said to have contributed tothe untimely death of Princess Diana, wherebyher car crashed into the wall of a tunnel havingbeen pursued by tabloid journalists andpaparazzi seeking an ultimately trivial story.While this was an extraordinary event it doesshow the extent to which journalists have beenknown to pursue public figures for a story whichundoubtedly places stress on the targets andtheir families lives which could leave to bothhealth issues and psychological distress. [1] [1]Balakrishnan, A. (2008) Chauffeur and paparazzito blame for Diana death, jury finds.[online][accessed 14 May 2013]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Those in public positions deserve the sameprivacy rights as the general public Many publicfigures achieve celebrity status largely bymistake; it is a by-product of their pursuit ofsuccess in their particular field. For example,most professional footballers when young simplywanted to become the best player they could be,at the highest level they could reach. AsTottenham Hotspur Football Club defenderBenoit Assou-Ekotto has stated, he had no desireto end up in an office job he wasn’t suited to sofootball became the means to ensure he couldlive out his life comfortably. Expelled fromschool, he assumed the profession he wasnaturally good at, just as a naturalmathematician goes into engineering. [1] Theydo not wish to be “role models” and claim nospecial moral status, so why should their privatelives be subjected to such public scrutiny?Individuals who happen to be public figures stilldeserve the same rights to privacy as the rest ofus; simply because they may have a degree of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phbplpfsbop-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Many politicians in their campaigns make anexplicit or implicit point out of emphasizing theirfamily values and other aspects of their “private”life, for example by being photographed withtheir loyal family and through taking a stance onsuch issues as divorce, single mothers, sexeducation or drugs. If the public image suchpeople seek to create is at variance with theirown practices, such hypocrisy deserves to beexposed. This would not be to the detriment ofdemocracy but in fact may improve it as it wouldencourage future politicians to ensure that theylive by what they preach, rather than cynicallytrying to manipulate the media into creating afalse image of who they are only for it to befatally undermined by their own actions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The marketing programmes and collations haveover time become far more sophisticated andtextured in allocating ad space. While somepeople feel it a bit disconcerting that theircomputer seems to know what might interestthem, many others have found that the targetedadvertising has made the seeking out of desiredgoods and services far easier. And even if peoplefeel it is a bit alienating, it does not necessarilystop them from availing of the marketedservices. Nor does some people disliking itprovide a good reason for banning the practice.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Consumers tend to find these strategiesalienating Internet users have come tounderstand the nature of demographic andpersonal marketing, and have generally rejectedit. This is because they consider the wholeprocess invasive, with their personal detailsexploited to the profit of third party businessesseeking to peddle their wares. This has resultedin a substantial backlash against these forms ofmarketing, and built up prejudicial attitudestoward the companies that use these schemes,and the internet services that facilitate them.The facts of these attitudes have been borne outin a number of research studies, showing that asmuch as 66% of Americans do not want theirpersonal information used to tailor advertising tothem. [1] This has led to less than the desiredoutcome for marketers who rather thanexperiencing their sales increased efficientlythrough more targeted marketing alienate theirpotential customers. More than just invasive, thisform of marketing tends toward stereotypes,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The extent to which the online experience isaltered by targeted marketing is extremelylimited. Certainly they are less influential on howpeople interact with the internet than are searchengines’ own choices in search priorities. Theuser of Bing has a much more differentiatedexperience from the Google user, than doindividuals targeted by demographic-basedmarketing strategies. Ultimately, it does notmatter overmuch if people have somewhatdifferentiated experiences anyway as long asthose different experiences make the onlineexperience better.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "This advertising strategy undermines people’sright to personal privacy Targeted advertisingbased on profiles and demographic details is theproduct of information acquired in a fashion thatis fundamentally invasive of individuals’ privacy.When individuals go online they act as privateparties, often enjoying anonymity in theirpersonal activities. Yet online services collateinformation and seek to use it to marketproducts and services that are specificallytailored to those individuals. This means thatindividuals’ activities online are in factsusceptible to someone else’s interference andoversight, stealing from them the privacy andsecurity the internet has striven to provide. Atthe most basic level, the invasion of privacy thatcollating and using private data gleaned fromonline behaviour is unacceptable. [1] There is avery real risk of the information being misused,as the data can be held, Facebook for examplekeeps all information ever entered to the socialnetwork, [2] and even resold to third parties that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The data that is used in targeted marketing isfreely available online and can be protected inmany ways. The programmes that targetmarketing often do not ever gain real access toindividuals’ identities, but rather collate theirsearch details. It is highly unlikely that any ofthis information could be used to identify actualindividuals. Furthermore, the information inquestion is put into the public sphere byindividuals availing of online services and notguaranteed any form of special protection. Theyexist and are revealed in the public sphere, andbelong there. It is therefore wrong to say thatprivacy is being undermined by targetedadvertising.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Demographic/profile-based advertisingfundamentally alters the experience of theinternet for people of differentbackgrounds When the experience of theinternet differs between people because of theirbackgrounds and past activities, the position ofthe online experience as one free ofinformational prejudice is undermined. It isimportant that the internet and the sites andservices that float around it be as free fromexternal prejudicing that contemporary targetedmarketing creates. This marketing shapes at themost basic level the internet experience peopleinteract with, and as it differs between peoplethe quality of the universal service is diminishedin a way. [1] This is particularly problematicwhen that internet experience is designed todifferentiate between people of differingdemographic backgrounds, which serve only toheighten divisions between these groups. Theinternet should remain a neutral space. [1]Cartagena, R. “Online Tracking, Profiling and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The benefit to small firms is far outweighed bythe loss of privacy, something that the size offirms involved potentially makes worse. Smallercompanies are unlikely to have the sophisticateddata security that larger businesses do making itmore likely that the information will fall into thehands of individuals who wish to misuse it.Moreover if targeted advertising alienatesconsumers then those small firms who are ableto use such advertising may not be getting thefull benefit. While individuals may well enjoy thevarious smaller or niche services being offered,they often do not like having it shoved in theirfaces. Being put off can detract customers fromthese markets, preventing the flourishing ofniche market businesses desired. The strategy isjust too invasive and disconcerting. Furthermore,far from successfully hitting their markets all thetime, the programmes used to collate data relyon stereotypes and broad characterizations ofusers to try to reach their markets. This lack ofsophistication leads to further alienation by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Even if the services advertised are effective inproviding services that may interest them, thefundamental violation of privacy entailed incompiling personal search data is too serious adanger to people than the fleeting benefits thatthis sort of advertising might furnish. But thisform of advertising is often not as effective, sinceits reliance on programmes that stereotypedemographics can often result in misallocation ofadvertising. Furthermore, the discomfort peoplefeel at this advertising means they do not likeexperiencing it, useful or not.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The sort of information being used in thisadvertising is legitimate for firms to utilize Theinformation trail left online through cookies etc.is a public statement, put into the public sphere.Provided the individual's identity is not revealedthe information is usable through theimpermeable intermediary of security settings,etc. Thus firms get information about userswithout ever being able to ascertain the actualidentity of those individuals, protecting theirindividual privacy. [1] For this reason it cannotbe said that there is any true violation of privacy.Furthermore, this sort of targeted advertising,while focusing on general demographics andprogrammes, does succeed in hitting its markmost of the time. Thus there is a value in havingthe programming, and it is absent stereotype. Allof this advertising is simply the continuation offirms’ age-old effort to better understand theirclients and to cater for their needs and shouldnot be considered any differently to advertsbeing placed as a result of working out what", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-con03a", "title": "", "text": "This advertising strategy benefits companies bymaking marketing more efficient and allowssmaller markets to develop Targeted advertisingusing the wealth of personal information left forcollection and collation online makes business farmore efficient for advertisers. Until recentlyadvertisers were forced to use ads that went intothe world basically at random, hitting everyoneand not necessarily reaching the desiredaudience. This meant that producers could rarelytarget small markets, and thus advertising andmass media products all focused on largegroups. [1] Thus small producers have beencrowded out from the mainstream. With theadvent of targeted marketing, producers cannow afford to compete for business and toadvertise their services to the groups thatactually want what they have to sell. Thusbusinesses have been able to flourish that oncewould have languished without access to aproper market. An example of this is thetargeting by niche fashion boutiques targeting", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-con01a", "title": "", "text": "This form of marketing makes for betteradvertising that benefits consumers By targetingdemographics and personal profiles, businessesare able to put forward the services that arestatistically likely to pique their target’s interest.In the past, because advertisers had limitedbudgets and no sophisticated means of reachingtheir target audience, they had to settle forbroad demographics and to cater to majoritytastes and interests. This led to a reduction inthe breadth of goods and services to nichemarkets. Targeted advertising helps to alleviatethis issue by allowing customers of eclectictastes to actually find services they areinterested in outside the mainstream, enrichingtheir own lives in the process. The internet isvast, and it is often difficult to sift out things thatmight be interesting to the individual consumerfrom all the information available. Targetedadvertising is one of the most effective ways ofproviding this information to people. [1] Thedata compiled to create an individual profile is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-phwbtoabup-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The anonymity of this information is far fromguaranteed and firms’ data collection can indeedserve as a serious threat to people’s privacy andidentity on the internet. The technology in use isextremely difficult to police, and the data, oncecollected, can wander off to less reputableplaces. It is not enough to claim this as a naturalevolution of advertising when it is accepted thatthere are personal boundaries advertisers cannotcross, such as into the home. This advertisingstrategy carries too many risks to be permitted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The internet is a flourishing place for discoursebecause it is absolutely free to all, and everyoneaccepts and experiences the fruit of thatfreedom. When the government abandons itsstance of neutrality and begins censoringmaterials, even if it begins only with the nastiestexamples, it compromises the copper-fastenedliberties that the internet was created to furnish.Many people will abuse that tool, but thankfullypeople can evade the hate sites easily and neverhave to experience them without compromisingtheir own freedoms by censoring theiropponents.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Holocaust denial sites are an attack on groupidentities The internet is the center of discourseand public life in the 21st century. With theadvent of social networks, people around theworld live more and more online. Unlike anyother kind of hateful speech that might flourishon the internet, Holocaust denial stands apart.This is due firstly to the particular mark that theHolocaust has made on the collectiveconsciousness of western civilization as theultimate act of human evil and depravity. TheHolocaust is now a defining part of Jewishidentity, denying it attacks all those who sufferedand their decedents. Allowing Holocaust denialwebsites is allowing the rejection of groups’ veryidentity. Thus its apologists do far more harmthan any troll, misogynist, or even apologist ofother atrocities. For this reason, the governmentcan justifiably censor sites promoting theseabsolutely offensive beliefs while not falling downany sort of slippery slope. The second reasonHolocaust denial stands apart from other sorts of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "While it is true that Holocaust deniers spreadmisinformation and seek to undermine and bendthe systems of discourse to be as favorable aspossible, they are a tiny fringe minority ofopinion, and the number of sites debunking theirpseudo-history is far greater than that of theactual deniers. Even young people are able tosurf the web with great skill, and can easily seethat the Holocaust denial position is fringe in theextreme.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Governments should not allow forums for hatespeech to flourish Denial of the Holocaust isfundamentally hate speech. It is the duty of thegovernment to deny these offensive beliefs aplatform of any kind. [1] By blocking these sites,the government denies a certain freedom ofspeech, but it is a necessarily harmful form ofspeech that has no value in the market place ofideas. Many people, often Jews, but alsomembers of other discriminated againstminorities like Roma, suffer directly from thespeech, feeling not only offended, but physicallythreatened by such denials. Holocaust denialhowever goes beyond hate speech because it isnot only offensive but factually wrong. Theattempt to rewrite history and to sow lies causesa threat to the truth and an ability to co-opt theparticipation of gullible individuals to their causethat mere insults and demagoguery could not. Itrepresents a threat to education by underminingthe value of facts and evidence. For this reason,there is essentially no real loss of valuable", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Denying Holocaust-denier their right to speak isa threat to everyone’s freedom of speech. It isessential in a free society that people be able toexpress their views without fear of reprisal. AsVoltaire said, “I disapprove of what you say, butI will defend to the death your right to say it”. Asthe facts are against the Holocaust deniers theiropponents should have no fear of engaging themin open discussion as they will be able todemonstrate how erroneous their opponents are.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Holocaust deniers will always find ways toorganize, be it in smaller pockets of face-to-facecontact, clandestine social networking, oruntraceable black sites online that governmentscannot shut down because they cannot findthem. The result of blocking these views fromthe public internet only serves to push theirproponents further underground and to makethem take less public strategies on board.Ultimately, it is a cosmetic, not substantivesolution.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The freedom of Holocaust deniers to use to theinternet legitimizes their organization andmessage in eyes of consumers When theinternet places no moral judgments on content,and the gatekeepers let all information throughon equal footing, it lends an air of legitimacy thatthese beliefs have a voice, and that they are heldby reasonable people. This legitimacy isenhanced by the anonymity of the internetwhere deniers can pose as experts and downplaytheir opponents’ credentials. While the internet isa wonderful tool for spreading knowledge, it canalso be subverted to disseminate misinformation.Holocaust deniers have been able to use theinternet to a remarkable extent in promotingpseudoscience and pseudo-history that have thesurface appearance of credibility. [1]Compounding this further, the administrators ofthese sites are able to choke of things likedissenting commenters, giving the illusion thattheir view is difficult, or even impossible toreasonably challenge. They thus create an echo", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "A ban would stop Holocaust deniers fromengaging in effective real world actions Thegreatest fear with hate groups is not just theirhateful rhetoric online, but also their ability totake harmful action in the real world. WhenHolocaust deniers are able to set up standardwebsites, they have the ability to mobilize actionon the ground. This means coordinating rallies,as well as acts of hooliganism and violence. Oneneed only look at the sort of organization theGolden Dawn, a neo-fascist Greek party, hasbeen able to develop in part through active useof social media and websites. [1] By capitalizingon the tools of the 21st century these thugs havesucceeded in bringing sympathizers to theircause, often geographically diffuse, into atight-knit community capable of action anddisruption that harms all citizens, but particularlythe minority groups they are presently fixatedupon. By utilizing social media and websitesHolocaust deniers have gained a new lease onlife. The government can significantly hamper", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While some people might be enticed by themystique of Holocaust deniers as transgressors,far more people will be put off by the firm handof the state denying them a powerful platformfrom which to speak. Even if some are enticedthese individuals will find it much more difficultto access the information they seek and so onlythe most determined will ultimately beinfluenced. Some Holocaust deniers will alwayslurk in the shadows, but society should show noquarter in the battle for truth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of speech certainly may be curtailedwhen there is a real harm manifested from it.Holocaust denial, in its refusal to acknowledgeone of the most barbaric acts in human historyand attempt to justify terrible crimes, is anincredibly dehumanizing force, one that manypeople suffer from, even if they do not need toread it themselves. We may have the freedom toexpress ourselves but that does not mean wehave the freedom to make up our own facts. Thethreat Holocaust deniers represent to freesociety demands that their right to speech onlinebe curtailed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The internet should operate on the basis of netneutrality The internet is a free market of ideasin which all beliefs can be submitted to the wholeof the online community and then put to criticismand judgment. In the same way irrational beliefslike Creationism first found purchase on theinternet only to be undermined and discreditedby the efforts of online activists, so too haveHolocaust deniers been forced by their presenceon the web to justify their beliefs and submitevidence for scrutiny. In so doing the onlinecommunity has systematically discredited thedeniers and undermined their efforts atrecruitment. By taking on a stance of netneutrality in the provision of internet and theblocking of sites, governments allow this processto play out and for the free exchange of ideas onwhich liberal democratic society is built upon toshow its strength. [1] A neutral stance upholdsthe highest principles of the state, and allowspeople to feel safe in the veracity andrepresentativeness of the internet content they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The organizers will go underground A major riskwith any extremist organization is that itsmembers, when put under significant legalpressure, will go underground. For example ThePirate Bay, a major bittorrent file sharingwebsite, simply moved to cloud hosting providersaround the world to prevent it being shut down.[1] The power of the state to actually stop thedevelopment of neo-Nazi and Holocaust deniernetworks is extremely limited, as they will beable still to organize in secret, or evensemi-publicly, via social networks and hiddenwebsites. While their visible profile would bediminished, it would not guarantee any positivegains in terms of stamping down on theirnumbers. Indeed, when they no longer usepublic channels it will be ever harder for thegovernment to keep track of their doings and oftheir leaders. The result of this censorship is amore emboldened, harder to detect group thatnow has a sense of legitimate grievance andvictimhood against the state, which it can use to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Denial of access adds mystique to theirbeliefs By denying people the ability to accesssites set up by Holocaust deniers thegovernment serves only to increase theirmystique and thus the demand to know moreabout the movement and its beliefs. When thestate opposes something so vociferously that it iswilling to set aside the normal freedoms peoplehave come to expect as granted, many peoplebegin to take greater notice. There are alwaysgroups of individuals that wish to set themselvesup as oppositional to the norms of society, to betransgressive in behavior and thus challenge theentrenched system. [1] When something likeHolocaust denial is given that rare mystique ofextreme transgression, it serves to encouragepeople, particularly young, rebellious people toseek out the group and even join it. This hasbeen the case for neo-Nazism in Germany. InGermany Holocaust denial is illegal, yet it hasone of the liveliest communities of neo-Nazis inEurope. [2] Their aggressive attacks have only", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Everyone has a right to freedom ofexpression No matter how unpalatable theiropinions may be, everyone should have the rightto voice them. The very core of a free society isthe right to express one’s mind freely, withouthindrance from the state. When the statepresumes to judge good speech from bad, and toshut off the channel by which the designated badspeech may flow, it abrogates its duty to itscitizens. The government does this by presumingto make value judgments on kinds of speech,and thus empowering itself, and not the people,to be the final arbiter of acceptable speech. Sucha state of affairs is anathema to the continuationof a free society. [1] With free speech the allsides will get to voice their views and thosewhose opinions have most evidence will win outso there is no need for censorship as themarketplace of ideas will prevent ideas withoutsufficient evidence from having an impact.Furthermore, the particular speech in question isextremely fringe, and is for that reason a very", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Forcing Holocaust deniers out of the spotlightand underground can only serve the cause ofjustice. Surveillance efforts can be employedmore rigorously if need be, and will beconsiderably more legitimate to employ againstthese groups when their actions areacknowledged to be illegal. With them out of thespotlight they are less likely to rope in newrecruits among casual, open-mindedinternet-goers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-fehwbawdh-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Taking a neutral stance is a tacit endorsement ofthe validity of the message being spread asbeing worthy of discussion. Holocaust denialdoes not deserve its day in the sun, even if theoutcome were a thumping victory for reason andtruth. Besides, the Holocaust deniers are notconvinced by reason or argument. Their beliefsare impervious to facts, which is why debate is apointless exercise except to give them a platformby which to spread their message, organize, andlegitimize themselves in the marketplace ofideas.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Is it really in the public interest that there shouldbe a norm that government information shouldbe shared? There are clearly some areas wherewe do not want our government to shareinformation; most clearly in the realm ofsecurity, [1] but also where the government andthrough them taxpayers can make a profit out ofthe product that the government has created. Ifthe government creates a new radar system forthe navy does it not make sense that they shouldbe able to sell it at a profit for use by othercountry’s shipping? Also, the abundance of piracyonline is not a reason to submit to the piratesand give them free access to information theyshould not receive. [1] See ‘ This House believestransparency is necessary for security ’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The default of copyright restricts the spreading ofinformation Current copyright law assigns toomany rights, automatically, to the creator. Lawgives the generator a work full copyrightprotection that is extremely restrictive of thatworks reuse, except when strictly agreed incontracts and agreements. Making the CreativeCommons license the standard forpublicly-funded works generates a powerfulnormalizing force toward a general alteration ofpeople’s defaults on what copyright and creatorprotections should actually be like. The creativecommons license guarantees attribution to thecreator and they retain the power to set up otherfor-profit deals with distributors, something thatis particularly useful for building programs thatneed to be maintained. [1] At base the defaultsetting of somehow having absolute controlmeans creators of work often do not evenconsider the reuse by others in the commons.The result is creation and then stagnation, asothers do not expend the time and energy to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The choice to release work into the viral marketis a business decision creators should have thepower to choose, not a mandated requirementfor funding. Some may decide that they willprofit and gain more recognition throughreleasing their work into the creative commons,others may not. It should be remembered thatOrdinance Survey was originally mapping formilitary purposes rather than for the generalpublic so it might very well have decided thatthere is no reason to have its data open to thepublic and it would pose no benefit to enable topublic to use that data for modification.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "If the public funds a product it belongs tothem Everyone benefits and is enriched by openaccess to resources that the government canprovide. A work is the province of its creator inmost respects, since it is from the mind andhand of its creator that it is born. But when thestate opts to fund a project, it too becomes apart-owner of the ideas and creation that springsforth. The state should thus seek to make publicthe work it spends taxpayer money to create.This is in exactly the same way that when anemployee of a company creates somethingpresuming there is the correct contract the rightsto that work go to the company not theemployee. [1] The best means for doing this isthrough mandating that work created with statefunding be released under creative commonslicenses, which allow the work to beredistributed, re-explored, and to be used asspringboards for new, derivative works. This ishampered by either the creator, or thegovernment, retaining stricter forms of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is a difference between the general publicand the government. It is the government thatbought the rights to the work not the peopleeven if the people are the ones that originallyprovided the money to develop the work bypaying their taxes. It can be considered to beanalogous to a business. Consumers pay for theproducts they buy and the profits from thisenable the business to make the next generationof products. But that the consumers provided theprofit that enabled that development does notenable the consumers to either get an upgradeor for the product to be released with a creativecommons license", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Creative commons allows existing work to beused as a building block by others The nature ofthe internet and mass media is such that manycreators can benefit from the freedom andflexibility that creative commons licenses furnishto them. Creative commons provides vastbenefits in allowing a creation to have life afterits funding has run out or beyond its originalspecifications. Creative commons means that theoriginal work can be considered to be a buildingblock that can simply be used as a foundation formore applications and modifications. Forexample in many countries government has fordecades produced official maps for the countrybut these can only be irregularly updated – oftenwith a new release of a paper map. However theinternet means that maps could easily beregularly updated online by enthusiastic usersand volunteers as things change on the ground ifthose maps were available under creativecommons. This is why applications likeopenstreetmap or google maps (which is not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The government should not be interested in theprofit motive but what is best for its citizenswhich will usually mean creative commonslicenses rather than the state making a profit.This is even more likely when developments area joint project with a for profit operation;taxpayers will rightly ask why they should bepaying the research costs only for a privatebusiness to reap the profit from that investment.The government already provides a leg up tobusinesses in the form of providinginfrastructure, a stable business environment,education etc., it should not be paying for theirR&D too.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Government is quite simply not ‘like everyoneelse’. If government acted like a profitmaximising business it would clearly have theability to turn itself into a monopoly on almosteverything. This is why the role of government isnot to make a profit but to ensure the welfareand freedoms of its citizens.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Creative commons is not a good option for manygovernment works It is simply wrong to paint allgovernment funding with one brush decreeingthat it should only be spent if the results aregoing to be made available through creativecommons. Governments fund a vast diversity ofprojects that could be subject to licensing andthe pragmatic approach would be for thegovernment to use whatever license is mostsuitable to the work at hand. For funding for art,or for public facing software creative commonslicences may well be the best option. Forsoftware with strong commercial possibilitiesthere may be good financial reasons to keep thework in copyright, there have been manysuccessful commercial products that have startedlife being developed with government money,the internet being the most famous (though ofcourse this is something for which thegovernment never made much money andanyway the patent would run out before itbecame big). [1] With many military or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Creative commons prevents the incentive ofprofit The incentive of profit, rather than acreative productive drive, spurs the creation ofnew work. Without the guarantee of ownershipover one’s work, the incentive to invest time andeffort in its creation is significantly diminished.When the state is the only body willing to pay forthe work and offers support only on these strictterms, there will be less interest in beinginvolved with that work. Within a robustcopyright system, individuals feel free to investtime in their pursuits because they have fullknowledge that the fruits of their efforts will betheirs to reap. [1] If their work were toimmediately leave their control, they would beless inclined to do so. The current copyrightsystem that is built on profit encouragesinnovation and finding the best use fortechnology. Even when government has been thesource of innovation those innovations have onlybecome widespread when someone is able tomake a profit from it; the internet became big", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Government, like everyone else, should be ableto profit from its work, that profit benefits itscitizens rather than harming them We generallyaccept the principle that people who createsomething deserve to benefit from that act ofcreation as they should own that work. [1] Thisis a principle that can be applied as easily togovernment, whether through works they arefunding or works they are directly engaged in, asto anyone else. The owners of the work deserveto have the choice to benefit from their ownendeavours through having copyright over thatwork. Sometimes this will mean the copyrightwill remain with the person who was paid to dothe work but most of the time this will meangovernment ownership. Public funding does notchange this fundamental ownership and thequixotic bargain state funding in exchange formandatory creative commons licensing is aperversion of that ownership. The TexasEmerging Technology Fund is an example of theuse of state funding in the private sector to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-digital-freedoms-pidfakhwnfawn-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While there will be a few cases where it isundesirable that things that the governmentpays the funding for to be licensed throughcreative commons this should not stop creativecommons from being the default choice. Creativecommons is a good choice for the vast majorityof what government does as weapons systemsand other security related items are only a smallpart of government investment. Think of all theIT systems for government departments, itclearly makes sense that they should be creativecommons so that they can be improved andadapted when it turns out they don’t work inquite the way they were designed. For examplethe UK government wasted £2,7billion on an ITproject for the NHS, [1] in such a situation itwould have made a lot of sense to have whatwas done open to others to pick up on and buildupon if there was any of the software that couldbe of any use. [1] Wright, Oliver, ‘NHS pulls theplug on its £11bn IT system’, The Independent,3 August 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Protestant churches, which do not requirecelibacy, are also having problems recruitingclergy. Worldwide, the number of new priests isincreasing. Only the developed world has seen adecline in priestly vocations, although even heredevout countries such as Poland buck the trend.A recent study showed that vocations were onthe rise in dioceses in the USA that were loyal tothe teachings of the church, including priestlycelibacy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Celibacy reduces the pool of people wanting tobecome priests The number of priests indeveloped countries is on the decline. In Irelandin 2007 160 priests died but only nine wereordained to replace them. It is expected that thenumber of priests in Ireland will fall from 4758 in2008 to 1500 by 2028. [1] As a result almost50,000 parishes worldwide are without a priestdespite the number of parishes not having risenwith the increase in numbers of Catholics. [2]The prohibition on marriage pushes some menaway from the priesthood. The requirement ofcelibacy drastically reduces the pool from whichthe church can select priests and means that thechurch is not always getting the “best and thebrightest”. As a result even many within thechurch believe the demand for celibacy should beended. [3] [1] McDonald, Henry, ‘Psychologicalvetting of would-be priests exacerbates decline’,The Guardian, 11 September 2008, [2] Centerfor Applied Research in the Apostolate,‘Frequently Requested Church Statistics’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The priest is set apart from the world. He has aunique role: he represents Christ to hisparishioners. Just as Jesus led a life of chastitydedicated to God, so a priest must offer his lifeto God’s people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Priest have not always been celibate Whilecelibacy had been encouraged since thebeginning of the church, until the beginning ofthe twelfth century, when it was banned by theLateran Councils of 1123 and 1139, Priests in theWestern church were permitted to marry. [1]The Bible does not mandate celibacy and, in fact,St Peter, the first pope, was married. Even todaywithin the Catholic Church celibacy is notuniversal as Eastern Rite Catholics can marryand it is the norm that they do, [2] and there aresome Lutheran and Episcopalian ministers whohave converted to Catholicism. [3] The truehistory and traditions of the Roman CatholicChurch include the option for priests to marry orat least for married men to become priests. [1]Parish, Helen, Clerical Celibacy in the West:c.1100-1700, Ashgate Publishing Limited,Farnham, 2010, pp103-4, [2] Brom, Robert H.,Bishop of San Diego, ‘Celibacy and thePriesthood’, Catholic.com, 10 August 2004, [3]Johnston, George Sim, ‘The Case for Priestly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The earliest church fathers, including StAugustine, supported the celibate priesthood. Inthe fourth century, church councils enactedlegislation forbidding married men who wereordained from having conjugal relations withtheir wives. We do not know if any of theapostles, other than Peter, were married, but wedo know that they gave up everything to followJesus. More importantly, Jesus himself led acelibate life.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Celibacy and paedophilia are not connected.Sexual abuse also occurs in religions whereclergy are permitted to marry. Studies haveshown that sexual abusers account for less than2% of Roman Catholic clergy, a figurecomparable to clergy in other denominations, oreven less than in the wider male population as awhole. [1] Sexual abuse in the church isundoubtedly a serious problem to be addressed,but not one that is linked to the issue ofcelibacy. [1] Oddie, William, ‘Now we have realevidence – sexual abuse is not a ‘Catholicproblem’, Catholic Herald, 9 August 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Celibacy is outdated Priestly celibacy isout-dated. It sets the priest apart from themodern world and the experiences of hisparishioners. Originally, around 1100 theGregorian Reform movement in the church waskeen to enforce celibacy for fear that too manymarried priests would leave church property andbenefices to their children, or create local priestlydynasties. [1] At the time these fears werereasonable and necessary to maintain theproperty and discipline of the church, but todaythey are utterly unnecessary. [1] Thurston,Hernert, Celibacy of the Clergy Second Period,The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol.3, RobertAppleton Company, New York, 1908,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Celibacy draws sexually dysfunctional men intothe priesthood The prospect of celibacy drawssexually dysfunctional men to the priesthood.They hope that by totally denying their sexuality,they will not engage in deviant acts, butunfortunately they often cannot overcome theirdeviant desires. Permitting priests to marrywould bring men with healthy sexual desires tothe priesthood.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Protestant clergy, for example in the Episcopalchurch which has similar parish structures toRoman Catholicism, successfully balance theirwork in the church and their families. Werepriests permitted to marry and have families,their families could serve as examples to others.In addition, marriage can provide a priest withincreased social support and intimacy. Too manypriests burn out through overwork and stress,having no one at home to support them and tellthem its time to stop working.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Celibate priests can never experience theintimate and complicated marital relationship.They lack credibility when conducting marriageand family counselling. Married priests can betterserve their parishioners because of their maritaland family experiences.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Principles should be maintained even when it isconvenient to change them The Catholic churchshould not bend its principles for the sake ofexpediency. Many more issues divide RomanCatholicism from other churches (e.g. theauthority of the Pope, the nature of thesacrament, even the wording of the creed). Ifthe church accepted this change for the sake ofconvenience, where would it stop? Shouldwomen also be allowed to become priests? Whatabout practising homosexuals? More likely such acompromise would see a further split in thechurch, as those who upheld traditional Catholicteaching rejected the change. Look how theEpiscopal (Anglican) church is falling apart overthe ordination of gay priests and women bishops,including some bishops leaving the Anglican forCatholic Church. [1] In any case, allowing prieststo marry would undoubtedly lead to a two-classpriesthood, with many good Catholics continuingto feel that clergy who continue to choosecelibacy are superior to those who reject it. That", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Celibacy allows a priest to devote himself entirelyto his vocation A celibate priest can devote allhis time to his parishioners. A married priestmust spend time with his family. Protestantclergy have balanced their work for the churchwith their family responsibilities only withdifficulty. Many wives and families of Protestantclergy report feeling second to the congregation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Celibacy grants an understanding ofself-control The celibate priest has a uniqueunderstanding of the power of self-control andthe giving of self, which are key ideas inmarriage. The celibate priest is in a very goodposition to counsel people on how to keep themarital vows such as fidelity as they haveexperience of keeping the much stricter vow ofcelibacy. [1] The priest is married to the churchand can counsel couples and families using thatknowledge. [1] ‘5 Arguments Against PriestlyCelibacy and How to Refute Them’,catholiceducation.org,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwrrcptvc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The insistence on priestly celibacy is one of themajor stumbling blocks to church unity.Discussions with the Orthodox church (which hasalways allowed married priests) and protestantdenominations such as the Episcopal (Anglican)church often founder on the different conceptionof priesthood held by the Catholic church. Yetthere is a precedent for allowing married priests- in the 1990s when British Anglican priests whocould not accept women priests left the Churchof England to become Catholics, they wereallowed to serve as Catholic priests despite beingmarried. Changing the rule more generally wouldmake ecumenical dialogue more possible andopen the way to the healing of historic schisms inthe body of Christ.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Many of the fiscal benefits enjoyed by marriedcouples (e.g. child support payments) are notgeared towards encouraging marriages in itself,but to promote the existence of the conventionalfamily and procreation. Gay couples, unable topropagate society, should not be provided accessto the benefits of marriage which are, implicitly,the state's reward for reproductive couples.'Collecting a dead spouse's social security,claiming an extra tax exemption for a spouse,and having the right to be covered under aspouse's health insurance policy' are just a fewof the benefits a state provides to marriedcouples 1. The aforementioned benefits shouldnot be applicable to couples who are unable toprovide anything in return. 1 Kolasinksi, A.(2004, February 20). The Secular Case AgainstGay Marriage. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from TheTech", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Gay couples should be able to take advantage ofthe fiscal and legal benefits of marriage To allowgay couples to marry would enable them to takeadvantage of the various fiscal benefits accordedto married couples in general. As Scott Bidstrupargues, a gay couple together for 40 years canstill be compelled by law to testify or provideevidence against one another, somethingmarried spouses cannot be forced to do 1. Suchantiquated laws take the discriminatory view thatthe love between homosexuals is artificial andextend it to encompass legal benefits. As JusticeAnthony Kennedy noted in a Supreme Courtruling, 'homosexuals are forbidden thesafeguards that others enjoy or may seekwithout constraint'1. A gay couple's inability toreproduce should not prevent them fromobtaining the benefits of marriage, benefitsgranted not to encourage or reward child birthbut to recognize the bond between two lovedones. 1 Bidstrup, S. (2009, June 3). GayMarriage: The Arguments and the Motives.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "States cannot ask registrars to conduct civilmarriages between homosexual couples thatviolate their religious precepts. How can a statethat espouses multi-culturalism and respect forthe faiths of its citizens thereafter declare it fairand impartial to ask a Christian registrar toconduct a homosexual marriage ceremony, andthereafter fire them if they refuse? That merelyreplaces one discrimination with another. In theUnited Kingdom in 2009, a Christian registrarwas demoted to a receptionist after refusing topreside over the civil marriages of gay couples1.Ms Davies, the demoted registrar, said: \"Britainis supposed to be a nation that respects freedomof conscience\"1. That freedom of conscience isnot respected in a state that can fire anyonerefusing to marry same-sex couples. 1 Millard,N. & Moore-Bridger, B. (2009, June 22) Gaymarriage case registrar in legal battle. RetrievedJune 24, 2011 from London Evening Standard:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "It is discriminatory to refuse gay couples theright to marry One of the last bastions ofdiscrimination against gays lies in the fact thatgay couples in many countries are at present notallowed to marry. Such discrimination should beeradicated by permitting gay couples to marry asa means of professing their love to each other.The contemporary views of society ought tochange with the times; as recently as 1967,blacks and whites in some Americans could notmarry, no-one would defend such a law now 1.Gay marriage is possibly, as Theodore Olson, aformer Bush administration Republican suggests,‘the last major civil-rights milestone yet to besurpassed 2’. To permit heterosexual couples toprofess their love through the bonds of marriage,but deny that same right to homosexual couplesultimately devalues their love, a love that is noweaker or less valid than that of straight couples.As New York State Senator Mark Grisantiadmitted when voting in favour of a 2011 bill, ‘Icannot deny a person…the same rights that I", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Marriage is about more than procreation,therefore gay couples should not be denied theright to marry due to their biology. It isinaccurate to perceive marriage merely as aninstitution for child-raising purposes. There aremany married couples in society today who donot have children of their own, often by choice,and infertile couples, who cannot conceivechildren, are still permitted to marry. They marrybecause marriage symbolizes a long-termcommitment to one another, not a pledge toreproduce for the state or humanity as a whole.In any case, gay couples may adopt children incountries where they are permitted to do so,revealing society's view at large that homosexualcouples can readily act as capable parents andprovide loving home environments. Furthermore,the advance of medical science has also enabledsame-sex couples to have children of their ownthrough surrogate mothers and sperm donors. Itcan no longer be said that homosexual couplesshould not be granted the right to marriage", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Marriage is most certainly about raising childrenand has always been regarded as thepredominant means of creating a conduciveenvironment in which children can be broughtup. As gay couples are unlikely to have children,there is no real necessity for the right to marryto be extended to them. It is true that manyheterosexual marriages do not result inoffspring, through choice or infertility, howeverthe male-female relationship preserves thegeneral rule of marriage: only between thosewith the potential for procreation1. 'Childrenhave a valid claim to be raised by their ownbiological parents', to encourage otherwise is toundermine long-held perceptions about the rightway to bring up our youth.2 1 Shell, S. M.(2004). The liberal case against gay marriage.Retrieved May 19, 2011, from NationalInterest: 2 Somerville, M. A. (2003, April 29).The Case Against 'Same-Sex Marriage'.Retrieved May 19, 2011, from McGill Centre forMedicine, Ethics and Law", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "It is not discriminatory, for marriage is aninstitution designed for the union of men andwomen alone. It is intrinsically about the ‘valuesthat govern the transmission of human life to thenext generation’ 1; to deny gay couples the rightto marry is merely, and obviously, to admit thatthey have no reproductive capacity. The publicrecognition that is so vital to the institution ofmarriage ‘is for the purpose of institutionalizingthe procreative relationship in order to governthe transmission of human life…that results’ 2.So long as reproduction requires a man and awoman, marriage will necessarily remain thedomain of heterosexual couples to protect thereproductive human relationship that fostersfuture generations. 1.Somerville, 2003,p.1 2.ibid.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Gay relationships do not contribute to theinterest of the state in propagating society,therefore they should not be granted access tothe legal and economic benefits of marriage.Furthermore, as David Blankenhorn argues, 'forhealthy development, what a child needs morethan anything else is the mother and father whotogether made the child, who love the child andlove each other'1. In addition, Susan Shellbelieves that 'most, if not all, of the goals of thegay marriage movement can be satisfied in theabsence of gay marriage'2. The presence of civilpartnerships, potentially celebrated with thesame festivities that surround weddings, couldprovide many of the same legal and fiscalbenefits that gay couples currently do not haveaccess to. 1 Blankenhorn, D. (2008, September19). Protecting marriage to protect children.Retrieved May 20, 2011, from Los AngelesTimes: 2 Shell, S. M. (2004). The liberal caseagainst gay marriage. Retrieved May 19, 2011,from National Interest:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "State registrars conducting marriage ceremoniescould not discriminate between homosexual andheterosexual couples The state is charged withthe responsibility of both providing registrars toconduct marriage ceremonies and authenticatingmarriages certificates. If gay marriage was to belegalized, all registrars could be thereafterforced, by the state and their commitment to thelaw, to legally bind themselves to avoiddiscriminating between homosexual andheterosexual couples who ask for their service.All registrars who refused to marry homosexualcouples could be fired. There could be nodifference in the process or the paperworkrequired for either a heterosexual or homosexualmarriage. The dismissal of discriminatingregistrants would have a legal precedent in thecharges brought upon hotel owners who refusedgay couples and adoption agencies who refusedto deal with gay couples.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Gay marriage is good for society Gay marriagehas clear and tangible positive effects onsocieties where it is permitted. There are nowten countries that allow gay marriage, with noobvious or noticeable detriment to society atlarge. As Chris Ott reports from Massachusetts,one of few US states to grant gay marriagerights, ‘predictably, the sky hasn’tfallen…ensuring equality doesn’t mean there’sless to go around for everyone else’ 1. Further tothat, gay marriage encourages gay adoption,granting a home and a loving environment for anincreasing number of orphaned or unwantedchildren worldwide. The evidence also suggeststhat gay parenting is ‘at least as favourable’ asthose in heterosexual families, eroding fears thatthe adopted children will be worse with gayparents 2 . The economist Thomas Kostigen alsoargues gay marriage is a boost for the economy,‘weddings create revenue of all sorts…even if amarriage doesn’t work out that helps theeconomy too. Divorces cost money’ 3. Finally,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is completely circular to argue that Marriageshould be only between a man and a womanbecause marriage is between a man and awoman. First it is based upon a falseassumptiuon as there is a strong historical andreligious precedent for polygamy, so marriagebetween one man and one woman can not beconsidered a singular historical or religious norm.Second it assumes that things should stay theway they are because they have been that wayfor a long time which precludes any idea ofprogress ever being made. Marriage describesan emotional relationship, it does not refer to thegender make-up of the couple. It is acommitment to love and care for your spouse tilldeath does you part, an obligation that is nomore difficult for a gay couple than aheterosexual couple. Furthermore, if gay coupleswish to make such marital commitments to eachother, 'why should they be prevented from doingso while other adults, equivalent in all otherways, are allowed to do so?1' It is clear", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The argument that gay marriage, or even thediscussion of it, leads to a decline in theinstitution of marriage does not match with thefigures. Far from leading to an increase indivorce rates, marriage in the last decade is onlygrowing stronger. As Adam Sullivan points out,in the United States, roughly 75% per cent ofthose who have married since 1990 reportedthey had reached their 10-year anniversary.That’s up about three percentage points forthose who had married a decade earlier in the1980s’ 1. Though this is not proof that marriageequality has strengthened the bonds of marriage,it is proof that marriage equality is notundermining them. Further to that, ‘it washeterosexuals who in the 1970s changedmarriage into something more like a partnershipbetween equals…with gender roles less rigid thanin the past’ 1. In contrast, there are goodarguments to suggest gay marriage couldre-affirm pre-70s notions of marriage for it wouldinitially be more likely to attract older, long-term", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Gay couples can declare their union withoutresort to marriage There are alternative meansfor gay couples to formalize their love withoutresort to marriage. In the United Kingdom, gaycouples are able to form civil partnerships, whichoffer all the fiscal and legal benefits of marriagewithout the actual ceremony. Moreover, alsoknown as the \"love contract\", the registration ofthe union of gay couples has been carried outsuccessfully in countries such as Finland,Sweden, Denmark, Belgium and Spain. Both ofthese would be avenues for gay couples todeclare their union to the world. The practice incountries which implement this system is toallow registered couples to be entitled to jointinsurance coverage and to allow them to file forjoint tax returns as well as inheritance andtenants' rights. On the other hand, such aproposal makes no incursions into the sanctity ofthe institution of marriage itself, thereby provingacceptable to the religious sections of society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Marriage is a religious institution, and the majorworld religions frown uponhomosexuality Marriage is historically a religiousinstitution. As most of the major religions in theworld (e.g. Christianity, Islam and Judaism)frown upon homosexuality itself, it would thus beunacceptable to extend the right to marry to gaycouples. In Christianity, the Bible is clear inGenesis that marriage is between that of a manand a woman; ‘it is not good that the man shouldbe alone; I will make him a helper fit for him…aman leaves his father and mother and cleaves tohis wife, and they become one flesh’ 1. In theQuran, it is stated that ‘Allah has given youspouses of your own kind, and has given you,from your spouses, sons and grandsons’ 2. Thereis little room for conjecture with suchstatements; marriage, so finely entwined withthe religious roots of modern societies, rendersmarriage an institution between a man and awoman. 1.Catholic Answers, 2004 2. Eldin,2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Marriage should be between a man and awoman Marriage has always been viewed bysociety as the religious and/or civil unionbetween a man and a woman, and has thereforealways been regarded primarily as aheterosexual institution. It confirms the naturaltruth that marriage, as the traditional rite ofpassage required before procreation, requires aman and a woman. Barack Obama, whilst on thepresidential campaign trial, reaffirmed hispersonal belief that marriage 'is between a manand a woman', one that he shared with themajority of candidates1. Indeed, marriage,throughout its thousands of years of existence,has only been used to describe the union of aman and woman, toward the general end ofstarting a family and raising children. 1Elsworth, C. (2008, November 3). BarackObama: 'marriage is between a man and awoman'. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from TheTelegraph:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Gay marriage undermines the institution ofmarriage, leading to an increase in out ofwedlock births and divorce rates The legalizationof gay marriage undermines the principles thathave traditionally linked marriage and the family.Marriage is no longer viewed as a necessary riteof passage before a family is started, leading to arise in out of wedlock births. As Stanley Kurtzdiscovered in a study of Norway, where gaymarriage is legal, 'an extraordinary 82.7% offirst-born children' in one specific county wereborn out of wedlock; he goes on to explain 'manyof these births are to unmarried, butcohabitating, couples'. Yet, without the bonds ofmarriage, such couples are two to three timesmore likely to break up and leave childrenthereafter to cope with estranged parents1. Themost conservative religious counties in Norway,in comparison, 'have by far the lowest rates' ofout-of-wedlock births1. The legalization of gaymarriage and the, often concurrent, ban onclergy eager to discourage the practise of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Marriage is not a religious institution, but aninstitution that has been co-opted by religion asthe means by which couples declare themselvesto each other for an indefinite period. As such,marriage has always complimentedcontemporary attitudes and institutions.Traditional beliefs regarding the 'sanctity' ofmarriage are now out of touch both withcontemporary opinion on the matter andconcurrent advances in human rights elsewhere.In Australia a recent poll found that 75% of thepopulation felt gay marriage was inevitable,leading marriage equality advocates to claim 'thetide of history is running toward equality andnothing can turn it back'1. Furthermore, the factthat atheists and agnostics are free to getmarried, but homosexuals are not underminesclaims that marriage is a derivative organ ofreligion. 1 Wockner, Rex (2011, June 16).Australians accept marriage equality. RetrievedJune 16, 2011, from the Bay Area Reporter", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msgfhwagcm-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The alternatives presented do not satisfy therights of gay couples to equality. Gay couplescan in many countries, where gay marriage isbanned, register their unions officially howeverthey would still not enjoy complete equality withmarried heterosexual couples in society. If theydid, their union would be deemed marriage. AsTheodore Olson points out, 'a civil union reflectsa second-class status that fails to protectcommitted same-sex couples who choose to bemarried'1. Moreover, this would also fuel theidea that registered gay couples enjoy an inferiorstatus to married heterosexual couples, therebygiving rise to discrimination all over again. 1Olson, T., & Schneiderman, E. (2011, May16). The civil union bait-and-switch:Compromise is far from true marriage equality.Retrieved May 20, 2011, from NY Daily News:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Many people have been keen to wrap themselvesin the trappings of religion just as they do in theflag or in the rhetoric of one political ideology oranother. Seeking to associate one’s opinionswith one creed or another is the oldest trick inthe ideologue’s book. The fact that men ofviolence claim to be doing things in the name ofpeaceful religions tells us very little about thereligions themselves. In the modern world theyis no reputable religious leader doing so andthose minority leaders who attempt to aregenerally condemned and ostracized by theprinciple leaders of their faiths. Layingresponsibility for violence at the foot of religionas a whole gives credibility to a handful ofextremists – in much the same way thatconflating patriotism and fascism would.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Because religion combines dogmatic certaintywith the existence of the afterlife, violence anddeath is all too easy to justify Particularly in thecase of contemporary Islam, although otherhistorical examples could be referred to, thecombination of certainty and the promise of lifeafter death is a sure route towards violence. Thatsaid, Catholics and Protestants in NorthernIreland demonstrated this until recently; theYugoslav wars between Catholics, Orthodox andMuslims, both sides of the battle forIsrael/Palestine and many others in history couldalso be thrown into the mix. Allowing people theopportunity to claim that “God’s on our side” canbe used to justify anything, especially when Heappears to be fighting on both sides.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Secularism is a peculiarly Western Europeanconcern. In most of the world religiousobservance is taken very seriously. Denyingpeople access to the guidance of religiousleaders flies in the face of allowing peoplefreedom of choice and conscience. Secularistsroutinely, and somewhat arrogantly, insist thattheir voices must be heard but those of people offaith, despite representing the overwhelmingview of humanity, should be silenced. Equallywhere there are religious precepts incorporatedwithin the law. One of the oldest systems ofsecular, state arbitrated law- the common law ofEngland- is based largely on religious principles.For secularists to attack religious people forcriticizing difference, when all they are reallysaying is that most people aren’t secularists, isthe height of hypocrisy. Most of the world takesreligious observance very seriously and expecttheir beliefs to be respected by theirinternational political leaders and others", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Religious organisations tend to act as areactionary pull on wider society opposingegalitarian reforms and developments It is abasic tenant of all religions that they dividehumanity into ‘us’ and ‘them’ – believers andnon-believers. However, the divisions of societyperceived by religious believers do not stopthere, and have a tendency to reflect the socialand moral views of an earlier and far lessprogressive age. As well as condemning thosewho practice other faiths, or who choose tofollow no faith, they have fought, and continuedto fight, the expansion of the rights of womenand of socially marginalised castes, among othersocial groups. All of the major churches andsects have had to be dragged kicking andscreaming into the modern world, and most ofthem are still desperately trying to ignore theexistence of modernity. While justifying theirpolitical and moral positions through obtuse anddeliberately obscure interpretations of religioustexts, obscure texts even the mainstream", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "All of the major religions teach respect for othersregardless of whether people agree with theirlifestyle or beliefs. That’s a huge advance onmuch of secular thought – quite without the helpof religious organisations, prejudice exists withinthe worlds of business, politics and science. Itseems a little unfair to single out one area of life.At least religious organisations are based on thebelief that everybody should be treated withrespect, which is not a claim that could be madebe most political creeds. In addition there arefew social changes that have not involvedreligious radicals at their foundation. Rightly orwrongly, major religious organisations tend toreflect the views of the societies of which theyare a part. It seems unfair to blame the religiousorganisations for that. It is also worthdistinguishing between nations where onereligious belief is wide-spread and almostnormative in nature, and those where it is farmore of a choice. If women or homosexualschose to join a church in a pluralist society,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Regardless of the protestations of some there isno major religion that has not been involved inpersecuting non-believers at some point in itshistory and most still are Although in much ofthe world the days of the crusades and theinquisition may be gone, there are plenty ofnations were religious disobedience still is stillpunished harshly, summarily or extra-judicially.In other countries, semi-official militias are leftto enforce the minutiae of religious law, althoughusually in such a way as to disadvantage womenand others already persecuted in society. Itshould be noted that what tends to be the focusof such persecution is a lack of adherence to anultra-orthodox position. It is frequently a coverfor political or social prejudice. Charges of heresyor apostasy are easy to level and nigh onimpossible to disprove. Even beyond theseextremes, demands for religious observance playout in US elections and, inexplicably, the views ofreligious leaders are sought on areas where theyreally have no relevant expertise at all, such as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Religious education frequently has more to dowith indoctrination than anything else, as is seenin so-called schools where reciting the Koran orTalmud passes for education or in privatelyfunded education in the UK and US whereevolution is taught as ‘just another theory’. Interms of tackling poverty, there is no doubt thatmany religious organisations- especially theCatholic Church- provide enormous quantities ofrelief to the poverty directly caused by theirpolicies in the first place. No single cause ofpoverty, especially among women, is greaterthan denying women access to contraception,closely followed by denying them access toeducation. As the woman is frequently theprimary care giver, their poverty affects theirchildren.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The simple reality is that religious organisationsin most of the world are all too willing to involvethemselves in ecumenical politics and issuedeclarations on economic matters. Equally,presenting the absurd and grotesque wealth andpower of the world’s major religions as havinganything to do with quiet spiritualism is, frankly,absurd. In some circumstances, major religionscan provide international perspective but, all toooften, that simply means importing the mostreactionary position available – African Anglicanson gay ordination in the US; the mediaeval viewsfrom Islam in the Middle East into discussions onthe rights of women in European migrantcommunities. Generally this brand ofinternationalism simply reopens social battlesthat were settled a century and more ago in theWest", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Religious ceremonies and organisations providesolace and celebration for the great changes inlife such as birth, marriage and death, there isdemocratic support for this around the world Attimes of great need or celebration, religiouscommunities and organisations are often theonly organisations that seem fit to the task ofmarking them. This principle applies both inpeople’s own lives, with the birth of a child or thedeath of a loved one, but it can also apply tonational events. At times of great tragedy it isfrequently the main religious community that isexpected to sum up the mood of a nation and toprovide explanation and succour. It is difficult tosee how a politician, jurist or academic couldfulfill that role so well. It is interesting thatalthough we may ignore the day-to-day role ofreligion in society and in communities, atmoments of great trial, or great celebration, it isto religious rites that most people turn.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Religious organisations are by far the largestproviders of charity in the world Whethersending food support in famine zones, providingeducation, hospices or a vast range of othercharitable activities, religious organisations arestreets ahead. In addition they frequently are theonly organisations willing to go into certain highrisk areas throughout the world. I addition inmany sociogeographic areas, especially those ofurban poverty, priests may be the onlyprofessional that many hundreds of people canaccess. Churches and mosques are frequentlythe only place of sanctuary and peace. Inaddition religious organisations have historicallybeen the first to provide education andhealthcare with nation states following theirexample.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Religious organisations remind societies and theworld that there are other important things in lifebeyond economics and that moral and otherconcerns should be taken into account in publiclife In a world consumed by the belief that theonly thing in life that genuinely matters ismoney, religious bodies serve as a welcomereminder that other activities- besides “wealthcreation”- can be meaningful and valuable too.In addition to promoting morality and spiritualitywithin society they have also, historically, beensponsors of great art and music. The fact thatreligions are also international organisationsbring perspectives that believers in somecountries may find uncomfortable, but which actas a reminder of more universal truths –primarily, altruism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-fmshbrdmhg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is an interesting defence of a position to notethat people only really turn to it when they areemotionally vulnerable and their mental facultiesare at their weakest. It’s scarcely a clariondefence of the benefits or religious observance orpractice. It is no doubt true that when we needan explanation for the apparently inexplicable-the death of a child, say- there is more comfortto be found in the ministrations of a cleric thanthat of a statistician. However that in no waymakes the cleric, or their creed, right. The coldhard truth is that personal and national tragediesdo have logical explanations, it just happens thatwe may not want to hear them at the time.However, any other credo which used otherpeoples emotional weaknesses to push their viewof the world and the universe would be treatedwith contempt. For some reason, religion gets apass.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "To weigh up human lives in this calculatedmanner inherently strips them of dignity andreduces them to mere numbers. This“aggregative” ethical standpoint, in which a lossof utility to one person can be compensated forby gains in utility to other people, fails to respect“the separateness of persons” [1] . We are alldifferent people, and we do not all share in thealleged benefits to maximizing total utility. Forthis reason, our moral intuitions rejectout-of-hand many variants on “killing one tosave five”; for instance, we would think itabhorrent to abduct a random person andharvest their organs in order to save five dyingpeople, even in the absence of side effects likepeople now being afraid of having their organstaken. Also, see “different lives weigh differently”argument below. [1] Richardson, Henry S.,‘John Rawls (1921-2002)’, Internet Encyclopediaof Philosophy, 18 November 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A utilitarian approach will result in a decision thatsaves the largest number of livespossible. Every time a life is extinguished, someamount of present and future good vanishesfrom the world. All the good things that thatperson would have experienced – joy,accomplishment, delight – will no longer occur.Similarly, all the beneficially effects they willhave one other people, from productivelyworking to loving their family, will also not occur.True, people also experience unhappy times, andthey sometimes negatively affect others, but inall but an exceptionally small number of cases,the net contribution of a human life to totalutility is positive (indeed, if it weren’t, weprobably wouldn’t consider death to be bad).Even though there will be some fluctuations inhow much each life contributes to total utility – ahappy doctor probably adds more utility than amiserable meter maid – it is overwhelminglylikely that saving the five lives will result in asituation of greater utility than preserving the life", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Behind the veil of ignorance, human beings maynot in fact side with what gives them thestatistical greatest chance of survival. As Rawlshimself notes, people are naturally risk-averse,and thus will select the rules that protect themfrom the worst possible situations, even if thatsacrifice would help many others. Most peoplefind the prospect of being actively killed by theconscious action of another human being worsethan simply dying in an accident, and would seekto protect themselves against that worseoutcome.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The human right to life compels us to save asmany as possible We have good reasons tovalue keeping people alive: it allows people theopportunity to enjoy their time on Earth andeffect changes to everyone’s benefit, even if thatsimply means being around for our loved ones.Most people would even go so far as to say that,by virtue of being conscious creatures, humanbeings deserve to live. That is to say, they havea right not to suffer an untimely death. This isthe reason that we normally abhor killing: it cutsshort human life. However, in this thoughtexperiment, the inescapable reality is thatsomeone’s right to life will be violated. Either theone or the five will die, and all the horribleresults attached to the cessation of a human lifewill inevitably befall one of the groups. In light ofthis fact, our moral obligation is to reduce thenumber of people whose right to life is violatedand maximize the number for whom that right isactualized. One ought to commit the act thatresults in the fewest deaths, and that is to kill", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The idea of a “right to life,” while appealing, ishighly suspect. “Rights” are the highest order ofhuman entitlements, things which one canreasonably expect will never ever happen tothem, and which if violated represent a colossalfailure of our moral and legal infrastructure. Inreality, people die all the time for a variety ofnatural and artificial reasons, and while wecertainly think that these deaths are unfortunate,we don’t think that someone’s human rightswere infringed upon every time someone dies ina motor vehicle accident. By contrast, we dohave an actual right not to be murdered. Whenone human being deliberately kills anotherhuman being, we rightly see that as anexceptional and grave violation of a basic humanright. Therefore, it doesn’t violate anyone’srights to let the five people die, but it certainlydoes violate the right of putative sixth person toactively murder them to save the others.Moreover, it may be questionable to assume thatall lives are equally valuable; if we are going to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Assessing the value of a life on the basis offamily members and how much the person isworth to everyone else creates a perversepriority on those with large families and manyconnections. To do so makes an injunction:position yourself so that you’re important andwell-connected, and suddenly you get prioritywhen we are deciding who to save.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Give a choice, all rational individuals wouldprefer to live in a world in which behaviourprefered the choice to sacrifice one to savemany While Rawls did oppose utilitarianism, hegenerated a hypothetical scenario that is useful,even to the utilitarian, for evaluating moraltheories. Imagine that all human beings wereplaced in a scenario where they knew nothingabout their station in the world, and know onlythe basic laws of reasoning and human nature.They do not know what their level of intelligence,personality traits, gender, socioeconomic status,race or religion will be, nor even when or wherethey will be born; they are “behind the veil ofignorance.” Every single person who will everexist is placed in this situation at the beginningof the universe. Next, these human beings aretold they will decide which rules will governhuman conduct when they come to inhabit theworld. In such a situation, all rational humanbeings would ensure that they are treated fairlyno matter who they are; they will have perfect", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The harms related to a death extend beyond theloss of life Every person who dies leaves behindpeople whose lives are made dramatically worseby the loss of a loved one. The average person,by continuing to live, helps those around them ina multitude of ways: love for their family,productive enterprise, and any philanthropicbehavior in which they may engage. Out of sheersympathy for the loved ones of the dead, andothers who depend on their continued survival,one ought to minimize the number who die, andthus save the five.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Moral intuitions are even more unreliable thanthat. When the “kill one save five” dilemma ispresented in the form of pulling a lever to diverta train onto a track with one person on it, mostpeople say to do it. However, when it ispresented as pushing a fat man onto the track inorder to stop the train, most people say not to doit [1] . The two scenarios are morally identical;the only change is what physical act needs to bedone in order to result in the one person gettinghit by the train. This demonstrates that wecannot directly consult our intuitions on thisquestion. [1] Reiner, Peter B., ‘The trolleyproblem and the evolution of war’, Neuroethicsat the core, 11 July 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Consequences do in fact matter more. Peopleought to be morally judged by what occurredwhen they had the power to decide who lives ordies; fatal non-action is just as blameworthy.This is the reason why many countries,particularly those with a civil law tradition as isthe case in most of continental Europe, haveGood Samaritan laws creating a legalresponsibility to provide help when one can. [1]Someone who stands by and watches someonedrown, even though they could have thrownthem a rescue line, is rightly thought of as beingno less heartless than a murderer. As Sartre putit, choosing not to act is still choosing to act. [2]Moreover, defining an “active killing” is difficult;how direct must one’s involvement in the causeof death be to constitute a killing? A prohibitionon active killing overemphasizes the physicalrather than the moral aspect of the choice.Finally, an absolute prohibition on killing to savea larger number soon fails to square with ourmoral intuitions if we crank up the numbers: if", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-con02a", "title": "", "text": "We cannot make value judgments as to whoshould and should not be marked for death or forsalvation Different people’s lives may indeedweigh differently. Some people may go on tocure cancer, while others may become serialkillers. However, we do not know who will dowhat with their future, and it is an act ofimmense hubris to perform calculations thatpresume otherwise. We could be killing future aserial-rapist in order to save future aphilanthropist who funds Somali famine-relief,but we could just as easily be doing the opposite.We are in a state of incredible ignorance as towhat these individuals will choose to do. It trulyis to “play god”, and vastly overestimate ourability to judge who will be good for the worldand who will be bad.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The act of killing can wreak immensepsychological damage upon rationalindividuals To know that one has actually killedanother human being will haunt the moral agentforever. Instances of Post-Traumatic StressDisorder for soldiers returning for warzones areincreasingly reported, suggesting that a situationof killing very often warps the killer’s life [1] .This holds true even for people not directly andviscerally involved in killings, such as theincredible guilt felt by the team of the Manhattanproject. [2] [1] ScienceBlog, ‘1 in 5 Iraq,Afghanistan Vets has PTSD’, 17 April 2008, [2]Long, Tony, ‘Aug. 6, 1945: ‘I Am Become Death,Destroyer of Worlds’, Wired, 6 August 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-con04a", "title": "", "text": "We should not will a world where killing isacceptable in to existencele in toexistence Knowing that we have agreed thatthere are situations where we can decide to killothers for the greater good makes us fearful ofthe prospect of others visiting such judgment onus (independent of whether such an act isobjectively right or wrong). Immensepsychological harm accrues from knowing thatother people may actively judge oneself to beworth killing for an external purpose. Moreover,an acceptance of killing tends to brutalize societyand make people more receptive to the idea ofkilling in general, which leads human beings tobehave more violently.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-con06b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, it may well be the case that we areindeed morally obligated to donate all of ourdisposable to charity; the longer one considershow many people could be saved with the moneyone spends on a flat screen television, the lessacceptable the purchase becomes. However,there are also meaningful distinctions betweenthe thought experiment and donation to charity.In the thought experiment, there is no one elsewho can possibly come to the aid of the five. Thisis distinct from the complexities of a globaleconomy where there are other possible moralsaviors and the path to saving lives is far lessclear.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-con06a", "title": "", "text": "Utilitarianism is morally demanding If werecognize a duty to actively go out of our way(and indeed, carry the burden of killing anotherperson) to save another person just because it’sin our power, then all sorts of new obligationsopen up. For instance, we are now obliged todonate all of our disposable income to charitybecause we could do so and each save dozens oflives a year. The reason why some religiousinstitutions canonize people is precisely becausetheir philanthropy is exceptional and beyondwhat could be expected of the average person:people like Damien of Molokai, who traveled toan island to help people suffering from leprosy,knowing that he would eventually contract thedisease in the process [1] . While such actionsmay be praiseworthy, it is implausible that theywould be morally obligatory. [1] Donadio,Rachel, ‘Benedict Canonizes 5 New Saints’, TheNew York Times, 11 October 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Intuitively, it is possible to understand thatparticipating in a decision to kill is a prioriwrong While simply consulting our moralintuitions case-by-case is not always reliable(indeed many people have contradictory moralintuitions), certain moral intuitions are needed inorder to morally theorize. If a moral theory wasimpeccably well thought out, but prescribedactions completely at odds with our moralintuitions (such as advocating indiscriminateassault and robbery), then we would rightlydismiss it out of hand. When it comes to killing,our intuition prohibiting it is foundational andwidely held.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-con05b", "title": "", "text": "All the same harms apply if the moral agent letsthe five die. They still must cope with theknowledge that their decision resulted in deaths,in fact, more deaths. Indeed, PTSD is brought onby experience with horrific death regardless ofwhether or not the sufferer caused the death [1]. [1] Martynowicz, Daniel, ‘Afghanistan PTSDWorse Than Vietnam’, News By The Second, 1July 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It is worse to actively participate in a death thento simply allow an individual to die While peopledie all the time, it is exceptionally rare for onehuman being to intentionally cause the death ofanother, even for a perceived “greater good.”The difference is that when one actively kills, onecauses the killing. They bring about somethingthat would not otherwise have happened, andthey set it in motion. What is key is the moralactor’s role in the very inception of the threat tothe life of another person. Their responsibility forthe resulting death is far greater than had theycommitted the same non-action as every otherperson who wasn’t present to make the decisionat all.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The moral agent’s decision will not necessarilyhave such wide-ranging consequences. In manycases, the matter will remain fairly quiet (even ifit is reported to the police). Furthermore, this isonly dubiously a “killing” if one does not adopt adeontological take on the action; it’s simply aweighing of the benefits of who can be saved. Inanother sense, branding it as making “killing”acceptable is misleading, because this is not amoral license to commit wanton murders, butinstead a sacrifice in a situation with no bloodlessanswer. Moreover, even if the decision becomespublic knowledge, and is defined as killing,people will recognize that the circumstances ofhaving to make this decision were trulyexceptional.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-mhwkosm-con02b", "title": "", "text": "That is exactly right: we cannot know who will bemost valuable to the world, and to thinkotherwise is “playing god.” However, this is apoint for side proposition; given that we don’tknow who the really valuable people are, weought to save the greater number because itstatistically increases the chances that they willbe saved. The only time this would not be true isif the average person had a net negative effecton the world, but if this were the case it wouldcommit us to the implausible position that weought to act in a manner so that the fewestpeople survive, which is absurd.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The words “under God” show no preference toChristianity. “God” can refer to the chief deity ofany religion. The opposition does not accept thatAmerica’s history has a Christian state has anybearing whatsoever on the meaning of thisstatement.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Upholding of the First Amendment The FirstAmendment is that the state “shall make no lawrespecting an establishment of religion, orprohibiting the free exercisethereof”.(Archives.gov) This prohibits favouringone religion over another.(Cornell University LawSchool, 2010) The use of the words “under God”in this way, particularly regarding America’shistory as a Christian state, clearly shows favourtowards Christianity, or at its most expansivemonotheistic religions, over alternative religionsor no religion, even without explicitly mentioningChristianity. (Newdow 2003)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is undeniable that any change to the Pledge ofAllegiance will be met with resistance fromstrong patriots who believe it should never bechanged. This change would be associated withand blamed on atheists and non-Christianreligious people, thus causing animosity towardsthem on the part of people who would haveotherwise been indifferent towardsthem. National pride will, therefore, beassociated with Christianity, as opposed toatheism or other religions, to an even greaterextent than it is under the status quo.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Prevents the coercion of school children It is keyto this debate that school children are requiredto recite the Pledge of Allegiance at the start ofeach day. Although they have the opportunity toopt out, the proposition does not believe theyhave the knowledge necessary to fullyunderstand the oath that they are taking. (TheHumanist Society 2004) According to thedecision in Newdow v. US \"The [school's] policyand the [1954 Act adding 'under God' to thePledge] fail the coercion test. Just as in Lee [Leev. Weisman, 1992], the policy and the Act placestudents in the untenable position of choosingbetween participating in an exercise withreligious content or protesting.\"(United StatesCourt of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, 2002)Children should not be put in this position so‘under God’ must be taken out.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Separation of state and religion The inclusion ofthe words “under God” in the Pledge ofAllegiance is representative of religion’sinvolvement with the state. The words under Godin the pledge of allegiance were clearlygovernment sanctioned as the words were addedby congress with the sanction of PresidentEisenhower.(83rd United States Congress 2ndSession) When they did this congress, the state,was clearly promoting religion. The propositionbelieves that religion has no place in politics andso these two words should be removed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The mention of the words “under God” does notbetray an involvement of religion within thestate. The mere mention of religion meansnothing for how the government is actually run.Even if religion were unduly involved with theAmerican government, the removal of the words“under God” from the Pledge of Allegiance woulddo nothing to change this. (Obama 2006)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The opposition does not accept that children donot have the knowledge to understand the oaththey are taking as it is said in plain words. Theopportunity to opt out is a real and viable optionfor all school children.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "True neutrality would be adhering to the statusquo; this legislation will be seen as a wilful act onthe part of the government to remove religionand faith from patriotism. As a result, religiouspeople are likely to feel sidelined and alienatedby their government to a far greater extent thanatheists are likely to feel included.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Removing under god would promote religioustolerance Even if the proposition accepts, whichit does not, that the words “under God” do notshow preference towards Christianity, it isundeniable that it is widely understood thatthese words are a reference to Christianity. Thisassociates national pride with Christianity andpresents other religions as inherentlyun-American. The proposition believes that thisis divisive and promotes religious intolerance andthat, therefore, this legislation would help relievethe tolerance and divisions caused by the currentPledge of Allegiance.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Prevents the marginalisation ofnon-believers The inclusion of the words “underGod” in the Pledge of Allegiance implies thatthere is no place for atheism in Americanpatriotism and that non-believers have nothingto give to their country. The removal of thesewords would create a more inclusive Americathat accepts that everyone, including allnon-Christians and non-believers, havesomething to give to their country. (Buckner2002)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "If the opposition accepts that the inclusion of thewords “under God” is a state sanction of religion,then they cannot deny that their inclusionsidelines atheists. The proposition believes thatthe status quo is inherently pro-religion andanti-atheists and thus needs to be changed.Religious people will not see a move to the state,which is supposed to be completely separatedfrom religion, making no comment about religionas an anti-religious comment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Tradition is not a reason for persisting wthanything! The proposition believes that the factthat references to God are made throughoutofficial American state proceedings is not areason to persist in including the words “underGod” in the Pledge of Allegiance but a reason forits removal to be all the more urgent. Referencesto God do not have a place in official stateproceedings as the church and the state shouldbe completely separate from oneanother. \"Under God\" as us in the Gettysburgaddress, had different meanings then. It couldmean \"God wiling\". For that reason alone thephrase should be removed from the Pledgebecause \"one nation, God willing\" goes againstthe whole point.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Associates change and, by extension,anti-nationalism with atheism Any change tosomething as ingrained in American patriotism asthe Pledge of Allegiance will be met with extremeresistance. As Supreme Justice Sandra DayO’Connor has argued “the Pledge has become,alongside the singing of the Star-SpangledBanner, our most routine ceremonial act ofpatriotism; countless schoolchildren recite itdaily, and their religious heterogeneity reflectsthat of the Nation as a whole. As a result, thePledge and the context in which it is employedare familiar and nearly inseparable in the publicmind.\"(O’Connor, 2004) With it being soingrained most members of the US public wouldnot see any reason to get rid of the words. Thechange would be widely accredited to atheistsand would create animosity towards them. Thislegislation, therefore, is inherently divisive.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Implies ultimate power on the part of thestate The words “under God” reaffirm individualrights of American citizens as divine and comingfrom above the state. These words show thattaking away these rights is not even within theconceivable grasp of the state. Removal of thesewords puts power back into the hands of thestate and reinforces the state as the ultimateauthority over what happens to its people. (TheAmerican Center for Law and Justice 2004)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The American people would be against thechange As discussed above, the removal of“under God” will not be a move towardsneutrality but a move against religion. As a resultit is not surprising that the American peoplewould be against such a move. An immensemajority, 87% in a newsweek poll said thepledge should contain “under God” against only9% saying no.(CNN, 2002) No democraticgovernment should go against the will of such amajority of the population they are supposed torepresent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Likely to be seen as a state sanctionedcondemnation of religion After nearly sixty yearsof having the words “under God” included in thePledge of Allegiance this legislation will not beseen as a move to neutrality but a move againstreligion. 78.4% of Americans are Christian with afurther 4.7% believing in other religions.(ThePew Forum, 2007) Most Americans, 60%, think itis good for the country when government leaderspublicly express their faith in God.(CNN, 2002)As a result the signal that taking out under Godwill send to American people is that the state isagainst religion. Any modification to the Pledgeof Allegiance will be seen as a wilful act by thecurrent government; true neutrality can only beshown by maintaining the status quo.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con05b", "title": "", "text": "The proposition totally rejects the idea that thewords “under God” are necessary to indicate thatthe government does not have the power to dowhatever it wants whenever it wants. The factthat the constitution exists and the governmentcannot contradict it is what means thegovernment cannot act without consideration;the words “under God” add nothing to thegovernment’s answerability and their removalwould detract nothing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "“Under God” is part of American tradition andhistory Reference to God is made throughoutAmerican patriotism. The Supreme Court opensby saying ‘God save America and this honourablecourt’. The ‘under God’ in the pledge itself camefrom Lincoln’s Gettysburg address a significantspeech in American history.(Library of congress)It is impossible to remove references to Godfrom American patriotism and to do so wouldseverely damage American heritage andtradition. (Robertson 2002), (Federer 2003)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The majority is not allowed to oppress theminority, they would not be allowed to go backto slavery if they wished, in exactly the sameway congress should not be able to establishreligion even if the majority wants it to as it isagainst the US constitution.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-cghwrwugapa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Shows that the government values atheists asmuch as religious people and that one does nothave to be religious to contribute to thestate. The proposition does not accept thatpeople will regard atheists with animosity as aresult of this legislation but will come torecognise them, to a greater degree, as peoplewill an equal potential to give to America.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This argument only works under the assumptionthat we live in a society where divorce does notexist. If a person enters into a marriage withoutfull awareness of what they have committed toand later need to get out of that marriage, theyare free to. Being able to leave a marriage,though, does not make marriage a meaninglesscharade, as the proposition claims. It is still moredifficult to leave a marriage than it is to leave anon-marital committed relationship and so itmakes a big difference.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Unreasonable commitment to expect ofpeople The average age, in the UK, to getmarried is approximately 30 years old. (Office forNational Statistics 1999) Life expectancy in theUK is approximately 80 years. (Office forNational Statistics 1999) This means the averagemarriage expects people to commit to maintain acertain way of life for a period that is longer thanthey have actually been alive. This goes hand inhand with the rise of social acceptability ofpeople having more than one life partner in theirlife to show that either marriage is anunreasonable expectation of someone or ameaningless charade that is not actuallyexpected to be maintained.(Cherlin 2009)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The purpose of marriage is not an eternal,unrelenting union, whether it is wanted or not.The purpose of marriage is to foster a morestable relationship than would be possiblewithout marital vows. Therefore, the fact thatdivorce is becoming more common and easier toobtain does not undermine the institution ofmarriage at all.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Undermines same-sex couples and single parentfamilies as legitimate ways of raising children Asexplained in the first proposition point, one of theprimary functions of marriage is seen to be toraise children. Marriage is therefore seen as thebest way to raise children. This underminessame-sex couples and single parent familiesraising children. The existence of marriage isessentially saying that same-sex couples andsingle parents are less able of raising childrenthan heterosexual couples. Marriage, therefore,can be seen to promote outdated ideals that oursociety no longer holds and, as such, is itself anoutdated institution.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Does not provide any more of a stableenvironment for child rearing than a regularmonogamous relationship The main objective ofmarriage is often said to be bringing up childrenin a stable environment. However in 2010 in theUK there were 119589 divorces; 11.1 per 1000married population. Furthermore in the sameyear, the median duration of a marriageremained at a low level of 11.4 years.(Rogers,2011) This clearly does not fulfill the initial basicaim of marriage as so many marriages end Indivorce with the resulting splits affecting thechildren. In fact, a much more stableenvironment can be provided by a betterrelationship, even without matrimonial vows(Cherlin 2009). This relationship should not haveto be through marriage; rather it would simplybe a partnership in the way that many couplesalready live today.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Once a couple get married, they have made anofficial and legal commitment, which makes itmore difficult for them to split up. This meansthat, irrespective of divorce statistics, addingmarriage to a relationship will only serve tomake it more stable and give the children of thatrelationship more security. Therefore marriagestill gives benefits in modern society and is notoutdated. (Waite 2000)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The idea that the existence of marriageundermines other methods of raising children isridiculous. This is equivalent to saying thatmaking it legal for same-sex couples to adoptundermines raising children as a heterosexualcouple or as a single parent. Some peoplechoosing to raise children in a certain way doesnot prevent or inhibit other people doing so in adifferent way.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, the opposition does not accept that theproposition have proven that marriage has nofunction outside of religion. However, even ifthey had proven this, they still have not proventhat marriage has no religious function and,therefore, have lost the debate anyway. Theproposition asserts that because numbers ofreligious people in the UK are declining, thismeans marriage is no longer relevant religiously.The fact is that nearly 50% of people in the UKstill identify as religious. (British Social AttitudesSurvey 2007)The fact that this is less thanbefore is meaningless; it is still the case thatmarriage has religious significance for nearly halfthe country.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Frequency and accessibility of divorceundermines the entire purpose of marriage Withpre-nuptials, which essentially amount topre-planning for divorce, heavily on the rise, anddivorces becoming ever easier to obtain, it isclear that our society no longer respectsmarriage as a permanent institution. Serialmonogamy is also becoming ever more common,with 50% of all divorcees in the UK going on toremarry. (Office for National Statistics) Sincethe purpose of marriage has always been tofoster a stable and permanent relationship, it isclearly an entirely outdated institution as it nolonger leads to a stable or permanentrelationship.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Marriage should be for all by Marriage is areligious institution in a society of decliningreligion The proposition believes that they haveproven that marriage no longer has a social orpractical function. This leaves its only function asone of religious significance. However, with thepercentage of people in the UK who identify ashaving no religion having risen by nearly 20% inthe last 20 years and the percentage of peoplewho identify as religious having dropped byapproximately the same amount (British SocialAttitudes Surveys 2007). Church attendance iseven lower at a mere 6%(whychurch.org.uk). Asa result there needs to be a new more inclusiveinstitution that is open to all religions and thoseof no religion. It is clear that marriage can nolonger perform this function for everyone insociety.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-con03b", "title": "", "text": "If marriage’s main function is to protect againstbereavement and divorce then it is essentiallyprotecting against harms that it itself brings.Without marriage, bereavement and divorcewould cease to be as serious harms as theycurrently are.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that 40% of marriages end in divorceand that this is on the rise (National Office forStatistics 1999) shows that marriage clearly doesnot offer the stability that the opposition claims itdoes. In fact, it seems that marriage offers nomore stability than a stable relationship, thusmaking it redundant in terms of raising children.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Remarriage rate shows that even people who gothrough failed marriages retain faith in theinstitution of marriage 50% of all divorcees inthe UK go on to remarry. (National Office forStatistics 1999) This shows that, although theirown marriage failed, they retain faith in theinstitution of marriage. The fact that, even whenmarriage has failed to work for them once, manypeople wish to give it another go shows that it isstill meaningful to society. If an institution is someaningful and relevant to modern society inthis way, it cannot possibly be outdated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Marriage promotes a better way to raisechildren Marriage promotes raising children aspart of a monogamous couple. Without marriage,the frequency of single parent families wouldrise. Statistically, children who come from singleparent families are more likely to live under thepoverty line, more likely to be convicted of acriminal offence, more likely to become ill, lesslikely to complete every level of education andmore likely to grow up to have low incomesthemselves. (O’Neill 2002) Clearly then,marriage provides a lot of goods to children ofmarried families, thus it provides goods inmodern society and therefore cannot beoutdated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Marriage is an important institution to religiouspeople Nearly 50% of people in the UK identifyas being part of some religion. (British SocialAttitudes Survey 2007) Marriage is an integralpart of most major religions, particularlyChristianity, where it is one of thesacraments(Lehmkuhl, 1910) which arenecessary for salvation (Vatican.va). whichencompasses over 40% of the population of theUK. (British Social Attitudes Survey 2007) Whilethere are still such huge numbers of people whopractice religions to which marriage is integral,marriage cannot be outdated.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Marriage represents a legal bond which protectsboth parties in a relationship Marriage hasrelevance to modern society in not only anemotional, religious and practical sense but alsoin a legal sense. According to Sir Mark Potter inEnglish Law marriage is regarded as an \"age-oldinstitution\" that is \"by longstanding definitionand acceptance\" a formal relationship between aman and a woman primarily designed forproducing and rearing children. It gives manyrights in areas like property rights and pensionbenefits.(Travis, 2011) A marital bond givesimportant rights to both parties in cases ofevents such as severe injury, bereavement oreven divorce. An institution cannot be outdated ifit retains legal importance in modern society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-con05b", "title": "", "text": "These statistics do not conclusively prove thatmarried life is a better way to raise a child inevery case. It is harmful to promote a messagethat a marriage is always a better way to raise achild than a single parent family. For instance, inthe case of an abusive relationship or anindividual who is clearly a completely unsuitableparent, it would be better for the parent who wassuitable to raise the child by themselves than tohold up a marriage that was harmful to theraising of that child. The choice is not alwaysbetween a good marriage and single parent lifebut often between a harmful marriage and singleparent life, so marriage does not necessarilypromote a better way to raise children. (Cherlin2009)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Removes the transient and casual aspects of amonogamous relationship, thus giving a child afar more stable environment. Marriagerepresents a commitment and a bond that is,although not unbreakable, difficult to break. Thismay not be appropriate for couples who wish tohave a more casual relationship, however, itoffers a more stable and official relationship,which is far preferable to a more transientrelationship when it comes to raising a child.(Waite 2000)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-con04b", "title": "", "text": "In the last 20 years, the number of people in theUK who identify as religious has declined by20%. This shows that religion as a whole isbecoming less important and, with it, marriage isbecoming less important. (British Social AttitudesSurvey 2007)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-msfhbmoi-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that 50% of all divorcees (NationalOffice for Statistics 1999) go on to remarry doesnot, as the opposition claims, show thatmarriage is a meaningful and relevant institutionbut quite the opposite. What this means is that ahuge number of people vow to spend the rest oftheir life with another person, forsaking allothers until death do them part, on multipleoccasions. This does not show that society stillhas faith in marriage, it shows that society nolonger respects the institution of marriage.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-ermfhwaccww-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Property rights are not fair: it is up to individualsto protect themselves in the sphere ofrelationships. Married couples have entered intoa state-endorsed relationship which providesadvantages (both financially in terms of taxesand inheritance, and through recognition andvalidation). It is reasonable for the state torequire something in return: namely, that theparties are treated fairly, should that marriageend. Moreover, married couples are forced toshare their property because they have chosento commit themselves to each other. Whenpeople get married they know what they aresigning up to and can therefore be taken toconsent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-ermfhwaccww-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The courts have a duty to develop services thatwill meet the needs of society Fairness requiresthat cohabiting couples share their property onseparation: when couples have lived together fora long period (such as five years or more) theywill have gained benefits at each other’s expensebut also suffered disadvantages for the other’sbenefit. If one partner gives up a career to raisechildren or support the other in their career, theyare seriously disadvantaged upon separation.Where the other partner has gained as a result ofthis sacrifice, they should compensate theformer, so that the two parties can movetowards independence in equal positions. Partiesmay choose not to marry, but this should nothave to cause such financial harm to onepartner.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-ermfhwaccww-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Marriage is no longer the only type of seriouslong-term relationship and the law should reflectthis: the absence of property rights onseparation for cohabiting couples sends amessage to society that cohabitation is a lessmeaningful relationship than marriage. Marriagehas strong religious connotations and washistorically a vehicle for the oppression ofwomen. It is consequently unsurprising thatsome couples may not wish to enter into theinstitution of marriage. These couples can stillhave long-term relationships which are just asstable as marriage. Legal rights would help tovalidate such relationships and recognise thereality of diverse family structures within society.Furthermore, the status quo can be seen to becoercive in that individuals, who may not want toget married, are forced to do so if they wish tohave legal rights.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-ermfhwaccww-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The status quo discouragesinterdependence The status quo discouragesinterdependence: the absence of property rightsunder the status quo encourages unmarriedcouples to act as individuals, protecting theirown financial interests, rather than supportingeach other. In UK law, “their relationship withone another is not recognised as having anylegal standing, and they have no special status inthe eyes of the English legal system” [1]Individuals are usually more able to pursue theirown ambitions when they have the support ofanother. For example, financial support andsecurity makes it easier to take risks which maybe economically beneficial, such as setting up anew business, or undergoing further education toimprove employment prospects. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-ermfhwaccww-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The absence of property rights does not preventinterdependence: the law does not preventindividuals supporting each other or taking risks.However, it requires that couples discuss suchplans properly with each other and decide howthey wish to structure their own relationships.Expecting all couples, regardless of theircircumstances, to support each other financiallyis unrealistic. Furthermore, it is possible that atthe margin some couples may not cohabit inorder to avoid having to share their property.These couples will have even less support.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-ermfhwaccww-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Property rights for cohabiting couples willundermine the institution of marriage Propertyrights for unmarried couples undermine marriageas an institution, harming society. The societalshift away from marriage is harmful. Marriagestend to be more stable than cohabitationbecause of the greater level of commitmentinvolved: the mutual support of a marriage isbeneficial for individuals and can create a moresecure environment for raising children. Becauseof the higher exit costs (divorce is difficult andtime-consuming), married couples are morelikely to resolve their problems than cohabitingcouples who can walk away more easily. Givinglegal rights to cohabiting couples endorses morediverse relationships, suggesting that marriage isless important. This is harmful as it is likely inthe long term to further reduce the number ofmarriages, leading to fewer stable relationships.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-ermfhwaccww-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Care can be provided without property rights: aswith interdependence, the status quo does notprevent individuals reducing their income to carefor others. It merely requires that couplesdiscuss their plans and make provisions to dealwith the need to care for children or elderlyrelatives. i", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-ermfhwaccww-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It is unreasonable for the law to expectunmarried couples to plan for when theyseparate: people within relationships tend to beoptimistic about the prospects of theirrelationships. They do not expect to split up, andmost choose cohabitation to see if therelationship is going to work out at all. Makingagreements about property at this stage canseem unromantic and unnecessary. USA Todaywrites: “For young couples who have never beenmarried, cohabiting may seem like a hassle-freeway of testing a relationship before tying theknot. And for those who already have beenthrough a divorce, who have children or othersignificant assets, cohabiting may seem like away to avoid costly legal entanglements if therelationship doesn't work out.” [1] [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-ermfhwaccww-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The creation of such a law would strengthentrends toward paternalist law making Whencouples choose not to get married, perhapsbecause one party is not willing to do so, thisdoes not indicate the same commitment to eachother. Where there are considerable disparities inincome or wealth couples may have no desire todivide their assets and the choice not to getmarried may reflect this. Those who desirefinancial protection can choose to marry but thestate should not intervene when couples do notmake this choice, beyond ensuring that provisionis made for children. Such interventionundermines the autonomy of individuals withincohabiting couples because it suggests that theycannot make these decisions competently forthemselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-ermfhwaccww-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The current situation discourages altruistic in arelationship The status quo discourages care forchildren and the elderly: a further consequenceof the perceived need for independence is thatindividuals are less able to reduce their workinghours in order to care for young children orelderly relatives, in case they suffer significantlyas a result, for example if their relationship ends.Children who see more of their parents oftendevelop stronger relationships with their parentswhich are valuable in later life when they needadvice or support. In addition, studies show thatit is beneficial for their emotional development.Elderly people, on the other hand, often feelparticularly vulnerable and isolated and carefrom relatives plays an important role inmaintaining their inclusion within society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-ermfhwaccww-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Legal supervision will discourage independentplanning The law should encourage people toplan adequately: individual people are differentand one size does not fit all. If the state planshow your property should be owned, this fails toprovide for each individual’s specific lifestyle andcircumstances. An increasing number of couplesenter cohabitation contracts (where they agreehow to split property if they separate) and thisshould be encouraged instead of automaticrights. That is why some countries (like the US)offer cohabitation agreements, which is s awritten agreement that governs the rights andobligations of two people who are in arelationship and live together in a sharedresidence. [1] [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-ermfhwaccww-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Creating legal provisions for property sharingafter the end of a cohabitating relationship in noway limits the autonomy of individuals. Ifanything, the status quo does that. It forcescouples to either get married (which they maynot want to do) or to sign a cohabitationagreement before the beginning of a relationship(which is a preposterous idea to most couples).By creating a legal way to handle disputes afterthe end of a cohabitating relationship, the statewould offer a middle road between the extremesof marriage and signing an unromantic contractearly on.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Intolerant schools are a problem because theydon’t allow freedom of religious expression. In afree society, pupils should appreciate thedifferent faiths of their fellow pupils and respectthem. Without that respect, they may just endup going to separate schools which is even moredivisive [1] . As for safety, it also prevents somepotential hazards such as hair getting caught inmachines or flames, which when hidden won’t bea problem. [1] The Economist, ‘Faiths andschools Religious rights and wrongs, 4September 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "It causes problems in schools Like in society asa whole, religious symbols are divisive. It markssome out as different from the others, whichcould cause bullying. They may also beimpractical for PE, technology or science lessonswhere they get in the way. Face veils also meanthat people’s lips cannot be seen when they arespeaking, which can cause problems withcommunication (especially with any D/deafpeople who lip read). For this reason, a UK courtconsidered it reasonable for a school to notpermit a teacher to teach while wearing a faceveil [1] . [1] BBC News, ‘School sacks womanafter veil row’, 24 November 2006, . See courtcase listed higher up for full legal decision(resource for teachers).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "No-one is in a vacuum – everyone has socialpressures affecting what they wear. Banningveils itself is divisive and will create strongreactions in highly religious communities [1] .Framing laws that only ban the veil could beseen as an attack on Islam, and lead Muslimcommunities to think they are being unfairlytargeted. The result will be that they won’tco-operate with people of other faiths. Thiswould be bad for society and make extremistsmore influential. [1] Huffington Post, ‘FranceBans Burqas: A Look At Islamic Veil Laws inEurope’, 4 November 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The veil is a symbol of oppression onwomen Face coverings in particular divide menand women. Face veil is seen by some as asymbol of the oppression of women, because insome countries it is mandatory, as was the casein Afghanistan under the Taliban. When worn inEurope, with equality and democracy, it can beseen as a rejection of such oppression – this iswhy Belgium banned it [1] . Islamic dress rulesare often stricter for women than men. [1] BBCNews, ‘Belgian ban on full veils comes into force’,23 July 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It’s not seen as oppressive by those who wear it– instead they see at as a way of preserving theirmodesty and privacy. Everyone has their owntolerance as to how much clothing makes themcomfortable. It’s a personal decision that shouldbe left to the individual.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "It causes division within society Religioussymbols, such as the veil divide society. Whensome Muslim women wear the veil, it createspressure on others to do so as well. Pressurecomes from wanting to fit in, and pressure fromother people in the community seeing those whodon’t wear the veil as being somehow lessreligious. Allowing it in schools makes it morevisible to non-Muslims, making them more likelyto perceive it as a core part of the faith. It thengives the impression to outsiders that Islam ismore extreme than it really is.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "A ban would be easy to enforce As a facecovering is very obvious, it would be a school tocheck to see if someone is wearing one. France[1] and Turkey [2] already have attempted suchbans on headscarves, which do not cover theface. This could be enforced by teachers, notpolice. [1] BBC News, ‘French scarf ban comesinto force’, 2 September 2004, [2] Rainsford,Sarah, ‘Turkey divided over headscarf ban’, BBCNews, 11 February 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Each religious symbol should be taken on its ownmerits. Unlike many other religiousmanifestations, the veil covers the face, whichhas its own problems in Western societiesbecause it makes it harder to understandsomeone wearing it. This is not about thereligious symbol of the burqa but about thecommunication problem it creates.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "A ban on face coverings wouldn’t be a target to aparticular faith as it would also ban veils thatmight be desired by people of other faiths aswell. Moreover only a small minority of Muslimwomen in Europe wear the veil; in France with5million Muslims it is thought that only 350 wearthe face veil. [1] [1] O’Neill, Brendan, ‘There’snothing enlightened about burka-bashing’,Spiked, 19 September 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "It’s a personal matter – it doesn’t concernothers Wearing religious and cultural symbolsare a matter of personal choice. Getting thegovernment involved in such a personal matter isa breach of privacy. The Belgian ban has beenunpopular amongst some people because thosewho want to wear it are being limited to stayingwithin their homes. In France a ban on the burqahas led to increasing abuse of those who do wearit; 94% of victims of anti-Muslim physical andverbal abuse are women. [1] [1] Irving, Helene,‘France’s “Burqa Ban” Enforcing Not SolvingInequality’, Open Society Foundations, 13 April2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "It’s their culture and religion Religion isintimately linked to culture and people’s identity.To many people who believe that religion, it isvery important to them. In a society with respectfor human rights, people are able to not justhave their religious beliefs, but put them in topractice.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "If you ban it, you have to ban everything else Ifone form of religious symbolism is banned, itwould be difficult to justify not banning others. Ifthe government considers face coverings whichwould be seen as an attack on Muslims (whileonly a small minority of Muslim women wearthem, they are not popular in other faiths apartfrom for specific uses). If the motive for such aban is integration and uniformity, items such asthe Sikh turban and potentially the Christiancross should be banned as well.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "A ban on the veil is just a way of targetingMuslims This measure would just be seen as away of targeting Muslims. Religious symbolswould be used as a way of singling out Muslimsas a cause of division when any such problem isbigger than any one community. Muslims wouldbe right to ask why the veil is banned while theKirpan, a small ceremonial knife carried by Sikhsso potentially dangerous, is allowed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Not all Muslims believe that a full veil is anecessary part of their religion or culture. On theother side must be considered a culture thatbelieves in being able to see the people who youare dealing with. Communication is an importantpart of culture, and visual contact is animportant part of communication.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-frgsbnaofcs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The veil is a visible symbol intended to be seenby others so it is clearly not just personal. Itcould be used to conceal identity, for example inthe UK a group of robbers disguised themselvesin burqas to steal over a million pounds ofwatches in Selfridges [1] . [1] Davenport,Justin, ‘Selfridges 'burka gang' detectives arrestfive men in dawn raids’, London EveningStandard, 22 October 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There can be no description of human reality, ingeneral or in particular, outside the reality ofChrist. We must be on guard, therefore, againstconstructing any other ground for our identitiesthan the redeemed humanity given to use inhim. Those who understand themselves ashomosexuals, no more and no less than thosewho do not, are liable to false understandingsbased on personal or family histories, emotionaldispositions, social settings and solidaritiesformed by common experiences or ambitions.Our sexual affections can no more define who weare than our class race or nationality. At thedeepest ontological level, therefore, there is nosuch thing as \"a\" homosexual or \"a\"heterosexual; therefore there are human beings,male and female, called to redeemed humanityin Christ, endowed with a complex variety ofemotional potentialities and threatened by acomplex variety of forms of alienation. [1] [1]The Lembeth Conference 1998. Resolution I.10", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Sexuality is an intrinsic part ofpersonality Sexuality is an indivisible part ofpersonhood; people need to be able to expresstheir sexuality openly in order to fully actualisethemselves. It is wrong therefore to usesexuality as an individual metric by which theyare eligible to become priests or not – theyshould be taken on the whole of theirpersonhood.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Priests act as representatives of God towardsmembers of their congregation, not vice versa.The argument against women priests is that,while women are children of God and part of thechurch, they cannot represent Jesus inperforming the communion service simplybecause he was male. The same applies tohomosexuals; they cannot represent Him in thesame way. The rule against gay priests but notagainst gay laity is not hypocritical but merelyreflects the application of differing standards ofdiscipline.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Homosexuality exists in nature and is thereforepart of God’s plan Homosexual behaviour occursnaturally – both in humans and in the animalworld, it has been observed in over 1500 animalspecies of all different types from mammals tocrabs to worms. [1] It must be amisunderstanding of God’s plan to say thathomosexuality is unnatural – it forms a part ofthe world that He has created and thereforemust form part of His plan. The substance ofwhat the Bible says about sexuality is that whatmatters is having a stable and lovingrelationship, not who that relationship iswith. [1] NewsMedical, ‘1,500 animal speciespractice homosexuality’, 23 October 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Infanticide is a part of nature, as is cannibalism.What separates humanity from the rest of thenatural world is our ability to appreciate moralitybeyond ‘what is natural’. One of the moral rulesthat God has imparted to us is that the onlymoral sexual behaviour is between man andwife. Other moral systems obviously take adifferent view of sexual ethics, but they aren’trelevant how a Christian Church should organiseitself.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Religion is not a political party, changing andcatering to the views of the current electorate.The Church acts as the curator of God’s Wordand maintains its principles no matter howunfashionable they may be. This is especiallyimportant in an increasingly secular age whenChristianity will only survive by virtue of itmaintaining a clear, consistent message.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Priests have to represent theircongregations Priests have a responsibility torepresent the members of their congregations. Alarge number of Christians are gay, and they canreceive better spiritual direction from gayministers than from heterosexuals who do notunderstand their lifestyles or relationships aswell.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The Church has adapted before, it can adaptnow The Church has adapted over the centurieson a number of social and natural issues as itseeks to re-interpret and re-explain God’smessage of love in the terms of modern society.For example Churches have adapted to theproblems that science has thrown up, even theCatholic church, often the slowest to embracechange did eventually agree with Galileo over theearth going round the sun. [1] The acceptance ofhomosexuality and admission of gay priests is anecessary next step for the Church today. Therewill be others in the future. [1] Butt, Riazat,‘The Vatican may be cosying up to science but itwill never go all the way’, Notes&Theoriesguardian.co.uk, 23 February 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Catholic doctrine is not the doctrine of allChristian churches. It is right to say thatordination is a privilege of service granted tomen deemed mature enough to be faithful tothat service – which is why that decision shouldbe taken on each person as a rounded basis andnot as an absolute litmus checklist of issues.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The part of the Book of Leviticus which sentenceshomosexuals to death also: permits polygamy,bans tattoos, prohibits eating meat that isn’twell-cooked, prohibits eating rabbits, pigs orsome forms of seafood, and prohibits thewearing of clothes made of blended textiles(such as polyester). Most Christians accept thatparts of the Bible were written according to theout-dated social opinions of the time and can betaken lightly. The only New Testamentcomments about homosexuality come from themoralising apostle Paul; there is nothing directlyfrom Jesus, in the Gospels themselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Church condemns all sex outside ofmarriage, hetero or homosexual in nature Therecan be no doubt that the Bible and Jesus stronglycondemn sex outside of Christian marriage (or‘fornication’). Indeed for much of Christianhistory sex even within marriage has been seenas a necessary evil that should only be forcreating children, as a result priests, monks andnuns had to be celibate. [1] Although Jesusspent time in the company of adulterers, Heloved \"the sinner, not the sin\" - and orderedthem to cease their behaviour. His response tohomosexuals would have been just asunequivocal. [1] Bacchiocchi, Samuele,‘Marriage and Sex’, The Marriage Covenant: ABiblical Study on Marriage, Divorce, andRemarriage,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Ordination is not a right. Ordination is aprivilege of service granted to men deemedmature enough in all aspects of their lives to beable to be faithful to that service It is Catholicdoctrine that Homosexuals are incapable ofperceiving human nature as God as created it,consisting of male and female persons meant formutual attraction, complementarity, and,God-willing, marriage and children. Instead,they see members of their own gender asmutually attractive in a sexual sense. They donot see females as such. In other words, they donot see or experience objective reality. Since thisis so, it follows that homosexual priests possessa serious handicap which makes it extremelydifficult, if not impossible, to serve well asordained ministers. [1] [1] Abbott, Matt C.,‘Three priests speak on ‘gay priest’ ban’.September 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Homosexuality is a sin in theBible Homosexuality is \"a grievous sin\" in theBible (Gen 18:20), a capital crime (Lev 20:13),and punishable by exclusion from the Kingdom ofHeaven (1 Cor 6:9-10). Christians - especiallypriests - must accept the Bible as the ultimateauthority. Christian ministry is thereforeincompatible with homosexuality. Jesus was aradical teacher and overturned Jewish traditionwhere He saw it was necessary to do so; Hissilence on homosexuality indicates that He sawno need in this case.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-religion-chwccaogalp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Condemning homosexuality as sex outsidemarriage is unfair, since it is the Christian churchwhich does not offer the right of marriage togays and lesbians. If it were to do so, they couldenjoy sex within loving relationships, sanctifiedby the Church, just as heterosexuals do. Jesus’main teaching was clear - \"love your God andlove your neighbour\" - and there is cleardifference between adultery and homosexualityin this respect; the former causes pain and has avictim (the betrayed partner), the latter can be apurely loving relationship.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The appreciation for complex life by all reasoningshould be universal among intelligent species. Itseems intelligent life is a rarity in the Universe,and thus it would be unlikely for any civilization,no matter how advanced beyond our own, not toappreciate the advent of complex life on Earthand the value of humanity, flawed and inferior asit might appear to them1. The time energynecessary to traverse the stars in order to reachEarth would only be worth spending if it were toa peaceful end. War would yield only theresources of this small planet, hardly the spoilsworth an interstellar war, however one-sided itmight prove. Human civilization, as short as itsspan has been, has developed far in terms ofboth physical and social sciences. The wealth ofknowledge that might be had from contactingextraterrestrials is too great an opportunity topass up. 1 Sagan, Carl. 1973. Communicationwith Extraterrestrial Intelligence. Cambridge:MIT Press.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "There is no way to prevent attempts at contactso they should be official. There is no way for usto attempt to prevent everyone in the planetfrom trying to contact aliens so the attemptsmight as well be done officially. There are morethan 6 billion people on Earth, we cannot controltheir actions or keep an eye on them all. If wehad no official messages going out then wewould be allowing private individuals tomonopolize the message which could haveconsequences if there ever is contact as a resultof these attempts1. At the same time we can'tjust turn off all our communication signals. Wehave been broadcasting our radio and televisionshows, mobile phone conversations etc. fordecades, how would we just shut it all off andmake sure nothing leaks further out to space? Itis therefore better for governments who are atleast the representatives of their people to becontrolling the message by themselvesattempting to contact extraterrestrial life.1 \">Drezner, Daniel, 'How do you say", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Certainly there are many concerns on Earth thatmust be addressed if mankind hopes to survive.Pollution and climate change are real threats thatdeserve a great deal of attention from allgovernments around the world, since everyone isaffected. This attention, however, does not needto exclude from the agenda the effort to contactextraterrestrials. Rather, states can focus onmore than one science-based issue at a time. Itis rather disingenuous, in fact, to suggest that itis a matter of one or the other. Furthermore, theinternational unity created by mankind'scollective search for intelligent life in space,binding people not as members of separatenations, but as members of the human race, canserve as a means of promoting unified action onissues affecting the whole planet. Spaceexploration and the search for intelligent lifeamong the stars can thus actually help toameliorate coordination problems between statesin their efforts to deal with global issues. Clearly,when people think of themselves as citizens of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The effort to contact extraterrestrial life causeshumans around the world to think of themselvesas one community, with an identity and purposethat transcends borders: Space explorationfosters a general sense of internationalism. Forexample, in no endeavor have scientists fromaround the world more readily worked togetherthan in the development of the InternationalSpace Station and other space-relatedenterprises. Looking beyond the Earth serves tounite humanity in a way nothing else can1. Whenthe Apollo astronauts first transmitted images ofthe Earth back to the waiting masses, the sightof that tiny blue-white marble suspended in thevast void profoundly changed the way manypeople viewed themselves. There was for thefirst time a sense of oneness, of citizenship ofthis island Earth. In the transmissions beamedinto space in hopes of contactingextraterrestrials, the messages are emissaries ofthe entire human race. In this way spaceexploration actually gives mankind a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Space exploration produces many valuabletechnological innovations that benefit all ofhuman society: Space exploration and researchhave resulted in many major advances in scienceand technology. Everything from Velcro to moreefficient and powerful computers has come out ofthe space program1. The technological advancesproduced by the space program would not havebeen possible were it not for the intensity offocus on the paradigm of exploration. That sameparadigm has come to permeate scientificenquiry generally, pushing scientists to seek newanswers and to develop new technologies. Solong as mankind keeps pushing the barriers of itsown knowledge, it will never stagnate, andhuman understanding of the Universe willcontinue to grow. Should humanity, however,take an insular view of itself and turn back on ahistory of pushing of boundaries, the paradigm ofprogress might dissolve as well. 1 Coalition forSpace Exploration. 2010. \"Benefits of Space", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The benefits accrued from spin-off technologyresulting from space exploration are generallyoverstated. NASA, for example, had claimed thatprotein crystals could be grown in zero gravitythat could fight cancer, as well as numerousother claims of benefits. Most of these benefitshave never materialized. With all the billions ofdollars wasted on space exploration and trying tocontact extraterrestrials, most of the spin-offtechnologies could likely have been createdindependently, given the resources, andprobably at lower overall expense. As to theparadigm of exploration, efforts to explore partsof space, as well as our own planet wouldcontinue. The paradigm is not shattered by thechoice to take a cautious approach towardextraterrestrial life, which is likely a waste ofeffort anyway.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The search for extraterrestrial life does not solvethe problem of the human propensity towardgroup distinctions. Even if such projectssucceeded in fostering a sense of universalhumanity, it only does so at the cost of creatinga new in group-out group dynamic, namelyhumans defining themselves against the outgroup that is extraterrestrial life. Suchredefinition of identity could cause seriousproblems in the extremely unlikely event thathumans ever actually do make contact withextraterrestrial life.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Humanity in many ways defines itself throughexploration, and the search for alien life is part ofmankind's exploration of the Universe: Humanhistory is one of exploration. Since the earliestdays of Homo sapiens, people have striven tolook beyond the horizon, to see what is outthere. It was this impetus that led humans out ofthe small corner of Africa where the species wasborn, to see new places, to find new fertile landsto explore. It was this impetus also that led thefirst European explorers to traverse the greatwaters of the Atlantic Ocean in search of newtrade routes, braving the very real risks ofstorm, disease, piracy, and fatal disorientation,as well as the perceived risks of sea serpents andother monsters awaiting unwary travelers. Whenthe surface of the world was finally mapped,people set their sights on exploration of the seafloor, to climb the highest mountains, and finallyto reach the stars themselves, all because theywere challenges, unknowns to be made known1.Mankind's place is among the stars, and what", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The knowledge and technology to be gained frominteraction with extraterrestrials is potentiallylimitless: Humanity has built, in the relativelyfew millennia since formal writing was invented,compiled a truly gigantic quantity of informationand knowledge, to which it is constantly adding,at increasingly rapid rates. To imagine thetreasure trove of knowledge and experience thatwould become available to humanity in the eventof contact with intelligent extraterrestrial life ofsimilar, or even greater, technological and socialdevelopment is almost impossible1. The wisdomthat could be gained, especially considering thatalien life would likely have evolved along verydifferent lines than humans, could be of a kindthat mankind could never have conceivedwithout such contact. This great potential for thegaining of knowledge is reason enough to devoteresources to the effort of making contact. 1Sagan, Carl. 1973. Communication withExtraterrestrial Intelligence. Cambridge: MITPress.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is no need for us to be searching for alienlife to be exploring the universe. The dream ofcontacting aliens seems to be an example ofhumanity's dreams gone awry. Earth's beamedmessages and questing probes have for theirefforts received no return signal. Surely ifintelligent life were near enough to have receivedour signals, they would have replied.Alternatively, if they are too far away, there is nophysical means by which they could ever reachEarth, due to the constraints of the laws ofphysics, which deny objects the power ofreaching the speed of light. Furthermore, thevalue of the drive to explore itself should bequestioned, since humanity's track record on thesubject is far from stellar; the abysmal treatmentof the Native Americans by European settlers, forexample, shows that the will to explore can comewith terrible costs.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It seems unlikely that humans would not be ableto survive a great change of circumstance. Thehuman mind is quite resilient, and while thechange in how people viewed themselves andthe Universe would likely change substantially, itmight well be for the better. In fact, discovery ofextraterrestrials might help free people from theshackles of dogmatic religious belief, which hascaused untold suffering to many through theages.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Contact with an extraterrestrial civilization moreadvanced than our own could lead to massexistential crises, putting the existence of humancivilization at risk: Almost every human beliefsystem, religious or secular, is based on ananthropocentric outlook. Humanity is thecollective center of its Universe; the cognitivelyaware being that can interact with physicalreality not simply by impulse, but by self-aware,conscious agency. Human belief in itself is basedupon its conception of dominion over thephysical world. Mankind shapes its ownenvironment; while weaker, slower, and smallerthan many other species, the intelligence of Manmakes Him the apex predator. Mankind's imageof itself is compromised by the existence of otherintelligent life, especially more advancedintelligent life. It seems that most religious beliefsystems could not effectively survive with suchknowledge, since the existence of intelligent,advanced extraterrestrials seems to imply thenonexistence of a creator God with any active", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The focus of states and individuals should be onfixing the problems of this planet, not withexploring other ones: The Earth is faced withmany problems that people should be focusingtheir efforts on addressing, not on the stars andwhat may or may not be out there. Globalwarming, the destruction of ecosystems, risingsea levels, pollution, poverty, and resourcedepletion are all issues weighing heavily onstates and the international community as awhole. Individuals and governments need to rallyand fight these growing terrestrial problems1.The resources poured into space exploration andthe contacting of extraterrestrials, which willlikely serve no lasting purpose, would be betterspent in combating the hundreds of seriousissues facing the planet today. The search forextraterrestrials serves only as a distraction,keeping people's minds off the pressing concernsof the Earth. To make things worse,governments use manned space flight as ameans of distraction quite deliberately. It is often", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Attempts to contact extraterrestrial life are awaste of time and money: Billions of dollarshave been spent by a number of countries,principally the United States, on great projectsseeking to make contact and signalextraterrestrials. None of these has received somuch as a peep in reply. The reason for this islikely that intelligent life is an extreme rarity,with humanity its only exemplar in this part ofthe galaxy1. If there were intelligent life withinreceiving range of Earth-based transmissions,the extraterrestrials would have had ampleopportunity to respond, or at least make theirpresence known. The fact that they have notsuggests that there are no extraterrestrialswithin contactable range, or at least none withany interest in talking to Earthlings. If there wereextraterrestrials on more distant planets, effortsto contact them would be pointless, as theywould be so far away that communication wouldtake many years and would be unreachablephysically. Furthermore, the search for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Extraterrestrials might prove unintelligible, oreven hostile toward humanity: Wereextraterrestrials to actually be contacted, anunlikely event in itself, the ability to share in anyform of meaningful communication might wellprove more difficult than might first seem. Theextraterrestrials will have evolved on a differentworld, perhaps along lines so alien to that ofEarth's life that it would be utterly impossible tounderstand what they said, even if they could beheard. Language is built largely on frames ofreference, and when an extraterrestrial, evolvingon an entirely alien world, perhaps possessing anentirely alien thought process, and certainlyhaving an entirely alien linguistic frame ofreference, no level of communication might bepossible. With no conceptual similarities orcognitive common ground, the potential forsharing knowledge between species would likelyprove impossible to decipher. They could simplybe too alien. Furthermore, the hope thattechnologically advanced extraterrestrials would", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The potential for sharing of knowledge, wereextraterrestrials to actually be contacted, mightwell be more limited and difficult than might firstseem. The extraterrestrials will have evolved ona different world, perhaps along lines so alien tothat of Earth's life that it would be utterlyimpossible to understand what they would haveto say, even if they could be heard. They couldsimply be too alien. There is no reason to believethat any aliens are going to benevolent theycould very well be hostile. (Brin, 2006) Weshould not therefore be attempting to contactaliens to share technology rather we should befocusing on advancing our own technology. 1Brin, David. 2006. \"Shouting at the Cosmos\".Lifeboat Foundation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-euhwcface-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Just because efforts to contact extraterrestrialsto date have proven unsuccessful does not meanthey are not out there. In fact, ascommunications technology develops over time,humans' ability to project messages and toreceive them will increase manifold.Extraterrestrial transmissions could well bebeaming toward Earth, but humans might simplylack the capacity to receive them. There could bean interplanetary conversation happening rightnow, and no one would even know (Sagan,1973). Only by pushing the boundaries ofscience and of human imagination can suchtechnological improvements arise. The paradigmof exploration must be maintained with thescouring for life amongst the heavens.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "While ISPs are private firms, they perform apublic service. They have a special duty insociety as providers of information not to biasthat information through private censorshippolicies. When they embark on any form ofsite-blocking, ISPs cease to be doing their job.Governments should maintain that ISPs act asneutral gatekeepers of information and not takeup the role of ad hoc censor. Moreover this wouldbe different from filtering adult content as that isa service that is provided if the subscriber wishesit, if this was the case with extremist contentthen such a block would be useless as thoseinterested in extremist content would just opt forpackages that do not restrict access.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "ISPs are private service providers and shouldthus be able to have some filters on the mostextreme spectrums of extremism ISPs areultimately private providers of a service. Becauseof this they should retain the right to restrict thatservice to certain groups. So long as ISPs makepublic their policy for what constitutes extremismso that consumers can decide if they want to optinto it, there is no real issue. There are manyfilters available to users to screen out certainmaterials already, for example internet providersoffer customers the option to block adultcontent, [1] and this is merely an extension ofthis approach. Businesses must be able to sorttheir own ethos. Some ISPs may not opt to usethis power given to them by the state, but othersmay not wish to carry content they considerdangerous. Because extremism is on the veryfringe of speech and opinion, and because of thepotential dangers that can arise from it, it is onlyright that the state give some ability to ISPs toblock objectionable content. [1] BBC News,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "While it is true that extremists seek toundermine and bend the systems of discourse tobe as favorable as possible, they are a tiny fringeminority of opinion, and the number of siteschallenging their skewed narrative is far morenumerous. Even young people are able to surfthe web with great skill, and can easily see thatthe extremist view is fringe in the extreme.There is also little evidence that preventingaccess to some sites would make it more difficultfor extremists, when large numbers of jihadiwebsites went offline in 2012 discussion simplymoved elsewhere and leaders emphasizedrecruiting more people offline. [1] [1] Zelin, A.et al. “The State of Global Jihad Online”. NewAmerica Foundation. January 2013. /Zelin20130201-NewAmericaFoundation.pdf Pp.10, 15", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "ISPs are better placed than governments tomake decisions on when and who to block Asthe access providers for the internet ISPs arebest placed to implement policies for blockingextremist sites and so are the natural option fordeciding when and which sites to block.Furthermore, because the state is often slow dueits extensive bureaucracy, it is less able torespond with alacrity to extremist sites poppingup online. ISPs on the other hand are likely to beable to act as soon as they are informed of theexistence of a website whereas working throughgovernment would simply add an extra layer ofrequests and orders. The ISPs blocking the sitealso creates a fire break between the state andthe action so not giving the extremists theammunition that state intervention might givethem. Essentially, the good result of eliminatingthese sites from public access is accomplishedfaster, more effectively, and with lesser backlashthan if any other agent did the blocking.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The freedom of speech can be curtailed when itrepresents a serious threat to society Freedomof speech certainly may be curtailed when realharms can be shown to arise from it. Extremistsites serve as centers of dangerous dissent,whose members threaten all of society. Theypromote a message that is fundamentally badspeech, because it cannot it cannot be arguedwith and promotes aims that are so anathema tofree society that its dissemination represents atrue threat to people’s safety. The threatextremists represent to free society demandsthat their right to speech online be curtailed. [1]By blocking these sites, ISPs certainly aredenying some freedom of speech, but it is anecessarily harmful form of speech that has novalue in the global commons. Thus, there isessentially no real loss of valuable speech incensoring extremist websites. [1] Kaplan, E.“Terrorists and the Internet”. Council on ForeignRelations. 8 January 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Denying extremists their right to speak threatenseveryone’s freedom of speech. It is essential in afree society that people should be able to freelyexpress their views without fear of reprisal,however extreme or unsavory their views are. Ifyou value free speech you must be willing todefend that right for everyone, even for thoseyou find repugnant.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Putting the power to censor the internet, nomatter how stringent or specific the guidelines,into the hands of a private organization ismisguided. It is the state not individual ISPs whoare needed to assess how dangerous a site is,whether it is actually promoting extremism, andultimately make a decision as to whether a siteneeds to be blocked. The ISPs may end up beingthe actors that implement the policy but it has tobe government that decides which websites toblock and why. This also means that the decisionwould be much more centralised. Leaving thisdecision to the discretion of individual ISPs willmean that some websites will be blocked onsome ISPs and not on others. Only governmentcan ensure that there is consistency.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Extremist groups will always find ways toorganize direct actions, be it via in-personmeetings, furtive use of social networking tools,or even by using untraceable black sites onlinethat ISPs cannot block because they cannot seethem. The result of blocking these views fromthe public internet only serves to push theextremists further underground.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "It makes it more difficult for extremists toorganize and spread their message whenblocked The ISPs are the gatekeepers ofinformation. When the internet places no moraljudgments on content and the ISPs let allinformation through without commentary, itlends an air of permissiveness to the beliefs putforward, that they are held by reasonablepeople. The internet is a great tool for education,but also one that can be used to sowmisinformation and extreme rhetoric. Extremistgroups have been able to use the internet to aremarkable extent in promoting their beliefs andrecruiting new members. Worse still, theadministrators of these extremist sites are ableto choke of things like dissenting commenters,giving the illusion that their view is difficult, oreven impossible to reasonably challenge. Indoing so they create an echo chamber for theirideas that allows them to spread and to affectpeople, particularly young people susceptible tosuch manipulation. The best example of this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Blocking these sites makes it more difficult forextremist groups to coordinate extremist actionin the real world The greatest fear people haveabout extremist groups is not their rhetoric, butthe actions the rhetoric precipitates. Extremistshave proven adept at setting up basic websitesthrough which to build communities to organizeand coordinate extreme actions. This means inthe most limited form the coordinating ofextremist demonstrations and rallies, but alsoviolent and terrorist actions. The best example ofthis is As-Sahab, al-Qaeda’s media arm, whichhas used an extensive web presence to galvanizesupporters and to coordinate terrorist attacks.[1] In using the tools of the mass mediaextremists have succeeded in bringingsupporters to their cause, people who are oftengeographically diffuse, into a close communitycapable of action and disruption that harms allcitizens. If blocking these websites entirely ISPswould pose a significant barrier to theseextremist groups organising. Even more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The ISPs would not be defining the parametersof what constitutes extremism; they wouldsimply be interpreting the parameters that aregiven to them by government. They do not needto gauge the extent of the harm from a sitesimply determine whether it falls within the kindof site they are to be blocking. There would beno expectation that the ISPs would need to workout complex cost-benefit analyses. ISPs, as thepurveyors of the internet are perfectly capable ofpolicing their own service, and are well-placed todo so because they manage the software thatfeeds the internet service. Furthermore, asprivate agents providing a service, they retainthe right to alter the extent of that service if theysee fit to do so.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of speech is important, but must becurtailed when people are threatened. Extremistsare a very real threat because their messagesand actions galvanize people to take violent,disruptive actions against the state and itscitizens. ISPs have a right, and even aresponsibility to block extremist websites if it iswritten into the contract when a user purchasesthe service. When people opt into an ISP theyaccept the parameters of the service, so theirfreedom is not being limited by the blocking ofextremist content as they have already acceptedthat extremist websites are not a part of theaccess package they bought.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "ISPs should be required to maintain NetNeutrality The internet is such a great thingbecause it is a free market of ideas in which allbeliefs can be submitted for the scrutiny of theglobal online community. Debate online andrational argument serves as a major check onthe extreme views of the political fringe. Bymaintaining net neutrality in the provision ofinternet and not blocking websites, ISPs allowthis process of the exchange and scrutinizing ofideas on which liberal democratic society relies.[1] A neutral stance upholds the highestprinciples of the freedom, and allows people tofeel safe in the veracity and representativenessof the internet content they are provided, andunafraid of artificially constructed bias. [1]Seythal, T. “Holocaust Denier Sentenced to FiveYears”. The Washington Post. 15 February 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Censorship provides a propaganda victory to itstargets By denying people the ability to accesssites set up by extremists, ISPs serve to increaseextremists’ mystique and thus the demand toknow more about the movement and its beliefs.When the public appears to oppose something sovociferously that it is willing to have its internetprovider set aside the normal freedoms usuallytaken as granted, people begin to take notice.There are always groups of individuals that wishto set themselves up as oppositional to thenorms of society, to transgress against its moresand thus challenge what they see to be aconstraining system. [1] When extremist beliefsare afforded this mystique of extremetransgression, it serves to encourage people,particularly young, rebellious people to seek outthe group and even join it. Such has been thecase of young, disaffected Muslims in Europe,and the United Kingdom in particular. Theseyoung people feel discriminated against by thesystem and seek to express their anger in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Blocking extremists will make anti-terrorismsurveillance more difficult as the organizationsgo underground A major risk with any extremistorganization is that its members, when put undersignificant legal pressure, will go underground,or find other means of communicating, or useany ISPs that not blocking extremist content.The power of ISPs, or the state for that matter,to actually stop the development of extremistnetworks is limited, as they will be able still toorganize in secret, or even semi-publicly, viasocial networks and hidden websites that evadedetection by the censors. As Mark Burgess,director of the World Security Institute warns““too much focus on closing down websites couldalso be counter-productive, since it likely forcesterrorist websites to go underground to theso-called ‘deep’ or hidden web.” [1] Terroristgroups visible profile would be blunted, but itwould not guarantee any positive gains in termsof stamping down on the number of extremists.Indeed, when extremists are driven from public", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "ISPs are not well placed to make judgments onwhat constitutes extremism ISPs arebusinesses, not scholars or governments. Theydo not have the expertise to effectively definethe parameters of what constitutes extremism orwhen a certain site is such, and cannot gaugethe extent of damage the site is having. Ifgovernments give the power to ISPs to takedown extremist sites they are giving thesecompanies the ability to dissipate the freedom ofthe internet on the basis of its own judgment.[1] That is a very dangerous power to give theagents that are the gatekeepers of information tothe people. Even if the state sets guidelines forISPs to follow, it will be difficult to police theirdecisions effectively and will set the dangerousprecedent that service providers should have adegree of power over what content citizens canconsume. The ISPs also face the risk of legalchallenge by groups blocked that claim to not beadvocates of extremism at all so burdening theISPs with long and costly court battles which", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-con05b", "title": "", "text": "While some people might be enticed by themystique of extremism as transgressors, farmore people will be put off by the positivestatement of denying them their favoredplatform from which to speak. There will alwaysbe extremists, but their views must always bechallenged and their influence curtailed whereverit is found", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Everyone, even extremists, deserve theirfreedom of expression protected No matter howdistasteful, or extreme, their opinions may be,everyone should have the right to voice themfreely and publicly. That is the very essence of afree society. When groups presume to judgegood speech from bad, and to shut off thechannel by which the designated bad speechmay flow, it abrogates its duty to protect therights of all. When ISPs do this, which they dowhen they block sites they designate asextremist, they rob the people of theirfundamental role as the final arbiters ofacceptable speech in the marketplace of ideas,taking that power unto themselves without anyform of democratic or moral mandate. Such astate of affairs is anathema to the continuation ofa free society. [1] Speech can be legally curtailedonly when there is a very real and manifest harmarising from it. But that is not the case here,where the participants are few and scattered,and those who would take exception to what the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Forcing extremists underground can only servethe cause of justice. With them out of thespotlight they are less likely to drag in newrecruits among casual, open-mindedinternet-goers. Underground they are lessvisible, less legitimate-seeming, and less likely tobe able to build an organization capable ofviolent action.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ciidffehwa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Taking a neutral stance is a tacit endorsement ofthe validity of the message being spread asbeing worthy of discussion. Extremism does notdeserve its day in court, even if the outcomewere a thumping victory for reason andmoderation. Besides, the nature of extremists isthat they are not amenable to being convincedby reason or argument. Their beliefs areimpervious to facts, and that is why debate is apointless exercise except to give them a platformby which to spread their message, organize, andvalidate themselves to a wider audience.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ncpshwlucpc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Many other things such as radios within cars arejust as distracting as mobile phones. Although itis easy for police and prosecutors to prove that amobile phone was in use during a particularperiod of time, it is difficult to monitor the use ofmobile phones in most situations. Enforcing aban on mobiles would be as impractical as a banon arguing with a spouse. Further, the point ofthe ban on mobile phones is to minimisedistractions. However, a simple ban on mobilephones is likely to create a false sense of securityamong road users. Objects similar to cell phonesare not subject to bans, despite the fact thatthey might be distracting as well. For example, atablet PC in the passenger seat would not beunder this ban, but could easily be as distracting.This false sense of security could practicallycause drivers to be less conscious of distractionsand thus hurt in the long run. Whilst the lawmight incorporate these bans into the system,the prevalent message that will get to the peoplewill typically be centred on a mobile phone ban.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ncpshwlucpc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Cell Phones are worse than otherdistractions Cell phones in cars, unlike a varietyof other distractions, can be regulated easily.They are an object which can easily be identified,and with phone bills it is possible to find out if aperson is lying when they are caught for usingcell phones in cars. As such the fact that otherdistractions exist, even if they are as harmful ascellphones, is no reason to not to ban theiruse. Further, other sources of potentialdistraction, such as passengers or car radios,may provide a net gain in utility to road usersand other stakeholders in mass transit systems.Being able to carry multiple people in cars forexample helps society through a reduction incarbon emissions as well as simply through areduction in traffic. To take this argumentfurther, there are many people who cannot drivebut require use of cars. For example, childrenmight require their parents to drive them toschool. Car radios are somewhat morecontroversial and principally if they prove to be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ncpshwlucpc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Some studies have placed the economic cost of aban on cell phones in cars at around $25 billionin total economic losses, including deaths andinjuries set to cost $4.6 billion. [1] The reasonfor this is explained in the first oppositioncounterargument. Being able to call and managebusiness on the fly is a valuable convenience,given the frantic nature of competitive businessin the world today. As such, more transactions ata faster rate leader to a much more powerfuleconomy. [2] [1] “Editorial: No Strong Case forBan on Driving With Cell Phones.” Hlbr.com16/07/2002 [2] ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ncpshwlucpc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Cell Phones Are a Public Health Hazard Cellphone use within cars is consistently linked withan increased chance of an accident. This isbecause if a driver only has a single hand on thewheel he lacks the ability to control the carproperly. Further, with both hands free andnormal sets, the driver has their hearingincredibly impaired by the phone call, reducingtheir ability to react to certain hazards. Diallingthe phone itself results in an even worseoutcome as it takes the concentration of thedriver away more, by forcing them to look at thephone instead of the road. Estimates indicatethat such phone use has led to the death of2,600 drivers annually in the U.S. Further,having a cell phone in the car and fumbling for itwhen it rings often causes accidents due to thedistraction that it presents, firstly psychologicallybecause of the noise going off, secondly due tothe fact that both hands again would not be onthe steering wheel to control the car. [1] [1]“Editorial: Cellphone ban long overdue.” The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ncpshwlucpc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, it has been found by some studies thatcell phone use does not have a statisticallysignificant impact in the reduction of car wrecks.[1] This might be plausible because being able tocall ahead to work for example and tell them thatyou will be late reduces the chance that peoplewill speed on the roads. It also reduces thechance that you will attempt to weave betweentraffic to increase your speed even whereacceleration might not be possible. Further,given the societal benefits from cell phone use incars, such as better organisation for the entirepopulation, it seems that a ban on the use of cellphones should not be implemented because thecost of doing so is too great when compared tothe benefits allowing phones would confer.[2] [1] Paul Tetlock, Jason Burnett and RobertHahn. \"Ban Cell Phones In Cars?\". Cato.org.December 29, 2000 [2] Tetlock, Paul. Burnett,Jason. Hahn, Robert. “Ban Cell phones In Cars?”Cato.org 29/12/2000", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ncpshwlucpc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Cell Phone Use is not necessary in vehicles. Inthe past the economy has not had to deal withmobile phones in cars and has been fine withouttheir use in cars. There is no great loss in libertyor freedom when you are unable to make amobile phone call. In fact, if you do have apressing need to make a call, all you need do ispull over and park the vehicle, which is often nota great problem. Further, people adjust and willadjust to the inability to use phones in cars.When the restriction was implemented inCalifornia, people were simply able to give uptheir phones because it emerged that they werenot truly necessary. [1] [1] “Editorial: Cellphone law worth pain.” Examiner. 3/07/2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ncpshwlucpc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Conversations of any kind (with or without theinvolvement of the hands) impair concentrationand reactions in braking tests. For some reasonthe brain treats a telephone conversationdifferently from talking to a passenger, perhapsbecause the passenger is also aware of possibleroad hazards in a way the telephone callercannot be and so makes less demands upon thedriver in terms of concentration at criticalmoments. In any case, voice activatedtechnology is often unreliable, risking driverstrying to use it getting frustrated and losingconcentration. It would be inconsistent to banone sort of mobile phone while allowing the othersort, which can be just as lethal. Therefore,hands-free mobile phone use while drivingshould also be banned. Further, \"Someresearchers, in fact, fear that the new law maycause more traffic accidents, not fewer, becausethey envision more distractions for manymotorists. When ring tones chime and driversscramble to find their newly purchased headsets", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ncpshwlucpc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The logical extent of opposition’s argument is astrongly libertarian society that does not legislateon almost any issue because it fears taking awaypeople’s ability to choose. It is important to notethat when someone causes a death throughignorant driving they have resulted in thedehumanisation of a person through the removalof their ability to choose. However, more so, theresulting society where people are free to dowhat they want ignores the fact that often peoplelack full information to make their decisions in aninformed way. It also fails to understand that astime goes on people often regret decisions thatthey once made. As such, people are often happyto and do make the choice to give up some oftheir freedoms and allow the state to make thosedecisions for them. Given then that peopleconsent to having the “humanity” taken awayfrom them, it seems legitimate that the state canmake decisions that they might not immediatelyagree with, under the assumption that the state,as a composite of a large number of different", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ncpshwlucpc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Ban is Unenforceable This is especially trueof hands-free phones, where accused motoristscould simply claim to be singing along to theradio or talking to themselves. In any case, thewidespread introduction of speed cameras inmany countries, and an increased public fear ofviolent crime have led to the redeployment of thetraffic police who would be needed to enforcesuch laws. [1] [1] Miller, Craig. “Laws LimitingCar-Phone use Tough to Enforce.” NPR. 08/2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ncpshwlucpc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Hands Free Phones Are notDangerous Hands-free cell phones aresufficiently safe on the road. These allow driversto communicate freely without taking their handsoff the controls or their eyes off the road.Effectively there is no difference between talkingto someone on a hands-free mobile, and holdinga conversation with a passenger next to you; infact, the latter is more dangerous as you may betempted to turn your head to directly addressthe passenger. Further, allowing the use ofhands free sets has been shown to reducefatalities, especially in adverse weatherconditions through drivers being able to reporttheir status to their loved ones and the localauthorities should things become too difficult forthem to handle. [1] [1] Stuckey, Mike.“Hands-free phones are lifesavers, study says.”MSNBC. 13/5/2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ncpshwlucpc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The State Does Not Have the Authority To LimitCitizens in This Way The state places rules uponits citizens for the overall betterment of society.However, whenever possible the state alsoaffords citizens liberty. This is the case becausethe state sees that when people are free to dowhat they want they are able to make betterdecisions for themselves and further are able tointeract with the state better. They do thisbecause they feel that the state is allowing themto make their own decisions and as such thestate is showing its trust in its citizens. This bondof trust between the state and the citizens aswell as the state giving the citizens their ownresponsibilities means that citizens respect thestate for the fact that it does not limit them. Toexamine this from a point of view that does notrely on moral consequentialism and a utilitybased principle, it is possible to say that thestate should afford people liberty and freedombecause the starting point of any rational moralcalculus should be the admission that an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-ncpshwlucpc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "New laws would be enforceable, as billingrecords will show whether a phone was in use atthe time. Improving camera technology may alsoallow the automatic detection of drivers breakinglaws against mobile phone use at the wheel. Inany case, just because a law is not completelyenforceable, it does not follow that it should bescrapped.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Humans are more liability than asset when itcomes to space travel. While humans can thinkoutside the box more readily than machines,developments in cognitive science and computerdesign have resulted in ever more competentcomputers that are gaining more and more theability to solve problems on their own.Furthermore, humans are physically fragile; inthe event of even slight damage to a spacecraft,all humans on board could be killed. They arealso susceptible to health risks in the form ofradiation damage and muscle and bone loss dueto the zero gravity conditions of space. [1]Unmanned ships are far more capable ofsurviving the dangers of space, and ofcompleting missions successfully. [1] Ad HocCommittee on the Solar System RadiationEnvironment. \"Space Radiation Hazards and theVision of Space Exploration.\" National ResearchCouncil.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Some activities in space require human dexterityof both mind and body to succeed Spaceexploration and research have resulted manymajor advances in science and technology.Everything from Velcro to more efficient andpowerful computers has come out of the spaceprogram. Many of these developments arose dueto the focus on the human element of spacetravel; scientists had to focus on the very realchallenge of getting humans into space and backhome safely. [1] Furthermore, there are someexperiments that can only be conducted in spaceand that require the dexterity andproblem-solving skills of humans. While robotsare very good at carrying out pre-designedprograms and collecting data, their ability tothink critically and engage in problem solving isquite limited. In order to get the most of spacetravel and exploration, humans must be presentto add their critical thinking and physical capacityto missions. For technology to continue todevelop through the space program the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "While unmanned space exploration is not asromantic as manned space flight, it is morefunctional. Exploring space is extremelyexpensive and governments have to consider thepracticalities of exploration more than theglamour. Scientifically, little is gained by mannedflight over unmanned flight. In terms ofincreasing interest in space flight, it isquestionable whether states encouraging interestin space exploration is the best thing at all. Theycould simply use space exploration, especiallyexciting manned voyages, as means ofdistracting public attention from domesticproblems. It is better for people to be focused onlife on this planet than on the mysteries of space.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Humanity in many ways defines itself throughexploration, and space is the next logicalfrontier Human history is one of exploration.Since the earliest days of Homo sapiens, peoplehave striven to look beyond the horizon, to seewhat is out there. It was this impetus that ledhumans out of the small corner of Africa wherethe species was born, to see new places, to findnew fertile lands to explore. It was this impetusalso that led the first European explorers totraverse the great waters of the Atlantic Ocean insearch of new trade routes, braving the very realrisks of storm, disease, piracy, and fataldisorientation, as well as the perceived risks ofsea serpents and other monsters awaitingunwary travelers. When the surface of the worldwas finally mapped, people set their sights onexploration of the sea floor, to climb the highestmountains, and finally to reach the starsthemselves, all because they were challenges,unknowns to be made known. [1] Mankind’splace is among the stars. Simply perusing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Curiosity and the will to explore certainly is afundamental part of the human condition. Butthe human body has natural limitations thattechnology cannot overcome. While artifice cango a long way to making places suitable for thefrail human form, it can only go so far. Mannedspace flight is extremely expensive, costing theUS government, the primary investor in spacetechnologies tens of billions of dollars every year,yet there remains no clear plan for humans toreturn to the moon, let alone Mars and the restof the solar system. [1] Exploration beyond thesolar system remains a pipe dream. The laws ofphysics likewise seem to make the possibility ofhuman exploration beyond the solar system nighimpossible. Other stars are simply too far awayfor a human to reach. The reality simply is thatmanned space flight is too costly and will likelynever find application beyond Sol. [1] Kaku,Michio. “The Cost of Space Exploration”, Forbes,2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The probability of any cosmic collision or otherdestructive event is extremely low and not worththinking about. In any event, manned spaceflight would not be viable for the purpose ofsaving humanity from a dying Earth for manyyears, if ever. Governments and people shouldfocus their attention on developing this planet,rather than worrying too much about finding newones to inhabit.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Manned space flight excites the humanimagination more than unmanned missions,allowing members of nations everywhere to seethemselves as part of the same humanrace People do not get excited when they seerobots launched into space; there is no romanceor adventure in a computer attached to a rocket.To enflame people’s imaginations andenthusiasm for space travel, real-life astronautsmust be involved. Furthermore, it is harder forpeople around the world to develop a sense ofconnection to an unmanned space flight. Mannedmissions, however, can become ambassadors ofall humanity. In no endeavor have scientistsfrom around the world more readily workedtogether than in the development of theInternational Space Station and otherspace-related enterprises. Looking beyond theEarth serves to unite humanity in a way nothingelse can. [1] When the Apollo astronauts firsttransmitted images of the Earth back to thewaiting masses, the sight of that tiny blue-white", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Manned space flight, and the new worlds it wouldserve to unlock, are essential to the long-termsurvival of humanity The Earth has suffered anumber of catastrophic events in its history. Thegalaxy is permeated with giant meteors like theone that struck the Earth 16 million years ago,which succeeded in wiping out the dinosaurs andprecipitating an ice age. [1] Other cosmic risksexist as well, such as the threat of deadlyradioactive waves given off by supernovae thatcan span the gulfs between stars and scorchplanets many light-years away. Likewise, riskscloser to home could prove equally destructive.Intense solar flairs from our sun could scorch awhole side of the planet. While all theseoccurrences are very rare, they remainpossibilities, and should any of them ever occur,it could prove the end of humanity, and even lifeon Earth. In order to guarantee the survival ofthe human race, manned space flight must bemade viable. One day it may prove necessary toleave this cradle of life in pursuit of a new home,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Certainly there are many concerns on Earth thatmust be addressed if mankind hopes to survive.Pollution and climate change are real threats thatdeserve a great deal of attention from allgovernments around the world, since everyone isaffected. This attention, however, does not needto exclude from the agenda the development andpropagation of manned space flight. Rather,states can focus on more than one science-basedissue at a time. It is rather disingenuous, in fact,to suggest that it is a matter of one or the other.Furthermore, the international unity created bymanned space exploration, binding people not asmembers of separate nations, but as members ofthe human race, can serve as a means ofpromoting unified action on issues affecting thewhole planet. Space exploration can thusactually help to ameliorate coordination problemsbetween states in their efforts to deal with globalissues. Clearly, when people think of themselvesas citizens of the world they are more ready tothink globally and consider issues affecting other", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The paradigm of exploration is essential to theprogression of technology. Space is the last greatfrontier and represents the perfect object onwhich to construct and maintain this paradigm.The costs of manned space flight are great, butthe core human drive to explore can only besatisfied by supporting it. Furthermore, thespin-off benefits of space exploration arenumerous. Computers have become morecompact and more powerful due to researchconducted under the aegis of space exploration.Even things as ubiquitous and central toeveryday life as Velcro, Teflon, and ballpointpens find their origin in space exploration. [1]The dream of exploration should not be killed forthe sake of saving money. [1] Coalition forSpace Exploration. “Benefits of Space”. 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Manned space flight is a technological deadend Manned space flight appears to have littlepractical use. While its supporters talk abouttraveling to other planets, the technology simplydoes not exist, nor may ever exist, to sendhumans to worlds that could be even potentiallyhabitable. It may be possible to send humans toMars, or the moons of Jupiter and Saturn, butdoing so would have little value other than forthe sake of planting boots on alien soil. [1] Anyresearch worth conducting on planets within thesolar system can be done just as well by robots,at considerably less expense. The laws of physicsseem to show that it is impossible for ships totravel at or past the speed of light, meaning anyjourney to planets beyond the solar systemwould take centuries at least. It is unlikely, forthis reason, that manned space travel will everbe a practically useful endeavor. Research shouldbe put into technology that can actually leadhumanity somewhere. There is nowhere forhumans to go in space that robots cannot, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The focus of states and individuals should be onfixing the problems of this planet, not withexploring other ones The Earth is faced withmany problems. Global warming, the destructionof ecosystems, rising sea levels, pollution, andresource depletion are all issues weighing heavilyon states and the international community as awhole. Individuals and governments need to rallyand fight these growing terrestrial problems. Theresources poured into manned space travel thatwill likely serve no lasting purpose would bebetter spent in combating the hundreds ofserious issues facing the planet today. Spaceexploration serves only as a distraction, keepingpeople’s minds off the pressing concerns of theEarth. Furthermore, governments can usemanned space flight as a means of distractionquite deliberately. It is often easier to devoteattention and resources to headline-grabbingendeavors like putting a man on the moon or onMars than to address concerns like globalwarming, which requires extensive international", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Manned space exploration is prohibitivelyexpensive while providing limited spin-offbenefits: Space exploration costs enormousamounts of money. The United States spendstens of billions of dollars every year on its spaceprogram, and the Chinese and European spaceagencies are seeking to catch up technologically.Overall, the amount of money wasted isastronomical. Even if manned space flight were adesirable goal, the cost is far too great.Unmanned space flight offers the same benefitsat far less expense, since unmanned vesselsweigh less than those needed to carry humans,and do not require the expensive andsophisticated life-support technology necessaryto sustain human life in the harsh wilderness ofspace. [1] Furthermore, the benefits accruedfrom spin-off technology resulting from spaceexploration are generally overstated. NASA, forexample, had claimed that protein crystals couldbe grown in zero gravity that could fight cancer,as well as numerous other claims of benefits.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-uhbmsf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While the technology is still in its infancy there isstill much lending itself to the value ofinterstellar travel. The Earth cannot sustain lifeforever, and the risk of a catastrophic event suchas a giant asteroid impact is always real. [1]Developing technology that can sustain humansaboard spacecraft for several generations as wellterra-form potential new homes are of theutmost importance to lasting human survival.Many things in the realm of science fiction todaycan be made reality given the will and resources.It is essential that humanity dedicate itself to thecause of manned space exploration, for the sakeof its will to explore, as well as its will tosurvive. [1] Gerakines, Perry. “What is theChance of an Asteroid Hitting Earth and How DoAstronomers Calculate It?”. Scientific American.2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cpesgguhwe-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "State-sponsored space programs can utilize theinfrastructure built up in the last half-century,and therefore be substantially cheaper SinceSputnik was launched in 1957, the space racehas given rise to an infrastructure, particularly inthe United States and Russia, which can beexploited for economies of scale. The cost ofdeveloping shuttles and training astronauts is farcheaper in Cape Carnarvon where the necessaryequipment and skills lie to do so. Furthermore,the International Space Station costs upwards of$100 billion, however it serves as a terminalwhere shuttles can thereafter be pointed to anycorner of the universe1. The potential thereforeis to save costs by using the existence of the ISSas a stepping stone to elsewhere. To not use fiftyyears of space development and technology is torender all that investment meaningless. 1 Kaku,M. (2009, July 16) The Cost of SpaceExploration. Retrieved June 22, 2011 fromForbes", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cpesgguhwe-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "If only it were true. The typical shuttle mission tothe International Space Station costs $500-700million. Private individuals, space tourists, havemanaged it for just $20 million a head1.Therefore, there is little in the argument that theexisting space infrastructure is driving costsdown. Furthermore, whilst the ISS has beenjustified as a terminal for the shuttles, theshuttles themselves have been justified asmeans to reach the space shuttle; a circularargument that offers little hope to the spaceexplorer. Moreover, despite over fifty years ofinvestment, NASA specifically has maintained ashuttle program at the expense of new materials,new fuels and innovative concepts1. As such, thetechnology has not advanced significantly sincethe original missions to the Moon between 1969and 1972. The infrastructure, in this case,appears to have been more of a hindrance andintellectual barrier to development andcost-cutting than an aid. 1 Kaku, M. (2009, July16) The Cost of Space Exploration. Retrieved", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cpesgguhwe-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Space exploration gives back more than it takesfrom the treasury. Dr. Joan Vernikos, a formerhead of NASA Life Sciences, argues ‘economic,scientific and technological returns of spaceexploration have far exceeded theinvestment…royalties on NASA patents andlicenses currently go directly to the U.S.Treasury, not back to NASA.' Furthermore, asKeith Cowing points out, the funding for spaceexploration is insignificant compared to our otherdiscretionary spending: ‘Americans spent morethan $154 billion on alcohol (in 2006); We spend$10 million a month in Iraq; all of America’shuman space flight programs cost around $7billion a year.\" Cowing also points out the factthat ‘the money is spent on the earth – it createsjobs and provides business to companies, just asany other government program does’ (Dubner,2008). [1 [1] Dubner, S. J. (2008, January 11).Is Space Exploration Worth the Cost? AFreakonomics Quorum. Retrieved May 19, 2011,from Freakonomics", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cpesgguhwe-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Since the \"historic handshake in space\" when aUS Apollo and Soviet Soyuz capsules docked in1975, the two countries have in fact grownincreasingly close. This relationship involvessharing technology (which is almost all 'dual use'i.e. it could be used for military purposes as wellas civilian, thus requiring a high degree of trust),scientific knowledge and working side-by-side tobuild and support the ISS. With the involvementof the 11 member states of the European SpaceAgency as well as Canada, Japan and Brazil inthe project, space is one of the few sphereswhere governments have been able to put asidetheir differences in pursuit of something morefundamentally important to humanity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cpesgguhwe-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The cost of space exploration exceeds thepositive benefits NASA during the 1990s spentover a third of its budget simply keeping the ISSmanned and the Space Shuttle working1; it willnow spend $60 million per seat to use Russiantransport to the ISS2. The vast majority of itsspending on scientific research comes throughground based research, telescopes andunmanned missions. China has made no claimsthat there is a scientific benefit to its mannedmission and nor has Russia in recent years.There are few experiments so important thatthey can justify the huge cost needed to allowthem to be carried out by humans in zerogravity. NASA made a lot of noise about growingzero-gravity protein crystals as a potential curefor cancer when it was trying to justify buildingthe ISS but has since dropped the claims asexperiments have shown the claims wereoverstated. There are few experiments soimportant that they can justify the huge costneeded to allow them to be carried out by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cpesgguhwe-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Space exploration takes resources away frommore worthy causes High ideals are all well andgood, but not when they come at the expense ofthe present. Our world is marred by war, famine,and poverty; billions of people are strugglingsimply to live from day to day. Our dreams ofexploring space are a luxury they cannot afford;U.S. Senator Joseph Lieberman stated in thewake of President Bush's 2004 proposals thatmoney was needed 'right here on Earth to givehealth care that's affordable to everybody, toimprove our education system and do better onveterans' benefits and homeland security.'1Instead of wasting our time and effort on machoprestige projects such as the space programme,we must set ourselves new targets. The moneyspent on probes to distant planets would bebetter invested in the people of our own planet.A world free from disease, a world where no-onelives in hunger, would be a truly greatachievement. 1 Pop, V. (2004, January 19). IsSpace Exploration Worth the Cost? Retrieved", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cpesgguhwe-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The 'space race' fuels nationalistic sentiment andantagonism Sending humans into space or toother planets so that they can erect the flag of aparticular nation is a distinctly nationalistic actand one that is likely to create aggressive 'races'in the future just as it has before. China'smanned program is openly intended to challengethe US dominance of space for the Communistregime's huge propaganda benefit. George W.Bush's pledge to boost spending on NASA and torestart the manned mission to Mars program wasa direct response. This is damaging not onlybecause of the potential for space race conflictsto escalate into greater international hostility,but also because of the way such races couldresult in the militarization of space, therebyturning something which should be preserved forthe common good of humankind into aneo-colonial battlefield.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cpesgguhwe-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The positive benefits of space exploration areinnumerable and profound. As Joan Vernikosdescribes, '43 countries now have their ownobserving or communications satellites in Earthorbit.' Such satellites provide the G.P.S thatdirects our transport, meteorological forecasts,global monitoring of the environment, as well assurveillance and intelligence for our nationalsecurity1. Furthermore, the commonmisconception that NASA has a huge budget isjust that; in 2007, the NASA budget of $16.3billion was dwarfed by the overall G.D.P of $13trillion1. 1 Dubner, S. J. (2008, January 11). IsSpace Exploration Worth the Cost? AFreakonomics Quorum. Retrieved May 19, 2011,from Freakonomics:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The complications in the legal framework are notreason to eliminate intellectual property rights.In fact, most licensing arrangements are doneswiftly and amicably between firms. Intellectualproperty battles over licensing arrangements arethe exception rather than the rule. Withintellectual property, firms feel free to shareopenly through licensing. Without it, they will bemore reticent to share anything.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The complicated legal arrangements created byintellectual property raise costs of doingbusiness: Many firms cannot act independently,but rather rely on the technology and systems ofother firms. The complicated, and oftenconvoluted, licensing arrangements needed bymany firms to function sap resources and effort,slowing productivity and causing generaleconomic sluggishness. In high-tech and scienceresearch firms particularly, mutual licensingpacts are needed that often slow production andadvancement due to the complicated legalarrangements that must be entered into to allowfirms to go about their business. For example,the recent battle over rights to computertechnology between Hewlett-Packard and Oracle,which has cost both firms millions of dollars inlegal fighting1. These costs are entirely mitigatedin the absence of intellectual property rights, asideas flow freely and people can go about theirbusiness without the complications of licensing. 1Orlowski, Andrew. 2011. \"Oracle and Itanic:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The cost of research and development of newproducts is often extremely high for firms. Inorder to reap a profit from their efforts, theymust be able to count on the guarantee ofownership over their intellectual property. In theabsence of such a guarantee, the incentive offirms to research and innovate declinessubstantially, resulting in a less dynamicbusiness climate. The duplication of effort byresearch firms is rare in practice, and the effortsto develop spin-off products can easily becomethe beginning of entirely new inventive projects.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "There is no such thing as intellectual property,since you cannot own an idea: An individual'sidea, so long as it rests solely in his mind or iskept safely hidden, belongs to him. When hedisseminates it to everyone and makes it public,it becomes part of the public domain, andbelongs to anyone who can use it. If individualsor firms want to keep something a secret, like aproduction method, then they should keep it tothemselves and be careful with how theydisseminate their product. One should not,however, expect some sort of ownership toinhere in an idea one has, since no suchownership right exists1. No one can own an idea.Thus recognizing something like a property rightover intangible assets is contrary to reason,since doing so gives monopoly power toindividuals who may not make efficient orequitable use of their inventions or products.Physical property is a tangible asset, and thuscan be protected by tangible safeguards. Ideasdo not share this right to protection, because an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Intellectual property slows the dissemination ofessential information and products An individualor firm with a monopoly right to the productionof something may not have the ability toefficiently go about meeting demand for it.Intellectual property rights slow, or even stopthe dissemination of such ideas and inventions,as it may prove impossible to sway the creator tolicense or to market the product. Such anoutcome is deleterious to society, as with thefree sharing of ideas, an efficient producer, orproducers, will emerge to meet the needs of thepublic1. A similar harm arises from theenervating effect intellectual property rights cangenerate in people and firms. When the incentiveis to simply rest on one's patents, waiting to forthem to expire before doing anything else,societal progress is slowed. In the absence ofintellectual property, firms and individuals arenecessarily forced to keep innovating to stayahead, to keep looking for profitable productsand ideas. The free flow of ideas generated by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is no significant slowing down of thespread of information in the long run, sinceintellectual property generally only lasts for ashort time, meaning owners have an incentive tomake the most of it while they can. Besides, anysmall slowing down of the spread of ideas andinnovations is a small price to pay for therecognition of a person's fundamental right tothe product of his effort. Furthermore, licensingarrangements are becoming more and morerefined to allow for the quick transfer of rights inorder to meet societal demands for products.Licensing law has also begun to extend toproducts that producers may not wish toproduce, such as medication for sick Africans,and is helping to force firms that refuse to actupon their patents to license the right to thosethat will.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Intellectual property rights systems createperverse incentives in firms, leading them toinefficiently allocate resources. One suchinefficiency arises from the duplication of effortby firms seeking to develop the same process orproduct, though only the first to do so may profitfrom it. This leads to brutal races and excessiveexpenditure of resources to be first over the lineand to monopolize the production, at least for atime. Another serious inefficiency arises in theproduction of similar products to existing ones,seeking to get around existing intellectualproperty rights. Such has been the case for yearsin the pharmaceutical industry, which hassucceeded in curing erectile dysfunction dozensof times. An overemphasis on such spinning offof similar products is the result of intellectualproperty rights perverting incentives1.Furthermore, intellectual property rights createthe problem of corporate espionage. Firmsseeking to be the first to develop a new productso as to patent it will often seek to steal or", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "It may be costly and sometimes ineffective topolice property rights, but that does not makethem less of a right. Efficiency and Justice arenot the same thing. If firms feel they can benefitfrom fighting infringers of their intellectualproperty rights, it is their right to do so. Thestate likewise, has an obligation to protect therights, physical and intangible, of its citizens andcannot give up on them simply because theyprove difficult and costly to enforce. For the statethe costs accrued by efforts to enforceintellectual property are repaid many fold by thefact that businesses feel safer to invest in themdue to the perceived protections the statepromises.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Firms and individuals misallocate resourcestrying to race others to the same goal, andspend resources stealing from oneanother: Intellectual property rights systemscreate perverse incentives in firms, leading themto inefficiently allocate resources. One suchinefficiency arises from the duplication of effortby firms seeking to develop the same process orproduct, though only the first to do so may profitfrom it. This leads to brutal races and excessiveexpenditure of resources to be first over the lineand to monopolize the production, at least for atime. Another serious inefficiency arises in theproduction of similar products to existing ones,seeking to get around existing intellectualproperty rights. Such has been the case for yearsin the pharmaceutical industry, which hassucceeded in curing erectile dysfunction dozensof times. An overemphasis on such spinning offof similar products is the result of intellectualproperty rights perverting incentives1.Furthermore, intellectual property rights create", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Costs of monitoring intellectual property rightsby states and companies outweigh the benefits,and is often ineffective: The state incurs hugecosts in monitoring for intellectual property rightinfringement, in arresting suspectedperpetrators, in imprisonment of those foundguilty, even though in reality nothing was stolenbut an idea that, once released to it, belonged tothe public domain. The United Statesgovernment, for example, projects costs ofinvestigating intellectual property claims will cost$429 million between 2009 and 20131. Firmslikewise devote great amounts of resources andeffort to the development of non-duplicableproducts, in monitoring for infringement, and inprosecuting offenders, all of which generateshuge costs and little or no return2. Furthermore,the deterrent effect to intellectual propertypiracy generated by all the efforts of the stateand firms has proven generally minimal. This isbecause in many cases intellectual propertyrights are next to unenforceable, as the music", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Research and development will continue,irrespective of intellectual property rights. Thedesire of firms to stay ahead of the competitionwill drive them to invest in research regardless.That their profits will be diminished by theremoval of intellectual property rights is onlynatural and due to the fact that they will nolonger have monopoly control over theirintangible assets, and will thus not be able toengage in the rent-seeking behavior inherent inmonopoly control of products.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "While there is little cost to the government ofrecognizing intellectual property rights there is abig cost to those whose intellectual property isbeing protected. The cost of both processing andenforcement is passed on to the users who arethe people who are most innovative. This isadding a cost to innovation and so making it lessattractive to innovate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The product of an individual's intellectualendeavour is the property of that individual, whodeserves to profit from it Every individualdeserves to profit from his creative endeavours,and this is secured through the application ofintellectual property rights. When an individualmixes his labour with capital or other resources,part of him inheres in the product that arisesfrom his effort. This is the origin of propertyrights. Property rights are an unquestionedmainstay of life in all developed countries, andare an essential prerequisite for stable marketsto develop and function. [1] Intellectual propertyrights are protected by law in much the sameway as more conventional physical property, aswell it should be. Individuals generating ideasand using their effort to produce an intangiblegood, be it a new invention, piece of replicableart, etc. have a property right on those ideas andthe products that arise from them. It is the effortto produce a real good, albeit an intangible one,that marks the difference between an idea in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Intellectual property rights allow individuals torelease their inventions into the publicdomain Without the protection of intellectualproperty, artists, inventors, and innovators maydevelop ideas without ever releasing them to thepublic because they lack the ability to marketthem successfully, or to profit by theirendeavours. After all, no one likes to see othersprofit by their hard work, and leaving themnothing; such is tantamount to slavery. Therecognition of intellectual property rightsencourages the release of ideas, inventions, andart to be released to the public, which serves tobenefit society generally. Furthermore, thedisclosure of ideas and inventions to the publicallows firms to try to make the product better by\"inventing around\" the initial design, or byexploiting it once the term of the intellectualproperty right expires1. If the idea never entersthe public, it might never do so, leaving societybereft of a potentially valuable asset. 1 BusinessLine. 2007. \"Patents Grant Freedom to Invent", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The salable and conferrable nature of intellectualproperty allows for the efficient and justdistribution of ideas Intellectual property rightsare extremely important in the efficient andequitable allocation of ideas to firms andindividuals1. The ability to sell intellectualproperty rights allows the price mechanism toassign ownership to the firms most likely tomake a profit, and that are thus most likely toproduce the product most efficiently, which willbenefit all consumers. Furthermore, the ability toconfer intellectual property rights on others isimportant, as often intellectual property, likelicensing and patents, can support inventors' andartists' families after they are incapacitated ordie. This is no different from the fact thatownership of physical property can be conferredfor the betterment of dependents and family. Itis only just that intellectual property berecognized and protected by law, so that it maybe efficiently and fairly sold and transferredbetween parties.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Intellectual property rights incentivizeinvestment of time and money in developing newproducts When a real chance of profit exists inthe development of a new product, or writing anew song, people put the effort into developingand creating them. The incentive to profit drivesa great deal of people’s intellectual endeavors.Research and development, for example, forms amajor part of industries’ investment, as theyseek to create new products and inventions thatwill benefit consumers, and thus society as awhole. Research and development is extremelycostly, however. The 2000 largest globalcompanies invest more than €430 billion a yearin researching new products1. The fear of theft,or of lack of profit stemming from such research,will serve as a powerful disincentive toinvestment, which is why countries with lessrobust intellectual property rights schemes arenot home to research and development firms.Without the protection of intellectual propertyrights, new inventions lose much of their value,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-con05b", "title": "", "text": "More ideas are not released into the public whenthere is intellectual property. The release ofideas is most bountiful when there is active andconstant competition to produce newer andbetter products and ideas. This is only possible inthe absence of constricting intellectual propertyrights. The ideas circulating in the public domainare only expanded by the constant competitionand innovation essential for firms to succeed inthe absence of intellectual property protections.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Policing intellectual property rights isself-sustaining While there is a cost toimplementing intellectual property rights andpolicing them this cost is mostly met by thosewho apply for the patents. Each country’s patentoffice charges for the patent application, in thecase of the UK this is between £230-280.1 It alsocosts to renew the patent year on year with thecost often rising. This means that thegovernment offices that process intellectualproperty meet their costs through the user fees.2Much of the costs of enforcement are also met bythose who own the intellectual property as theirpatents enable them to go to court against thosewho they believe are infringing their intellectualproperty rights. 1 Intellectual Property Office,How much does it cost? 2 Inventors Digest,Patent Office Unveils New, Bigger Budget, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is no more just that an individual's familybenefit from a monopoly over an idea, than theindividual who created it. There remains noinherent right to an idea. As for the sale ofpatents and licenses, firms will waste preciousresources in fighting amongst each other formonopoly control over intellectual property, andwill even buy the rights to products with nointention of using them, planning simply toprevent any competitors from doing so. Themost efficient system is to have ideas be publicand accessible and usable by everyone. Whenthey are, more innovation will occur.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-cidfiphwa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "No one can own an idea. Thus creatingsomething like a property right over intangibleassets is a meaningless endeavour. Doing sogives monopoly power to individuals who maynot make efficient or equitable use of theirinventions or products. Physical property is atangible asset, and thus can be protected bytangible safeguards. Ideas do not share this rightto protection, because an idea, once spoken,enters the public domain and belongs to anyonewho can use it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This is simply wishful thinking on the basis ofcurrent technology getting a manned mission toanother planet is simply not on the radar – oreven close. In the light of this sobering fact thereis no reason to go to the moon as some sort oftest run for something we’re never going to do.Even if one were to think that it may one day bepossible to travel to other planets, surely thesensible thing would be to spend the moneydeveloping that technology rather than blowing iton a manned trip to the moon we may well neverneed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The technology required for colonizing ‘a secondEarth’ would be easier to develop on themoon The idea of colonizing another planet aseither a contingency against a future extinctionevent or simply as an area for growth. Extinctionevents are considered to be any event whichdestroys over 50 per cent of life on Earth andthere are believed to have been five of them inthe last 540 million years. [i] It is in the natureof such an event that the warning we would haveof such an event would not be sufficient todevelop the technology required to relocate toanother planet and so, by definition thattechnology needs to be developed when there isnot the need. Taking global warming as ananalogy, we now know that we should have beenchanging our lifestyles and economic modelsback at a time when virtually nobody believedthat it was a reality. The moon could be used todevelop biosphere and other technology whichcould be used in such a future colonization. [i]Sanders, Robert, ‘Has the Earth’s sixth mass", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The modern world is vastly different to either ofthe periods Prop mentions both in terms of ourcapacity for the retention of existing knowledgeand the speed of developing new solutions to oldproblems. In addition to which this is comparingtwo completely different things the technologyrequired here is to keep people alive forextended periods of time. Equally thetechnology required for a colonization wouldneed to be permanent and designed to be usedmany times, quite different from the disposable,one-time-only technology of the 1960s. As aresult knowledge of those earlier missions maywell be a disadvantage. We still have the abilityto launch and fly spaceships and that knowledgeis vastly improved on those early attempts. Asfar as the issue of spinoff technology isconcerned, if you’re looking to develop productsdesigned for Earth, developing materials andtechnologies for extra-terrestrial environments isa very odd way to go about it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "It would be the first step in colonizing space –the moon is preferential to Earth as a base forinvestigating life elsewhere in theuniverse Colonizing the Moon should not beseen as an end goal in and of itself but rather aplatform for reaching out further into theuniverse. The moon makes a better base thanEarth for a number of reasons. Any civilizationthat is serious about space exploration wouldprobably have to start with the moon. It’s acomparatively simple mission which would allowus to learn the pitfalls and problems whilestaying within a few days of earth. The moonalso provides a better base for SETI than Earthas Radio telescopes on the far side of the moonwould be shielded from the interference of Earth.Equally the Moon’s slow rotation would allowlight-based observatories to undertakeexperiments lasting for days at a time. Mostexperts are agreed that it is statistically unlikelythat Earth is the only life-bearing planet, to datewe have not been serious investigating this issue", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Whatever the merits of the search for ET, noneof this requires a human presence on the moonall of the observational technology required toundertake the research could be controlled fromEarth. It doesn’t require a human presence onthe moon, indeed if the purpose is for scientificresearch, there seems to be a strong argumentfor not having a human presence. A humanpresence on the dark side of the Moon providesextra complications – and therefore extra costs –to simply keep the scientists alive. It seemslikely that anybody based in such a situationwould have to spend a large amount of their timeand effort simply staying alive and performingmonitoring functions that could as easily beprovided from Huston.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The idea of a mining community on the moon iseven more absurd than that of a scientific one.However valuable the minerals found the cost ofextraction would never be covered. Furthermorethe quantities required to meet the cost ofextraction, let alone make a profit, would have adownward effect on the price of the commodityon earth. The whole exercise would becomeself-defeating. Equally, although chemicals suchas Helium 3 would be useful if thermonuclearfusion was being used to produce energy it is atechnology that does not yet exist. [i] Onceagain it would seem to make sense to invest themoney in fusion technology first, then, if ithappens, we how where to find Helium 3 – afterthere’s a practical use for it, not before. [i]Lasker, John, ‘Race to the Moon for NuclearFuel’, Wired, 15 December 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "We are already losing the technology andknowledge necessary for mannedextra-terrestrial travel – critically that requiredto land people, we owe it to future generations toretain it. If we compare the dual experience ofColumbus and the Chinese Treasure Fleet of thefifteenth century, the Chinese decided not topursue exploration and the technology of how tobuild and sail ships was lost until they werethemselves colonized by sea-faring nations.Columbus’ voyages, by contrast were followed upwith further expeditions, leading to the largestexpansion in the history of humanity. Thetechnology required to land human beings on thesurface of another planetary body iscomparable. All of those involved in the originalmoon landing are now elderly it seems sensibleto deploy that expertise before it is lost.Recorded knowledge is all well and good butexperience is also valuable. Equally, one of thebiggest justifications for NASA’s relativelymodest budget – roughly nine billion dollars at", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "We already know something about it and so havea clearer idea of what to look for In many waysour trips to the moon so far tell us whichquestions we need to ask, the next stage is tofind the answers. It also has the advantage ofbeing close enough to earth that samples anddata can be relatively easily sent between thetwo. The moon functions as a sort of attic forthe Earth, a repository of rocks than are nolonger found on earth. There are also resources,such as lunar glass and Helium3, which could bepotentially very valuable if they are there insufficient quantities, human beings can simplycover more territory than Robots and makeassessments like these more easily. If these rareminerals exist in sufficient quantity they couldpotentially fund the whole project [i] . [i] \"WhyGo Back to the Moon?\" NASA. January 14, 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There are many worthy projects that couldbenefit from this funding, however that doesn’tdefeat the importance of returning to the moonand developing a base there. There is absolutelynothing in the history of other manned projectsinto space that suggests that humanity as awhole is poorer, hungrier, sicker or more stupidbecause we did so. Rather, we received thoseremarkable pictures of the Earth from spaceconfirming what we look like in a way no mapever could. The various detritus of the mission interms of solid rocks as well as ephemeralexperience to prove that there is a universe outthere waiting for us to find it. A reminder, evenin the darkest of times economically, thathumanity has an astonishing capacity forexploration – both of the universe around us andwithin our own minds. Likewise the capacity ofscientists and others to inspire us by showing ourplace in an extraordinary universe is beyondprice. We left the cave, went over the hill,crossed the Atlantic, circumnavigated the globe,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Our fascination with discovery and exploration –especially anything to do with space – is one ofthe enduring aspects of the human condition.There are many areas of scientific developmentfor which there is little popular support as peopledon’t really see the point, however spaceexploration is one which retains support [i]. Polling levels no are at broadly the same levelthey were in the 1960s, receiving support fromabout forty per cent of the electorate. However,it’s worth noting that NASA has consistentlyhigher public approvals than other federalagencies. It seems that, unsurprisingly, peoplearen’t that happy about the governmentspending any of their money but, if they’re goingto do it, NASA gets more votes than theEnvironmental Protection Agency or the InternalRevenue Service. [i] Public Opinion Polls andPerceptions of US Human Space Flight, RogerLaunius, Space Policy 19 (2003) 163-175", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-con02a", "title": "", "text": "There’s nothing more to find out, at least nothingthat can’t be done with much cheaper unmannedmissions There are simply no good scientificreasons to send a manned flight to the moon.The desire to do so may have good justificationin science fiction but not science fact [i] . Thisresearch is simply not related to the reality ofmodern cosmology, it will tell us nothing abouthow the universe works or, frankly, anything wedon’t even know already or could find outthrough unmanned missions. The idea thatthere is serious research to be done is simplyuntrue. Cosmology is being conducted at theedge of the universe and the beginning of time.It’s not about collecting moon rocks. [i] “BraveNew World”, Editorial, Nature, 1 February 2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There are simply better things to be spendingmoney on Whichever argument you pursue forgoing to the moon there are better and cheaperways to achieve those designated goals. Whetherit’s scientific, business-related, or as a ‘practice’for exploration of deep space, there are betterways of spending the money and deploying thescientists, engineers and technicians. To wastenot only the money but, more importantly, thetime and expertise in the name of extending anational mythology or a political ego-fix isabsurd. The cost of a moon landing, let alone anextended colonization, is foolish when there areother projects in all of those fields that are cryingout for public funding.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It is impossibly expensive and lacks the kind ofpopular support required to get the 1969 missionof the ground To make the kind of funding thisproject would require available, massive publicand political will would be needed. This simplydoesn’t exist. The Cold War mentality of the ‘60sprovided a justification. Having been beaten toget a man into space, there was an imperativefor the American people to beat the USSR to theMoon. No such justification exists for going theat all now, let alone going back. The only countryin the world with both the technical and financialresources to do this, the United States, simplydoesn’t have the political stomach to do it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-sguhwcm-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Clearly there is more than one way to skin a catand there is research that can be done awayfrom work that cannot be done here. Thebenefits that could come from a low-gravity,non-atmospheric research facility are not about‘collecting moon rocks’ there would be benefitsin, for example, the Search for Extra-TerrestrialIntelligence (SETI) would benefit greatly fromsmall radio telescopes based away from thedistractions and interferences based on Earth [i]. As has been shown by the International SpaceStation, there is useful medical research that canbe conducted in low or zero gravity, notablyresearch based on aging. [i] \"Why Go Back tothe Moon?\" NASA. January 14, 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Secular scientists extrapolate the age of theearth backwards from examining current naturalprocesses, but they assume that they havealways taken place at the same speed and forthe same reasons, but this is not necessarily thecase. There are a number of possible solutionsto the distant starlight problem: God could havecreated the light in transit; the speed of lightmay have been much greater in the past;Einstein’s theory of general relativity indicatesthat time is relative, and so a few thousandyears on Earth could be millions elsewhere in theuniverse. [1] The volcanic eruption at Mount StHelens, Washington State in 1980 shows howcatastrophic events can very quickly lay downgeological formations that appear to have formedslowly. The Genesis flood would account for therapid formation of geographical features thatevolutionists interpret as old. [2] [1] JamesUpton ‘Beyond Distant Starlight: Next Steps ForCreationist Cosmology’, Answers ResearchJournal 4 (2011) www.answersingenesis.org/arti", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The Age of the Earth Evidence from manydifferent disciplines shows that the Earth is veryold, allowing enough time for life as it existstoday to evolve and contradicting a Creationistbelief in a young earth. For example, most ofthe stars in the sky are thousands and millions oflightyears away, which means that light tookthousands and millions of years to reach us.[1] Similarly, there are many geographicfeatures that took thousands or millions of yearsto form. For example, ice cores such as thosefrom Vostok, Antartica, give evidence of changesin climate going back 400,000 years, [2] farolder than the 6,000 or so calculated from aliteral reading of Genesis. All the evidencepoints this way, from archaeology, geology,physics, astronomy and more. There are manydifferent indicators that all point to an old age ofthe Earth. [1] Björn Feuerbacher, ‘DeterminingDistances to Astronomical Objects’,Talk.Origins, Accessed 1/6/2011 [2] ‘Vostok IceCore’, National Climactic Data Centre, Accessed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Creationism makes empirical claims, such as thatthe Earth is less than 10,000 years old. The useof scientific arguments against these claimsshows that Creationism is in fact falsifiable.[1] Scientific Creationism is a relatively newdiscipline which only really started in the 20thcentury. It has not had the same time orresources put into developing it as hasevolutionary science, because of broader culturalprejudices and philosophical assumptions againstit. Recent Creationist research has focused noton reacting to evolutionary theory, but buildingits own research and models working fromBiblical presuppositions. Many earlier Creationisttheories, models and arguments have beenmodified or abandoned, showing thatCreationism is able to adapt in light of newresearch. [2] Creationism is actually moreopen-minded than evolutionary theory, becauseevolutionary scientists exclude the possibility ofthe supernatural on principle, not because of lackof evidence. [1] Larry Laudan, ‘Commentary:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The fossil evidence Fossils allow us a glimpseinto the development of life on Earth. Fossilsshow a development from earlier, less complexforms of life, through to newer, more complexforms of life, with characteristics developed fromearlier organisms. This progression is strongevidence for evolution. Since fossilization is arare event, there are some gaps in the fossilrecord, but all the available evidence isconsistent with, and fully explained by,evolution. [1] There are many examples oftransitional fossils, including of our ownancestors, showing how humans evolved fromapelike creatures. For example, scientistsdiscovered the skeleton of Ardipithecus ramidus,nicknamed “Ardi”. Ardi is the oldest fossil of ahuman ancestor, and the last common ancestorof humans and modern apes. Ardi shows amixture of advanced characteristics and primitivetraits. [2] If fossils had been laid down by acatastrophe such as the Genesis flood, asCreationists argue, then complex and simple", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is an absence of transitional fossils. Theevidence for ‘missing links’ between differentspecies is itself missing. Fossils are jumbled up,rather than ordered from simple to complex.[1] Supposed transitional species will often bewildly extrapolated from small fragments to fitwith evolutionary theory. Supposed humanancestors are either extinct apes, actual humanbeings, or accidental mix-ups of human and apebones. There are no clear anatomical markersseparating homo erectus and homo sapiens, forexample. [2] The fossil record is betterexplained by a global catastrophic flood, asdescribed in the story of Noah in Genesis. Themassive geological upheaval which would takeplace in such an event would leave the remainsof millions of dead animals and plants in layersacross the world, which is exactly what we find.[3] [1] John D Morris, ‘What’s a missing link?’,Institute for Creation Research, Accessed1/6/2011 [2] ‘People were always people!’Answers in Genesis, Accessed 1/6/2011 [3]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Falsifiability Evolutionary theory is open tochange and is in principle falsifiable: if enoughevidence was found, scientists would changetheir views. Scientists make their reputations bymaking new discoveries, so if evolution could bedisproved, someone would have done it, but it isstill standing after over 150 years of researchsince Darwin, showing how strong it is.[1] Although Creationism is falsifiablescientifically, with plenty of evidence to disproveit, it is non-falsifiable on its own terms. Anyscientific evidence against it can be explainedaway by Creationists by saying ‘God did it’ – forexample, by claiming dinosaur fossils were putthere to test people’s faith. Science is able tochange in light of new evidence, unlikeCreationism, which is a matter of dogma. Even ifevolutionary theory cannot yet explain everydetail, this does not give any support toCreationism. If something cannot yet beexplained by science, it does not mean that Goddid it; it means we need to investigate further to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Evolution is not just a matter of chance.Mutations can add, change or remove geneticinformation. Natural selection acts as a feedbackmechanism to filter those mutations to pass onuseful changes in organisms to adapt them totheir environment. Beneficial mutations havebeen observed. For example, gene duplication isa common mechanism for introducing newinformation. When a long stretch of DNA iscopied, then mutations often occur in one or bothof the copies. This is the likely origin of someproteins. [1] The argument from irreduciblecomplexity is an argument from ignorance: if wecannot currently explain how a complex systemarose naturally, it must have been God whocreated it. But the development of supposedly‘irreducibly complex’ systems can be explained:different parts in biological systems often havemultiple and changing useful functions, andapparently irreducibly complex systems arisewhen these interlock in new ways. [2] [1]‘Mutations Adding Information’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Most scientists are not Christians and do notaccept the Bible as God’s word: in 1996, only40% of US scientists believed in God. [1] ManyChristians interpret the Creation accountsymbolically and have done so since long beforeDarwin. For example, in the 5th century, thetheologian Augustine argued that the account inGenesis was not a literal, chronological account.[2] Even if Genesis was inspired by God, it couldnot have been intended to be a literal, scientificaccount, because it would have made no senseto the people of the time. It must be interpretedaccording to its original genre and purpose.[3] When the Bible says death entered the worldthrough Adam, it could refer exclusively tohumans rather than the animal kingdom as awhole. Alternatively, it may refer to spiritualdeath, which is separation from God, rather thanphysical death, the separation of soul from body.[4] Science proceeds by reason, evidence andobservation, not by arguments from religiousauthority. If science contradicts the Bible, we", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Naturalistic assumptions Evolutionary sciencerules out the possibility of God on principle,rather than on the basis of evidence. On anunbiased assessment, without the presuppositionof naturalism, Creationism offers a betterinterpretation of the evidence. But mostscientists refuse to allow the possibility of Godcreating the world, blinding them to thefacts. Secular science is committed to onlylooking for natural explanations (methodologicalnaturalism), but this only makes sense if youalready know that nothing supernatural exists(ontological naturalism). If God intervenes in thenatural world, then this can be investigatedempirically and scientifically. Evolutionistsassume that “the present is the key to the past”,otherwise known as uniformitarianism. They areattempting to reconstruct the past after theevent from fragmentary evidence. But God wasthere in the beginning and so can tell us whatactually happened. We should believe God’srevelation, not human speculation. [1] [1] Jason", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Evolution undermines meaning andmorality Evolution gives no basis for morality orhuman dignity. If we evolved from animalsrather than being uniquely created in the imageof God, then humanity should be accorded nomore status than an animal, plant or amoeba.Acceptance of evolution leads to SocialDarwinism and eugenics. If we are only theproduct of time plus chance plus impersonalforces, there is no objective standard of right andwrong, only what benefits the survival of ourgenes or not. For example, rape may have anadaptive benefit in enabling the passing on ofgenes of the rapist. An evolutionary worldviewhas no rational basis for condemning such anaction. [1] [1] Frank Turek, ‘Evolution CannotExplain Morality’, CrossExamined.Org, Accessed3/6/2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Chance cannot produce complexity Evolutiondepends on chance mutations in genes producingchanges that make it more complex andintroduce survival benefits. Mutations do notincrease the complexity of organisms, butdamages them: for example, cancer. Mutantsmight gain new powers in comic books, but notin real life. [1] Mutations may have beneficialside-effects, but do not add new information. Forexample, sickle-cell anemia increases resistanceto malaria. [2] However, it does this because thenormal functioning of the blood cells is impaired,not by evolving into something more complex,which is necessary for evolution to takeplace. Many biological systems are irreduciblycomplex: you need all the parts to work, or theywill not work at all, like a mousetrap. Theycannot have arisen by step-by-step changes. [1]Daniel W. McShea, ‘Complexity and Evolution:What Everyone Knows’, Biology and Philosophy,6: 303-324, 1991. Accessed 1/6/2011 [2]Michael Aidoo et al., ‘Protective effects of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The Bible says God created the world The Bibleis God’s Word, inspired and infallible, and itreveals that the world was created by him in 6days within recent history (Genesis 1-2). Godsays it, so we should accept what he reveals astruth. [1] If the Bible is true at all, it cannot justbe ‘symbolically’ true about spiritual matters, butmust be true in matters of fact and science aswell. You cannot divide meaning from facts.Theologically, the Bible teaches that deathentered the world through Adam’s sin (Romans5:12), which contradicts evolution because deathis necessary for natural selection. [2] There isno neutral interpretation of the evidence.Evolutionists interpret the scientific evidence inlight of the presupposition that there is no God,while Creationists interpret it on thepresupposition there is a God. Christians whoaccept evolution have bought into secularassumptions that are inconsistent with their faithand what the Bible teaches. [1] Don Landis,‘“And God Said”’, Answers in Genesis, Accessed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Evolution has nothing to do with morality.Science simply describes what is, not what oughtto be. Social Darwinism and eugenics aremisapplications of science. We have evolved thecapacity for higher reasoning, and so we candevelop ethical and moral systems to suit us,rather than following the principle of ‘survival ofthe fittest’. [1] Social studies indicate thatsecularised societies in which evolutionaryscience is widely accepted enjoy lower rates ofsocietal dysfunction, whereas the USA, which ismuch more religious and anti-evolution, hasworse social health. [2] Morality may have anevolutionary basis. People who look after theirrelatives, those who share many of their genes,are maximising the likelihood those genes will bepassed on. Altruism benefits the survival of thegroup as a whole. [1] ‘Evolution is thefoundation of an immoral worldview’,Talk.Origins, Accessed 3/6/2011 [2] Gregory S.Paul, ‘Cross-National Correlations of QuantifiableSocietal Health with Popular Religiosity and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-science-gsehbehdc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Theists and atheists alike use ‘methodologicalnaturalism’ when doing science, becausescientific method depends on understanding andexplaining the natural world in natural terms. Itdoes not assume that God does not exist. ManyChristians do not believe that the evidencesupports Creationism despite believing in God,and instead believe that God is the one whosustains and upholds the natural order asunderstood by science. Uniformitarianism is anecessary assumption for understanding theworld. If the laws of nature changed on a whim,so that science worked one way on Tuesday andanother on Wednesday, we would not be able tomake observations and predictions that worked.But all our observations indicate that the worlddoes operate consistently. The success of sciencein providing accurate models and explanations ofthe world shows that its presuppositions arecorrect. Science cannot prove or disprove theexistence of God, since that is a metaphysicalquestion outside the scope of science. But", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This idea is rather flawed if you decide to takeinto consideration the whole aspect of one’s life.This just kicks the communication problem downthe road when it needs to be dealt with earlyrather than essentially discouraging the childfrom learning the language until they have to geta job. It is also in many cases likely to bewrong; the child will already have startedlearning the language of the country in whichthey are living. Even if the father and the motherare only able to talk their first language, kids goto nursery school or have child minders becausetheir parents have to work. A perfect examplewould be the one of Mexicans in the UnitedStates. Two-thirds of Mexican-origin Hispanicsages 5 and older speak English proficiently. Morethan that, about nine-in-then native-bornMexicans speak English proficiently. [1] Thewhole idea of parents not being able to talk thelocal language might be true for first generationimmigrants, but not for others. Even when thegrasp of the language is less than perfect school", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Educating in their mother tongue is the bestoption for children’s education Because parentsthat are immigrants teach their kids only themother tongue, at the age in which they shouldgo to school they barely know the locallanguage. Their parents sometimes don’t knowthe language of the country that they live in andother times they choose not to use it at home.Therefore, at the age when children have to goto school, they have little or no interaction withthe language of the country they live in. In theUnited States, 72% of immigrant families speaka language other than English at home and 26%live in households where no one has a strongcommand of the English language. [1] Thissimply hands over the problem of language tothe school damaging education across allsubjects. This is because the children will not beable to communicate with other kids in school orunderstand what the teacher is saying. Becauseof the exclusion that the immigrants feel whengoing to school and the fact that they are not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The idea that immigrants that are part of largegroups are not able to conserve their languageand culture without the help of the foreign stateis flawed. First of all, on the broadest level largeimmigrant groups come from countries with bigpopulation and their culture or language is not indanger of any kind. Just to take a couple ofexamples, Turkey has almost a 76 millionpopulation, while Mexico has a population ofalmost 120 million. Secondly, there is no clearlink between education in the mother tongue andthe willingness of the people to conserve theirown culture. Those who are educated in thelanguage of the culture in which they are livingare just as likely to be interested about theirroots and culture as those in their mothertongue. Thirdly while there may be a linkbetween language and thought does this extendon to culture; are Japanese unable to enjoy andtake part in Taiko drumming if they don’t speakthe language as well as the language of theirhost nation? Only in a few areas, like literature is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Minorities deserve linguistic rights Everyoneshould have the right to communicate in theirown mother tongue so enabling them to maintaintheir roots with their mother country. In a worldof change, where people are able to move theirresidence from a country to another country,protecting minority rights becomes necessary.Some migrations are historically andeconomically driven, take place over decades,and involve large numbers. For example, anestimated 33.7 million Hispanics of Mexicanorigin live in the United States, with 11.4 millionimmigrants born in Mexico, accounting for almost3.5% of the US population [1] . In Europe, a lotof migration there have been successive wavesof migration, as a result of World War II, the endof empires, economic boom and the EuropeanUnion. To take Germany first there was an influxfrom lands Germany lost as a result of the war,of Turks to help power the economic miraclemeaning that now more that 2.6 million Turkslive in Germany [2] , and recently there has been", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The state has indeed certain obligations towardsthe immigrant groups both to individuals and ifthey represent a large part of the population tothe group. Once you leave your country, you areno longer under the legislation of the country.You decide to sign a new social contract with thecountry that you emigrated to and therefore youare under their jurisdiction, obliged to respecttheir laws. Minority rights are respected in thesense that immigrants are not obliged to use thelocal language everywhere and at any time. Youare still able to use your mother tongue languageto talk to your family, your foreign friends andother people from the same country. These arethe fundamentals and there are cases wherelinguistic rights are not respected, where theminority population is forbidden to talk or writein their mother tongue. This was the case ifTurkey which forbade Kurds to speak their nativelanguage until 1991. [1] While these rightsshould be respected there is not ‘right’ for thestate to provide, or subsidize, education in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Actively promoting mother-tongue education forimmigrants that are part of a large group willcreate a segregated society in which people arenot able to communicate and relate one toanother. Integration will be harder to achieve inthese conditions - the state may gain somegoodwill from the concession but it is unlikely tolast. The difficulty in communicating with thestate, even for everyday tasks such a doctor’sappointment, will surely sour relations more.Different languages create a segregated societyin which foreigners are not able tointegrate. Secondly, diplomacy and tradematters have no connection with the wayimmigrants are treated on a minor issue like this.Those immigrants who want to trade andpromote links between their old home and theirnew one will continue to do so regardless.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Conserving languages and immigrant communitycultures Being able to learn and teach in ourown language will preserve the culture of largeimmigrant groups as part of another state, this isboth good for that community and for the nation.For the community and the individual speakingand learning their own language will giveimmigrants a sense of belonging. They are partof a community that they know and understandbecause it speaks the same language evenbefore they come to know the rest of thecountry. This provides security, belonging, andclose contact with relatives. For the community itmeans keeping their own customs and identityalive, in a few cases this may actually becontributing to conserving a language. For thecountry as a whole this does not represent athreat as there can be many different levels ofidentity that all intermix. Instead it provides anopportunity; it diversifies the country. It gainsthe benefit of a different perspective on problemsand new ideas as people who speak different", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "This policy would benefit the state and providetrade If the government decides to promotemother tongue education for large immigrantgroups it will be enhancing mutual understandingbetween its own population and another nationas the immigrants provide a go between. Thestate will send a positive message towards thelarge immigrant groups by allowing them tostudy in their first language. It will acknowledgethe importance of such groups in the nationalsociety by providing this additional opportunity.The importance of cooperation betweenimmigrant groups and the state is oftenrecognized, for example in combatingextremism, this kind of measure encouragessuch cooperation as it brings with it the good willof the immigrant community. On the otherhand, promoting diversity will promoteunderstanding between countries. A favorabletreatment towards the large immigrant groupswill be seen positively by the country theimmigrants come from. Having migrants creates", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The simple premise of this argument is wrong.Immigrants are not discriminated by the factthat they don’t know the language.Discrimination is much more often a matter ofskin color, religion and social background.Mexicans in the United States, at least Americancitizens of Mexican origins know very well how tospeak English but they are still discriminated bythe majority population. This shows in theunemployment statistics. In 2011, while the rateof unemployment for Whites was 7.9%, thejobless rate was 11.5% for Hispanics. [1] Thelink between language and low skilled jobs is alsoopen to question. Immigrants are not findingthese jobs because they don’t speak the nativelanguage but because these are the jobs thenatives don’t want. There is a demand for laborthat the native population will not fulfill. Lessfussy migrants however are more willing. Theseare also likely to be the jobs that the migrantshave done in the past if coming from lessdeveloped countries so they have the relevant", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The premise that states that second generationimmigrants lack incentive to learn the locallanguage is flawed. Although they might chooseto learn in their mother tongue, they will stillhave a big incentive to learn the local language.Learning the language of the country in whichthey live will provide to them more opportunitiesand better integration. Those who find they don’tknow the language will take courses to learn thelanguage of the country in which they reside.Most certainly, their friends will not only be fromtheir own community so they will feel obliged totalk German, or English or French. The exampleof Papua simply shows this is the case;promoting a national language is notincompatible with learning in another language.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Services offered the government cannot be usedif the user does not know the language Anyonewho does not know the native of the place wherethey reside will find themselves having problemswith health-care, job centers or the taxmanbecause they are not able to understand orcommunicate with these people. It doesn’tmatter where you live, as a citizen you will haveto use different services provided by thegovernment. A good example will be hospitals.Hospital staff are unlikely to know theimmigrant’s language so making communicationdifficult, a problem exacerbated by all thespecialized language that may be required. Beingincapable of telling your doctor what the problemis or not being able to tell a police officer whathappened may have devastating consequences.Sarah Bowen, a professor at the University ofAlberta and expert on access to health carebelieves that language is the most importantbarrier preventing some immigrants from stayinghealthy. [1] This is a barrier that remains if a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Migrants need to learn the language to improvejob prospects An immigrant that studies in thelocal language will be a citizen that is betterintegrated in the society, respected by thenatives and with more economic opportunities.First of all, we have to acknowledge that going toa school for natives will permit the developmentof personal relations with people that are notfrom the same community community.Interaction will be possible with everybody inschool and in the country. The first step towardsbecoming friends with someone is byunderstanding them. This is only possible if theycan communicate properly in a single language.Secondly, the native language is necessary formost jobs. Jobs require interaction with nativesand ability to discuss and work alongsideco-workers. Immigrants are forced most of thetime to do low-skilled jobs like working inconstructions or agriculture because they are notable to speak the local language, though even inthese sectors language skills would be useful. By", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-con01a", "title": "", "text": "A common language is necessary for a unifiednational community The moment when thegovernments starts subsidizing mother tongueeducation for large immigrant groups is themoment when they will lose any incentive tolearn the local language. Because most of thesechildren do not interact with the local languageuntil the age they should go to school, under theproposition plan they will not interact with it atall and therefore creating a major gap betweennative population and immigrants. A commonlanguage represents a unifying framework underwhich a state can function properly by promotingmutual help and understanding inside thepopulation. [1] When people talk differentlanguages, there is no unifying framework andthe state as a whole loses its ability to promoteunity within its borders. This is the case of PapuaNew Guinea where there is no central authority.The tribes live separately and are not able to onewith another because there are over 800different languages spoken at this moment in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-negsimhwso-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is wrong to assume that people who can’tspeak the language will not be able to accessgovernment services; the government alsoprovides interpreters. For example in the UnitedStates and Canada, interpreters are trained andpaid by the health authority to address theproblems of large immigrant groups. In Ottawa,you additionally have the option of hiringinterpreters from local agencies. [1] [1] Taylor,Louisa, ‘For immigrants, language barrier is ahealth barrier’, The Ottowa Citizen, 27 April2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gmhbztpgtf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Only idealists believe that prisons haverehabilitative role; we have to look at the reality.Juveniles sent to prison are less employableafterwards, and thus more likely to resort tocrime. They meet established criminals in prisonwho both encourage the lifestyle and teachnecessary skills for criminal behaviour. Prisonoften fosters resentment of the police and thecourts and anyway the harassment of juvenilesassociated with zero tolerance already creates anextremely antagonistic relationship with thepolice. If punishment is not proportionate itsimply breeds resentment. [1] [1] Maiese,Michelle, ‘Retributive Justice’, Knowledge Base,May 2004, www.beyondintractability.org/essay/retributive_justice/ , accessed 20 September2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gmhbztpgtf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Zero tolerance also allows for a soundrehabilitative role A custodial sentence,particularly for juveniles, takes them out of theatmosphere (often surrounded by drug use andliving in poverty and or abusive homes) thatencourages criminality. Rehabilitation throughthe prison system is not just a possibility but acentral tenet of many penal codes. Education anddiscipline are both vital to our prisons. The largenumber of police on the ground also allows for asupervisory role in the community after theprisoner is released to reduce re-offending. Theearlier on in the chain of criminality that peopleare given help, the greater chance there is ofsuccess that a cycle of re-offending will notdevelop. [1] [1] Petersila, Joan, ‘When PrisonersReturn to the Community: Political, Economic,and Social Consequences’, Sentencing &Corrections, No.9, November 2000,www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/184253.pdf ,accessed 20 September 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gmhbztpgtf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "They are able to stop and search, and harassindividuals constantly. Everyone who carriesmarijuana cannot be arrested so in reality certainvulnerable groups, usually ethnic minorities, aretargeted and labelled as criminals. New York sawa vast growth in complaints over police racismand harassment after zero tolerance Sydney’shas been similarly racist [1] and Liverpool’ssystem was closed down because of corruptionand unacceptable aggression by policeofficers. If the police are to be fully respectedthey should behave in a courteous and fairmanner. While treating all citizens in arespectable and decent manner – never usingunnecessary force. Zero tolerance policingreduces police accountability, openness to thepublic, and community cooperation. [1]Kennedy, Michael Hartley, ‘Zero tolerancepolicing and Arabic-speaking young people’, NewSouth Wales Council for Civil Liberties, 2001", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gmhbztpgtf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Zero tolerance policing provides a powerfuldeterrent to criminals. Zero tolerance creates afar greater awareness of police presence becausethere are more officers on the ground. If peopleperceive that they have a greater chance ofbeing caught, they are less likely to commit anoffence. Strict punishments provide another firmdeterrent because they make it clear that theconsequences of detection will not be a minorirritant. Convicts are less likely to re-offendbecause zero tolerance catches them early on inthe escalating cycle of crimes and provides the‘short, sharp shock.’ There is a clear messagethat crime will not be tolerated. If a law is toexist at all then it ought to be enforced.Otherwise they will be held in contempt.[1] There has to be a meaningful mechanism inplace to punish actions that don’t merit criminalpunishment, but that damage the quality of lifeof others, especially through constant repetition.In this way a slide into more serious lawlessnessand criminality can be prevented, and the rights", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gmhbztpgtf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Minor offenders, gang members, and the poorare extremely unlikely to be aware of thepunishments for the crimes which they commitso deterrence doesn’t have much effect there.Many crimes are a product of necessity (throughpoverty and drugs) and therefore can be reducedonly by structural changes to the society, not bythreatening punishment. The idea of a ‘shortsharp shock’ is unconvincing. Labeling people ascriminals at an early age actually causes them toperceive themselves as such and gives themfewer other options by placing them outsidemainstream society. This leads to ‘devianceamplification’ where convicts increasingly commitmore serious crimes as a result of their contactwith law enforcement. [1] [1] Becker, HowardS., ‘Labeling Theory’, from Becker Outsiders:Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, The FreePress, 1963, , accessed 20 September 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gmhbztpgtf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Zero tolerance improves the standard ofpolicing They are able to stop and search, andharass individuals constantly. Everyone whocarries marijuana cannot be arrested so in realitycertain vulnerable groups, usually ethnicminorities, are targeted and labelled ascriminals. New York saw a vast growth incomplaints over police racism and harassmentafter zero tolerance Sydney’s has been similarlyracist [1] and Liverpool’s system was closeddown because of corruption and unacceptableaggression by police officers. If the police are tobe fully respected they should behave in acourteous and fair manner. While treating allcitizens in a respectable and decent manner –never using unnecessary force. Zero tolerancepolicing reduces police accountability, opennessto the public, and community cooperation. [1]Kennedy, Michael Hartley, ‘Zero tolerancepolicing and Arabic-speaking young people’, NewSouth Wales Council for Civil Liberties, 2001", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gmhbztpgtf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Economic and demographic changes will alwaysimpact crime rates and of course, these factorswould have played their part in the noticeableimprovement in New York. However, zerotolerance has proved successful in manyinstances and provides a more stable promise ofcrime reduction less susceptible to transientfactors (such as economic and demographicones). For example, the Swedish parliamentintroduced its ‘drug-free society’ as the officialgoal for the drug policy in 1978. Long beforesuch policies were called ‘zero tolerance. TheAttorney General in 1980 stopped allowing forwaivers for possession of drugs for personal use.Meanwhile, police were to prioritize the crackdown on those in possession of drugs. In 1988all non-medicinally prescribed usage becameillegal. Finally, in 1993 the police were permittedto take blood or urine samples from suspects.[1] This zero tolerance approach is now cited bythe UN as one the main reason for Sweden'srelatively low drug prevalence rates. [2] [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gmhbztpgtf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is no point building in inner cities if wedon’t protect these resources from graffiti andvandalism by concrete and certain means. Zerotolerance reduces the amount of dead groundused for drug dealing and so returns parks andopen spaces to the community. Unlessbusinesses are protected from vandalism andpetty crime, it is usually uneconomic for them toreturn to the worst areas. It is these businesseswhich are vital to raising the standard of living.Zero tolerance policing is often seen to lead tothe return of public transport and services todeprived areas because it can be protectedthrough a guaranteed means. [1] [1] Kurki,Leena, ‘Restorative and Community Justice in theUnited States’, 2000, 27 Crime & Just. 235, www.julianhermida.com/polnotesbrokenwindows.htm , accessed 21 September 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gmhbztpgtf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Zero tolerance policing is enormouslyexpensive The enormous expense of zerotolerance in money and manpower and prisonsactually makes policing worse. Either we have tothrow limitless money at doubling the number ofofficers (it is almost impossible to recruit andtrain so many even if we could afford it). Or wehave to divert officers away from investigationsand serious crime prevention in order to putthem back on the pavement. This reducesdetection of important crimes in return forcatching graffiti artists. Even when reportedcrime rates drop this does not prove that zerotolerance achieves anything because it iscorporate crime, large scale drug dealing that isignored and these are rarely reported. [1] [1]Croall, Hazel, Understanding white collar crime,Open University Press 2001, www.mcgraw-hill.co.uk/openup/chapters/0335204279.pdf , accessed21 September 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gmhbztpgtf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There is no concrete proof that a zero toleranceapproach to crime exists0 There is no proof thatzero tolerance is effective and yet it comes at thegreat expense of full police accountability andpractical financial outlay. An examination of themain ‘success stories’ of zero tolerance revealthat not all success can be attributed to the zerotolerance approach. In fact, the vast majority ofthe improvement in these circumstances werelargely attributed to simultaneous social andeconomic changes. In New York, the decline ofcrime rate started prior to 1993 and the arrivalof Rudy Giuliani to his post. During Giuliani’stime in power a similar decrease in crime washappening in other major US cities. The mainfactors that can be attributed to this decrease incrime were economic and demographic ones.With huge economic growth millions of jobs werebeing created and taken by young people.Simultaneously, there was a move from cocaineto other drugs and this also reduced streetcrime. The economists Steven Levitt and John", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gmhbztpgtf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Urban regeneration is one of the most powerfulways of targeting crime Urban regeneration isone of the most powerful ways of targetingcrime, and zero tolerance policing detracts fromthat effort. The most important element of urbanregeneration is the way individuals come to takepride in their area. This is far more likely when itis not associated with police persecution,antagonism with the government and constantfear of arrest. No police presence is sufficient toproperly defend a business which has notfostered good relations with the local community.Regeneration has worked on its own to solvecrime problems; this can be seen in Hong Kongand Brixton in London.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gmhbztpgtf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Protecting businesses and creating a reputationfor low crime and sound policing attracts inwardinvestment and immigration both to a country asa whole and to individual areas. The cost to acountry of theft and vandalism per year is asignificant chunk of GDP, in the United States forexample a 1994 report estimated the annual costat $674 billion. [1] Deterrence reduces thenumber of crimes that police are forced toinvestigate and although prisons are expensivethe reduction in recidivism should start to emptythem in time. [2] However, with economichardship comes higher likelihood of petty crime.It is for this reason that those in the lowerclasses are more likely to commit crime thanthose in higher classes. This effect is heightenedin the aftermath of a recession. As people feelless and less willing to pay and put the blame onsociety, they are more likely to steal. It is costeffective in as much as it is less expensive thanprison and is ultimately less expensive to societythan ignoring the criminality. [1] Shapiro, Emily,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imhwgiidl-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This is a marginal impact at best. The vastmajority of illegal immigrants will try to flee thescene of a crash because they would be worriedthat the police might be called in to investigatethe crash and find out they are illegal andtherefore deport them. Although this isn’t alwaysa realistic expectation, it is an expectation thatmost people in the illegal immigrant communityhave because of their paranoia over the statepursuing them and wanting to deport them. Thisfear is only exacerbated by the anti-illegalimmigrant rhetoric that permeates Americansociety at present and makes them feel that thestate will try to seek them out however they canto get rid of them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imhwgiidl-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "This allows illegal immigrants to get driversinsurance, which makes safer and fairerroads. Insurance is a key component in makingthe streets safe for all drivers on the road.Allowing illegal immigrants to get driver’slicenses allows them to gain driver’sinsurance. Driving absent insurance means thatthere is an incentive to drive off if you cause anaccident to avoid having to pay for the damagesyou have caused and being criminally punishedfor driving without insurance. This leaves theother driver having to foot their own bill for therepairs to their vehicles [1] . Moreover, even ifthe uninsured driver stays at the scene, illegalimmigrants are characteristically very poor asthey must engage in exploitative work to make awage because they must hide from the state anddo not get the same protections from the state,so would still be unable to pay for the damagesthey have caused. Moreover, having uninsureddrivers on the road increases insurancepremiums for all insured drivers on the road, as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imhwgiidl-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "These people do not deserve to use the servicesof the USA. They are not citizens, they arelaw-breakers and society has no obligation tomake life easier or more comfortable for thosewho break the law. Regardless of theircontributions to society or the economy, illegalimmigrants have broken the law. Theconsequences of their breaches of the law shouldbe remedied. If necessary, illegal immigrantsshould be punished in proportion to the harmthat their act has caused. Under nocircumstances should illegal acts allow theseindividuals to gain access to the status and legalprivileges that citizenship confers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imhwgiidl-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The provision of driver’s licenses makes thestreets safer. Offering drivers licenses to illegalimmigrants makes the streets safer by givingdrivers training to people who would otherwisebe driving on the streets without adequateeducation. Unlicensed drivers are five timesmore likely to get into a fatal crash than licenseddrivers [1] . A fact that needs to beacknowledged is that illegal immigrants have anecessity to drive and the vast majority will doso regardless of if they are given licenses or not.This is very dangerous both for them and forthose who they share the road with as they areoperating motor vehicles with a proper educationon the rules of the road or any form of drivinginstruction or test to ensure that they cancompetently and safely drive on the streets [2]. Illegal immigrants are very likely to opt intothis system of driver’s education and licensingbecause it is in their own interest to avoidbreaking the law to avoid detection, but alsobecause it is very much in their interest to get", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imhwgiidl-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is very unlikely that illegal immigrants willeven opt into this scheme. Illegal immigrants arenotoriously paranoid about going to the state forany form of assistance as they are afraid ofdeportation. The vast majority of them wouldrather risk getting caught driving without alicense then they would risk going to the state asan illegal to receive a license in the first place.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imhwgiidl-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "This is a gateway privilege that allows thesepeople to integrate into Americansociety. Drivers licenses are used a major formof identification in America and so granting illegalimmigrants these forms of identification can helpenfranchise one of the most exploited minoritiesin America. Despite American feelings on illegalimmigrants, they are there in their society,contribute to their communities and are a groupof people that are routinely and unjustlyexploited because of their lack of access to stateprotection. Despite popular opinion of this beinga punishment for breaking their laws, thesepeople operate like any other citizen in Americansociety and are human beings who deserve to betreated as such and to be offered at least somelevel of protection for the fact that they arehuman and for what they contribute to Americacommunities and society. Providing these peoplewith a proper form of identification, especially adriver’s license, which is almost universallyaccepted as an adequate form of identification to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imhwgiidl-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The first problem with this argument is that itassumes that illegal immigrants are easilyidentifiable without a driver’s license. It is notlike illegal immigrants walk around with a giantred sign that says “Potential Security Threat” atpresent, and that when we give them licensesthey will finally get to put down their signs. Onthis basis, the security risk presented by thispolicy is minimal. Moreover, for what securityrisk might exist, it is very easily mitigated orgotten rid of all together. For example, ifidentification is needed for access to somethingthat is vulnerable to security threat, it is veryeasy for the government or relevant officials tosay that the only sufficient form of ID is apassport instead of a license, due to the riskpeople may pose. The additional harmsidentified by side opposition are the result ofservice providers’ discriminatory practices.Federal and state race equality laws preventbusinesses and government employees fromrefusing service to individuals based on their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imhwgiidl-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is a very big difference between rewardingpeople for breaking the law and taking positiveaction to prevent them being exploited andfinancially marginalised. The United States’ legalsystem supposedly exists to protect everyoneresident within its borders – not just individualspossessing citizenship. Giving illegal immigrantsbasic access to very rudimentary things such asthe driver’s education does not rewardlaw-breaking or undermine the rule of law. Evenif side opposition disagree with granting illegalimmigrants any rights, this argument is stilldefeated by the beneficial consequences ofensuring that a much larger number of drivershave received training on the rules of the road.Under the resolution, America’s highways andcities will generally safer for both pedestriansand other drivers. On the point of deterrence,there are already very large deterrents to tryingto immigrate illegally. The trek is long,dangerous and controlled by violent groups oneither side of the border. Bandits and people", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imhwgiidl-con02a", "title": "", "text": "This will foster further resentment of theHispanic community in America. This policy willonly further the resentment that exists for illegalimmigrants in America, and will make life harderfor the entire Hispanic community as a result. Itis no secret that the idea of granting illegalimmigrants driver’s licenses is a very unpopularidea. In New York, for example, 70% of theelectorate is against this policy [1] . Looking toCalifornia, not only are drivers licenses out of thequestion, but in 1994 the state passed a billdenying illegals access to welfare, healthcare andeducation by a 59% margin [2] . Resentment forthe community is high and it is undeniable thatthis policy will be wildly unpopular with the vastmajority of Americans. The issue with Americansbeing unhappy with this policy is that they willchannel their unhappiness toward all immigrantcommunities and the Hispanic community moregenerally. The concept of driver’s licensesespecially fuels this hatred because Americansbelieve that this will allow them to “masquerade”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imhwgiidl-con03a", "title": "", "text": "This allows illegals to masquerade as normalimmigrants. Allowing illegal immigrants to getdrivers licenses is a security issue forAmerica. Illegal immigrants are a threat to theUS because they have not gone through thenecessary background checks that all immigrantsare supposed to go through before being allowedinto the US to ensure that they are not going toharm American citizens. Giving illegalimmigrants documents that- as propositionargument three says- could grant them access tostate services and to a wider range of privateservices is dangerous [1] . There is no way forfrontline state and business staff to determinewhether drivers licence holders are migrants whohave undergone appropriate police screening, orcriminals with a history of dishonest orexploitative behaviour. The resolution may,therefore, allow disreputable individuals tofalsely claim to be normalised Americancitizens. Alternatively, and more likely, theresolution will undermine the value and utility of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imhwgiidl-con01a", "title": "", "text": "This rewards law-breaking. This policy rewardsthose who break the law and therefore isunjustified. There are immigration policies for areason, and to skirt them because you do notwant to wait in line like everyone else does notentitle you to be treated on the same level asthose who adhere to American laws andimmigration procedures. Allowing illegalimmigrants to get driver’s licenses simplybecause they made it here is just rewardingthem for being good at breaking our laws. Wehave a moral obligation to continue to denyillegal immigrants the perks of citizenshipbecause they have undermined the very lawsand processes that citizenship relies on inAmerica. Moreover, if we simply treat them thesame as legal immigrants in our country, there isno deterrent left to stop people from justignoring our immigrant processes and trying toimmigrate illegally to avoid thequeue. Therefore, we shouldn’t give illegalimmigrants drivers licenses because that simply", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imhwgiidl-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The state should never allow mob mentality togovern its policies and specifically should neverlet prejudice of its people allow the state to letexploitation and abuse of human beings gounaddressed. This resentment and assumptionthat all Hispanics are illegal immigrants leechingfrom the state is something that is already aperception that permeates US thought. Thispolicy will at worst marginally increase thatsentiment, and even if it does, the state has aduty to ignore blind hate and not let it drive statepolicy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfyhbprcsao-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The policy itself has no malicious intent and isnot aimed to harm different communities to adifferent level. An argument about the richignoring the one child policy is an argument forbetter regulation of the current policy, which ismeant to be completely fair no matter a family’sstatus or wealth, not the abolition of the policyitself.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfyhbprcsao-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The one child policy is ignored by Chinaselite The one child policy is a policy that can beignored fairly easily by richer people withinChina. Through their ability to bribe officials aswell as their ability to hide extra children usingfoster parents and the like, it is easily possiblefor richer people to flout the one child policy.This has shown itself in the form of manywealthy Chinese officials, entrepreneurs andcelebrities who have been caught ignoring theone child policy. For example between 2000 and2005 1968 government officials in Hunanviolated the one child policy.1 Given that this istrue, the one child policy serves to create socialdivision in China. It is perceived by the poorestChinese communities as an obstacle toprosperity. By imposing harsh penalties (bothmoral and fiscal) on parents who attempt tomaximise not only their future welfare, but alsotheir family’s economic prosperity by trying for ason, the one child policy undermines socialdevelopment within China’s rural and working", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfyhbprcsao-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The Chinese authorities outlaw forced abortions.The violations of human rights are outliers andrarely occur. When they do they are punishedbadly. Such violations are regrettable; howeverthe one child policy carries a number of benefitsfor the vast majority of Chinese families. Sincethe implementation of the policy family planningin China has become significantly better and thusthe overall benefit to all of China outweighs theharm that is incurred by a tiny minority ofpeople. 1 Without population control measures,quality of life in China would decline for allcitizens who must compete for limited jobs,healthcare resources, and access to socialservices, particularly in rural areas.2 1Associated Press. “China Will Outlaw SelectiveAbortions.” MSNBC. 07-01-2005. 2 \"FamilyPlanning in China.\" Information Office of theState Council of the People's Republic of China.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfyhbprcsao-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The one child policy skews genderdemographics Many Asian cultures have apreference for sons over daughters due totraditions involving inheritance. Further, in ruralcommunities a son is often preferable to adaughter simply because of the amount of workthat they can do for the family. As well as this,sons act as primary caregivers for the parentswhen they go into retirement and the son’sparents are often treated better than thedaughter’s. It is for these reasons that oftenwhen a Chinese family finds out that they are setto have a daughter they attempt to selectivelyabort it and try again for a son. This istechnically illegal in China, however, this hasonly led to back alley abortions which often carrya much higher chance of mortality for themother. Further, it has also led to parentsabandoning female children or leaving them tostarve so that they may try again with a son. InChina’s rural provinces it is much more difficultfor the authorities to deal with every case given", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfyhbprcsao-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The Chinese authorities are getting better atpreventing selective abortion of females since itwas banned in 2005. Whilst the demographicchanges resulting from the one child policy areregrettable, they are ultimately what the Chineseauthorities are seeking from the one child policy.40 million men who cannot marry are unlikely tohave children and contribute to China’spopulation problems. Whilst there is harm tosociety from these men being unable to marry,the problem of overpopulation in China’s futurewhich is being prevented by the one child policyoutweighs this harm significantly.1 1 AssociatedPress. “China Will Outlaw Selective Abortions.”MSNBC. 07-01-2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfyhbprcsao-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The one child policy results in sweeping humanrights violations The One Child policy is oftenstrictly enforced in China and many parents aregiven information about contraception to preventany chance of an unplanned pregnancy. Howevera large number of pregnancies- within anypopulation- are inevitable, despite theprecautions that parents may take. Whether as aresult of defective medication, irresponsiblebehaviour, or simple bad luck, sufficientlyfrequent sexual activity will always lead topregnancy. Reports from human rights workersindicate that the Chinese states deals with sucheventualities by forcing women to have abortionsagainst their will. By some accounts, the statedirectly detains and punishes women who resistfamily planning policies.1 The psychologicaltrauma caused by this is almost indescribable.Not only does a forced abortion represent asignificant attack on a woman’s bodily autonomy,procedures of this type are officiallycontextualised as correcting the results of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfyhbprcsao-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The Chinese economy may well have grownanyway; correlation is not causation. It was notthe one child policy that has caused China’sincredible economic growth but the opening up ofthe Chinese economy to the market. Moreoverthe economic benefits from the one child policydo not come without costs. “An associateprofessor of economics at Columbia University,Lena Edlund, found that a 1% increase in theratio of males to females equates to an increasein violent and property crime of as much as 6%,\"suggesting that male sex ratios may account for28% to 38% of the rise in crime.” Further tothis, the economic benefits of the one child policydo not outweigh the harms to human rights thatthe one child policy causes.1 1 “One-ChildPolicy, Chine Crime Rise Linked by Study.” NewYorks Sun. 19-11-2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfyhbprcsao-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Interventions and contraceptive techniques suchas condoms and sex education have proven to bemore effective than the one child policy in aidingpopulation control. Thailand and Indonesia forexample achieved the same ends as China inreduction of their population just using thesemethods of birth control and familyplanning. Further, the benefits of one child inpopulation control are often exaggerated. From1970 to 1979, through education and anemphasis on having smaller families and moretime between pregnancy the Chinesegovernment was able to reduce its birth ratefrom 5.2 to 2.9. Population growth within Chinaat a stable rate, which a replacement fertilitylevel of 2.1 would bring, might actually bebeneficial. The extra man power will be useful toChina, it would mean that instead of having itspopulation decline from 1. 341 billion today to941 million by 21001 as is currently projectedthere would be a more stable population whichwould result in less problems with an aging", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfyhbprcsao-con02a", "title": "", "text": "One child benefits women It is reported that thefocus of China on population control helpsprovide a better health services for women and areduction in the risks of death and injuryassociated with pregnancy. At family planningoffices, women receive free contraception andpre-natal classes. Help is provided for pregnantwomen to closely monitor their health. In variousplaces in China, the government rolled out a‘Care for Girls’ programme, which aims ateliminating cultural discrimination against girls inrural and underdeveloped areas throughsubsidies and education. Within many Chinesecommunities, women have traditionally been theprimary caregivers for children; however, withfewer children, they have more time to invest intheir careers, increasing both their personalearnings and the national GDP.1,2 1 “FamilyPlanning in China.” Information Office of theState Council of the People’s Republic of China.1995. 2 Taylor, John. “China-One Child Policy,”Foreign Correspondent. 02-08-2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfyhbprcsao-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Single child families are economicallyefficient The one child policy is economicallybeneficial because it allows China to push itspopulation growth rate well below its growth ratein GDP. This has allowed the standard of livingin China for the average Chinese citizen toimprove significantly since the policy wasimplemented. Specifically speaking, since 1978the income of the urban population in China hasincreased tenfold. Per capita housing space hasalso increased both in towns and in rural areasallowing Chinese people to enjoy a higherstandard of living. Further, the individualsavings rate has increased since the introductionof the One Child Policy. This has been partiallyattributed to the policy in two respects. First, theaverage Chinese household expends fewerresources, both in terms of time and money, onchildren, which gives many Chinese more moneywith which to invest. Second, since youngChinese can no longer rely on children to care forthem in their old age, there is an impetus to save", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfyhbprcsao-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The one child policy is needed for populationcontrol The One Child policy in China acts as anextremely powerful check on the population.With 1.3 billion people, problems ofovercrowding and resource depletion in Chinaare bad and will get significantly worse withoutchange.1 The reality of the abolition of the onechild policy is that with an increase in birth ratefrom the current level of 1.7 to 2.1 which is notunreasonable given population growth in othercountries, there would be 5 million more birthsper year in China than there are now resulting in250 million more people by the middle of thiscentury. Given that China is already one of thebiggest contributors to global warming in theworld, the addition of another 250 million peoplewould be catastrophic in the prevention ofdamage to the climate. Ecological damage of thiskind has been a common feature ofoverpopulated societies, china included, forcenturies. Soil erosion, depletion of soil nutrientsin arable land and pollution of water sources are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfyhbprcsao-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The benefits for women in this situation couldeasily be enforced via legislation, without theneed for a one child policy to begin with. Thegain from mothers who are able to work couldeasily be replicated through family planning anda greater focus on equality between genders inthe country. As it is, the one child policy asdefined in side opposition’s case causes women’srights to be violated and often results in thedeaths of otherwise healthy baby girls.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Even if the international community decided itwanted to better protect the human rights ofmigrants, an international treaty will notnecessarily advance that cause, as internationallaw has proven to be very difficult to enforce.This will continue to be a problem into theforeseeable future.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The U.N. Convention is the best availablemechanism for addressing the widespreadproblem of migrant rights. Because the issue ofmigrant rights is a global one, concerned withhuman rights and the domestic and internationalactions of states, a U.N. convention is anappropriate solution. The U.N. is the best body toact because although the situation for migrantworkers may be slightly different in each state,there are basic rights that they all deserve. Inaddition, even if each state sought individually toprotect migrant rights, they might not be able to,because governing migration takes coordinationbetween states. With international legislation,states would be held accountable for protectingmigrant rights; and, migrant policies andprotections would be better coordinated. Theinternational community has helped the globaleconomy adapt to rising globalization, with suchbodies as the World Trade Organization, theWorld Bank, and the International MonetaryFund. Migration is an essential part of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "In most democratic, developed countries—whichare those that receive the most immigrants—allpeople share equal rights in the workplace, aslong as they immigrated legally. The workplaceprotections in the U.N. Convention that onlyapply to legal migrants. Ratifying the Conventionwould thus not make much positive change formigrant workers around the world. Theworkplace protections in the U.N. Conventionthat apply to illegal immigrants are unjust, asmigrants surrender the right to work when theycome to a country illegally. Article 26, whichprovides the right to unionize, applies to allmigrant workers, but countries cannot beexpected to grant illegal immigrants thesepowers. People who broke the law to come to thecountry do not deserve these rights. In fact,because they usually come to work, theworkplace is the ideal place to discover illegalimmigrants. Not only are they not allowed tounionize, but they are not allowed to get paid.Workplace rights do not need to be strengthened", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Ratifying the U.N. Convention would improvediplomacy between source countries andreceiving countries. Migrant rights is a majordiplomatic issue between receiving and sourcecountries, and ratifying the U.N. Conventionwould improve relations, clearing the way forstates to work together to solve otherinternational problems. The diplomacy ofwestern liberal states depends on the principle ofrights for all, which is somewhat delegitimized bythe unresolved issue of migrant rights. TheInternational Federation for Human rightsargues, “Non-ratification [of the U.N. Conventionof migrant rights] brings the core values of theEU into question.” [1] If receiving countries wereto join source countries in strengtheningprotections for migrants, it would send amessage that they are committed to freedom forall citizens of the world, and so it would improvetheir legitimacy in international diplomacy. [1]International Federation for Human Rights,\"Europe, It's Time to Ratify the Migrant Workers", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Migrants face a growing human-rights problemthat needs fixing. Migrants around the world areoften seen as second-class citizens, and thisinequality is encouraged by legislation. Unlessmigrants receive equal social and economicrights, they will never be seen as equal in ahuman sense. According to Article 13 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights, everyonehas the right to leave or enter a country, as wellas to move within it (internal migration). Thisfreedom of movement is often not granted undercurrent laws. Human rights also include fairtreatment under the welfare state, whichmigrants are often denied. Without this equaltreatment, common myths about migrants willcontinue to be widely believed. These mythsclaim that immigrants are criminals and thatthey steal jobs from natives. The organizationMigrant Rights says, “All these myths robmigrant workers and refugees of their humanity,and are aimed at portraying them as lessdeserving of our sympathy and help.” [1] It is a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Migration is a problem; not migrant rights.Migrant rights are already protected underhuman rights law. If a nation violates existinginternational human rights law against amigrant, perhaps with exploitative workingconditions, wrongful imprisonment, seizure ofproperty, discrimination, or violence, existinginternational law already adequately protectsthem. There is no need to expand human rightslaw to create a separate category and separateprotections for migrants.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Even seriously talking about full ratification ofthe U.N. Convention would actually causeinternational tensions. This is especially true inthe European Union, which has tried to avoid theissue as much as possible. Stanley Pignal, of theFinancial Times, calls migration “among the mostsensitive topics in any of its 27 member states.”[1] Since its formation when it allowed forinternal migration, the European Union has triedto avoid this difficult issue. Many of theprotections that are proposed are very unpopularthere, as well as in the United States. Theseinclude particularly the right of familyreunification, and any measures that clear a pathto citizenship for illegal immigrants. Evenbroaching the topic of the Convention wouldcause diplomatic fights between many of theworld’s leading countries, who must stay friendlyin order to keep a state of peace. [1] StanleyPignal, \"EU faces threat to migration principle,\"Financial Times,September 28 2010 , .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Migration puts too heavy a burden on receivingcountries, and it essentially means giving up onsource countries. It is not a mechanism of themarket, but rather an unfair system that takesmoney from taxpayers in certain countries andgives it to people in other countries. Not allaspects of migration are bad, but in addition toits workplace protections, the U.N. Conventionwould protect the right of immigrants to sendmoney home. This would solidify the currentunfair system (Article 47). Remittances are ashort-term fix that come at a high cost forreceiving and source countries. If migrants arenot allowed to send home remittances, it ispossible that the most skilled workers would stayin their home country and work to rebuild theeconomy for the long-term. The supposedintangible benefit of “innovation and invention” ismuch less important than the real cost that thesecountries feel as a result from the unemploymentand increased cost of health, education, andwelfare systems that migrants cause.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Ratifying the U.N. Convention would benefit theeconomies of the countries that have not yetdone so Migrants face a number of challenges inintegrating into a new workforce, and theopportunities to exploit them can be dangerous.These challenges include the right to join unionsas well as inhumane working conditions.According to Dr Tasneem Siddiqui, \"In 1929, theInternational Labour Organisation (ILO)identified migrant workers as the mostvulnerable group in the world. Seventy yearshave elapsed since then, but they still belong tothat group.\" [1] Ratifying the U.N. conventionwould create specific changes in many countriesthat would finally make migrants less vulnerable.For example, Articles 26 and 40 provide allmigrant workers the right to join and form tradeunions, which is banned for them in all of theArab Gulf states. [2] Protecting the right tounionize, allows migrants to fight for their ownrights in the workplace, which is the best way toensure that they will be protected in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Ratifying the U.N. Convention would benefit theeconomies of the countries that have not yetdone so. The economic protections in the U.N.Convention are not only good for migrantsthemselves; they benefit all countries involved.Migrants move to countries with a lot of workavailable, but not enough workers. In aglobalized world, migration is a marketmechanism, and it is perhaps the most importantaspect of globalization. The growth of theworld’s great economies has relied throughouthistory on the innovation and invention ofimmigrants. The new perspective brought bymigrants leads to new breakthroughs, which aresome of the most important benefits to receivingcountries from migration. The exploitation ofmigrant workers that exists in the status quocreates tensions and prejudices that hamper thisessential creative ability of migrants in theworkplace. Irene Khan shows that migrantprotections are important for everybodyinvolved: \"When business exploits irregular", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Receiving countries should not and cannot affordto ratify the U.N. Convention because of theburden it would put on their health, education,and welfare systems. Because immigrants arefrequently less well off financially, and theysometimes come to a new country illegally, theycost a lot for receiving countries. Therefore it isnot practical for countries to grant them theequal access to health, education, and welfaresystems, as they would have to under the U.N.Convention. Immigrants make heavy use ofsocial welfare, and often overload publiceducation systems, while frequently not pullingtheir weight in taxes. Illegal immigrants alonehave already cost the United States “billions oftaxpayer-funded dollars for medical services.Dozens of hospitals in Texas, New Mexico,Arizona, and California, have been forced toclose” because they are required by law toprovide free emergency room services to illegalimmigrants. In addition, half a billion dollarseach year are spent to keep illegal immigrant", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The U.N. Convention would make it harder forstates to deport illegal immigrants who broke thelaw by entering the country. States have theright to deport people who entered the countryillegally, and the U.N. Convention would makethat more difficult. The Convention givesextensive rights even to illegal immigrants,especially in the realm of the justice system(Article 17). Indeed, migrant activists often seedeportation policies as immoral. Yet, a state hasevery right to arrest, imprison, and deport illegalimmigrants. When an illegal immigrant commitsa crime (in addition to unlawful entry into thecountry), states are often forced to pay to keepthe criminal in prison, rather than deport him.The United States loses half-a-billion dollars eachyear this way. [1] Ultimately it's a matter ofenforcing national laws, sovereignty, and theintegrity of a nation's welfare-system. [1]Colorado Alliance for Immigration Reform.\"Economic costs of legal and illegal immigration.\"Accessed June 30, 2011. .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "If states were to ratify the U.N. Convention,many of them would not be able to protect theirnational identities. A state-by-state approachwould allow each state to pass a law that fits itsneeds, particularly those of protecting itsnational identity, which is a concern internationallaw cannot approach. Maintaining an originalethnic and cultural structure is important tomany states, especially those that are populatedby one ethnic group. Is Israel, for example,wrong to term itself a \"Jewish state\"? There isnothing inherently wrong with its efforts tomaintain this identity, even if that effortconstrains the expansion of migrant rights.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Ratifying the U.N. Convention would increaseunemployment rates in receiving countries at atime when they are already painfullyhigh Increasing protections of migrant rightshas the general effect of increasing migration.Article 8 of the U.N. Convention grants allworkers the right to leave their state of origin.This implies an obligation of other states toreceive them, and so it would protect increasedmigration. Further, the right to familyreunification for documented migrants, found inArticle 50, would also increase migration. Thisincrease in migration would be problematic inmany countries. It could worsen overpopulationproblems, increase tensions between ethnicand/or religious groups, and raise unemploymentrates. The economies of many receivingcountries are barely managing to fightunemployment in the status quo. If migrantsreceive further protection, they will take morejobs, making it harder for citizens to findemployment. Everybody should have the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-con05b", "title": "", "text": "It is in the nature of international treaties thatthey represent a compromise, if it was not acompromise receiving nations were willing tomake they should have made changes during thenegotiations. However the convention does notimpose a heavy burden on states wishing todeport migrants, it simply ensures that theirhuman rights are upheld. Suggestions such as“Migrant workers… who are subjected to anyform of detention or imprisonment… shall enjoythe same rights as nationals of those States whoare in the same situation.” (Article 17) is simplyasking for equality for all rather than allowing thecurrent inequality to continue.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "States should form their own migration policy,because the U.N. Convention violates statesovereignty. Every state has different issues andproblems related to migration. There is nomonolithic economic and social crisis facingmigrants around the globe. It is inappropriate,therefore, to call for all nations to ratify a pieceof one-size-fits-all legislation, like the U.N.Convention. Instead, immigration policy andmigrant rights need to be approached on acase-by-case, nation-by-nation basis. The U.N.Convention would violate state sovereignty. Notall international law is necessarily bad, but theseprotections go too far, because they force a hugeburden on certain nations, and not others. It isfair for an international body to say that allnations should treat their citizens with equalityand respect, but it is not fair to say that certaincountries should have to provide for manyadditional citizens from less-well-off states. It isnot surprising that only source countries haveratified the Convention thus far; that is because", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-imassirucr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While it is true that migrants are poorer thannatives, or they would likely not be migrating tothat country, it is not the case that they arecostly for the receiving country. Immigrantscome for a reason; to work. It therefore standsto reason that these people are going to beworking and paying taxes. In the US in 2010 thelabor force participation rate for foreign bornmen was 80.1%, much higher than amongnative born men. They are at the same timelikely to be young, and therefore healthy sorelatively less of a burden on healthcare, and inmany cases leave their families behind so are nota burden on the education system. The typicalimmigrant in the United States and theirdescendants represent an $80,000 gain to thegovernment. [1] [1] Daniel T. Griswold,“Immigration and the Welfare State”, CATOJournal, Vol.32, No.1, Winter 2012, p.163", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The scientific debate is not as settled asproponents of gay rights claim. The studies,while positive in their conclusions, have generallybeen based on very small samples, not morethan a dozen families. Some experts claim thatthere is also a volunteer bias, with the subjectsof these studies usually supportive of the gayrights agenda and therefore keen on reportingpositive results. Lastly, the researchersthemselves can be biased and willing to findevidence to back a political agenda1. 1 Parke,Mary. \"Are Married Parents Really Better forChildren?\".Center for Law And Social Policy. May2003. (accessed 2 August 2011).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "There is no fact-based evidence for thisexclusion. The overwhelming majority ofscientific studies on this issue have convincinglyshown that children raised by gay couples arecertainly not worse off than those raised bystraight parents1. Some studies have gone as faras to demand that in the face of this evidence,gay bans be ended2. Based on the robust natureof the evidence available, the courts in Floridawere satisfied in 2010 that the issue is beyonddispute and they struck down the ban3. Whenthere isn't any scientific evidence to support thedifferential treatment of one group, it is onlybased on prejudice and bigotry, which shouldhave no place in a democratic society. 1 Carey,Benedict. \"Experts Dispute Bush onGay-Adoption Issue\". New York Times. 29January 2005. (accessed 2 August 2011). 2Wikipeida. \"LGBT adoption status around theworld\" .(accessed 2 August 2011). 3 Foster Care1999 Statistics. Adoption.com .(accessed 2August 2011).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "States place many restrictions on adoptions.China, for example, does not permit adoptionsby couples who are too old, have disabilities orare obese1. It doesn't mean that there isanything wrong with being overweight, old, ordisabled. But the Chinese authorities are tryingto decrease the likelihood of the adopted childlosing a parent before the age of 18, which forthese kids can be especially traumatic. If theparents being gay can be shown to be inherentlyharmful or less desirable for a child than straightparents, then such a ban would not constitutediscrimination. It would be a decision based on arelevant and valid criterion. 1 Belkin, Lisa. \"AnEnd to Gay-Adoption Bans?\". New York Times.28 July 2010 .(accessed 2 August 2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Where same-sex households exist, they shouldhave equal rights as opposite-sexhouseholds. There are still many ways for gaypeople to become parents. Some of them areable to pay for a surrogate; some may have anatural child from a previous (heterosexual)relationship and then raise the child with a gaypartner. In effect, what this law does is make itimpossible for two gay people to have legalrights over a child they may already be raisingtogether. These kids deserve the security of twolegally recognized parents. If being raised by gayparents is really that harmful, why would the lawallow two gay people to raise a child together asparents but refuse to legally recognize them assuch?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Because no democratic government should everattempt to regulate people's reproductive rightsand dictate who is or isn't allowed to havechildren. And unless a massive harm can beshown to the child, the government usuallydoesn't take children away from their parents, asthat might be more harmful. But the governmentis allowed to define what a family is or should be,under the law.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Just because the government will protectpeople's right to have a family from outsideinterference, and will publicly fund the treatmentof a medical condition, such as infertility, itdoesn't mean the government has to givechildren to those who don't or are unable to haveany in order to protect their right to a family life.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Gay adoption bans amount to state sponsoreddiscrimination against gaypeople. Discrimination is the practice of treatingpeople differently based not on individual meritbut on their membership to a certain group. Theadoption bans are a clear example. Rather thanassessing gay couples individually, it is simplyassumed that they would all make bad parentsbecause they are gay, while straight couples areassessed based on their individual merit. Thisbreaches the fundamental right of all people tobe treated equally under the law and it should bestopped. This principle is enshrined in theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights; article 1\"All human beings are born free and equal indignity and rights.\"1 And also many othernational and regional legal texts (e.g. The USConstitution,2 The European Convention onHuman Rights). 1 United Nations GeneralAssembly, The Universal Declaration of HumanRights , (accessed 2nd August 2011) 2 JamesMadison et al., Constitution of the United States", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Gay people have the right to a familylife. Getting married and raising a family isconsidered in most societies one of the mostimportant and fulfilling experiences one canaspire to. It is so important it is considered ahuman right (Article 8 of the EuropeanConvention on Human Rights states \"Everyonehas the right to respect for his private and familylife, his home and his correspondence.\"1) It isconsidered so important for people to be able tobecome parents that some governments (theUK, for example) fund fertility treatments forcouples who are reproductively challenged, and amajority of the population supports that policy2.But members of the LGBT community arestopped from pursuing this human right byrepressive and discriminatory laws. 1 Council ofEurope, The European Convention on HumanRights, 4th November 1950 ,( accessed 2ndAugust 2011) 2 Schwartz, John. \"Florida CourtCalls Ban on Gay Adoption Unlawful\". New YorkTimes. 22 September 2010 .(accessed 2 August", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Even if it were true, that the ideal environmentfor a child is a mother and father, which studiesshow it isn't, that still wouldn't justify a flat-outban. Most governments still allow single peopleto apply for adoption, and even single gaypeople1. That is because there won't be an 'ideal'family available for every child who needs ahome. So other options should be considered.After all, a child is better off with 'non-ideal'parents than with no parents at all. Withadoptions, there is generally great demand forbabies and toddlers, but older children aregenerally unwanted2 and end up in foster careuntil they're 18. Proposition fails to tell us whatstudies they are referring to which does leavethe question open whether these studies havetaken into account other factors such as whetheror not the biological parents were drug users.The heritage left by the biological parents needsto be remembered. 1 United Nations GeneralAssembly, The Universal Declaration of HumanRights , (accessed 2nd August 2011) 2 James", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "These kids won't be completely deprived ofmodels from the opposite sex to their parents'.They will still have contact with grandparents,teachers, friends, etc. But even if they didn't,why would the opposition just assume thatgender roles are a valuable thing to learn? Whywould we want to teach children to act and thinkdifferently based on being a boy or a girl?Parents should help them develop as individuals,based on their own interests and propensities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The government's interest in protectingtraditional families. Numerous studies haveshown that children do best when they are raisedby two married, biological parents1. In the caseof adopted children that is impossible, but a manand a woman is the best approximation of thatfamily. Since that is the best environment toraise children, the government has to encourageand promote these traditional unions, notundermine them. Allowing gay couples to legallybecome parents, would legally and sociallyredefine what a family is and society as a wholemay suffer. Children who are adopted alreadyface bullying and exclusion in school because oftheir difference, placing them in same-sexhouseholds will double their exclusion and maketheir lives much harder than if placed in anopposite-sex household. 1 Council of Europe,The European Convention on Human Rights, 4thNovember 1950 ,( accessed 2nd August 2011)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The welfare of the adopted child as the primaryconcern of the state. The focus of this debateshould not be on gay rights, but on what is in thebest interest of the adopted child. The adoptionprocess' goal is to find the most suitable parentsfor that child, not to resolve other socialinequalities and injustices. Being raised in atraditional family, by a mother and father, is thebest environment for a child. Studies have shownthat children who are raised by homosexualcouples can have problems with substanceabuse, violence and 'at risk' behaviour. Thereforethe state has the obligation to try to provide thechild with that environment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Gender roles. Children raised by gay couples willfind it more difficult to learn appropriate genderroles in the absence of male and femalerole-models. Although not an exact match singleparents provide a similar case where there hasnot been someone of the other gender as a rolemodel. Although the evidence is not nearly asconclusive as is often claimed1 there have beenmany studies that have shown that two parentsfrom different genders is beneficial to the child inits development2. Similarly it is often claimedthat boys develop negative attitudes to studybecause there are very few male teachers inprimary schools3. 1 Flood, Michael, Fatherhoodand fatherlessness, The Australia institute,Discussion Paper Number 59, (November 2003),p.xi ,(accessed 2nd August 2011) 2 Sarkadi,Anna et al., 'Father's involvemen and children'sdevelopmental outcomes: a systematic review oflongitudinal studies, ActaPaediatrica, 97 (2008)pp.153-158, p.155 (accessed 2nd August2011) 3 Gerver, Richard, 'Lack of male role", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gfhbhsbaa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "These studies often confuse correlation andcausation. The reason why children do best inthese unions is not because there is some type ofmagical component to traditional marriage. It isthe quality of the relationship not the form of itthat benefits children. The government shouldencourage people to be stable, committed, lovingparents, regardless of their marital status orgender. The stability of a relationship is whatcauses children to thrive, and it is merely usuallycorrelated to heterosexual marriage, notproduced by it. Also, there are more children upfor adoption than there are opposite-sex coupleswilling to adopt, in this sort of a world it is clearlybetter for children to get out of the foster caresystem and into a loving home. Gay parentshave also faced more discrimination andexclusion than most straight parents, whichmakes them especially able to help children whofeel unwanted or out of place in the world.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ghbfsn-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The glass ceiling is extremely variable. The twodeciding and overlapping factors, being whetherwomen have children and which profession theyare in. Higher numbers of women now going touniversity may change the number of lawyers,judges, doctors etc in the future. Doctors,barristers, leading scientists, all now contain asignificant female percentage. Since 2001 thereare more women called to the bar than men. [1]Huge advancements have been made and givenpositive intervention in the past statistics arenow changing. Therefore, the feminist movementhas achieved its objective. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ghbfsn-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Males Still Dominate the Top Positions Out ofover 250 countries, only a few are currentlyheaded by women. [1] Women still account foronly about 14% of members of parliamentworldwide in 2002. [2] Some argue that genderquotas should be established to ensure equalinput of men and women in parliament.Therefore, the feminist movement is still neededto fight this battle. Woman still hold lowerposition in business, the legal profession and inthe world of politics. It is therefore hard to arguethat the glass ceiling has disintegrated. Untilwomen hold higher positions in these fields thefeminist cause has still not achieved its goals- inseeking to create a world where, amongst otherthings women can advance up the ladder in theircareer without being blocked by a glass ceilingand held back in lower positions. [1] [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ghbfsn-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Most corporations, in almost every country onthe earth will not even offer their maleemployees something close to paternity. [1] But,most countries mandate by law, that women geta set amount of maternity leave. The truth isthat, the lack of any kind of paternity leave forthe male, indicates that there is a \"glass ceiling\"hovering over fathers heads, and is preventingthem from being good parents. It would benefitevery family, if fathers were allowed to spendtime with their new borns, like women can. Thisis not a battle for the feminist cause. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ghbfsn-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Feminism Has Plenty More To Achieve Feminismis still of relevance today, and is indeed needed.In the UK, one in four women suffers domesticviolence, and an increase in the reporting of rapein the last thirty years has gone alongside athreefold drop in conviction rates. In countriessuch as Ireland and Malta abortion is still notlegal for all women, this can be seen as animportant part of equality for woman that hasnot been achieved yet and needs to be foughtfor. If we take feminism as a global movementthen the movement is still of huge importance.That's because U.S. women still earned only 77cents on the male dollar in 2008, according tothe latest census statistics. (That number dropsto 68% for African-American women and 58%for Latinas.) [1] These are all real problems, onwhich feminists continue to campaign - as theyshould. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ghbfsn-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Feminism has no more battles left to fight.Victories such as gaining the vote, the right to anabortion(in most of the northern hemisphere)and the right to equal pay were important andworth winning. But given that sexual equality isnow - rightly - enshrined and protected in law,there is nothing left for the feminist movementto do in most western countries. It may still beuseful in parts of the world where women stilllack basic democratic and other rights. However,in western society the feminist cause in no longerneeded.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ghbfsn-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Maternity and Paternity Leave Are Not YetEqual Employers worry when they hireyoung/middle aged women. They fear that afterhiring a woman, she will only cost the companymoney by getting pregnant and going onmaternity leave. To combat this attitude,maternity and paternity leave should be equal.Currently, paternity leave is a maximum of twoconsecutive weeks. These two weeks must betaken within 56 days of the child’s birth. This canbe contrasted with the long maternity leave thatis allowed for. Women are entitled to 52 weeksof maternity leave from day one of employment.Women are entitled to maternity pay for 39weeks if they have been working for theiremployer for 26 weeks. Father’s also do nothave the right to take time off work to attendantenatal classes, this allowance is for pregnantemployees only. The feminist cause still has thisissue to resolve. Until paternity leave is offeredan employer can safely assume that a womanwill be the partner to burden the care of the child", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ghbfsn-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Feminism is not about judging women for choicesthey make. It is about allowing women to makethat choice. If we haven’t got to a point where allwoman are given the choice either to stay in thehome or advance equally in their career or doboth then this is a point to indicate that feminismis still needed and relevant. In many wayswomen are still dictated to about the way theyshould act or what should interest them. Girlsare told in school that science is more of a “boyssubject”, while subjects such as wood work arerarely offered in all girls schools. In the mediamagazines tell girls how to “please your man”further cementing the idea, that women havelong fought to remove, that women are solelythe object of a man’s desire. Stereotypes ofwomen still exist and as long as they still exist inthe minds of many, feminism still has an activerole to play in dispelling these stereotypes. Takerape for an example. There are definitelylegislative parts that need to be drasticallyimproved and also better policing, but one way", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ghbfsn-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There are two responses to this. First, many ofthe ways in which men suffer inequality arerelatively minor when compared to the ongoingsubordination of women in many areas of privateand public life such as pay, childcare andsexuality. Second, where such inequality doesexist, feminism possesses the resources to offera distinctive and useful critique of the causes andconsequences of sexual inequality, whether it ismen or women who suffer as a result - men andwomen should be joining forces to offer feministresponses to discrimination, not blamingfeminism where men have problemsdisconnected from the feministcause. Additionally, Feminism is a rightsmovement to place the female sex on equalfooting as males. This naturally means that whenan inequality exists it needs to be corrected. Yes,even when women have an apparent advantagein something over men it needs to be fixed. It istrue men are given lower rights in certain cases.The results of divorce with children involved", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ghbfsn-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The Feminist Cause No Longer Appeals toWomen Many women no longer identifythemselves as feminists, associating feminismwith man-hating, sex-hating humourlessness,and seeing it as a relic of the 1970s. Modernwomen are perfectly capable of competing withmen on equal terms, and they resentsuggestions that they need specialtreatment. Some women would question wherethe line between feminism and positive sexismbegins. Women no longer want to associatethemselves with a cause that is outdated andoutmoded.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ghbfsn-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Now Damaging Gender Roles? There is certainlya case to be made that women, inmodern-western society have completelyshattered the traditional values and roles thatare best suited to them. For example, it hasalways been the case that men have been theproviders, the defenders of themselves, thehousehold and the family. Women have been themaintainers of these things. These things are notunfair. They are not unequal. They are simplywhat each gender is best suited for. Womenshould not feel lesser than men simply becausethey are \"supposed\" to do \"motherly things\". Thefeminist movement has gone beyond its cause inbeginning to deem what role in life is moreappropriate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ghbfsn-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Men Have Big Problems Too By focusing onwomen and their problems, feminism fails torecognise that there are inequality issues inwhich men are the victims. For example: boysare falling behind girls in academic achievement;far less money is spent on combating ‘male’ than‘female’ diseases (the difference between theamount of research into breast cancer andprostate cancer is a striking.) [1] Single fathersare discriminated against over child custody andchild support; fear of being accused of sexism isso widespread that it often leads to unfairdiscrimination against men. [2] Even the waymen are portrayed in the media is a cause forconcern. Last year, an oven cleaner ad drew athousand-plus complaints for the slogan, “Soeasy, even a man can use it.” These can only betackled by recognising that feminism has gonetoo far. The battle for equality is no longerneeded but rather, we must remember feminismwas never a tool for women to get their ownback. [1] [2] www.mens-rights.net", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ghbfsn-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Opponents of the feminist movement havealways sought to stereotype feminists in order toreduce their support. That this enterprise is oftensuccessful is not an argument against feminism;in any case, many of the women who dislike thelabel ‘feminist’ turn out to hold what would untilrecently have been seen as extreme feministviews, such as the belief that women areperfectly capable of competing with men onequal terms. Feminists have always argued thatwomen are just as capable of men; they havecampaigned against legal, cultural and socialbarriers which have worked against women,preventing them from achieving equality.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Paying housewives would not make muchdifference to images of women and family life,and could even make things worse rather thanbetter. By paying housewives, monetizing theposition of housewife and home-keeper, thestate re-affirms the idea that the only true valuea person can hold is an economic one and thatthe only way to assess and quantify the value ofan individual or their impact is through financialmeans. Re-enforcing such a financial-centricversion of worth and value is dangerous tohousewives, who, by any reasonableexpectation, will never make as much asprivate-sector professionals such as CEOs. Itsimply re-enforces the inferiority ofhouse-keeping and the role of the family unit insociety. This pay gap simply re-affirms prejudiceand bias of the inferiority of home-keeping as aprofession and gives tangible evidence tosupport this by placing a monetary value on whathousewives do and inevitably not including thenon-monetary benefits, such as the children", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Paying housewives promotes more positiveimages of women and family life Genderstereotypes dictate that the woman’s place is inthe home and that that is an inferior position inthe social hierarchy than that of the male’scorporate bread-winner status. The stereotype isparticularly damaging to women’s expectationsfor themselves and the way society treatswomen. By paying housewives for their work, agreater emphasis is placed on the role of thehome-keeper and on the women that tend to thisjob. It elevates the position of women in thehousehold by economically empowering themand giving them the very thing that usuallyimplies the greater importance of thebread-winners in the family (economic powerand status). Moreover, it elevates societal viewsof housewives and home-keepers by valuingtheir contributions to the household and societyin a tangible, monetary way that society caresabout. Paying housewives for their work grantsgreater social status and power to women and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is highly unlikely that this can be implementedin any country where female empowerment is asrestricted as is discussed. If women are asdependent and oppressed as the propositionsuggests, the political will to pass such legislationwill not exist. Even if a law were passed, the paywould be very low, and so the wife would stillrely on the husband’s income.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Housewives are entitled to pay The philosophicalbasis of entitlement for pay is derived from thenotion that if something comes into being as theproduct of an individual’s labor, then thatindividual is entitled to the profit and benefit ofsuch a product because its existence wasresultant of that individual’s labor [1] . That inthis case the labor is on services does not makeany difference, the product of the housewife’slabor is that the children are looked after anddomestic matters are all sorted. This is beneficialto society as housewives in addition to helpingtheir own family are likely to have the time tohelp out others – through volunteering, throughlooking after other’s children after school etc. Itis estimated that the value of a housemaker’sservices would be equivalent to approximately£30,000 per year [2] . In the same way that anyproduct or service is created, offered ormanufactured by individual workers, the servicesof home-keeping are delivered by the labor ofthe home-keeper. Just as all workers are entitled", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Not all labor is rewarded with wages or paydespite the fact that goods and services areproducts of said labor. For example, voluntaryand charity work are both types of labor that isnot paid. The distinction is where the work isdone and the obligations owed to people as aresult. Home-keeping is a voluntary job that hasits own forms of remuneration (familyconnections etc.) in the same way thatvolunteering and charity work do (e.g. feeling asthough you are part of something larger).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Paying housewives for their work is an importantform of economic empowerment. One of themost important factors of oppression of women’srights, particularly in the developing world, isdependence [1] . Women are often confined tothe home by force, lack of opportunity or socialstigma, on behalf of their husbands. When she isnot paid, a housewife must rely on her husbandfor money, especially if she has children she isexpected to take care of. Economicempowerment allows further freedom for womenin countries where women are confined to thehome [2] . By making women economic actors,you empower them to engage in different socialstructures and hold a stake and position in thecentres of economic power. This is the mostempowering tool one can offer women in mostcountries around the world [3] . By payinghousewives for their work, you offer one of themost powerful forms of social empowerment forwomen around the world. [1] United Nations.Women's Work and Economic Empowerment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There are many ways to implement this on apractical level. Wages can be created through taxexemptions as opposed to the creation of newstreams of wages and wealth. Moreover, theprohibitive expense can be paid for by anincrease in taxation. Home-keeping can be seenas a public good as it create good, strong homesand helps create constructive bases of supportthat help create productive future members ofsociety, it can qualify as a public good that wouldtherefore be a legitimate expense to tax thepublic for.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The job of housewives provides an essentialservice to society—to raise a healthy family—andso those who perform the job should be paid.Even if a product or service is not economicallyquantifiable, the person who provides it mayhave created something that otherwise wouldnot exist through the exertion of their labor.Moreover, simply because they never had anoption to opt into a monetized agreement orexchange does not mean that they do notdeserve such an option in the future or that theirservices are not economically valuable, and thus,entitles them to wages.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Paying housewives reduces social mobility Bypaying housewives for their work, you createnegative stereotypes about families and womenby commodifying the role of home-keeper.Paying housewives for their work re-enforces thevery framework that is seen as oppressive onhome-keepers. It creates a system in whichwomen are even more strongly expected to behousewives than they are now, rather thanseeking out career jobs with upward mobility.The result is that women are discouraged fromseeking to fulfil their own dreams by creatingtheir own careers as they are more firmlychained to their traditional role. This is damagingto societal views of women and the family. As aresult the full potential of many more women willnot be reached. As is the case in Saudi Arabiawomen are likely to be very well educated butthen have their education and talents wasted bybeing expected to remain in the home. [1] Thiswould neither be good for the individualsinvolved or the economy as a whole. [1] Saner,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Paying housewives is financially impractical. Ona very practical level, this policy could never beimplemented. As much as housewives arevaluable members of society, it is economicallyimpossible to pay them wages. It is only possibleto increase somebody’s pay if that personcreates increased wealth. There is no directincrease in wealth creation caused byhousewives and therefore it would be impossibleto gain a direct or accurate valuation ormechanism of exchange for housewifepay. Even if there was no market mechanismneeded, and assuming that there is no interest ingetting an accurate valuation of housewifeeconomic contribution, there is no way for agovernment to finance this. Without the creationof a product or service that has a consumer whowould be able to use the money to purchasesuch services, there is no method of capitalaccumulation to reimburse the home-keeperwith. The baby or child who is receiving theservice does not have the ability to pay. Should", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Payment and obligation works differently inpublic and in private. The economic sphere andthe private (family) sphere have separateobligations and systems of contracts. The way inwhich the economic system works is thatgenerally people are paid for their labor by thosewho benefit from it, either directly or indirectly.This is a mutual relationship of monetary-laborexchange. In the family sphere, the contracts arebased on personal obligation and the family unitas opposed to individual contraction of services.The family unit is a pre-existing relationship notcreated on labor-pay agreements. Individuals optinto being a parent in a family unit on avoluntary basis and with no expectation orpretence of return for their services, exceptperhaps from their children in the future.Remuneration is created in the form of afunctioning, rewarding family unit and family lifeand the products and services produced are of noquantifiable monetary value nor can they be soldor do they create wealth. Because housewives do", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-esgfhbhsbpt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Paying housewives a wage would improve notreduce social mobility. Many women would stillchoose to go to university and the vast majoritywho do will still want to work. Paying housewiveswill not prevent any women who wants to workfrom working. Rather it will simply provideanother option for those who wish to devotethemselves full time to their family. This will givethese women some financial freedom givingthem more opportunities to educate themselvesand their children so that they can get a betterjob than they otherwise would when they nolonger wish to just be a housewife.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "What is best for the economy is making sure thatgovernment money is spent as efficiently aspossible. This may mean taking some moneyaway from spending on youth as well asproviding more in some areas. Education forexample can be changed to focus morespecifically on skills needed for the workplacerather than learning for learning’s sake or couldbe made more efficient by transferring somelearning online. This need not involve morespending on youth but better spending on youth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Spending on youth is best for theeconomy Spending on young people is aninvestment. While there may be other objectivestoo, such as taking young people off the street toprevent trouble, when there is spending onyoung people this is almost always to ensurethey have either a broader, or more focused skillbase. This is done through education, training,and apprenticeships. Having a better skilledworkforce has a beneficial effect on economicgrowth. This means that there are severaleconomic benefits to spending on youth; there isthe initial fiscal benefit from the spending onyouth followed over years and decades by areturn on the investment from having higherskilled workers. This higher skilled workforce willthen over time pay back the initial investmentthrough paying more tax as a result of beingmore productive (so earning more). There isthen a change from the unemployed youth beinga burden on the state and the economy to acontributor. A study in the US suggests that a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It seems a little unfair to blame baby boomersfor their fortune in terms of demographics. Theywere simply lucky to be born when they were.Most countries are already considering theimpact of aging; the pension age for example isbeing raised almost everywhere. And of course itis wrong to suggest that the youth are getting araw deal in every possible area; for examplethey have much more technology to play with,and average incomes are much higher than theywere when the boomers were young. While thegovernment may not pay for as much for theyouth parents and grandparents step in, in theUK £470million is contributed to child trust fundseach year by grandparents and they provide anestimated £4billion worth of childcare each year.[1] [1] Mitchell, Michelle, ‘Debate: Is thebaby-boomer generation selfish?’, totalpolitics,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The government must do what is in the longterm interest of the county Typically businesses,and most people, think about the short term;how they are going to live or produce a profitover the next few years. This leaves the role ofthinking across broader horizons to thegovernment. Governments need to plan toensure the prosperity of the nation in twenty oreven fifty years’ time because many of theircurrent citizens will still be alive. This planning isalso necessary because of the length of time thatlarge scale construction projects or socialchanges take. For example “In the energysector, investments are made for a periodbetween 20 and 60 years.” [1] Decisions on whatkind of power to support, coal, gas, nuclear, orrenewables, will still be making an impact in halfa century. Clearly when thinking longer term itsimply makes sense to focus on younger peopleas they are going to have an impact for longer.Just the same as in energy policy if a nationmakes mistakes with its treatment of its youth it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is unclear that the long term interest of thecountry really means investing in youth. Insteadit should mean anticipating the changes that arenecessary to ensure future security, health, andprosperity for every citizen. This is what happenswith investing in energy; we anticipate that if wedon’t invest in it for the future the lights will goout. But we also need to change along withchanging circumstances so taking thecomparison with energy further that means notjust investing in power generation but inrenewable power generation. Considering currentdemographics this should mean spending moreto ensure that health services are ready for anolder population and ensuring that pensions areon a stable long term footing rather than moreon youth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Scaremongering is not the best way to createpolicy. Clearly leaving large numbers ofunemployed young people could be dangerousbut so could large numbers of unemployed ofany age. Every government wants moreeconomic growth and to solve unemployment butthey should be focusing on how to bring theeconomy as a whole back to growth rather thanspecifically on youth unemployment. When thishappens unemployment will begin to fall.Artificially focusing on reducing youthunemployment will simply prevent broader actionto regain competitiveness. It should beremembered from communist states that it ispossible for government action to create fullemployment while destroying the foundations ofthe economy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The youth are getting a raw deal In mostwestern countries the ‘baby boomers’ (those whowere born between the end of the second worldwar and the mid-1960s) could be considered tohave led a charmed life. They were thebeneficiaries of free schooling and universityeducation, then of an expanding economy thatprovided enough jobs, and finally high pensions.David Willetts, the UK Minister for Universitiesand Science, estimates that the boomers are setto take out about 118% of what they put in tothe welfare state. [1] The current generation onthe other hand in some countries are having topay more for their education and then find thereis no job available. To make matters worse theyare likely to be paying more for their elders’pensions (which come out of current workersnational insurance not that which was paid in bythe boomers themselves) and healthcare andthen will have to work longer for a smallerpension themselves. This means that if spendingremains on its current trajectory most spending", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Leaving large numbers of young peopleunemployed could be dangerous Allowing highrates of youth unemployment andunderemployment to continue could bedisastrous. When people lose hope they aremuch more likely to turn to violence, or towardscrime and drugs. There are clearly extremeexamples of this; one cause of the second worldwar was the great depression and feeblerecovery that preceded it, similarly in Africaaccording to the World Bank 40% of those whojoin rebel movements are motivating by a lack ofjobs. [1] A new World War, or successionconflicts, are unlikely, though not impossible, inEurope. [2] Much more likely however are riotsand social unrest aimed at government; youthunemployment was a spark for the Arab Spring.In the west youth protests such as the occupymovement or indignados have so far mostly beenpeaceful [3] but they may not remain that waywithout hope of improvement. [1] Ighobor,Kingsley, ‘Africa’s youth: a “ticking time bomb”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-con03b", "title": "", "text": "In health services where much care is providedfor free there has always been a question ofbalancing resources. Some treatments are justtoo expensive, when this is the case theindividuals are free to pay for private healthcare.Clearly then if there is less money to be spent onhealthcare there just needs to be a rethink aboutwhich treatments are affordable as a part of freehealthcare. In the United States deciding whattreatments are worth the cost is left to themarket, in more centrally organised healthsystems as is the case in Europe there is aregulator or commission that decides. In the UKthis is NICE (the National Institute for Health andClinical Excellence) which decides what drugs areworthwhile based upon quality-adjusted lifeyears and usually does not recommendtreatments that cost more than £20-30,000 perQALY. [1] The answer then would be to drop thisdown to a lower figure. [1] Dreaper, Jane,‘Researchers claim NHS drug decisions ‘areflawed’’, BBC News, 24 January 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-con01b", "title": "", "text": "In theory it is great to say that governmentshould treat all people equally, but we all knowthat in practice this does not happen.Government spending is determined by whatprograms already exist and where therespending is regardless of current need while newspending is based on where the governmentthinks it will get votes. Because older people aremore likely to vote, and there are more of them,the political system is clearly prejudiced againstproviding for youth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Older people have paid into the system. Thosewho are retiring today were promised goodpensions that they could draw from their earlysixties. They paid into national insurance, andother pension schemes on the assumption thatthey would get a good pension at the end of it.Doctors are a good example of a group that havepaid a large amount into their pensions andexpect to get a large pension in return. At themoment the UK’s NHS pension scheme paysmore than £2billion per year into the treasurythan it takes out. [1] The public purse has gainedfrom boomers payments for pensions for yearsand they are responsible to pay the boomersback with what they were told they would beentitled to. [1] ‘Our response to governmentclaims about the NHS pensions dispute’, BritishMedical Association,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The youth already have a lot of spending focusedon them It may be true that there is littlespending specifically on ‘youth’ but that does notmean there is not a lot of spending young peoplemore generally. Government education budgetsin Europe vary but are generally between10-15% of government spending, [1] added tothis should be the 2.3% of GDP spent onfamily/child benefit [2] (since Europeangovernments typically spend about 50% of GDPthis generally means about 5% of spending).While this may not seem like much compared to26.89% of the population being under 25 [3] weneed to remember that most other governmentspending (with the exception of pensions) is notage targeted and so also goes prettyproportionally on youth; children and youth areas likely to use healthcare, young people useroads and public transport, many in the militaryare under 25 etc. Since young people are morelikely to be unemployed they are also getting alarger proportion of welfare spending on them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Aging means we will be spending more on theold, not less There is simply no room to beincreasing spending on young people as anAgeing population means that western nationsare going to have to focus more resources on theelderly. A larger elderly population will mean lesstax take for the government as there will be lesspeople working, at the same time there willmany unavoidable costs. The average cost ofretires households to health services is £5200,compares to just £2800 for those who are notretired. [1] The expansion and progress ofmedical science has been amazing, we can treatmany conditions that were incurable. But thismeans many more are living longer with medicalsupport, which is costly. A US study estimatestotal healthcare expenditures “increasesubstantially with longevity, from $36,000 forpersons who die at the age of 65 to more than$230,000 for those who die at the age of 90”. [2]Clearly the government cannot both increasespending on youth and pay more on healthcare", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The government should not prioritise one agegroup over another The government should notbe playing favourites when it comes togovernment spending. It should not prioritiseone age group over another, just as it should notprioritise one ethnic group or religion overanother. The government has just as muchresponsibility to the middle aged or elderly as itdoes to the young. Rather than artificiallydeciding to spend more on certain age groupsgovernment spending should clearly just bebased on what provides the most value fortaxpayers’ money. In some cases this may meanspending on youth but it could also meanspending on the elderly.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is difficult to see why there should be largeamounts of public spending on ‘youth’ directedthrough the education system that then simplystops as soon as education is left behind. Whenyoung people are finished university orparticularly school when they are not going on touniversity they are suddenly left on their ownwith no clear path to transition into work. [1]Those not in the education system get very littlespending on them and this is clearly where theproblem lies. There needs to be much morespent on ensuring that young people get a firstjob both in ensuring that they have the rightskills and ensuring a good standard of living untilthey get a job. [1] ACEVO Commission on YouthUnemployment, ‘Youth unemployment: the crisiswe cannot afford’, ACEVO, 2012, , p.46", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-fygspsmy-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Pensions are not paid by what the retiree paid induring their lifetime but by those who areearning and paying taxes and national insurancewhile the pensioner is drawing their pension.Current pensioners did not pay for their pensionbut for their parents’ pensions. In the UK “In2008 there were 3.2 people of working age forevery person of pensionable age. This ratio isprojected to fall to 2.8 by 2033.” [1] With fewerworkers for every pensioner pensions are clearlyunsustainable and so should be reduced. [1]‘The ageing population’, parliament.uk,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The principle reason some countries have higherages of consent for males compared to females[1] is simply because of the medical evidencethat males reach sexual maturity at a later agethan females. [2] This has nothing to do withdiscriminating against homosexual sex. Howeverit is true that when it comes to children, somecountries do view underage homosexual asslightly more dangerous than underageheterosexual sex. Largely because there is thehigher risk of HIV infection in the case of theformer. [3] [1] Canadian Department of Justice,‘Age of Consent to Sexual Activity’,justice.gc.ca, [2] Neinstein, Lawrence S.,‘Puberty: Normal Growth and Development’,Adolescent Health Curriculum: University ofSouthern California, [3] HIV, AIDS and YoungGay Men, AVERT: Averting HIV & AIDS,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Consent Laws are discriminatory. Somecountries have one age of consent for youngfemales (say 16) and a different, higher age ofconsent for young males or for having anal sex(say 18). This means that a heterosexual adultmale who wants to have sex with a 17-year-oldfemale is free to do so, but a homosexual adultmale cannot have intercourse with a young manwho is 17. [1] Not only are such laws clearlydiscriminatory, they entrench and perpetuate themyths, stereotypes, and prejudices againsthomosexuals and homosexual sex. Age ofconsent laws, if we are to have them at all,should be equalised across the genders. [1]HIV, AIDS and Young Gay Men, AVERT: AvertingHIV & AIDS, , ‘Worldwide ages of Consent’,AVERT: averting HIV & AIDS, , HIV, AIDSand Young Gay Men, AVERT: Averting HIV& AIDS,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Liberals tend to assume that many young boysand girls would want to have sex if not for age ofconsent laws. In reality many boys and girlsthemselves actually do not want to have sex orsexual contact, but lack the social and emotionalconfidence to say ‘no’. Age of consent lawsprotect such children, by preventing others fromputting them in such a difficult position and helpthem against peer pressure.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "We should defend children’s freedom ofexpression. The freedom of sexual expression(and exploration) is not only a matter of choicewhich is fundamental to the individual – it is alsoparticularly important to young people as theyproceed through the stage of adolescence intoyoung adulthood. Age of consent laws placeartificial limits on this freedom. Sex is entirelynatural and should be celebrated in the contextof loving relationships, not criminalised and putunder the prying eye of an authoritarian state.Violence, coercion and exploitation in sexualrelationships should still be punished, but notconsensual activity. Such restrictions go againstthe human rights to privacy and of freedom ofexpression. The concept that young people donot know what they are doing is flawed, becauseevery person who has gone through sexualdevelopment has learnt by doing. There is noprocess of suddenly coming into full knowledgewithout acting and exploration. Such explorationwould be more safely done in an environment", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Those who are underage are not 'expressing'themselves through sex. They are unlikely tofully know what they are doing so this is not anarea where they are going to be expressingthemselves. Children have freedom of expressionin many other areas and through technologygaining more and more options. This is thereforea step that is unnecessary if all it is about is'freedom of expression'.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "It seems important to note that the age ofconsent could be maintained – or raised- whileallowing people who need advice on or access tocontraceptives, or other services to access them.The idea would be that school students are stilltaught about sex, contraceptives andconsequences, and doctors are to give free,impartial and –most importantly- confidentialadvice, and contraception to be readily availableto all", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The censorship laws are a relic from thepast. The idea that young people should not behaving sex is a leftover relic from the past: itsjustifications are anachronistic and have littleplace in modern times. Age of consent laws werethe product of a ‘purity campaign’ in Britain inthe 1800s, when it was believed that sex was a‘male privilege’, that it led to the sexual ruin ofyoung women, that it meant the loss of theirvirtue, which was a fate worse than death, andthat it contributed to women’s second classcitizenship. [1] In the UK the age of 16 waschosen and set in 1885, more than 100 yearsago, and has remained ever since. [2] Todaythese ideas would offend both men andwomen. [1] Harman, Lillian, ‘Understanding theAge of Consent in the Context of the 1800’s’,Liberty No. 235, pp.3-4 from Age OfConsent, [2] Bullough, Vern L, ‘The Age ofConsent’, Journal of Psychology & HumanSexuality Volume 16, Issue 2-3, 2005", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Age of consent laws prevent the most vulnerablereceiving contraceptives. Age of consent lawsare in fact dangerous because they driveunderground the very people who should be, andare in most need of, receiving contraceptives,advice on safe sex, and access to health andother educational services. This is true both ofthe ‘statutory rapist’ as well as the under-16consenting ‘victim’, who may worry about havingassisted in the commission of a crime. Bothparties then become real victims as they are putat greater risk of contracting STDs or unwantedpregnancies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Liberalising age of consent laws will notencourage paedophilia or make sexualexploitation any easier. That is simply a falsenightmare scenario propagated byscaremongers. Many countries have lowered thebasic age of consent while strengthening their‘plus elements’. For example, by making ‘sexualgrooming’ an offence (to stop rings of internetpaedophiles); by making it an offence to havesex with a young child if you are above a certainage or if the age differential between thepartners is above a certain limit (to target adultpaedophiles while allowing teens their sexualfreedom); and by making it an offence to havesex with someone who is in a relationship oftrust of dependency with you (to stop sexualexploitation).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Even if we can accept that children needprotection from sex, is it right to use the fullforce of the criminal law – which includes thethreat of criminal prosecution and the prospectof a criminal sentence – to do it? It is contrary toboth justice and common sense for people whohave merely had consensual sex with a teen whohappens to be under-16 to be arrested, tried,branded with a criminal label (‘statutory rapist’,‘sex offender’), thrown in prison, and therebytreated on the same footing as real (sometimesviolent) rapists, arsonists and kidnappers. Thedebate surrounding the age of consent raises thebroader point of the role of the criminal law. Thefunction of the criminal law is to preserve publicorder and decency, not to intervene in the livesof citizens, especially those who have mutuallyconsented to taking part in a harmless activity inprivate. To accept otherwise would be todisregard the crucial notion of human autonomyand the free will of the individual, which areexpressed, regardless of one’s age, each time a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-con02a", "title": "", "text": "We must protect the vulnerable fromthemselves. It is undeniable that young childrenform a special and vulnerable group in society.Nowhere is this truer than in the context of sex –so much so that we often need to protect themby placing limitations on what they do sexually.Below a certain minimum age, children are atrisk of not having the physiological, biologicaland, most importantly, emotional developmentto cope with sex, and with the many possibleconsequences of having sex, which include teenpregnancy, illegal or legal abortion, childbirth,parental and societal disapproval, unsupportedparenthood, legal consequences and increasedrisk of cervical cancer. [1] Unfortunatelyeveryone matures a different age. That does notmean that choosing an average, approximateage for consensual sex, such as 16, is arbitraryor wrong. There is no great harm in asking “earlydevelopers” to wait for a year or two before theybegin to have sex. Especially young people arenot always as mature as they believe they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Lowering the age of consent will cause criminaldangers. Lowering the age of consent (or worse,getting rid of it entirely) legalises, legitimises andbrings above ground the many problems that weare fighting underground. It will provide anopportunity for paedophile networks to expand,by allowing them to target even younger children– now lawfully. The problem of paedophilia isalready a rapidly growing one, made worse by itsexpansion into ‘related’ avenues such as childpornography. In addition to the obvious problemof paedophilia, the problem of the sexualpredation of young children also encompassesthe problem of youth prostitution (sinceprostitution is itself already legal in manycountries), and the international traffic in boysand girls.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-con01a", "title": "", "text": "We must protect the vulnerable in society. Evenwithout resorting to a moralistic view of thecriminal law (i.e. that its function is to stemmoral disintegration and to uphold the ‘sharedmorality’ of society), there is adequatejustification for age of consent laws. Society hasa vital interest in ensuring that its naturallyweaker members are protected from harm, anddoing so is precisely the function of thepersuasive and coercive powers of the criminallaw. It is therefore legitimate for the law to aimto prevent sexual harm to children bycriminalising sex with them. Indeed, age ofconsent sex laws are not the only lawsdependent on age. In many countries it is alsoan offence, for example, to sell tobacco tochildren, or to employ children below a certainage in the entertainment industry, whether ornot the child ‘consents’. Society must recognisethe reality that the apparent expression of‘consent’ by a child is often different fromconsent expressed an adult. In the case of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-gyhbaclsbmmll-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Age of consent laws are also arbitrary as childrenbecome sexually and emotionally mature at verydifferent rates, so any artificially imposed limitwill be too high for many and too low for others.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ihwgaii-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "There are thousands of citizens who have beenmade unemployed during the economic crisis ofthe last few years who would be happy to have apaying job again. In 2010 unemployment acrossthe OECD ranged from 3.7% of the labour forcein Norway to 20.2% in Spain with an OECDaverage of 8.5%. [1] These unemployed couldfill the jobs left by migrants in no time at all, as aresult migrants do not benefit the economyrather provide drag to it as they mean that somenatives who would otherwise be in employmentare unemployed. [1] Directorate forEmployment, Labour and Social Affairs, ‘How doOECD labour markets perform?’, OECDEmployment Outlook, 27 September 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ihwgaii-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Migrants benefit the economy Migrants,including illegal migrants, are necessary for theeconomies of rich countries. There are schemesrun by these countries that allow the migrationof skilled workers for jobs where there is a skillsshortage in the native population, for examplethe United Kingdom takes in a lot of migrants towork as doctors and migrants. However theseschemes fail to acknowledge that migrants arealso vital for unskilled jobs which native workersare often unwilling to take; for example jobs incatering, picking crops and cleaning.Approximately 6.3 million illegal immigrants areworking in the USA, and these are benefiting theeconomy. [1] The Federal Reserve Bank of Dallassays “The pace of recent U.S. economic growthwould have been impossible withoutimmigration. Since 1990, immigrants havecontributed to job growth in three main ways:They fill an increasing share of jobs overall, theytake jobs in labor-scarce regions, and they fillthe types of jobs native workers often shun.” [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ihwgaii-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Far from being necessary immigrants are a drainon the economy. The vast majority ofimmigrants have few skills. These low skillmigrants pay few taxes and take a lot ofgovernment benefits. For example in the UnitedStates each immigrant without a high schooldiploma costs the US taxpayers $89,000 overtheir lifetime. Since there are six million illegalswithout a high school diploma living in the USthis adds up to half a trillion dollars. Thisincreases further if they are given an amnesty soare able to claim citizenship and more moneyand the costs spiral yet further when the cost ofeducating their children is included with thepossible cost rising to $2 trillion. [1] Somemigrants may be necessary as a country ages,but the state should pick the migrants it wants -if a state wants migrants with skills to work incare homes it should let in those who have thoseskills or are applying to colleges to learn therelevant skills rather than granting an amnestyto those who are already here regardless of their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ihwgaii-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Amnesties are the only long termsolution Amnesty is the only way to deal withthe fundamental problem behind immigration;the developed world much richer and has morejobs available than the developing world. Forexample the USA has a per capita GDP of$48,100 [1] by comparison Mexico’s is only$15,100 [2] using PPP the gap with the CentralAmerican countries to the south of Mexico iseven starker with Guatemalan GDP/capita at$5,000. [3] Not surprisingly the USA far outstripsthe Central American countries in the Humandevelopment index; the US is 4th, Mexico 57thand Guatemala 131st. [4] So long as there issuch diversity of income and opportunityimmigrants will keep coming, and this willcontinue no matter what the state that isreceiving migrants does in an attempt to deterthem. Amnesties will help allow labour to get towhere it is needed, through NAFTA the US isintegrating North America but it is specificallyexcluding labour from this integration while", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ihwgaii-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "An amnesty will not solve this problem either; allit will do is move poor people from one countryto another. Those granted an amnesty might beslightly higher paid than they would be if theyhad stayed at home but without skills they willremain at the bottom of the pile while having toadapt to a new nation. Instead what is needed iseconomic growth in the poorer countries that arethe origin of the migrants. This is something therich world can encourage through numerousdifferent methods. For example the USA allowedMexico to join the North American Free TradeAgreement and so the US is Mexico's biggestexport partner with 80% of Mexican exportsbeing to America. Secondly rich countries canprovide investment and the skills necessary todevelop industries in these developing countries.For example Mexico has \"structural inefficiencies\"in its farming industry, [1] something which theUnited States as the world's most efficientagricultural producer could help with. [1]Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ihwgaii-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Immigrants are needed to make up for agingpopulations Much of the rich world is aging, andin a few cases is close to having a decliningpopulation. As a result the size of the availableworkforce will decrease. For example in Germanyby 2050 a third of the population will be over 60,[1] and over the next 15 years will as a resultloose five million workers from the currentworkforce of 41 million. [2] While increasingretirement age can mean that these reductionsin the size of the workforce come later tomaintain the size of the workforce immigration ora rapid increase in birth rate is necessary. Thesecountries in order to maintain the size of theireconomies will therefore either have to rapidlyincrease productivity, which itself may not beeasy as they are already the most productivenations, or else allow migrants to fill the gaps inthe labour force. At the same time there will bean increase in some jobs that rely on migrantssuch as care workers to help look after theincreasing number of elderly. [3] [1] Ripperger,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ihwgaii-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Amnesties do not increase immigration. Forexamples it is not the case that the ImmigrationReform and Control Act encouraged immigration.A study by the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallasconcluded “it appears that amnesty programs donot encourage illegal immigration. If anything,IRCA reduced the number of illegal immigrants inthe short run, perhaps because potentialmigrants thought that it would be more difficultto cross the border or to get a job in the UnitedStates after the law was passed.” And also overthe long term illegal immigration did notincrease. “apprehensions [at the Mexico-USborder] were about 11 percent lower during thepre-filing period than prior to IRCA’s passage,controlling for other factors.” While there waslittle change overall between the periods beforeand after the amnesty. [1] [1] Orrenius, Pia M.,and Zavodny, Madeline, ‘Do Amnesty ProgramsEncourage Illegal Immigration? Evidence fromIRCA’, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, Oct.2001, pp.11, 14.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ihwgaii-con01b", "title": "", "text": "An amnesty is not a reward for breaking the law,and any illegal immigrant who has committedcrimes other than entering the country illegallycould be excluded. Instead amnesty should beseen as acknowledging those who live and workin a country but are nonetheless ignored. Anamnesty would mean the state would get tocollect more money in taxes from immigrantsand they would be subject to all therequirements that all citizens are expected toabide by. They could also be expected to pay aprocessing fee to cover town or governmentexpenditure for the amnesty amongst otherthings. So an amnesty wouldn't be a reward inits entirety as much as an acknowledgment anda way to balance the books. [1] The governmentwould also be free to impose strict restrictions onany amnesty. For example the one proposed bythe liberal democrats in 2010 was only to allowthose who had been in the UK for ten years,spoke English and wished to work towardsearning citizenship. There would also have been", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ihwgaii-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Amnesties are unpopular; governments need toget tougher if they want to bereelected. Amnesties are unpopular, in the UKfor example 65% of the population wantstougher immigration laws, [1] and so mostgovernments are unlikely to resort to themexcept as a last resort. Instead of granting anamnesty governments need to get tougher onillegal immigrants in order to find, deport anddeter them. This would be a much more popularpolicy and could be achieved using bettermonitoring and communications betweendepartments. For example in the United Statesthe Inland Revenue Service knows wheremillions of illegals live and are employed as theyknow 600,000 people work under the SocialSecurity number 000-00-0000, presumablymany more were used different made upnumbers. [2] This would therefore not only catchillegal immigrants but would help end misuse ofSocial Security and IRS identification numbers.There are also other tactics that can make illegal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ihwgaii-con03a", "title": "", "text": "An amnesty would encourage rather than reduceimmigration An amnesty would simply meanmore immigration resulting in new illegalimmigrants. First, it would quickly becomeknown that a country is offering an amnestyresulting in a rush to gain entry in time. Anincrease would continue even after the amnestybecause migrants would believe that countrywould be more likely to grant another amnesty inthe future. Second, Once there is an amnestythose who have been granted amnesty and areable to work legally so have gained a measure ofsecurity will bring family to live with them. Thisis exactly what has occurred with previousamnesties. After the 1986 Immigration Reformand Control Act in the United States which 2.7million immigrants took advantage of to becomelegal residents the number of illegal immigrantsarriving in the USA rose to 800,000 before fallingback down to a more normal level of 500,000 peryear. [1] Spain has granted numerous amnestiessince 1985 as a response to increasing", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ihwgaii-con01a", "title": "", "text": "An amnesty rewards law breakers An amnestyby its very definition is letting someone who hasengaged in an illegal act off the hook. It is lettingcriminal activity pay. It is also an admission ofgovernment defeat; other options have failedand there are still lawbreakers who are not beingdeported as they should be so there is a need foran amnesty. These people who have entered thecountry illegally, and have worked illegally arethen being forgiven for their having broken thelaw. This is not something that rich countriesshould be encouraging.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-ihwgaii-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The question is what happens then? Do weimmediately deport all these newly foundimmigrants despite the large cost? Would theoccupation they are engaged in or having madea family make a difference? Finding or knowingwhere illegal immigrants are is not the same asgetting them out of the country, in the UK in2006/7 20,700 people were recorded as failing inasylum requests but the UK only managed todeport 18,280. [1] Finding more illegalimmigrants would mean the deportation systemscould not cope. [1] Johnston, Philip, ‘Number offailed asylum seeker removals falls’, TheTelegraph, 21st August 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Just because many people are in favour of apolicy does not mean it is normatively justified.Policies that have little to no efficacy and actuallyeven create the opposite outcome than is desiredare certainly not justified by this logic. Peopleonly want a fence because they think that it willprotect American jobs and border security. If acloser examination of the economics of illegalimmigration demonstrates that immigrationactually grows the economy, it seemsnonsensical to continue maintaining the fence.This just perpetuates racist attitudes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A state has a fundamental right to setimmigration policies and take the necessarysteps to make them work. Ironically, evenMexico recognizes this when it attempts toincrease border enforcement along its ownsouthern border with Guatemala1,2. If thosepolicies are lawfully set by the people andlegislature, then regardless of how efficacious aparticular tool is, it is justified. It is clear that thefence is wildly popular – well over half of theUnited States supports it3 , and many individualsare so adamant about increasing border securitythat they are willing to make donations for thesepurposes4. The social contract of the UnitedStates means that the government isdemocratically elected and therefore accountableto its people. If they want to focus on securingthe borders instead of providing more extensivewelfare programs or reforming education oranything else they could be spending money on,that is their prerogative. 1Thompson, Ginger.“Mexico Worries About Its Own Southern", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-pro06a", "title": "", "text": ".\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Safety arguments are a red herring; terrorismwill not be effectively prevented by the erectionof the border fence. We need a proactivestrategy that gathers intelligence and works withcounterterrorism officials abroad to disruptrecruitment and training centers for terroristgroups.1 If some immigrants can slip through, socan some terrorists. At any rate, the 9/11hijackers and other Al-Qaeda terroriststraditionally have not come through the Mexicanborder but rather from abroad and by airplanesor seaports, or they are homegrown radicals.Spending billions of dollars in a vain series ofattempts to seal ourselves in an impenetrablefortress simply helps terrorists fulfill their goalsof making us live in a culture of perpetual fear.As for drug trafficking, this problem is largelyborn of the tremendous market for it that stillexists in the United States. If the demand driedup, so would the suppliers; on the other hand, ifthere is still an incredibly lucrative market, nofence will stop them from ferrying large amounts", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The fence is a practical way to stop immigrationand large parts of it have been built. The SecureFence Act of 2006 authorized the construction ofat least two layers of reinforced fencing inhigh-crossing and high-risk sections along theborder. This includes around the border town ofTecate, Calif., and a huge expanse stretchingfrom Calexico, Calif., to Douglas, Ariz., which isvirtually the entire length of Arizona's borderwith Mexico. Another section would stretch overmost of the southern border of New Mexico. Anadditional section will wind through Texas, fromDel Rio to Eagle Pass, and from Laredo toBrownsville. This would not only be a fence butwill include technology to secure \"operationalcontrol\" of the border by using unmanned aerialvehicles, ground-based sensors, radar, satellitesand cameras.1 1Weisman, Jonathan. \"WithSenate Vote, Congress Passes Border Fence Bill.\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A fence would help defend the economy of theUnited States. A fence would help defend theeconomy of the United States during difficulttimes by protecting American jobs. It is apopular misconception that immigrants only dothe types of jobs that native-born Americans willnot take. Many professions encompassingconstruction, grounds-maintenance,housekeeping, and janitorial services actuallyhave the majority of jobs performed bynative-born Americans.1 Furthermore, illegalimmigrants constitute a tremendous drain onvarious public benefits. These include medicaltreatment (because no one who is seriouslyinjured or sick can be turned away from theemergency room as a result of a law calledEMTALA)2 , municipal services like fire and policeprotection, food stamps, and education in publicschools. Every dollar that gets spent on illegalimmigrants is a dollar that could have been spenton law-abiding American citizens, who need allthe help they can get during these difficult", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This assumes the fence is efficacious andtherefore the cause of the reduction. It is not –there are numerous bypasses, ranging fromsimple ladders on pickup trucks to complextunnels for the movement of people and drugs.1While it may seem to be the case that the fencehas caused the reduced numbers of illegalimmigrants attempting to cross, in actuality thisis because of the economic downturn in theUnited States.2,3 If there are no jobs, it standsto reason there is not going to be an influx ofworkers. Even if it were efficacious, however,the idea that immigrants steal jobs isfundamentally flawed. Immigrants fill gaps in thedomestic labour market.4 They arenon-competitive for most types of jobs, such assupervisor positions.5 And anyways, mosteconomists say that immigration grows theeconomy by expanding demand for goods andservices that immigrants consume, andconsequently this actually creates more jobs.While immigrants certainly may push down", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The border fence is a waste of money. It and theassociated measures was given a budget of$1.2billion [i] and it is not likely to be acomprehensive fix. If the fence just coverscurrent high crossing areas then these areas willsimply move to more inhospitable areas ormigrants will find other ways around – such astravelling through the gulf of Mexico by boat asoccurs between in the Mediterranean formigrants travelling from North Africa toEurope. [i] Weisman, Jonathan. \"With SenateVote, Congress Passes Border Fence Bill.\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Just because something is a law does not meanthat it is justified or morally correct. There havebeen many bad and unjustified laws on thebooks of the legal codes of many countries. Anymeans of carrying out the ends of a just law thatwill have terrible impacts are themselves alsounjustified. When there are hundreds of peoplewho have died in attempts to cross deserts ordangerous terrain to go around the fence inorder to find gainful employment, that is a goodindication that a policy is failing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "A fence would dramatically increase Americansafety. Mexican violence between drug cartelsfrequently spills over and threatens the lives andpeace-of-mind of Americans as well. The Councilon Foreign Relations has said that Mexico's levelsof violence and lawlessness over the past fewyears exceed even those in Iraq or Afghanistan.1That has forced a costly increased policepresence in border areas, and even that oftenproves insufficient to quell the killings. But evenif the violent common criminals were somehowsuppressed because of stepped up actions by theMexican government, an easily penetratedborder presents a national security threat. TheFBI has warned that it is likely that Al Qaedaoperatives and other terrorist groups will use theporous Mexican border as a means of infiltratingthe country and launching deadly plots againstAmerican citizens in future. To prevent thecarrying out of attacks, America needs secureborders. 1 McGreal, Chris. \"The battle of theUS-Mexico frontier.\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "It is important to maintain and enforce theprinciple of the rule of law, and a fence doesthat. Illegal immigrants are openly flaunting thelaw, and permitting them to enter the country inthis way demeans the hard-working individualswho immigrated legally. If people becomeangrier about illegal immigrants because more ofthem are coming in without a fence, this mayalso lead to the negative outcome of poorertreatment of Latinos who live and work legally inthe United States. If there were no or very fewillegal immigrants, there would be much lesstension in communities since everyone wouldknow that all the inhabitants had come therelegally.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The United States has consistently demonstratedthat it is a true partner in the war on organizedcrime in Northern Mexico. For instance, it hasused unmanned drones like the ones in Pakistanto gather intelligence on Mexican drug lords.1The relationship is healthy and Mexican officialsfrequently cooperate; it is certainly possible thatthere are underlying domestic politicalmotivations for those politicians to be makingsuch strong statements, and we should notnecessarily take them at face value asrepresenting the best picture ofMexican-American relations. 1 Defense News.\"US Drones Track Drug Lords Over Mexic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "While environmental concerns are certainlyserious and warrant consideration, we need tobalance the competing interests here. It is only ahandful of species that would be threatened bythis project, and any such endangered speciescan be moved into specially-designedpreservation facilities that mimic the naturalhabitat. On the other hand, there is no othertruly effective way to stop illegal immigrantcrossings. In this sense, the local environment isa sacrifice of necessity. A related environmentalconcern is the pollution border-crossers leave inthe desert and surrounding habitats, whichwould actually be reduced if fewer of them werecrossing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The fence is morally wrong andinhumane Because it does not create an airtightborder, it simply forces crossings at moredangerous locales like the hot, snake-infesteddeserts. Thousands of Mexicans have died since2000 attempting the crossing, while less than300 people died attempting to cross the BerlinWall in almost three decades.1 The bodies of atleast four hundred people were found in 2010.2Simply put, barriers do not diminish the desirefor a better life.3 That sort of catastrophicdisregard for the fundamental humanity of thesepeople demeans America as a nation. It is hardto reconcile this disregard with our considerablehumanitarian support for starving people inSomalia and all over the world. We should worktogether to help hard-working individuals providefor their families. Most border-crossers are notdrug runners, but people who just wantlegitimate jobs so they can feed their families. 1Defense News. \"US Drones Track Drug LordsOver Mexico.\" 2McGreal, Chris. \"The battle of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The fence only seems to solve the problem anddetracts from dialogue about real solutions. Thefence serves as a band-aid fix, seemingly solvingthe problem while not really advancingcomprehensive immigration reform. Maintenanceof the fence and stringent border patrolcontingents drains money that could be used tofacilitate better solutions to the supposedproblems immigration creates.1Additionally, theperception that something is already being doneabout illegal immigration saps the political will tofind better solutions to the problem. This enablesus to ignore the need to investigate shadybusiness practices by employers, for instance. 1Emmott, Robin. \"A costly U.S.-Mexico borderwall, in both dollars and deaths.\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The fence is ineffective at carrying out its statedgoals. Not all illegal immigrants who are in theUnited States arrive by means of crossing theborder; some overstay legally-acquired workvisas. Attempts to implement \"virtual\"components of the fence have failed on severalgrounds. Images were too blurry, the systemsperformed poorly in bad weather, and there werefalse detections because of the inability todistinguish between animals and people.1 Thetechnology also suffered from software bugs, andultimately squandered billions of dollars.2Because not all of the approximately 2000 mileborder is covered by actual fencing, and even thephysical fencing that exists is not continuous andrelied on virtual components to cover the gaps,immigrants can easily go around the fence orthrough the weak points.3 In the past,immigrants have also used ladders or deceptiontechniques (like cars with hollowed outdashboards) to bypass the fence. Additionally,drug runners have developed extensive and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "A fence hurts our political relationship withMexico. The United States needs to demonstratethat it is interested in being a true partner withMexico in efforts to reduce drug trafficking andthe pervasive cartel-driven violence of northernMexico. Trying to simply keep all the Mexicansout is offensive; the governor of the Mexicanstate Coahuila has called the fence a \"wall ofhate\",1 and in 2005 Mexican President VincenteFox called the situation \"disgraceful andshameful.\"2 Many individuals in the Lower RioGrande Valley of Texas have family and friendson the Mexican side and speak fluent Spanish,and don't support the wall. On the other hand,Arizona's demographics reflect population growthas the result of many Midwestern \"snowbirds\"with little experience of Latino culture movingthere, and thus Arizona has much harsherprejudices against Mexicans.3 If we do notcooperate with Mexico, they will be less likely toshare information valuable to our nationalsecurity or cooperate with us on foreign policy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-con05b", "title": "", "text": "This argument is based on drastically differentgoals than the one that would support the fencebeing raised. While some individuals may wantto take in illegal immigrants and provide themwith generous welfare benefits and call that\"comprehensive immigration reform\", that is notwhat the majority of Americans want. They wantillegal immigrants kept out of the country, andthat in and of itself is a solution from theirperspective, so to say that a fence distracts fromthe goal is just a straw-man. In the sense that ithelps keep people out, it is working just asintended. Erecting the fence and taking othermeasures (such as investigating employers whohire illegal immigrants) are by no meansmutually exclusive, and we can do both toensure that American jobs are going to peoplewho are in America legally.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The fence is a serious environmental threat andendangers wildlife. By cutting off components ofthe habitat, the fence diminishes gene flow andreduces the ability for survival, or createsremnant populations that are too small to sustainthe species.1 Counter-intuitively, even certainwinged species which fly low to the ground wouldbe at risk. Climate change is forcing moremigrations, and this would also prevent animalsfrom carrying those out.2 This has been solightly regarded by U.S. officials that at one pointMexico actually threatened to file a claim withthe International Court of Justice.3 1Goldstein,Rob. \"US-Mexico border fence putting wildlife atrisk of extinction.\" 2Marshall, Jessica.\"U.S.-Mexico Border Fence May SnagWildlife.\" 3Magee, Megan. \"The U.S.-MexicoBorder Wall: An Environmental And HumanRights Disaster.\"", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The role of concentrated fencing around urbanareas in particular is to prevent immigrants fromblending immediately into a town population,and in that sense, it is effective.1Even if youdivert some illegal immigrant traffic elsewherealong the border, fencing still reduces overallrates of crossing by forcing those who wouldcross to go through more dangerous and barrenterritory; this is a significant deterrent. 2Additionally, you can step up border patrols inthe areas that do not cover the fence to catchdrug smugglers and other illegal bordercrossers.3 This reduces the numbers of borderpatrol agents necessary to create an effectivenet to catch would-be illegal immigrants, andconsequently reduces the long-term costs ofborder protection measures. The fence is meantto be merely a tool in the tool box, not acomprehensive solution to the problem of illegalimmigration.4 1Associated Press. \"U.S.-Mexicoborder fence almost complete.\" 2Wood, Daniel.\"Where U.S.-Mexico border fence is tall, border", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "training-society-iasihbmubf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "We have no absolute moral obligation toeveryone in the world. Many individuals are nowcalling for serious reductions in foreign aid and inforeign interventions in order to help Americanswho are also suffering. That suffering is no lessworthy of support just because it is not as highlypublicized or televised on international news.Times may be difficult in Mexico, but they aredifficult in America as well, and a country has anobligation to its citizens first, and then everyoneelse. It is legitimate and justified to build a fenceto protect the American economy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "In the case of foxes, most of the alternativeways of killing them are crueler - e.g. trapping,snaring, or shooting, which often have the endresult of maiming the fox and leaving it to dieslowly of starvation and infection. A fox killed byhounds dies very quickly. In the case of killinganimals to eat - such as fish, or game birds suchas pheasants and grouse - the justification iseven more straightforward; it is the most naturalactivity in the world to hunt and eat. And giventhe controversy surrounding the welfare ofanimals in modern farms, it would seempreferable to eat an animal that had had a freeand happy life in the wild than one that had beenreared in a factory farm, as many examples ofsecret filming (Warning: may find disturbing) inabattoirs show far more cruelty than you see onyour standard deer or rabbit hunt. In the case offishing, many anglers who fish for sport throwtheir catches back in, so the fish come to nolasting harm.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Blood sports cannot be justified by reference totheir role in pest control or conservation Allsorts of hunting, shooting, and fishing boil downto slaughtering other animals for pleasure. If theprey is a pest (e.g. foxes), or needs culling (e.g.hares, deer), there are always more humaneways to kill it than hunting it to the point ofterror and exhaustion with a pack of hounds-e.g. killing it with a rifle shot. If the prey is beingkilled for food it is entirely gratuitous. In modernsociety people do not need to kill food forthemselves but can buy it from a source whereanimals have been killed humanely; indeedno-one needs to eat meat at all and for moral,health, and environmental reasons they shouldnot (see vegetarianism debate). As for fishing,again there is absolutely no need to catch or eatfish; even when anglers throw their catch back inthey have first put a hook through its palate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "“Specieism is not merely plausible; it is essentialfor right conduct, because those who will notmake the morally relevant distinctions amongspecies are almost certain, in consequence, tomisapprehend their true obligations.”[1] Conflating specieism with racism or sexismis fallacious because it fails to recognise that theformer involves fundamental differences,whereas all people regardless of skin colour orgender are ‘human beings’. As animals areincapable of moral enquiry they can neveracquire rights beyond those that humans chooseto bestow on them. [1] C. Cohan (1986) Thecase of the use of animals in biomedicalresearch, The New England Journal of Medicine,Vol. 315, No 14.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The use of animals in sport demeanshumans Other animals may not have the samelevel of sapience as humans, but they feel fear,stress, exhaustion and pain just as we do. It isimmoral to derive pleasure either from thesuffering or forced performance of another livingbeing, especially when that being is under one’spower and control. It would of course be absurdto suggest that animals should have equalitywith humans on the level of having the right tovote or of criminal responsibility, but they shouldhave equality with us on terms of equalconsideration of interests, that is, pain andsuffering should be equally significant whether itis a human or an animal that feels it. [1] [1] Forfurther reading see any work by Peter Singer.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This point assumes a naïve and Disney-likeconception of nature. Hunting and fishing arenatural activities - many other species in the wildkill and eat each other. If fear, stress, exhaustionand pain are natural parts of the cycle of life thenwhy should there be any particular duty on us toprevent them? We, like other animals, preferour own- our own family, the “pack” that wehappen to run with, and the larger communitiesconstructed on the smaller ones, of which thelargest is the ‘nation-state’. Suppose a dogmenaced a human infant and the only way toprevent the dog from biting the infant was toinflict severe pain on the dog – more pain, infact, than the bite would inflict on the infant. Anynormal person would say that it would bemonstrous to spare the dog, even though to doso would be to minimise the sum of pain in theworld. We should respect this instinctive moralreaction. [1] [1] See the arguments of RichardA. Posner from 'Animal Rights debate betweenPeter Singer & Richard Posner'.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The circus is where children first learn to loveanimals! The proposition is right to drawattention to issues of animal welfare but again,they do not need to take such an extremistapproach. There is evidence that animals enjoyperforming and can form close relationships withtheir trainers and with an audience. Closerscrutiny of circuses and better enforcement ofanimal welfare laws are desirable, but once thoseconditions are met the circus can be seen as acelebration of wild animals and the relationshipsthey can form with animal-loving human beings.If the reality falls short of this ideal then reformis called for, not abolition. We need to strike abalance between human pleasure and animalwelfare. The proposition's point of view is muchtoo unbalanced. Putting the animal welfare caseat its strongest, we should ban all sports in whichanimals are treated cruelly, or are at high risk ofinjury or death. None of the sports mentioned bythe proposition here fall into that category.Anyone who works in horse- or dog-racing will", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Treating animals as property prevents them frombeing perceived as part of the moralcommunity As long as animals are treated asproperty, their interests will always be subsidiaryto the interests of their owners. To treat animalsas property simply because they are not humanis specieism [1] and no different todiscrimination on race or gender. [2] Forhumans, not being a slave is the practicalprerequisite of all other rights. So too must it befor animals. Making the treatment of animalsmore ‘humane’ is an inadequate solution becauseit does not change the fundamental problem ofexploitation. [1] BBC Ethics guide, ‘The ethics ofspeciesism’ [2] Gary Francione, ‘The animalrights debate: abolition or regulation?’ p.22", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Animals are harmed when used as objects ofentertainment, no matter how innocent thatentertainment is The circus is another arena inwhich human beings abuse other animals.Animals are trained to perform tricks usingwhips, electronic goads, sticks, food-deprivationetc. Wild animals such as lions, tigers, andelephants are kept in shamefully inadequateconditions in tiny spaces. The necessity ofregular transportation means that the circus cannever provide an appropriate home for wildanimals. These animals are forced to travelthousands of miles in cramped and squalidconditions and frequently end up physically andmentally ill. And what for? Purely for theentertainment of we arrogant exploitativehumans. What sort of lesson does it teach ourchildren about non-human animals to take themto the circus and see these great creaturesdemeaned and controlled by force to performsilly tricks? Horses and dogs are among theprinciple victims of exploitation in human", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It is consistent to oppose both uses of theanimal. Moreover, Bull fighting is probably themost barbaric exploitation of animals that is stilllegally practised (in Spain, Portugal, parts ofFrance, Mexico, and, illegally, in the UnitedStates). The idea that there is a fair matchbetween the bull and the matador is laughable.The bull dies at the end of every single bullfight(it is either killed by the matador or slaughteredafterwards if it survives); for a matador to beseriously injured is rare and it is very rare indeedfor a matador to die as the result of a bull fight.During bull fights the animals are taunted andgoaded, and have sharp spears stuck into theirbodies until eventually they collapse from theirinjuries and exhaustion. Matadors are not heroesor artists, they are cruel cowards.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Animals can be used to enhance the quality ofhuman life Activities involving the hunting orperformance of animals are often large scalesocial activities. The Grand National for examplehas an audience of 153,000 paying spectators atthe event [1] and a further 600 million in 140countries watch it on television. [2] They caninvoke themes of struggle and competition thatserve to bring communities together in a sharedexperience. [1] Pwc, ‘Attendances rise at UK’sbiggest annual sporting events’, 4 August2011. [2] Aintree, ‘Broadcasting the GrandNational’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Fighting bulls have a better quality of life thanmeat-producing bulls If animal welfare is theprimary concern then consistency requires that ifone accepts the raising and slaughter of animalsfor meat then one should also accept the raisingand slaughter of animals forentertainment. “Those who see bullfighting ascruel are, of course, right. It is cruel that manshould breed and kill animals for his enjoymentwhether as a dinner or a dance. But to my mindthe life of an Iberian fighting bull, athoroughbred animal which lives to a minimumage of four, roaming wild, feasting on Spain'sfinest pasture, never even seeing a man on foot,is far superior to that of the many thousands ofBritish bulls whose far shorter lives are spententirely in factory conditions and killed in grimabattoirs so that we can eat beefburgers.”[1] To condemn bull fighting is to fail to besensitive to cultural differences and to the truenature of the sport. First, bull fighting is anintegral part of traditional Spanish culture that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-rahwbuaosae-con02b", "title": "", "text": "If animal suffering is equal to human sufferingthen the benefits of exploiting animals in thisway are only appropriate if it would also beappropriate to use a mentally disabled human inthe same way.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "No renewable energy is going to provide thesheer quantity and variety of energy needed topower a developed society. Wind suffers frombeing unreliable – producing either too little ortoo much – and as a result would be a bad choiceto be the core technology. The basic staple ofthe energy supply needs to be predictable as wellas clean. Wind may well have a useful roleproviding a surplus that can be tapped in to attimes of high demand. However, it is simply notreliable enough to be the mainstay of the energyblend. It is worth noting that wind energyrequires government subsidies which is simplynot viable in the long term, people are unlikely tobe keen on the idea of paying for their energytwice; once through their power bill and thenagain in their taxes [i] . [i] Industrial WindEnergy Group. 23 August 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Wind energy provides a sustainable alternativeto fossil fuels and nuclear power There is littledoubt that the current mix of energy provision issimply unsustainable. Fossil fuels are simply toodamaging to the environment and nuclear is justtoo expensive. Wind power is an establishedtechnology providing, for example, 21% ofelectricity in Denmark. [i] The research isalready done and can be made available aroundthe world. Once externalities are taken intoaccount nuclear energy is the single mostexpensive way of producing a therm. Clean coalis, frankly, a myth and the trend for oil and gasis constantly upwards in term of price. Otherrenewables are embryonic technologies fraughtwith development costs whereas wind is anestablished technology already providing asignificant share of the energy mix in severaldeveloped economies. [i] World Wind EnergyAssociation, World Wind Energy Report 2010,April 2010, p.5", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The difficulty with wind energy is not whether itwill be here in 500 years, it’s whether it will behere next Tuesday. Relying as a long termprospect on something so unreliable is simplybuilding fallibility into the future. A short termreliance on wind would be risky enough, buildingit in for the long term would be incrediblydangerous. This is particularly true in countrieswhere the weather is considerably less reliablethat it is in Europe. Not only does wind face therisk of a shortfall but it also risks surges to thenetwork at times of high wind. Denmark whichpioneered wind energy in Europe, and remainsthe largest producer, is compelled to exportmuch of that energy to Norway and Swedenbecause production frequently outstrips demand.That’s fine if one nation in the region is relyingon the technology; if everyone is then thecapacity simply isn’t there [i] . [i] Mark Landler.“Sweden turns to a promising power source, withflaws.” New York Times. 23 November 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Wind energy is an economic form of energygeneration reducing both running costs andenvironmental harm The installation costs of anentire wind farm are, admittedly, fairly high –although they pale into insignificance comparedto an oil station or a nuclear plant – but afterthat there is almost no associated costwhatsoever. In addition to which farms can bebuilt incrementally; a half completed wind farmis simply one that is half its original size forvirtually any other form of power generation it’san all or nothing proposition [i] . Furthermore,many experts agree that so-calledmicro-renewables will play an increasinglyimportant role in the energy future of the planetand wind energy is the example par excellence ofhow this can be done; the most basic homemadewindmill can power a generator and wind powerpredates electricity – offshore and on – bycenturies. [i] \"The Future of Energy. Tradewinds\". Economist.com. Jun 19th 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The pro-wind lobby always dismisses theexternalities of wind power when discussing it.No other form of power requires quite so muchspace to create so small an amount of energy, anaverage of between 22.4 and 34.5 hectares perMegaWatt. [i] In some countries that may be anappropriate use of land but in many others it issimply a waste of space. It is interesting thatthose countries that have moved toward windenergy – Denmark, Spain, Germany, Portugaland Ireland – are all in Europe. Geographicallysmall nations with economies that can supportan interesting experiment and with aninfrastructure that allows for diverse additions totheir power supplies. Wind is simply not aserious option for most of the world, it is a richnation’s toy. In most nations, either where landis a premium or where development costs for thetransition between technologies are prohibitive,wind cannot be the solution. [i] Denholm, Paulet al., ‘Land-Use Requirements of Modern WindPower Plants in the United States’, National", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Wind energy provides for price stability in thelong-term, wind will be with us for theduration The critical, and increasing, issue of areliance on fossil fuels is that the price is not onlyincreasing but is doing so in an unpredictablemanner. Oil and gas in particular are subject tothe political whim of some of the world’s mostunpredictable regimes. Wind, by contrast, isproduced domestically or, where it is exported, isproduced in stable European nations. Given thechoice between negotiating with Chavez’sVenezuela or Putin’s Russia for oil and gas orwith Belgium or Germany for wind energy isreally not a difficult choice. Critically, inaddition, any form of mineral-dependent energyis based on a resource that will deplete – be thatcoal or uranium. Wind, by contrast, is theultimate sustainable resource.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Both tidal and geo-thermal are untriedtechnologies and have significant environmentalimplications in their own right. It also seemshighly unlikely that deploying nuclear as a‘bridge’ technology would be anything like that,certainly the history of energy production doesnot suggest that industries are likely to plan fortheir own extinction in favour of moreenvironmentally sensitive technologies. This isespecially true of nuclear power; it simply is nota short-term technology as the reprocessing andcontainment schedules are enormous. A decisionto use nuclear even for a matter of decadeswould have implications that would run forlonger than the history of human civilization todate. Wind, by contrast, is a developedtechnology that has no implications for futuregenerations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Nobody disputes that any energy strategy willhave to include a shift away from the way muchof the developed world depends on energy.Clearly energy conservation must be part of theprocess, but so should micro-renewables. In bothcategories wind power is the best availableoption – cheap to build and easy for small scaleenergy users to use as an when they need it andwhen built in the right place is reliable, in the UKwind energy is generating 75-85% of the time.[i] Moreover any worries over reliability can bealleviated by building numerous wind farms overa wide area as the wind is always blowingsomewhere. [ii] Battery capacity is easier tobuild on a smaller scale and surplus can beexchanged internationally relatively easily. Allpower supplies require backup [iii] . Poweroutages apply just as much in the supposedlystable world of fossil fuels; surplus capacity isbuilt into any system. [i] RenewableUK, ‘WindEnergy’, 2010 [ii] Green, ‘Wind PowerUnreliable? Build More Turbines’, New York", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Wind turbines represent a threat to the localwildlife habitat Although the issue of the impacton bird populations has been somewhatexaggerated there is no doubt that wind farmshas an impact on bat populations and someimpact on birds [i] . [ii] There are also indirectimpacts on local populations of wildlife as aresult of the disturbance caused to otherwiseremote wildlife communities as a result of theconstruction and maintenance of wind powersites. Wind farms impact on migratory routes asthey need to be based in areas where there islittle human habitation or activity. This is simplyhumans as a species taking over land which hasbeen the preserve of other creatures whichalready have few enough areas to live in, awayfrom the voracious implications of humanconsumption. [i] ScienceDaily, ‘Why WindTurbines Can Mean Death For Bats’, 25 August2008 [ii] Bat Conservation Trust. “WindTurbines”. February 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The financial support required to further developwind technology would be better deployed inmore consistent processes such as geo-thermaland nuclear Realistically, there is a set pot offunding to deal with this energy crisis and it isessential to use on technologies that have longterm benefits. Several environmentalists havetalked about the difference between ��bridge’technologies which can provide a temporarysolution and long term, sustainabletechnologies. There is a broad agreement thatnuclear fills the first category and geo-thermaland tidal powers fulfil the latter. Wind simplydoesn’t feature.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Wind energy is unreliable and provides only anirregular source of supply – and even then onlyin some countries Wind will only ever be a usefuladditional technology to provide extra capacity attime of high demand. We know it to be bothunreliable and unpredictable. We know thatunreliable technologies are fraught withexpensive difficulties. As a result relying on sucha technology would be reckless. To take oneexample, the only way of building in a capacityfor wind into a regular energy network wouldrequire the construction of ‘battery capacity’such as hydro-power. Developing such a capacitywould be both hugely expensive and unreliable –it’s useful if the wind fails to blow for a fewhours, if the doldrums last for a few days, theneverything grinds to a halt.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-environment-ceshbwpsbpf-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Experience teaches us that the naturalenvironment responds to changes in humanactivity and rebalances itself. By contrast a shiftin the entire climate, driven by human activity,would have devastating implications for allspecies. We know that migration routes canchange over time and that, for example, batcolonies can move. However, a shift in climaticprocess would destroy migration patterns [i] andcause untold damage to wildlifepopulations. Dealing with the effects of climatechange is not just a responsibility that humanityneeds to take on for itself but for all species onthe planet. The tiny impact of individual windfarms on local populations is as nothingcompared to the catastrophic implications of asignificant and mostly unpredictable shift in theclimate of the globe. [i] Alasdair Fotheringham.“Is this the end of migration?” The independent.18 April 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-hpiahbps-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Quercioli et al (2012)’s study on the relationshipbetween investing in private health care andmortality does not come to clear conclusionsabout the best course [1] . The results showinvestments in public sector health services isassociated with a 1.47% reduction in ‘avoidable’mortality. Investing in the public-sector is morecost-effective, and achieves faster results. Therate of return from private investment isslower. Privatisation is not necessarily best formaternal care. [1] The research was carried outin Italy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-hpiahbps-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Improving health care for mother andchild Private-sector investment will providecrucial training for health professionals,infrastructure, and resources to improvematernal and child health care. Providingaffordable maternal care acts as a means forpromoting gender equality, andempowerment. Jacaranda Health [1] operate ona business model, meeting the demand, andneed, for affordable and high-quality maternalcare in East Africa. Through mobile clinics andnew maternity hospitals Jacaranda Health isempowering women and children. Within the firstyear Jacaranda Health provided care for 4,000women, and changed the lives of 20,000families. Additionally, free maternal care holdsnegative side-effects. As Burundi shows, thesocial policy ideas implementing ‘free’ maternalhealth care resulted in overburdening the healthresources and understaffed facilities; and puttingvulnerable children at greater risk (IRIN,2013). [1] See further reading: Jacaranda", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-hpiahbps-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Although mobile technology is introducinginnovative approaches, location and physicalaccess is still often required. Disparities cannotbe alleviated until the private actors are willingto invest in remote areas. Not all healthproblems can be dealt with by a mobileconversation with a doctor. Further, it remainsdebatable as to whether rural environmentsreceive worse health-care. Debates have beenraised as to the extent of an urban bias - dourban populations hold an advantage or penaltyin health [1] ? Frequently neglected byprivate-investors, the urban poor have beenidentified as vulnerable groups. Investment,planning, and intervention, is required withinslums and for the urban poor. [1] See furtherreadings: Goebel et al, 2010;", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-hpiahbps-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Funding solutions to combatdisease Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for 24% ofthe global disease burden; but only 1% of globalhealth expenditure and 3% of the world’s healthworkers (McKinsey and Company, 2007).$25-30bn is required to invest in healthcareassets in the next decade to meet needs(McKinsey and Company, 2007). Public resourcesare not available, so the private-sector iscritical. The private sector can help fill thisfunding gap; private-sector actors - includingActis - are planning to invest $1.2bn into AdcockIngram to provide and supply drugs [1] . Theinvestment will provide key funding to enableresearch; and the availability for ART [2] withinAdcock Ingram’s Anti-Retroviral Portfolio. Tocombat HIV, and other diseases, investors arerequired for R&D and the distribution ofdrugs. In 2012, only 34% of the people livingwith HIV in low and middle-income countries hadaccess to ART showing how necessary suchinvestment is [3] . Furthermore, the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-hpiahbps-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "In order to combat disease equality needs to bea central component. Drug distribution, newtraining schemes, and facilities, targeting diseaseprevention and treatment are influenced bymarket economics and feasibility. Treatments byAnti-retrovirals should not just be for those whocan afford private healthcare. Further, whenconsidering health care private actors need tobroaden horizons. Although funding remainsuneven and below target, the specific inclusion ofHIV, TB and Malaria within the MDG hasdistorted the focus on disease. Investment isrequired in neglected tropical diseases andnon-communicable diseases something theprivate sector has yet to be willing to invest in.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-hpiahbps-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Alleviating rural-urban disparities Private healthis enabling improved access to health services inneglected areas and reducing disparities inaccess to health. In Sub-Saharan Africarural-urban disparities in health-care havereceived increasing attention. Private investmentis bringing services to remote locations. Thepotential role of technology companies bringinghealthcare to areas without it is showcased inSamsung’s investment in mobile solar-poweredclinics in rural South Africa [1] . Mobiletechnology is providing crucial innovations [2] ;used as tools by private investors, mobiles meanindividuals can be updated on health status andpreventative practices without physical access todoctors, or nurses. [1] See further readings: AllAfrica, 2013. [2] See further readings: Deloitte,2013, Graham, 2012; Knapp et al, 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-hpiahbps-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Having the government only paying for somehealth care for those who can’t afford privatehealthcare is still better than the governmentpaying for all. Competition between both publicand private will help raise standards in both.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-hpiahbps-con01b", "title": "", "text": "In seeking to make private health care affordablenew models are being introduced. The newmodels introduced tackle issues over affordabilityfrom a demand and supply perspective. First,multiple health financing schemes have beenrolled-out across Sub-Saharan Africa. A range offinancing and insurance options are being built,from investing in health providers [1] toincluding bottom-up approaches. Communitybased health insurance, as found in Rwanda andGhana, are ensuring a move towards universalcoverage (see USAID, 2012). Secondly, intackling supply issues, low-cost private clinicsmodels are being constructed. In Kenya, theAvenue Group provides a positive exampleworking to provide affordable private healthcare. Risk-pooling, by members, is accepted as amethod of payment. Costs are reduced byworking with patients, whilst a regular paymentsource is provided for the caregiver (see AvenueGroup, 2013). [1] The IFC recently announced a$4mn investment in AAR East Africa, expanding", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-hpiahbps-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Unregulated health-care With the incorporationof a diverse range of private actors, both formaland informal, can health-care still be regulated?Quality and staff need to be regulated, withstandards and prices set, but who will enforceregulation and how can we ensure rules arefollowed? Just treatment is required.Public-sector delivery protects patients frompoor, dangerous, treatment. When looking atregulation in health care, the relationshipbetween private healthcare provision, efficiencyand quality is variable. Outcomes depend on theinstitutional settings (economic, political, andsocial) and what private actors are involved.Private health providers have a profit incentive tocut corners and provide the cheapest care theycan while charging high prices. The theory of avirtuous cycle is far from the reality.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-hpiahbps-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Ideas and interests in a neoliberal model Theideas driving private health need to bedeconstructed. 65% of expenditure received forhealth care was from the for-profit sector(USAID, 2012). Health care is not a business ormarket - patients become customers and needsbecome sidelined by competition when in theprivate sector. Private health care involvesadopting a neoliberal approach to care;competition is central and markets volatile. Themarket logic focuses on what is a goodinvestment, will the elderly be included whenthey are a high risk population? This is why evenin private systems like in the United States theelderly need public funding. The privatisation ofbasic services, across Sub-Saharan Africa, hasbeen shown to be a failure [1] . Access to healthcare should be based on need, rather than abilityto pay. [1] See further readings: UNDP (2007).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-hpiahbps-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The missing MDG: inequality Privatising healthcare cannot be discussed without raising concernover inequality. The privatisation of health carepromotes exclusive health care, and is failing tobridge the gap between accessible care forlow-income groups and the elite. The modelremains unaffordable for many, and thereforeineffective. Even where affordable options areavailable the quality of care deteriorates. Qualityassurance, and affordable care, is needed. Forexample, taking the case of South Africa. Healthcare is provided through both public and privatesystems. However, the pricing of private healthcare: whereby better facilities and speed oftreatment are found, leaves a majorityout-of-pocket and excluded (All Africa, 2013).Prices need to be controlled and affordableoptions made available. Although formalemployers have been involved in supportingaccess and coverage to health insuranceschemes, to prevent a two-tier health system, amajority work within formal employment. If", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-hpiahbps-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Being part of a brand ensures investors maintaina standard, and ensure infrastructure, drugs,and medical practices are met. Buildingfranchises for health-care ensures familiarity andis setting standards to follow. Blue Star is a casein point. The Blue Star Network has been rolledout across Africa, and the franchise providesfamily planning resources and training on sexualand reproductive health. Once the private clinicshave completed training, Blue Star recognition isawarded [1] . Including the private sector inhealth care provision means a structural shift inthe model of care: improved efficiency, qualityand methods of care. [1] See further readings:Marie Stopes International, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-aapdpglovr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Whether rehabilitation reduces crime more thanprison has been the subject of considerabledebate for more than a century. [1] Not alltreatments work and the twelve step model usedby most rehab clinics does not work and almostall the success in treatment for addictivesubstances (in this case alcohol) comes down tothe willpower to initially take treatment ratherthan the treatment itself. [2] Obviously thosewho are sentenced to drug treatment programsrather than prison are not making that crucialfirst step so the programs are unlikely to be verysuccessful. We also should remember that manyof those who are in prison who are addicts arealso violent criminals [3] and those who commitcriminal acts should got to prison to preventthem being a threat to others as well as topunish that act. Treatment as a sentence is onlya sensible alternative if the offender’s only crimeis possession of drugs. [1] Cullen, Francis T.,and Gendreau, Paul, ‘Assessing CorrectionalRehabilitation: Policy, Practice, and Prospects’, in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-aapdpglovr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Judicial and Penal reform is needed Short of anationwide restructuring of drug policy, thepresident’s ability to affect the everydayimplementation of drug laws is limited. So far,President Obama has emphasized much neededjudicial and penal reform. Currently the UnitedStates incarcerates a higher percentage of itspopulation than any other country in the world,and 22 percent of those incarcerated in federaland state prisons are drug offenders. Obamahopes to begin to address these numbers. Hehas supported alternatives to current detentionstrategies both in principle and as a cost-cuttingtechnique. Specifically, he supports establishingof special drug courts [1] and sentencingoffenders to drug treatment programs ratherthan prisons. [2] This is necessary because somany crimes are committed while people arehigh or to fund the habit. For example more thanhalf of people arrested in San Diego had illegaldrugs in their system. [3] As a result treatmentrather than prison will reduce the numbers of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-aapdpglovr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Presidents are meant to lead not simply open upnational discussions and follow whatever thepublic wants. While discussion is always welcomeit is unlikely to actually provide any answersexcept telling us what the public wants – mostpeople may consider the war on drugs a failurebut that does not mean that they have any ideaof what policies they want to replace it. Adialogue also simply kicks the problem down theroad; how long is a national discussion going totake? If it is comprehensive this is likely to delayany decisions until after the next election.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-aapdpglovr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The United States must find a ‘thirdway’ President Obama’s Director of U.S.National Drug Control Policy—or Drug Czar—R.Gil Kerlikowske has rejected the term “War onDrugs,” stating, “the Obama Administrationsupports a ‘third way’ approach becausebalanced drug policies such as those in Swedenhave accomplished much for the countries thathave implemented them.” Nearing the end of theadministration’s first term, however, the rhetorichas changed more than the policy. In his FiscalYear 2013 budget, Obama requested $25.6billion for drug enforcement—the highest annualtotal yet. [1] Despite this if reelected, Obamawould take further steps to scale back theso-called War on Drugs. Rejecting the term is asymbolic start as it moves the issue away frombeing an issue of national security that the term‘war’ implies it is. A third way would meanreducing the securitization of the issue; changingthe view of drug addiction from being a moralcrime to being a treatable disease so focusing on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-aapdpglovr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Saying you want a third way is simply attemptingto find a way to dress up moving away fromprohibition as being a new and innovative policy.If there was a golden third way betweenprohibition and legalisation that prevents crimewhile allowing choice it would already have beenfound. While treating drugs as a public healthissue may help reduce the number of people whoare locked up for possession it does nothing tobreak drugs cartels or reduce the problem ofsupply so it is unlikely to be of much help toMexico as the policy will mean reducing the helpprovided to Mexico while it is unlikely to have aneffect on demand at least in the short to mediumterm. In short this would mean leaving the dooropen to the cartels.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-aapdpglovr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The War on Drugs has failed and there needs tobe a new dialogue to decide on the courseforward The Obama administration has indicatedthat it will publicly address the failures of theWar on Drugs if it wins a second term. [1] Interms of the direction of drug policy as a whole,several Obama “aides and associates” haveindicated that the President will bring drug policyto the forefront of the national discussion if he isreelected, but it is unclear what specific steps hewould take, going forward. This would bewelcome to most Americans; only 10% of peoplebelieve the policy of the war on drugs has been asuccess against 66% who consider it a failure.[2] A national discussion is the only way todetermine whether there should be afundamental shift in policy. [1] Ambinder, Marc,‘Exclusive: In His Second Term, Obama Will Pivotto the Drug War’, GQ, 2 July 2012. [2]AngusReid, ‘ Americans Decry War on Drugs,Support Legalizing Marihuana’, 6th June 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-aapdpglovr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This makes it sound like the US government doesnot currently have an education program ondrugs, this is not true. The current program ismaking very little difference to drug use. [1] SoRomney’s policy is really the same failed policybeing recycled again; more border security and afew measures that will make little impact on thedemand side. The White House has beenhighlighting that it has been spending $5billionon reducing drug use while also increasingborder security this is not a change so how canwe expect an improvement? [2] [1] Hanson,Prof. David J., ‘Ineffective DARE (Drug AbuseResistance Education) Program RemainsPopular’, State University of New York. [2]Napolitano, Janet et al. ‘Administration Officialsannounce U.S.-Mexico Border Security Policy: Acomprehensive response & commitment’,The White House, 24 March 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-aapdpglovr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Privatising prisons does not work – of course itwill result in more prisons but it will also result inmore convictions and soon those new prisons willbe full too. This is because if prisons areprivatised they become an industry, oftenliterally meaning the prisoners manufacturegoods for as little as 17 cents an hour, [1] andthose engaged in law enforcement have a stake.The local sheriffs often run these for profitfacilities and so have a financial incentive to keepthe prisons full so as to keep the money comingin. [2] It is not correct that the three strikes rulein California have caused crime to fall, it hasbeen similar to declines in states that don’t havethe rule, instead there are other explanations forwhy crime has fallen such as a reduction in theconsumption of alcohol. [3] The Punitive policytowards drugs has been tried; it has resulted inone of the highest incarceration rates in theworld and little appreciable drop in crime. It istime to change the policy. [1] Bowie, Nile, ‘ProfitDriven Prison Industrial Complex: The Economics", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-aapdpglovr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Allowing drug use is wrong – Prohibition mustremain Romney also has a record of preferringprohibitory policies over those that allow druguse with the intention of making it safer. Forexample, as Governor of Massachusetts, hevetoed a bill to allow the sale of syringes withouta prescription. [1] He has not since stated thathe would take a different approach as president,and his position on marijuana use suggests thathe would continue to support prohibitorylaws. Romney has staunchly opposed calls tolegalize and regulate marijuana, making a moralargument against such a change by claiming thatpot legalization is simply a pet issue of a“pleasure-seeking generation that never grewup.” [2] While President Obama has notsupported the legalization of marijuana, Romneyis stronger in calling for harsh penalties formarijuana users in order to demonstrate theseriousness of the crime. He has also gonefurther than Obama in his opposition tomarijuana by coming out against the legalization", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-aapdpglovr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The United States can reduce domestic demandfor drugs through education Like Obama,Romney has indicated a willingness to talk toMexican leaders about collaboration and hasadmitted the need to address large-scaledemand for drugs in the United States. Whenasked how to improve the War on Drugs, hestated, “We gotta stop the demand here in thiscountry.” [1] And that demand is immense, it isestimated that there are 22.6 million Americansaged 12 of over using illegal drugs. [2]Additionally, he told the Hispanic LeadershipNetwork that along with preventing demandthrough education, the United States needs toimprove its control of the Mexican border.[3] Romney will try to control domestic demandfor drugs by prohibiting their use, educatingyoung people about their harms (as exemplifiedby his record as Governor of Massachusetts) [4], and punishing those who break the law.Through education and regulation, the UnitedStates can win the War on Drugs, rather than", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-aapdpglovr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Drugs policy must be punitive Governor Romneywould not scale back the War on Drugs, as hesupports the punitive approach thatcharacterizes drug policy in the status quo.Romney supports punitive strategies towardcriminal justice in general, such as “three strikesand you’re out” laws, which impose mandatorysentences for people who have committed threeoffenses. [1] These policies can be effective inreducing crime, in California after three strikeswas implemented the crime rate declined by43% although the three strikes was only onefactor. [2] Romney maintains that those whobreak current laws should be punished, andtherefore has proposed that states shouldcontract with for-profit prison companies tocontinue expanding prison populations in orderto keep up with current rates of incarceration. Iflarger prisons are necessary in order to keepdrug users and dealers off the streets, then theyare a necessary cost. [1] ‘Mitt Romney onCrime, Former Republican Governor (MA);", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-aapdpglovr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Dismissing drug users as a ‘pleasure-seekinggeneration that never grew up’ almost concedesthe point. These people have a right to make thechoice for themselves whether to use drugs – thegovernment should make sure the risks areknown, and the substance priced accordingly butultimately there is nothing wrong with seekingpleasure. Romney further muddies the watersby not allowing the sale of syringes as this is anact that would save lives. A study in the lancetestimated that with a needle exchange programin the US between 10000 and 20000 HIVinfections could have been prevented between187 and 2000. [1] [1] Lurie, P. and Drucker, E.‘An opportunity lost: HIV infections associatedwith lack of a national needle-exchangeprogramme in the USA’. Lancet. 1997 Vol.349pp.604-608.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-dhwiftj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Tobacco and fatty foods are different. A balanceddiet will include many food groups, includingfats. Cigarettes, however, have no healthbenefits whatsoever. While smoking is harmfulat any level, “junk food” in moderation has noresulting health problems [13] and there is noway to only tax people once they are consumingharmful amounts.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-dhwiftj-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Other taxes try to change behaviour Taxes thattry to change people’s behaviour on things thatare not liked have been used since the 16thcentury, and are commonly applied to alcohol,smoking and gambling. In the US, whencigarette prices went up 4%, use dropped by10% [11]. As this worked with tobacco, whichcreates similar health problems to obesity, thistried and tested strategy can work. Researchhas shown that when the price of unhealthy foodgoes up, people eat less of it [12]. A fat taxwould make people healthier.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-dhwiftj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "What the tax would do is just make poorerpeople spend more on food by taxing themmore. Instead of making healthy food moreaccessible, it would just make all food lessaccessible – which wouldn’t work. People whocurrently eat junk food may just continue to eatwhat they are used to. All that will happen is thatpeople will spend more on food – not changewhat they eat, and it would be poor people whopay more.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-dhwiftj-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Being fat causes problems for everyone Obesitycauses huge medical costs - in the USA alone,around 150 billion dollars [6]. This is becauseobesity is linked to Type 2 Diabetes, cancer,heart problems, strokes, asthma and othermedical problems. Many of these diseases needlifelong treatment following expensive diagnosis,and often emergency treatment. This not onlyhas human effects, but causes problems for theeconomy due to being less productive at workand taking lots of medical leave. Due to obesity’scosts (financial and otherwise) to society, it can’tbe considered as something that only affectsindividuals any more [7].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-dhwiftj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The USA is not a good place to take figures fromas its health sector is very expensive andinefficient compared to most other countries [9].If anything, that is getting worse. It’s notpossible to say if the rising cost of healthcare isdue to obesity related disease, as there arenumerous other possibilities such as the risk ofdoctors being sued, an aging population, andspiraling drug costs. Also, there are otherlifestyle choices that can cause problems, forexample eating meat can contribute to cancer[10], we should not single out one lifestylechoice that can cause problems over others.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-dhwiftj-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Unhealthy food is cheaper A reason why peopleeat unhealthy foods is that it’s often cheaper andeasier than cooking something with freshingredients. Studies have shown that not only isjunk food cheaper, its costs are less likely toincrease due to inflation [14]. This wasconfirmed by research in Australia that showedthat while healthy food became more expensive,junk food got cheaper [15]. Obesity is morecommon amongst poorer people. Because junkfood is so cheap, it is eaten more. The best wayto change this consumption pattern is to taxunhealthy food so that the healthy option is alsothe cheaper option.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-dhwiftj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "A fat tax could be offset by subsidizing the priceof healthier foods so that the overall food budgetis unaffected. No one will be forcing the poor topay this tax as the intention is to have themchange their eating habits. The families thatwould be affected by the tax most are thoseaffected most by obesity related disease.Spending some money now on food would save alot more later in health care. It will also makethem more productive at work, meaning a bettereconomy and hopefully higher wages to helpcompensate. [21]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-dhwiftj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This is a very limited view of government; todayeveryone agrees that the government should beallowed to tax things that harm us such asalcohol and tobacco. These, like fat, onlyindirectly harm others. Attitudes towards fat arechanging as the problem becomes much greater.It is now accepted that when people do thingsthat harm others indirectly the government musthave a role. The rise in healthcare costs createsjust such costs by increasing the cost of thehealthcare system as a whole which is eitherpaid for by everyone through taxes or passed onthrough higher insurance premiums.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-dhwiftj-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Such a tax would not work A fat tax would onlyproduce a slight change in behaviour. Researchby the London School of Economics said that“those on the very poorest diets will continue toeat badly. [16]” People like fast fatty foodbecause it is quick and tasty. Eating is somethingwe need to do to live – it solves a specific needquickly, and people are happy to pay for it.[17] Obesity has many causes. It is notsomething that can be solved with something assimple as a fat tax. Things like healthy foodvending machines, more exercise and bettereducation would be more effective in the longrun.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-dhwiftj-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Costs more to those who can’t afford to pay Afat tax will be a tax on poor people. It will hit thepoorest, those who can least afford to pay it. It isthe poorest who buy the cheapest food becausethey can’t afford otherwise and who are leastlikely to have the kitchen equipment necessaryto prepare healthy meals. Because it is whatthey know they will simply end up paying moretaxes and having less money to spend onanything else. The result will be attempts to saveby eating even worse food, or cutting back onsome other necessity such as heating. [19] Theimpact of rising food prices and concerns that theresult would be turning to worse food is whatstopped Romania from introducing such a tax in2010. [20]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-dhwiftj-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Free choice It is the government’s job to provideschools and courts not to tell people what to eat.The government should stop people harmingeach other. But it’s not the government’s job totell people what to do to themselves. Consumingfatty food does not harm other so should not besubject to government control. A fat tax wouldbe like the government trying to prevent us fromfrivolous spending and getting into debt by beingallowed to tax investments it considers to bebad.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-dhwiftj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Education campaigns, such as Jamie Oliver’scampaign about school dinners to the Change forLife scheme are already being tried. They aren’tworking very well [18]. The only thing that reallyaffects behaviour is cost – making unhealthyfood expensive and healthy food cheaper.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Does it really work? Efforts to include men isclaimed to have failed in several districts acrossUganda. Men remain skeptical of letting womenuse family planning; believing the planning thenumber of children a woman has is unnatural.Therefore women are vulnerable to abuse if suchprograms are used [1] . [1] See furtherreadings: Nangonzi, 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Controlling domestic violence By including menin family planning the ideas, and misconceptions,of what happens when women use familyplanning can be changed. Gender-based violenceis a key concern that can be reduced by involvingmen in family planning decisions. If they buy intohaving fewer children then they are less likely toobject to using contraception and condoms –something that has other potential benefits suchas preventing STDs. The United NationsDevelopment Fund for Women has found thatone in four women is abused during pregnancy,teaching men about reproductive health andfamily planning can prevent this fromhappening.(International Women’s HealthProgram) Although evidence is limited the MAP(Men As Partners) program in South Africashowcases the positive effect of including men.The intervention is changing men’s attitude andbehaviors [1] . [1] See further readings:Peacock and Levack, 2007; Engender Health,2014.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The idea of family planning is wrong; and itreflects the unequal power structures operatingin society. Within African cultures families arepolygamous, extended, and far from the ‘normal’neutral family structure. Therefore by enforcingfamily planning we are failing to understandwhat the family is across Africa. Family planningis simply seeking to limit choice about thestructure of the family. Just including man andwife rather than any more extended family isitself encouraging a certain structure that not allAfricans agree with or desire for their family.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Gender equality in family planning By includingmen in family planning programs and thedecisions made concerning family structuresequality is enabled. The decisions made, andresponsibilities, concerning the ‘family’ are nolonger solely the burden of the woman. Men areprovided with a voice, and thereforeresponsibility and obligation to act upon caringfor the family. By introducing men into familyplanning a platform is provided enablingnegotiations on the family to be discussedbetween man and woman. Men are key actors indecisions made; therefore their inclusion isfundamental. This also means that the man isalso much more likely to take on otherresponsibilities in terms of caring for the familyor doing things the woman would have done inthe past like collecting medicine (Wasswa,2012).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Whether gender equality in family planningcreates wider gender equality is questionable.Does gender equality emerge by including menin family planning, previously a predominantlyfemale domain (the reproductive sphere),without changing gender structure? For example,what has actually changed? Presumably if themen wanted a say in how many or few childrenthey had before they would have been listenedto. Another question is whether the negotiationdecisions, and outcomes, equal? Genderequality requires changing what gender means;and how women, men, and sexuality areexperienced. Can we talk about gender equalitywhen socially constructed gender roles remainprevalent? Moreover is there a spillover effect? Ifthere is not then women are simply cedingcontrol over one area without a gain elsewhere;hardly good for equality. Gender equality is aright; therefore universal and it should counteverywhere not just in the reproductive sphere.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Involving men is the best way to ensure familyplanning works By including men fast action canbe taken to control the size, and growth, offamilies. The patriarchal power structures meanmen have a key voice in household decisions.Therefore the involvement of men in familyplanning is enabling perceptions of what thefamily should be to change. The cost of raising afamily is realized, and intervening methods arebeing used to have fewer children. Familyplanning means planning how one can cope withhaving a child – mentally, emotionally,financially, and physically, and sensitizingcouples as to what kind of life standard theywant. With the young generation of Ugandans anew culture of a smaller family can emerge [1]. Men often have limited knowledge about familyplanning so it is necessary that they are includedin learning and the transfer of knowledge (Kaidaet al, 2005). When both partners areknowledgeable and involved family planning isfar more likely to become a reality. [1] Wasswa,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Reducing the cost of family planning; makingmore contraceptive resources and materialsavailable around the clock; and distributingcommodities to hospitals does not ensure access.There is no point increasing funding for programsthat will not get used due to a lack of popularityor continued ideas of family planning andmanagement. Improving the ‘alternativeessentials’ can only work if those usingreproductive resources are supported and in apatriarchal society this means needing theinvolvement of both men and women.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "By including men in family planning programs anew respect emerges towards sex and what menexpect women to do. By being made aware ofthe reproductive costs and demands men areable to respect the bodies and choices of women.Women no longer become passive, butrecognized and respected as having their ownsexual desires, preferences, and constrains.Family planning does not suppress sexuality, ifanything through encouraging the use ofcontraception and condoms encourages it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The need to include the wider family Decisionson how big, or small, a family should be; andhow it should be structured are not solely thedecisions of husband and wife, or man andwoman. Extended family members play a keyrole. For example, research carried out in Nigeriaby Smith (2004) indicates decisions remaininfluenced by cultural norms and pressures. Thepressure for a high fertility, amongstIgbo-speaking Nigerians, is shown to be aparadoxical factor of patron-clientalism and theculture of ‘people power’. High fertility andsubsequent kinship networks enable statelegibility, resource access, and the continuationof ‘tradition’. Elder family members aim tomaintain traditions. A crucial distinction thereforeemerges, as it is not simply a rational choicewhen it comes to family planning but ratherinfluenced by political-economy factors and widerfamily demands. Therefore including men inUganda does not necessarily allow anunderstanding of what role the wider family", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Alternative essentials We should not be focusingon including men, but rather alternativeessentials such as funding, resource distribution,and awareness. For example President’sMuseveni’s recent commitment to raisegovernment funding for family planning from 3.3million to 5 million is vital [1] . Further, byimproving the supply and distribution ofcontraception, into the health service sector,President Museveni has drawn attention to thefinancial constraints in family planning. [1]Advance Family Planning, 2014.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Family planning is wrong: controllingsexuality The idea of family planning involvescontrolling, and suppressing, sexuality. Sexbecomes understood as purely a source forreproduction, and women and men in Africa (orUganda) requiring control. Additionally the‘normal’ relationship is identified between manand women. Freedom to express sexuality isrepressed by understanding sexuality asheterosexual. The idea of the family ismaintained as a heterosexual reality", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-health-pssahbmakfpu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "When it comes to family planning the extendedfamily has little power over intra-householddecisions. Extended family members will not beattending clinic meetings, collectingcontraception, or engaging in intimate action.The power in family planning returns to man andwife. Additionally, the inclusion of men intofamily planning will change ideas of reproductionfor all. If men are included at all levels ideas willchange, and overtime pressures will change. Asall men and women learn about family planningthey will become much more sympathetic to itwithin their extended family.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Most athletes can only compete at the elite levelwhen they hit their peak. And the ‘big’competitions, like the Olympics, don’t comearound very often. So because a coach, in ateam they’re not part of, used harsh trainingmethods, they now miss their only chance tocompete in the highest competition possible andreceive the biggest payout (in terms of wage andsponsorship) opportunity of their career. Now,this may not weigh against the harm suffered bya beaten athlete, but when you multiply thatnumber out and consider how many peopleyou’re taking this opportunity away from, theharms stack up.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The suffering of those who are treated to harshtraining outweighs banning the team This banis, admittedly, highly punitive and may be calledharsh. It will punish hundreds of athletes andcoaches who aren’t implicated in cases of abuse.Yet, on a balance of harms, the disappointmentthose people feel can’t be compared to thesuffering of an athlete who is beaten and starvedand conditioned into a mode of thinking wherethey accept this without putting up afight. According to Melanie Lang of MetropolitanUniversity harsh and over intensive training“removes the element of fun that first attracts somany youngsters to sport. It can inhibit bonegrowth, cause physical and mental burnout andincrease the potential for injury and dropout.”[1] And worse the coercion can lead to injury andeven death; American gymnast Christy Henrichbecame anorexic and as a result died weighingonly 3st 5lb while Chinese gymnast Sang Lanwas paralysed after being cajoled intoattempting a vault. [2] It’s more important to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This simply shows that it is the coaches that areto blame and therefore it is unfair to punish theathletes for what their coaches are persuadingthem to do. Young manipulatable, athletes donot necessarily know what their coachesresponsibilities are and what should beconsidered abuse. Instead this is theresponsibility of the coaching team who thereforeare the ones who should be penalised.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Banning countries with harsh training measuresfrom competing would be a strongdeterrent This measure introduces a strongdeterrent against those who allow and facilitateabusive training methods. Firstly, it incentivisesnational athletic and sporting bodies to diligentlycheck the background of coaches before theiremployment and continue to investigate themthroughout the year. It is now in the interest ofevery single member of national sporting bodiesand teams to ensure abuse doesn’t continue. Inmost it is currently in your interest to keep quiet,lest you risk disturbing the national programmeor being ostracised by your federation. As aresult coaches are far less likely to think thesetraining methods will help them achieve success.Since it could see their athletes banned from thecompetition and lose their medals it makes usingharsh training methods an immense risk to take.It would also mean they’re unlikely to ever gethired again if caught.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This isn’t necessarily true. Consider thatcurrently coaches already are alreadydisincentivised by the use of these trainingmethods by the threat of losing their job. Forexample in South Korea fourteen Ice Skatingcoaches resigned after allegations of beatings.[1] Yet these practices continue. Deterrentsrarely work because people don’t think they’ll becaught, and focus on the short term benefit ofwhat they are doing. For example, even if youexplain to someone that smoking kills, they maystill take a cigarette because they assume theywon’t be the one that gets cancer and so theshort term benefit can be taken guilt free. Thekind of coaches who already think like this andrisk their job are unlikely to change as a result ofthis proposal. In this case, coaches are unlikelyto think they’ll ever get caught, even if peoplelike them are caught and punished, so they’llthink it is pointless to abandon the trainingmethods they think will guarantee themsuccess. [1] MacIntyre, Donald, ‘Breaking the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "First this is not all the responsibility of the IAAFto police; the same guidelines state “Athletesmust be instructed in health and safety practicesand must bear a large degree of responsibility fortheir own welfare”. [1] The IAAF has alreadypassed laws about what constitutes ‘propertraining methods’. [2] The IAAF has thereforedone what it needs to do to protect athletes. Thisduty of responsibility does not extend to a rightto impose collective punishment. Most peoplewouldn’t argue with the fact that we should try toreduce the amount of harsh training methodsbeing used, where we can. The debate is abouthow appropriate and effective this punishment is.This policy may lead to less whistleblowing, whilesimultaneously punishing lots of athletesunfairly. So no matter how high the IAAF’s moralburden is, this policy should not be enacted. [1]“Principals and Ethical Guidelines”, IAAF, [2]‘Principles of Training’, International Associationof Athletics Federations,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Athletes are vulnerable to their coaches Athletesdedicate their lives to their sport and becomingthe world’s best at what they do. They are willingto put their body and minds through all sorts ofpunishment to do this. As such, they’re not in aposition to judge what is and isn’t an acceptabletraining method. If they’re told that starvationmakes them more likely to win gold then theirintense desire for Olympic glory often cloudstheir judgment and ability to make rationalchoices for themselves. Their coaches areauthority figures who assumed to have their bestinterests in mind, and most athletes also assumetheir coaches know more than them about howto achieve glory. So, if a gymnastics coach tellsher athlete that she needs to starve herself towin gold, the athlete will think themselves a badathlete if they refuse. [1] This is shown by thelong history of drug use in the Olympics whereboth coaches and athletes know it is wrong touse drugs but still do so in the hope it will bringthem gold. [2] Because of this, the IAFF has to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The IAAF and the Athletics commission have thehighest burden to protect their athletes. Just asan employer has a responsibility to provide asafe working environment for their employees,the IAAF has a duty to provide a safeenvironment for their athletes. The sportsmedical team is responsible for ‘preventingillness and injury’, [1] clearly something that iscaused by harsh training. As do all those who areinvolved in sports. These athletes only exist in aprofessional capacity because bodies created thepositions for the athletes to exist. If the worldwants to pay people to perform and compete forthem, then once that offer is made they have amoral duty to ensure that work is safe, sincethey are culpable in creating thatwork. Moreover, we give the IAAF power in thepromise that by giving up localised power ofjudgement over sport, they can better protectathletes and creating a fairer sportingenvironment. Abusive training methods are ahuge failure on the part of the IAAF and as such", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It’s simply untrue to claim that ‘unconnectedathletes’ have done nothing wrong. It is theresponsibility of every member of the nationalteam to ensure standards are met, becauseabuses only go tolerated so long as they areallowed by athletes and other coaches tocontinue. In the case of the victim if they did notwhistleblow early then they clearly areresponsible for allowing that abusive practice tocontinue. It is the victim who the harsh regimewas supposed to benefit through driving them toglory and if they acquiesced to the treatmentthen this is likely the reason.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Firstly, this argument assumes consent on thepart of the athlete. That’s somewhat unfair asmost of these ‘harsh’ training camps are fairlysecretive. We know this because even thoughthe Karoyli’s were called out, no punishmentcould be made due to the difficulty in obtainingconclusive evidence. So it is unlikely athletesreally know what they’re getting themselvesinto. You can’t consent to abuse, not like this,we wouldn’t let you sign a contract to allowsomeone to starve you. Moreover, just becauseathletes would do anything to get gold, doesn’tmean we should let them. Some people wouldhappily sell an organ for money, but we stopthem doing that and morally are right to do so.Individuals don’t always know what’s best forthem, that’s in-part, why the state exists.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The policy is counter productive If your goal is,ultimately, to reduce the amount of coachesusing this method, this policy is massivelycounter-productive. For people to get punished,you need athletes to report abuse, this policymakes that less likely to happen. The athletesbeing abused won’t want to report their coachesas the abuse is happening, because that meansthey and their teammates all lose their chance atand competing in the biggest sporting stageswhich in turn is likely to reduce their chances ofever achieving glory or getting a big payday fromsponsorship. It is already the case thatsometimes whistleblowers suffer for calling time.In India Dr Sajib Nandi was first removed fromhis position as a medical officer and then beatenup as a result of whistleblowing about doping.[1] This policy simply makes the stakes and therisks of whistleblowing much higher. At leastnow after they’ve been abused athletes come outand report abuse. Why would an athlete do thisunder this policy? It damages their stock as they", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Collective punishment is unjust Under this policythe victim is punished for the crimes of coach.This seems unfair, why should someone havetheir professional dream denied to them becausesomebody else did something wrong? Banning anentire nation from a sporting competitionexpands this, individuals with no or littleattachment to cases of abuse will also bepunished and suffer, when they have taken nosteps that deserve punishment. Punishmentsshould fit the crime and this means punishingthose who are responsible not innocents. It isright that the punishment should be harsh as itneeds to deter coaches but this deterrent shouldbe through steep penalties for the coach not forothers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Harsh training methods aren’t necessarilyabusive. Consider that athletes already subjectthemselves to the kinds of environments thatmost people actively avoid, and would probablybe considered ‘harsh’ by the average person.These routinely involve long days, week afterweek, often planned out years in advance,practicing special diets and routines [1] and insome countries this may mean being isolatedfrom home and family for years at atime. Athletes consent to having very harshtraining in order to reach the prize, they’re usedto putting themselves in extreme discomfort toachieve their goal. To the average person thesethings may seem abusive but an athleteconsiders these physical and mental demandsdifferently. Communist teams used these kindsof training methods frequently and achieved lotsof Olympic success, [2] why can’t an athletechoose to emulate these methods in the pursuitof their professional and personal dreams? [1]Dusen, Allison Van, ‘How To Train Like An", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-sport-ohwbcvhtmp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The reason athletes don’t report the abuses isbecause they don’t think the abuse is worse thanlosing their place on the team. This policychanges that by sending a strong message out.Athletes will attach the gravity of the punishmentto the crime and might finally begin tounderstand that this kind of treatment is utterlyunacceptable. It’s also fairly easy to get aroundthe worry of being blamed for the repercussionsby having anonymous tip-offs or witnessprotection. The IAAF can compensate for lack ofearnings too, but ultimately actually thispotential makes abuse less likely to happen. Ifeveryone knows what a risk using harsh methodsis, then that’s a good thing. Athletes will be lesslikely to take it and allow it to continue, andcoaches won’t want to risk usingthem. Currently it’s worth everyone’s while toshut up and let abuse continue, these changeswould mean the risk is too high to let thathappen.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Unlike hate speech or defamation, when someburns a flag no one is actually hurt. Some peoplemay feel their sensibilities offended by such acts,but making people feel uncomfortable should notbe illegal. The act of flag burning is in itselfneutral. The direction of the message the act ismeant to convey is what must be considered, notthe act itself. Prohibiting flag burning is in thissense pointless. Furthermore, it should be withinsomeone's rights to challenge the values of thenation and to destroy the symbol of those valuesas evidence of their disagreement. If peoplecannot challenge those values then society is notfree at all.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The First Amendment to the Constitution, whichprotects freedom of speech and expression, doesnot extend to particularly inflammatory types ofspeech and expression, which includes flagburning Freedom of speech and expression is animportant right, which is why it is listed first inthe Bill of Rights; it is central to a fair and freedemocracy. However, it has limits. Some formsof speech are contrary to the values ofdemocracy, namely when they infringe upon orviolate the ability of others to enact their ownrights and freedoms. This is why such things asincitement to hatred, other violence-promotingspeech, as well as defamation and perjury arelegislated against; they are expressions thatinfringe the rights of others, by causing fear andincreasing risk of harm in case of hate speech,and by harming reputations and the effectiveadministration of justice in terms of defamationand perjury respectively. Rights stop where harmto others begins. In the case of flag burning, asthe dissenting opinion of Justice William", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is exactly because of the visceral response itcauses that flag burning is such an effective toolof protest. It draws media and public attention,thus giving the protestors the chance to speak toa wider audience than they might ever havebeen able to had they used other methods. Whilethere might be some rhetorical backlash, it is notenough to make it not worthwhile. In the case ofviolent response, the ability to exercise a rightshould never be infringed by the potential for aviolent response to its exercise. People's rightsshould be better protected in that case, notrestricted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The flag of the United States is its primarysymbol of nationhood, with a unique importancein the eyes of most Americans, and thus shouldbe protected When destroying the flag of theUnited States it is the values of the United Statesthat are under attack. Since the birth of thenation the flag of the United States, theeponymous \"Star-Spangled Banner\", has beenflown proudly in all parts of the country. It hasbecome an endemic fixture in American cultureand has come to be seen by people all over theUnited States, and the world, as a representationof the spirit and identity of nation. It appears onevery seal of public office, is flown outside everypublic building and a flag-shaped pin is wornupon the breast of virtually every public figure.The flag has been imbued with a specialsignificance by the citizens of the United States,and is viewed almost universally with extensivereverence1. It has come to be seen asemblematic of all the values and virtues ofAmerican society. In a way it is the physical", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The values of the United States are what shouldbe protected, not the flag. One of those values isthe upholding of freedom of speech andexpression. The right to express ones views andopinions must be held inviolable to an extent.While there is a case for defamation and hatespeech laws because they have a very real anddirect impact on people, the flag is onlyimportant insofar as people ascribe meaning toit. It is foolish to make illegal a view contrary tothe mainstream that may not value the flag sohighly.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Popular support is not reason enough to denypeople their constitutionally protected rights. Theframers of the Constitution were wary of popularopinion, having a justifiable fear that themajority might try to circumscribe the rights ofthe minority. This is why there are so manycheck and balances within the Constitution and isexactly why the Supreme Court has defendedcitizens' right to expression irrespective of thewill of the legislature or of the majority of peopleto enforce their views upon a minority. Popularopinion should not concern fundamental rights.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Flag burning does not serve as an effectivemethod of conveying a message, since it isalways met only with outrage and sometimeseven violent public unrest It is highlyquestionable whether burning a flag can beconsidered a speech or expressive act at all. Itseems to offer up no new concepts or trueopinions to the \"marketplace of ideas\". Nothingis genuinely expressed by the act that could notbe done through words or other, less fierymeans. The act of flag burning does nothing tohelp the advancement or elucidation of truth,which is why people have the right to freedom ofexpression in the first place. Rather, it clouds theissue supposedly being furthered by the act. Itwelcomes the rhetoric of \"un-Americanism\",whereby critics and commentators question theprotestors' general patriotism, not the validity oftheir underlying cause, which can eventually leadto the same criticism of their cause itself. Angerclouds the discussion, with people viewing thecause in terms of unpatriotic people supporting", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The popular will calls for a prohibition of flagburning All national polls conducted in theUnited States have shown a majority popularsupport for banning flag burning1. State andfederal laws, passed by democratically electedrepresentatives, have for decades passedpopularly supported laws aimed at protecting theflag from desecration. The Supreme Court,however, has struck down these laws as beingcontrary to the rights to free speech, by a narrow5-4 vote2. Yet popular support for such laws hasnot diminished. This has led to attempts to passa Flag Desecration Amendment to theConstitution, which would then necessarily haveto be accepted by the Court. In 2006, the Houseof Representatives passed such an amendmentby the requisite supermajority, and it died in theSenate by only a single vote3. Clearly, the vastmajority of citizens and legislators activelysupport legislation to protect the flag. Lawshould reflect the will of the people and preventthe desecration of the nation's most sacred", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Banning the burning of flags does not in any wayban opinions about the state or the ideals theflag represents. Arson is an essential tool in thequest for reform. Rather than using suchmethods that do more to offend than to inform,protestors should focus on actually startingmeasured discourse in a way that is not simplyoffensive.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Burning a flag may grab attention, but it willinvariably be attention of a kind unwanted by theones doing the burning. If individuals desecrate aflag with the intent of gathering attention to theircause they will be disappointed when they seethat public opinion is turned against them notbecause of their cause, but because of theirmethods. An attack on the flag is often seen, andis often portrayed in the media, as being anattack on America itself. For this reason flagburning is almost universally counterproductiveto the furtherance of a cause, whether legal ornot.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The act of flag burning can be done for patrioticreasons, when an individual considers thegovernment to be doing something unworthy ofthe national ideals represented by the nationalflag Burning a flag may not be an act of\"un-Americanism\", in the sense of opposingwidely held principles considered emblematic ofthe United States, at all in many cases. Often theflag can be burned as an act of patriotism. Whenindividuals feel the state is doing somethingcontrary to the ideals of the nation, and thusthose that the flag represent, burning of a flagcan be symbolic of the state's non-adherence tothe values it is meant to defend1. The act ofburning thus serves to connect the cause of theprotestor to the very ideals of the nation, andshows that it is central to the discourse of whatthe nation's values are and how they should bemaintained, rather than simply being theancillary opinions of a few people that can simplybe discarded. 1Welch, Michael. 2000. FlagBurning: Moral Panic and the Criminalization of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The right to free speech and expression mustinclude the expression of ideas through meansnot shared by the majority, including flagburning For society to be free and democratic itmust have provision for the expression of viewscontrary to the mainstream, and even directlyoppositional to it. This must furthermore extendto the means by which to convey such messages.Public disgust is certainly not justification enoughto deny the right to expression. The exercise of aright can only be denied to someone when thereis a direct harm to others by exercising thatright. In terms of free speech, the words orexpressions used by someone must result inactual harms to others, harms that outweigh theinherent harms of denying someone their rights,which is itself a kind of violation. No such harmexists in the case of flag burning1. Some peoplehave an irrational attachment to the symbolicsignificance of the flag, but it should not beexpected by law that everyone share that view.The flag, like all symbols of beliefs and groups, is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Banning flag burning effectively bans questioningof what it represents, and thus bans questioningof the widely held values of the UnitedStates When an individual's views areparticularly opposed and contrary to those thenational flag is customarily considered toembody, there can be no more valuable way ofshowing opposition. Should views be judgedoutdated or in error, people must have a way ofshowing it in a visceral way that will gainattention and spark discourse. Conventionalpatriotic views deserve to be challenged, if onlyto be reaffirmed by the public in the ensuingdebate. The problem with prohibiting the act offlag burning is that it necessarily sends themessage of banning discourse on the subject ofwhat the flag represents1. It makes those valuesinviolable, but a free society should be able toquestion and change its values. Banning flagburning thus essentially bans dissent from theprevailing view. Yet banning something on thebasis of majority opinion and their easily", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The power of the act of flag burning generatesconsiderable attention making it a very effectivetool of expression and protest Flag burning issuch a powerful and useful method of protest forthe very reason that it is a visceral expression towhich many people will respond. Jarringstatements grab attention, and force discourseon the issue1. A conventional protest can beoverlooked, but images of a flag being burnedimmediately drags in media attention and startsa commentary. While some commentary doescenter on the issue of flag burning itself, it alsonecessarily brings it to the cause as well. Whenprotesters are called to explain themselves, theyget a chance to explain their views and promotetheir cause to a much wider audience than theymight well not have been able to reachotherwise. Thus flag burning can be veryvaluable for gaining attention, and if donethoughtfully, to generate support. 1Epstein, Leeand Thomas Walker. 1998. Constitutional Law fora Changing America: Rights, Liberties, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The prevailing will of the majority can outweighthat of individuals with regard to free speech insome instances, namely when there is harm topeople from the acts of individuals. Such is thecase with things like hate speech, and certainlydoes so in the case of flag burning. This isbecause the American people have such auniversal attachment to it that the desecration ofthe national flag is internalized as a personalattack on themselves. This is certainly a seriousand real harm that makes the prohibition of flagburning entirely justified.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-bphwpbsas-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Regardless of the reasons a protestor chooses toburn the flag, the act of burning is a violation ofthe nation's ideals and an attack upon the peoplewho uphold them. No intelligent discourse iscreated regarding the behavior of the state whena flag is burned, but rather is simplycounterproductive, as the state is able to declarethe opinions of the protestors to be as unpatrioticas the act of burning a flag in protest itself, thusshifting public opinion against them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is important not to confuse two issues. Theongoing ‘Battle of the Brands’ between, forexample, Coke and Pepsi or McDonalds andBurger King are the focus of the sponsors. Itreally seems unlikely that the directors ofMcDonalds lose a lot of sleep over competitionfrom a family butcher in Dorset. The problem hascome because the butcher is caught in thecrossfire. It’s worth noting that that butcher hasreceived the sort of media coverage that moneyreally can’t buy, so he’s probably notcomplaining too much. It may have been wise todraft the legislation so that it only applied tocompanies of a certain size but, in reality, it onlyaffects large-scale efforts to circumvent therules. [i] [i] London 2012: Organisers clarifyrules on branded clothing for spectators. BBCwebsite. 20 July 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Those unable to respond will be worsthit Smaller businesses and other organisationssee their freedom of expression worst hit by lawsthat prevent them from associating themselvesin any way with major events, to the detrimentof their communities. Free speech is not relativeor conditional and certainly should not bedetermined on the basis of the thickness ofsomeone’s chequebook. In this regard, freedomof information is a very real issue. Thoseorganisations without access to huge legaldepartments are hardest hit, furtherdisadvantaging them against corporations whocan already outspend them on advertising. Freespeech means that in the world of words andideas, at least, there is an even playing field andundermining that runs against a sense of naturaljustice. Sponsors are simply using this toincrease an already fairly unfair advantage;many people supported Britain’s bid for thegames on the basis that it would offer greatbenefits to local businesses, legislation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This is clearly not the same as buying a gene asthe timescales are quite different. These are notwords sold off in perpetuity, neither were theypreviously in use by someone else as was thecase with land grabs by colonizing settlers. Thisis a description of an event that would not havetaken place without the sponsorship for theduration of that event. Both of the otherexamples are of the permanent acquisition ofsomething that was previously communalproperty.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Governments and corporations have beencomplicit in an effective ‘privatization oflanguage’. Recent developments in IPlegislation, particularly in the UK, have givencorporations a carte blanche with regards toprotecting their claim on associations with eventsthey are sponsoring. The Olympics, for example,has required vastly more investment from thetaxpayer than from any sponsor [i] [ii] and yetthose very taxpayers have been prevented fromusing associations with the event to theiradvantage. The build-up to the games saw theinternational media full of stories of smallbusinesses and others banned from using thelogo or name of the games for their ownadvantage [iii] . Sponsors may have ploughed inmillions but the taxpayers has invested billions,many of them will see precious little return onthat investment and this is exacerbated by theofficial sponsors buying those terms. Effectivelygovernment has conspired with corporations toown chunks of language which morally,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is a massive overstatement to say that recentevents are equivalent to the privatization oflanguage. Were people to be charged every timethey used the word “Olympic”, say, that wouldlook like the privatisation of language, this ismerely sponsors protecting the association withan event that they paid for in the firstplace. Additionally, to portray this as aconspiracy raises the question of, “To what end?”Government works with major organisations aspartners all the time, precisely because it savesthe taxpayer money to do so. Although thetaxpayer has footed a significant bill for thegames, it would have been that much largerwithout sponsors and it is the taxpayer, not thesponsors, who receive the infrastructuralbenefits, which is what they paid for. Thesponsors receive promotion for their brands,which is what they paid for. It’s a simple quid proquo. Other companies trying to muscle in on theact have paid for nothing – and that is just whatthey should get. [i] . [i] London 2012. Olympic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "This creates a dangerous precedent The ideathat corporations can, effectively, buy words andphrases set a pernicious precedent similar totheir ability to own genes. There are certainthings that, self-evidently, are the property ofthe people. They are held in common and in trustfor future generations. They cannot be soldbecause they are not owned. Attempts to evadethat reality have, generally, been seen aspernicious by history – even where they have notbeen rectified. European settlers laying claim toland used by indigenous people would be oneexample. Recent attempts by pharmaceuticalcompanies to purchase genes [i] and now otherCorporations to own chunks of the language – orat least rent them from governments and NGOsthat also don’t own them in the first place -seems to come in a similar spirit. Who canreasonably be said to own, for example, thephrase “London 2012”? If anybody could makesuch a claim, Londoners living in the city in 2012would seem to be the obvious answer. However,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-con03b", "title": "", "text": "All of the other inconveniences mentioned byOpposition have been mitigated as much aspossible by the organisers. For example localgovernment and transport bodies have beenproviding advice and encouragement onarranging different routes and minimizing theneed to travel at all for months in advance of thegames. In this matter however, the organizersand elected officials have come down firmly onthe side of sponsors. The very inconveniencesoutlined by Opposition are already hurting sometraders as people choose to work from home ortake the opportunity to leave the city altogether.Denying those traders every opportunity torecoup the lost revenue from their regularclientele is, as a result, doubly unfair.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It would be nice to think that, at least at somelevel, sponsors offer sponsorship out of a desireto give something back to the customers whocreate vast profits for them but perhaps that isnaïve. Ultimately, however, this exercise inownership has been counter-productive. It wouldbe difficult to imagine an ‘ambush advertising’action that would come close to inflicting thedamage on corporate reputations that the badpress surrounding this issue has generated. Fromthe point of view of sponsors, this was a realexample of the best getting in the way of thegood. The net result has been that nobody hasbenefitted as they could have if the sponsors hadnot been so set on exclusivity of association.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-con02a", "title": "", "text": "There is a clear difference between protectingcommercial interests in terms of association witha sponsored event and ‘owning words’. It wouldbe both illegal and impractical for a sponsor to‘buy’ the word “London”. The rules make it clearthat they are not attempting to infringe on, forexample, the right of journalists to report theGames nor on people to discuss them. A simpleGoogle search will bring up thousands of articles– like this one – using the Olympic rings, thephrase “London 2012” and many of the otherswords and phrases that concern Proposition. Atno point have the news organisations concernedbeen asked to pay. There is clearly a world ofdifference between an existing magazine runninga feature about the event – indeed severalfeatures – and the creation of a one-off specialpublication stuffed full of advertising for a directcompetitor of the event. An equivalent would bepaying for a meal in a restaurant only to see thateveryone else was eating for free. That is theinfringement of natural justice. Sponsors have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Sponsorship is necessary to host major sportingevents It is in the interests of communities andcountries to attract sponsorship for events onthis scale, as with other areas, such as transport,that requires a little sacrifice. Hosting majorevents, inevitably, requires some degree ofinconvenience for those living in the area tryingto go about their daily lives. Theseinconveniences are tolerated because there arewider benefits. In the instance of the Olympics, acore part of the initial bid was the assumptionthat hosting them would produce long termbenefits for the city in the form of tourism [i] andregeneration. [ii] Whether that proves to be thecase remains to be seen although, given thenumber of historic venues used for events [iii] ,it doesn’t seem unreasonable to suppose that itmay be likely. To ensure these future benefits,there is an understanding that there will be somedisruption caused and some inconvenience,allowing sponsors a degree of autonomy iscomparable to that inconvenience. LOCOG", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Sponsors pay for the privilege Sponsors pay anenormous amount of money to support eventssuch as the Olympics, it is only fair that they canprotect themselves against ‘ambush advertising’by competitors. This is an issue of simplefinancial reality. Although there have been someunpleasant – and probably unwise – accounts ofsmaller traders getting caught up in thecrossfire, and opposition concedes that should berectified in future events – the purpose of thiskind of legislation and the regulations it spawnsis to prevent direct competitors of sponsorsfinding ways to ambush the event [i] . The issueof concern is not really a lone athletics fanwandering into the final of the Men’s 100m witha can of Pepsi. The intention is clearly to preventrepresentatives of that company standingoutside the venue handing out thousands of freeT-shirts. There have been some problems withthe implementation of this legislation but theprinciple remains sound and serves to the benefitof all. The alternative would be both Coke and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-fchbcuilre-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There are examples of Journalists running foulthe Olympics and its partners. The most famousbeing Guy Adams, whose Twitter account wassuspended following criticism of NBCUniversal’scoverage of the event. Although NBC are amedia partner rather than a sponsor, they paid$1.8bn for the media rights and the principles ofbelligerent protectionism would still seem toapply [i] . Even if it is just for the duration of theGames, even if it is for one day of them, or oneminute of them, this would still be an attack onthe freedom of speech of the individualsconcerned. By its nature, freedom of speech isindivisible, we either have it or we don’t; thepretence that it is possible to say that ‘people arefree to say whatever they like, apart from this’completely misses that point. [i] JournalistsTwitter Account Restored After Suspension. BBCWebsite. 30 July 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Let us say, for the sake of argument that theopposition had tabled a motion of impeachment– which would have even less impact in the longrun. Would it still be inappropriate to report?What if the allegation were corruption, a partisanapproach in Mexico’s interminable and bloodydrug wars? Would it still not be correct to reportit? Clearly something which is widely discussedin political circles and, if true, would have graveimplications for the political direction of thecountry should be reported. Aristegui did so withall of the tact and professionalism available.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Aristegui was fairly obviously played by theopposition; she should not have provided thecoverage they desired. Opposition parties inevery democracy in the world produce stories oractions calling on those in power to do or saysomething ridiculous or making unfoundedallegations just to get some coverage anddamage their opponent’s credibility. Viewers andreaders expect journalist to use theirprofessional judgement in choosing where togive real stories the oxygen of publicity andwhen to ignore something as a publicity stunt.Unfurling banners in parliament is clearly thelatter. As a result journalists are able to presenttheir audience with something they have goodreason to believe is true. Instead Aristegui,effectively, came up with “well, some people saidthese, it might be true, it might not, someoneshould find out.” That ‘someone’ should havebeen her. An equivalent would be the differencebetween sharing some gossip about someone atwork with a colleague and sending a memo", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The three examples prop cites come from a quitedifferent period in history. President Sarkozy’spersonal life, in contrast to his predecessors,received massive scrutiny in the domestic andinternational press. Furthermore, alcoholism is arather different case to measles if, as has beenalleged online, Calderón has been drunk to thepoint of incapacitation at official functions, thatimpacts on the image of Mexico in the world.This can be shown by the laughing stock thatBoris Yeltsin became around the world. [i] Itshould also be noted that the President having arelatively minor ailment may have been an issueas his secretary highlighted in response to theallegations \"During the four years of hisadministration, he has never missed any eventbecause of health problems\". [ii] [i] BBC News,‘Boris Yeltsin: Master of surprise’, 31 December1999 [ii] Booth, William, ‘Respected Mexicanjournalist fired for addressing Calderon drinkingrumor’, Washington Post, 11 February 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The journalist in question failed to produce anyevidence that this affected Calderón’s jobperformance. There is no public interest issuehere, otherwise that would have been the mainthrust of the story, moreover other news mediawould have picked up on the story as well.Instead this is a simple case of intrusion into apublic figure’s private life, apparently for noreason other than it being a fairly easy story.This is exactly the kind of story that a reasonabledistinction between public and private issues ismeant to avoid. There is was evidence ofalcoholism by President Calderon presented bythe banner waving opposition [i] so a goodjournalist should have either found evidence as ifit was affecting Calderon’s ability to govern thenthere would be evidence that could be found orelse she should have dropped the story ratherthan reporting rumour and insinuation. The factthat by doing so she endangered not only herown reputation with the president’s office butthat of the show and the company clearly makes", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It has to be accepted that a person accepts acertain loss of privacy when they stand for office.Beyond that, the issue at stake here is notwhether this is good or bad journalism butwhether it is journalism. By any reasonabledefinition a protest staged by leading membersof the national legislature and concerning thecharacter of the president would seem to qualify.As Aristegui herself argues “The health statusand degree of equilibrium of a president is amatter of clear public interest.” [i] [i] Booth,William, ‘Respected Mexican journalist fired foraddressing Calderon drinking rumor’,Washington Post, 11 February 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Alcoholism is a disease, if the story was that thepresident had measles, it wouldn’t have got amention. Let’s take an historical example of the‘well-being of the head or state’ in ‘democraciesaround the world’. A majority of US citizens wereunaware that FDR was wheel chair bound – evenafter his death. [i] The fact the Churchill hit thebottle early in the morning was never mentionedto voters in the UK, even at their “darkest hour”,and still remains a matter of debate. [ii] TheFrench have long ignored the streams ofmistresses wandering in and out of the ÉlyséePalace throughout the history of the FifthRepublic. [iii] All of these things were wellknown by the journalists of their time but therewas no need for the story to be revealed. Theallegation of the opposition was that Calderónwas a drunk, this then became a suggestion thathe was an alcoholic – they’re different things.This rather suggests that now research at all wasundertaken into the allegation but that a slur wasrepeated as though it were news. Because of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-con03b", "title": "", "text": "All political hothouses are rife with gossip –usually directed upwards. It’s usually not givencredence by being repeated by an experiencedjournalist who should know better. Perhaps shewas having a bad day, perhaps it was amomentary lapse of judgement, perhaps therewas just nothing else happening that day but itwas a pretty foolish thing to say on nationaltelevision and tarnished both her reputation andthat of Calderón.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It’s not a news story, it’s a stunt. A news storywould have required the journalist in question todo some work and either substantiate theirclaims or disprove them. Either could be done byfinding evidence of wrongdoing by the presidentor skulduggery by the legislators. For example“Opposition resort to baseless claim in politicalfights” would also be a significant story if it werebacked up with evidence. As the story waspresented, it was just speculation put in thenational media in the full knowledge that mudgets stickier and dirtier the less material it hasinside it [i] . The point about the Paxmanincident, as was later demonstrated, is that itwas true – and the journalist in question knew itand could prove it. [i] Guillermo Gustavo PérezLara. El president Felipe Calderón, el alcohol ysus secuelas. Suite 101: Política y Sociedad. 8February 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The job of the reporter is to report the news notto decide what is news and what isn’t. Anypolitical reporter has a duty, first and foremost,to report on the issues being discussed bypolitical leaders on all sides. The whole point of ademocracy is that the people get to chose whatand who they believe. The electorate in manycountries have proven themselves remarkablywilling to turn a blind eye to the peccadilloes ofpoliticians as long as unemployment is low,wages are on the rise and housing is affordable.So for example the electorate ignored TonyBlair’s daliances with the property market andfamously Bill Clinton was reelected despitealready being plagued by scandals and reachedhis highest approval ratings after the Lewinskiscandal. [i] However, others will make decisionson the basis of the perceived character of thecandidate or elected official [ii] . Many politiciansare keen for the virtuous aspects of their privatelives – families, personal achievements,sportsmanlike activities – to be shared with a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Even accusations affects reputations andtherefore ability to do the job Even if this wereonly gossip, the fact that the perception existedthat the president was an alcoholic would affecthow other politicians interacted with him – it is,therefore, a matter for public concern. [i]National leaders are left politically weakened byplenty of things that aren’t true. They are furtherundermined by things that are true butapparently trivial if they are kept secret. If that isactually what members of congress believe thenit will affect their interaction with the president.By contrast, if that is not what they truly believe,then it speaks a great deal to their character thatthey are willing to resort to the politics of thegutter. Either way Mexicans have a reasonableright to know that the argument is goingon. Aristegui did just that. It is far moreworrying that a news organization would evenconsider dismissing her for doing her job –presumably because it inconvenienced orembarrassed someone powerful [ii] . [i]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The protest by the opposition was a news storyin its own right. A protest by oppositionmembers of parliament alleging behaviourunbecoming of the office of president is clearly anews story. They have the right to say it – andthe media should report it as just that; a claimmade by the opposition. A protest with a largebanner unfurled would make the news in almostany country. The British journalist JeremyPaxman confronted newly elected LiberalDemocrat leader Charles Kennedy over hisdrinking. Much of the media feigned outrage overthe action right the way up until he was dumpedby his party – as a result of drinking too much.[i] There is a myth that it’s okay for a privilegedfew within the professional elites of politics andjournalism to know these details about leadingpoliticians but their constituents, the people whoultimately employ them and whose lives theycontrol should be left in the dark that theirrepresentative is an addict. Most peoplewouldn’t hire a plumber who was known to have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-radhbrap-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This is simply untrue; journalists decide whatcounts as news all the time. It’s calledprofessional judgement. Indeed, it’s what they’repaid to do – sift through what is idle gossip andspeculation and discover what is both true andrelevant. That’s why we trust newspapers andbroadcasters of record and have less time forscandal-sheets. In this incident, the reporterdidn’t just say that a protest had happened, shegave it credibility by commenting on it, despitethe fact that she had no proof.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Blasphemy laws are unlikely to promote socialharmony as readily as the proposition side claimsthey will. Accusations of blasphemy can enflametensions between antagonistic groups. Tellingpeople they no longer have recourse to words tovoice their disagreements and discontentmentmight push them to resort to violence instead.Communities with diverging beliefs are unlikelyto engage in discussion and negotiation ifstatements aimed at promoting peace can easilybe used to launch expensive libel prosecutions.Exchanges and debates between differentcommunities will not take place if participantsfear that they might be arrested if an audiencemember choses to take offence at theirwords. Anti-blasphemy laws would undoubtedlycontrol group violence of the sort that followedthe publication of the “Mohammed cartoons”. Butthey would also spur further social division, anddeepen misunderstandings about religion.Anti-blasphemy laws would remove debate onreligion from the public sphere and leave both", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Social cohesion and hate speech Lawscombating discrimination- such as the blasphemylaw that the proposition side are advocating-promote social cohesion and stability, bothimportant policy objectives in increasingly mobileand cosmopolitan societies. The United NationsGeneral Assembly in 2006 argued “defamation ofreligions is among the causes of socialdisharmony and leads to violations of humanrights.” (United Nations General Assembly,‘Combating defamation of religions’, 2006).Coexistence between communities with radicallydifferent creeds, values and viewpoints needs tobe carefully supervised in multi-culturalsocieties. Too often the uncertainty thataccompanies migrant life can serve to inspire togive too much credence to the views of zealotsand fundamentalists. To prevent communitiesdeliberately isolating themselves from theirneighbours; to prevent communal violence, it isnecessary for the state to create an environmentin which disputes can be resolved by impartial", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Blasphemy a free expression Blasphemy cannotbe shielded by the rationale which is used todefend freedom of speech. Blasphemyconstitutes an attack on the religion it is targetedat. Beyond its ability to shock and offend,blasphemy exposes religious believers to ridicule,and perpetuates lies and falsehoods about theirfaith. Moreover, blasphemy also drives conflictand exclusion within particular faiths, deepeningschismatic divisions and encouraging believers tobecome more hostile to those who do not sharetheir religion. Blasphemy occupies a distinctlydifferent position in public debate and discussionthan civil, respectful discourse about religion.The forms of blasphemy law that weremaintained in the legal systems of westernliberal democracies throughout the twentiethcentury criminalised only the most extreme andintentionally provocative forms of religiousexpression – images of religious figures involvedin humiliating or sexualised scenarios;statements about a religion that amounted to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Blasphemy can be a valuable act of expression.It is misleading to try and conflate blasphemousstatements with statements that lack intellectualmerit, are bigoted or hateful. The propositionside attempt to exclude “decent and temperate”questioning of religious values from the scope ofanti-blasphemy laws, but they fail to recognisethat language is a broad, imprecise andmalleable tool. Words that may be understood astemperate and even-handed by one speaker maydeeply shock another. Even a simple and plainlystated denial of God’s existence was interpretedas tantamount to blasphemy by the early liberalphilosopher John Locke. Locke saw acceptance ofthe core truths of the Christian bible as being avital indicator of and individual’s trustworthinessand willingness to comply with social norms. Itis easy to envision scenarios in which adherentsof certain religions may find any attempt todispute the historical and philosophicalfoundations of their faith deeply offensive, nomatter how calmly and respectfully the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "As Timothy Garton ash points out in hiscommentary on principle 7, there is asupervening value at work in any system of lawor social values that obliges religions todemonstrate tolerance for one another and fornon-believers. More than a mere value, thissupervening idea is identified as a “higher good”.We are told that limitations to religion arenecessary in order to prevent free speech frombecoming a conduit for conflict. Principle 7appeals to a universal understanding of risk andsafety. It asks us to understand that we risk lessconflict in society if we tolerate the existence andpronouncements of other religions. Thisstatement contains that corollary principle thatpeople who wish to see free speech remain alegitimate social force, untroubled by conflict andclaims to absolute supremacy, should endeavorto ensure that debates on the fundamentalelements of any religion- the existence of God,the divinity (or otherwise) of Jesus, the nature ofthe revelations received by Mohammed- should", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Oppression within religiouscommunities Blasphemy laws can be used toenforce oppressive and exclusionary practiceswithin religions. The proposition side have goneout of their way to highlight the harm that can bedone to religions by actors external to thereligious group. However, this analysis does notfit so comfortably with the problems that occurwhen a member of a religious community wishesto make controversial and divisive statementsabout their own religion. Dissenters within areligious group may often face exclusion fromtheir communities and hostility from friends andfamily. The current law of western liberaldemocracies ensures that social disapproval doesnot transform into threats or violent conductdirected at these individuals. In this way, liberaldemocratic states recognise the right to speakfreely without fear of violent or disproportionaterepercussions, irrespective of the social andcultural standards enforced by the communitythat an individual might belong to. By", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Language and subjectivity “Blasphemy” is a verysubjective term. The cartoons of the ProphetMohammed referred to above were regarded bymany as blasphemy, but to others they were aform of incisive commentary. (Badkhen A.2006). Side proposition seems content to triggera prosecution for blasphemy based on ideas ofoffence that might be confined to only a verysmall group of religious believers. Indeed, it isextremely difficult to determine how wide spreada sense of offense must be before a commentmoves from being insulting to activelyblasphemous. Zororastrian, Bahai and Yezidireligious communities exist in vanishingly smallnumbers in the UK, but members of each ofthese faiths have been subject to continualhistorical persecution. Should their experience ofvictimisation entitle them to more robustprotection than the (relatively) large and wealthyAnglican church? Similarly, should the size ofthese communities mark them out as vulnerable,and deserving of some sort of legal advantage", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-free-speech-debate-nshwcb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While it is true that blasphemy laws could beopen to misuse, this is also true of many otherlaws that are currently overseen by the state.Liberal democratic legal systems operatesafeguards to ensure that laws cannot be abusedor used for purposes at odds with fundamentaldemocratic freedoms. On the whole the majorityof countries around the world are fair and liberalplace that maintain strict separation of judicial,legislative and executive competence. Theircourts are capable of recognising vexatiousclaims and ensuring equality-of-arms betweenthe state and defendants through mechanismssuch as legal aid. In totalitarian nations such asthose described by the opposition if blasphemylaws did not exist, authoritarian states wouldsimply find different ways in which to censor thatwhich it deems unfit. In China where religiousfreedom is severely curtailed, free speechremains subject to significant limitations. It ismisleading, then, to associate the intrinsicfailings of a political system with a law that might", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The need for increased capacity on travelled linescan be addressed in a number of ways. Firstly,highways still can be expanded. Highways aremuch more versatile than rail services as theyenable people to get from a single destination toanother without any transfers. Given then thathighways can be improved, it makes very littlesense to not do so and improve the rail systemlater when this extra capacity created begins tofill up. [1] Given that cities have differentrequirements of transport, it makes more senseto allow transport planning to remaindecentralised. For example, California is creatinga high speed transport system on its statebudget because it has need, assuming that othercities do when their governing structures havenot determined that is the case is irresponsibleand unneeded. [2] [1] Mobley, Jack. “A CaseAgainst High-Speed Rail.” Merced Sun Star.11/12/2010 [2] “On the wrong track: Whyhigh-speed trains are not such a greenalternative.” The Guardian. 29/04/2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Highspeed Rail is Better than Upgrading OldInfrastructure rovements to existing railnetworks would ultimately fail to be viable as areplacement for highspeed rail. As BritishTransport Secretary (now reshuffled) PhillipHammond states, \"Opponents of the projecthave asked why we cannot simply upgrade ourexisting infrastructure to deal with this capacitychallenge. But no upgrade of existinginfrastructure can deliver the hugeimprovements in journey times and thetransformation of our economic geography that anew high speed network would bring. Reliabilitywould also deteriorate as we tried to squeezeever more capacity out of existing, mixed-uselines. And another major upgrade to the WestCoast Main Line would deliver years of disruptionand huge economic cost.\" [1] Upgradinginfrastructure may be an answer in some places,but not in all. There may not be the existinginfrastructure to upgrade. The United States forexample just does not have lines that could take", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Whilst rail systems can be environmentallyfriendly, the higher the speed of a system themore fuel said system consumes. Whilst highspeed rail might be useful as a transport system,owing to its high speed nature it does not reducecarbon emissions to a significant extent. Further,high speed rail is of limited popularity and assuch it will not get enough drivers off the road tohave any significant contribution to theenvironment. [1] [1] Staley, Samuel. “ThePragmatic Case Against High-Speed Rail.”Reason Foundation. 22/06/2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "High Speed Rail is Better Than AirTravel Currently intercity travel within the U.S.tends to favour air travel. This is often due to thelarge distances between cities within the U.S.which mean that driving is not a viable strategyshould there be time constraints on travel.However, air travel has significant constraints aswell such as long boarding times. This causesproblems for those people who frequentlycommute and high speed rail is set to solvethese problems. High speed rail provides a largenumber of significant benefits over air travel inthis regard. This is because high speed rail cantravel to city centres. Where airports, due totheir size and the noise pollution they cause, arelimited to the outskirts of a city, trains are notlimited in the same way. As such, people canarrive in a much more central area, cutting largeamounts of time off their journey. Secondly,high speed rail has no limits on wirelesscommunication or internet in the same way thatair travel does. As such, high speed rail is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "High Speed rail is unlikely to work in the sameway as air travel. Whilst some areas are moreconvenient, it remains a slower method oftransport than air travel and with quoted pricesfor high speed rail it seems evident that themajority of consumers will simply continue to optfor air travel as it is a significantly faster methodof travel to their destination. As such high speedrail will not provide significant extra benefits toconsumers. [1] Further, if the problem with airtravel is the location out airports outside of citycentres, then that problem is easily solvedthrough the creation of better transportationmethods between airports and city centres. Withthe time saved, a plane ticket that alsoencompassed a ride to the city centre would stillbe faster and would probably end up beingsignificantly cheaper than a ticket on high speedrail. [1] Mobley, Jack. “A Case AgainstHigh-Speed Rail.” Merced Sun Star. 11/12/2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "High Speed Rail is environmentallyfriendly Trains are the most sustainable andgreen form of transportation. Electric high speedrail is the most energy efficient of all trains. Thisis because trains have significantly high capacitybut have very low power requirements in orderto work by comparison to the number ofpassengers that they carry. Although this is tosome extent dependant on how the power isgenerated the Eurostar (where power comesfrom French nuclear plants) emits only 11g GO2per passenger kilometre from London to Pariscompared to 180g for a car containing 1.2passengers and 150g for a short haul flight.[1] A national high speed rail system would bethe centrepiece of a sustainable America, andwould significantly reduce congestion andAmerica’s dependence on cars and the oil thatfuels them. This would result in large cuts tocarbon emissions. Any new system could bepowered by renewable energy including wind,solar, geothermal, and ocean/tidal in order to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The US High Speed Train Association has found asignificant number of benefits for high speed railthat mean that it would be beneficial regardlessof its success as a business. Firstly, high speedrail would foster transport orienteddevelopment: \"Transit oriented development(TOD) is the exciting new fast growing trend increating vibrant, compact, liveable, walkablecommunities centered around high quality trainsystems. TODs can be stand-alone communities,or a series of towns strung along a rail line likepearls on a string. TODs are the integration ofcommunity design with rail system planning.High speed rail is the backbone of a rail-basedtransportation system. When combined withregional rail, light rail, metro systems, streetcarsand trams, a complete and integrated railnetwork is achieved enabling easy, fast mobilitythroughout the system. Coordinating andencouraging compact, mixed-use developmentaround the rail stations completes the system byenabling people to live, work, and play along the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This is simply untrue. Yes, if a crash occurs it islikely to be significantly more dangerous than acrash at lower speeds, but this is also the casewith cars travelling between cities on highwaysand even more so with aeroplanes. Exactlybecause a high speed crash can be socatastrophic high speed rail systems have veryhigh safety standards. The Japanese Shinkansenhigh speed rail system is famously safe. During46 years of commercial operations having taken7 billion passengers there have been nopassenger fatalities or injuries due to trainaccidents such as derailment or collision. [1] It isalso not the case that damage to the track willtake the rail system out of operation for years.The Tohuko Shinkansen restarted operationsonly 49 days after the Tōhoku Earthquake.[2] [1] California High-Speed Rail Authority,‘Financing and Costs’, [2] “How Japan’s RailNetwork Survived the Earthquake”,Railwaytechnology.com, 28 June 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "High Speed Rail is Not Currently EconomicallyViable The economic investment required for ahigh speed rail system to be implemented in theU.S. is substantial. Currently, the Americandeficit is at a level that is bad enough thatS&P has downgraded the rating onAmerican debt. Given that this is true and thatthe public spending required for high speed rail issubstantial and a situation is caused where theAmerican government would have to increasethe flow of money out of its coffers. Even thelowest estimates by the California High-SpeedRail Authority are around $45 billion and it islikely to be much higher. [1] As such the deficitlevel within the U.S. could stand to increase froma system that would not provide benefit foranother five years at least, if it provides benefitat all. At this time, investment in such an area isnot needed when the result of such investmentcould be greater repayments on American bondsthat reverse any economic benefits that thesystem stands to give. [2] As such, extra", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "High Speed Rail will not be a successful longterm business investment. The issue with highspeed rail is that it is a case of a governmentproviding what is essentially a private good. Themarket that will use high speed rail will be peoplewho wish to commute between cities quickly,generally rich businesspeople. As such, themarket for such a product is incredibly niche.Further, the price of high speed rail will still behigher than plane and the journey times betweenmost cities that aren’t very close togetheralready will still be longer. As such, it seems thatthere is an incredibly small market for such aproduct. The reason a market for this productdoes not exist already is that no private companycould ever make a profit from the product owingto the low demand among consumers for it.[1] Therefore, the only way to make the productwork would be to ensure that the product issignificantly cheaper than the competition.Unfortunately the only way to do this would bethrough large subsidies for train use, meaning", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "High Speed Rail is Dangerous Owing to theextremely high speeds of high speed rail, shouldthere be a problem with the trains the chance ofa catastrophic accident is greatly increased. Thisis because there would be no reaction time forthe driver. Further, should there be a derailmentthe impact of the crash will be significant greaterowing to the speed of the train. Should theseaccidents occur, the damage to the trains willobviously be catastrophic, but also the damageto the lines themselves will be incrediblysignificant. Should there be an accident and it islikely that if enough time passes there will be,the entire rail system in the area would requireyears to be able to regenerate. After the HatfieldCrash in the UK large sections of the wholenetwork were shut down for up to a year.[1] [1] Pook, Sally and McIlroy, A.J., “’Danger’rail lines may be closed’, The Telegraph, 21October 2000,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ephwcnhsrsu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Within an economic climate that is in recession,the best way to avoid recession is to increasepublic spending. This is because the extra jobscreated through public spending stimulate theeconomy. This is because the spending results inthe employment of a number of people whootherwise would have remained unemployed andon a lower wage. As such, these people are moreable to consume and more able to spend theirmoney on consumer goods. In this way, theeconomy is pushed out of recession as this initialwave of spending means that the people whosold the products to the consumers now havemore money themselves to spendelsewhere. Whilst this is fairly basic Keynesiananalysis of the markets, the reason that thespending here is not susceptible to causinginflation and hence negating the effect is thatmarkets take time to adjust to stimuli. Theinflation rate will only increase appropriatelyonce the market has reacted to the stimulus. Assuch, the initial year or two following a stimulus", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It will not give teachers an incentive to improvetheir teaching. Teaching is a calling, notsomething you choose for the money. Teachersare what we call 'intrinsically motivated': theywant to realize an ideal, in this case, educatingand raising responsible citizens. Recasting thisideal into a financial reward system actuallydemotivates teachers who feel the inherent valueof their work now suddenly has become sulliedby chiefly monetary rewards, which is whyperformances pay hasn’t worked in many places.[1] [1] White, Performance pay for teachers is aterrible idea and here’s why, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "It will give teachers an incentive to improve theirteaching. For decades now, teachers have beenremunerated based on 'seniority'. This meansthat they don't have an incentive anymore toimprove themselves, no matter how motivatedthey were at the beginning. Why try to improveyourself if you have nothing to gain from it?Adding a financial reward for exceptionalperformance will motivate teachers to do theirutmost to develop the knowledge and talents oftheir pupils. [1] [1] Muralidharan andSundararaman, “Teacher Incentives inDeveloping Countries: Experimental Evidencefrom India”. Podgursky and Springer, “TeacherPerformance and Pay” 2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It will not attract more teachers. As said above,teaching is a calling. Many of the expected newteachers will be motivated solely by theincreased pay, not by any intrinsic motivation.Because they are not intrinsically motivated,they will underperform. They might leave againafter a year, but in that year they will havetaught a class without the requisite skills andinspiration, possibly spoiling the educationalexperience of an entire class for the rest of theirlives.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "It is fair to reward teachers on the actual resultsthey achieve. Just as in the private sector,workers should be judged and rewarded on theactual results they achieve. Whether it's throughsheer talent or through hard work, someteachers consistently deliver better results thanother teachers. Those teachers are moreeffective and efficient at providing societal value:with the same amount of work-hours theymanage to more effectively educate children. Itis therefore only just that their pay isdifferentiated according to the results theyachieve.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is unfair to reward extra achievements on topof the base level. To provide societal value fromeducation, the base level of performance ineducation is already set very high. This meansthat even teachers who perform at base level arealready working very hard to provide the societalvalue we require. Any difference above thatalready very high level is likely the result of luckand talent, both on the part of students andteachers themselves. Rewarding fortunateindividuals for something they themselves didn'tcreate is unjust and can only make otherjealous. Moreover, many students may enterthe school system- at various stages-accompanied by a range of external advantagesand disadvantages. A student’s homeenvironment is a major influence on their abilityto achieve when in the school environment.Although a teacher’s pastoral role is growing,there is little that they can do to address poorparenting, or to encourage the engaged,stimulating parenting that produces some of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Competition will diminish the quality of educationacross the board. Teamwork is essential for theeffectiveness of schools. Making differences inperformance more visible will hamper teamworkbecause it will create perverse incentives. Forinstance, teachers who have devised a successfulmethod for teaching a particular subject area willbe less likely to share this because sharing itmeans eroding their 'strategic advantage' in the'marketplace for teachers'.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "It will attract more teachers eaching salaries foryears have remained steady or even declined.This made teaching as a job unattractive and sothe influx of new, talented teachers halted.Although the effect of fiscal changes on teachers’pay has been minimal (controlling for theconsequences of the financial crisis), highproductivity has become central to many privatesector pay schemes. As a result, the contrastbetween non-responsive pay for teachers andhigh rewards for talented private sectoremployees has become more pronounced. Withthe opportunity to increase income throughperformance, teacher pay can rise, making it amore attractive profession financially.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Competition improves the overall quality ofeducation. Measuring teachers' performanceswill create a transparent market for teachingtalent. Underperforming teachers will be selectedout because they are less in demand, unless theyadapt and learn from what their competitorsapparently do better. So, the overall quality ofthe teacher pool will rise and this will increasethe quality of education for all students.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It will not create uncritical 'learning drone'students. Creative and critical thinking beginswith the basics: literacy and numeracy. Evenlearning to the test will result in literate andnumerate students who can then move on tomuch more critical thinking. We can then definesuccessful criteria that measure general criticalthinking skills, like have students write essays orpass oral exams. Narrowing of the curriculum isa concern in later stages of education, but thegrowth of a critical approach to humanitiessubjects has ensured that rote learning has beende-emphasised in these areas. Critical outcomes,nonetheless, remain measurable.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Teachers are the single biggest influence onstudent performance. Even though many factorsinfluence student performance, the teacher isstill the most important schooling factor. Forexample, having an effective versus andineffective teacher has been shown to beequivalent to a class size reduction of 10-13students [1] and can make the differences ofmore than a full year’s learning growth. [2] [1]Rivkin et al, “Teachers, Schools and AcademicAchievement”, 2005 [2] Hanushek, “TheTrade-off between Child Quantity and Quality.”1992", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Teachers will attempt to cheat thesystem Cheating is inevitable in anybureaucratic system that holds educationalinstitutions accountable- in any way- for theoutcomes of the educational processes that theysupervise. Teachers will have an incentive tocheat the system, for example by alteringstudents' test results or giving them easier tests.[1] On a more 'macro' scale, teachers will havean incentive to only want to teach at 'good'schools with 'advantaged' students who haveboth the will and the ability, because theirchances of a good performance there arehigher. [1] Jacob and Levitt, “Prevalence andPredictors of Teacher Cheating”, 2003", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con04a", "title": "", "text": "It is impossible to implement. Students comefrom very different backgrounds and have verydifferent skill-sets. This makes the attempt todefine a measuring system that covers all casesa bureaucratic nightmare. Even if this succeeds,it is still very difficult to define what a 'goodperformance' is, because a student's individualperformance is determined by many otherfactors than the teacher and also because anindividual student's 'performance' is actually acomplex set of attitudes, skills and abilities whichare in and of themselves hard to operationalizein a standard test. And even if this succeeds,then the questions is how much of a student'sperformance is attributable to what specificteacher: oftentimes, at least in high school,students will have many different teachers,making it impossible to gauge what teacher wasresponsible for what test result. Finally, itshould be noted (per the argument includedabove) that merit based education does notencourage the dissemination and normalisation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con03a", "title": "", "text": "It will create uncritical 'learning drone'students. Teachers will start 'teaching to thetest' to ensure their classes make the grade.Independent, creative, self-reliant thinking willtherefore be discouraged as the teacher focuseson getting as high test results for their pupils asthey can regardless of whether they reallyunderstand the concepts behind what they aredoing. If the primary goal of education is tocreate critical thinking citizens, then merit paymay hinder rather than help achieve that goal.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It is unfair to reward teachers for results theycan’t influence The success of a student dependson many factors, like innate talent, the ability forhard work and concentration and socio-economicbackground. This means that any progress that astudent can make is largely outside of ateacher's control. This will result in someteachers being rewarded just because theyhappen to teach in a good environment to'advantaged' children whereas other teacherswho do a good job in a bad environment to'disadvantaged' children are just unlucky.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is possible to implement. Testing students isnot that difficult. After all, we have beenexamining students with all kinds of standardizedtest ever since formal education began.Similarly, we can know what teacher is involvedin what result: the biology-teacher is relevant forbiology, not French or arithmetic. The economistDale Ballou, in his 2001 article “Pay forperformance in public and private schools”determined that the prevalence of merit-basedpay in private schools demonstrates that it canbe cost effectively implemented in complexinstitutional settings [1] . [1] Ballou, “Pay forperformance in public and private schools.”2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-eehwpsstbm-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Cheating can be prevented by ensuring that theperson giving and grading the test is not thesame as the person preparing the students forthe test. Likewise, the 'macro'-problem can beprevented by designing good measurementsystems. If performance is measured ascomparing results of individual students acrosstime, then it doesn't matter whether a studentcomes from a 'disadvantaged' background. Thesame goes for innate talent: we can design ameasurement that rewards any improvement insignificantly less talented children sufficientlyhigh to ensure that teachers are motivated inteaching them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The existence of slums and favelas and theirincreasing criminality in Latin America cannot beexplained by the lack of social subsidies. In fact,quite the opposite is the case: the leftward turnin Latin America with an increase in statesubsidies that promised to help poorcommunities has yet to ease the problems ofcriminality. Subsidies not only do not help orprovide only weak temporary relief, but they arealso used to manipulate political opinions andinfluence the poor particularly around electiontime. The successful presidential campaigns ofLula da Silva in Brazil, and Hugo Chavez inVenezuela have been run precisely on promisesto the poor that for the most part were leftunfulfilled. Because government subsidies arenot efficient, the large problem of social unrest isnot avoided. Furthermore the poor communitiesin the suburbs of Paris were already receivingstate subsidies for housing and education, butthis did not keep them from rioting. Thereforesubsidies do not guarantee a reduction in crime.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Poor communities create criminality The longersuburbs sectioned off for the economicallyvulnerable are in existence, the more likely theywill turn into real slums, creating long lastingproblems such as the ones currently experiencedin the cities of Latin America. Latin Americacontains 13 of the 20 countries with the highestintentional homicide rate (Global Burden ofArmed Violence, Geneva Declaration on ArmedViolence and Development, 2008). Brazil is oneof the most criminalized countries of the worldwith roughly 23.8 homicides per 100,000residents, muggings, robberies, kidnappings andgang violence (The Economist, ‘No End ofViolence’, 2007). These areas have become ahaven for criminals and drug lords, who bothhave a clear interest in keeping thesecommunities poor so that they can continue toexert their influence on them and use them as ahiding and recruiting ground for illegal activities.Subsidies would help people escape poverty andas a result break the cycle of crime.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This kind of idealism and desire to make theworld an equal place has already gotten us intoquite a bit of trouble, ruining a large part of theworld under the rule of communism. The ideathat we could solve all the world’s problemsthrough redistribution of wealth throughgovernment subsidies is not only naïve but alsodangerous. Being committed to new humanrights and wanting to offer help to the poor is notthe same thing as imposing subsidies. Indeed, inmany countries subsidies for particular activitiesend up favouring well-off landowners and theurban middle classes. Examples includeagricultural subsidies in the EU (FinancialProgramming and Budget, 2011) and the USA,subsidies for power and water in rural India(Press Trust of India, ‘World Bank asks India tocut ‘unproductive’ farm subsidy’, 2007), andsubsidies for water or Higher Education in muchof Latin America. In each case the well-offbenefit disproportionately, while the poor end uppaying via the tax system and through reduced", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Subsidies are the most efficient way for a stateto redistribute wealth within its borders. Poorcommunities, often concentrated in rural areasor around large cities, carry a large risk for socialinstability, whether through epidemic illnesses,crime, drug abuse or political and social revolts.Even the most developed countries find itdifficult to deal with these communities withoutpaying proper attention to their development.The suburbs of Paris have recently been in theattention of the press for the violent riots ledmainly by poor, unemployed, young men fromimmigrant families who felt abandoned by theirown government (BBC News, ‘Timeline: FrenchRiots’, 2005). France is by no means the onlycountry dealing with such problems, and in orderto avoid such high-risk behaviour, the stateshould be encouraged to create new subsidyschemes that address these communities inparticular. For example, employment could besubsidised by paying companies to create newjobs in such deprived areas.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While we do not concede that subsidies are themost efficient means of redistributing wealtheven if they are then is this redistributionsomething we want to see? Poor communitiesshould instead be shown how to pull themselvesup rather than having subsidies spoon fed tothem. Giving those in poor communities theeducation and means to better themselves is amuch more effective long term solution.Redistribution of wealth through subsidies issimply discouraging the poor from working hardtowards the betterment of their lives bothbecause the state is already giving them enoughto survive and because they know the state willbegin taking what they have earned away if theydo manage to work their way up.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Rich communities have a disastrous effect on theenvironment as well. The question of whetherdevelopment is possible without manipulatingnature and the environment is again entirelyseparate from the question of subsidies.Ultimately, the problem is one of resources andthe best distribution and management of thoseresources, particularly natural resources. Gettingpeople to understand that forests, water andland are essential resources that need to bepreserved is what should be done (Hande,‘Powering our way out of poverty’, 2009).Subsidies have in fact often created moreenvironmental problems by investing in poorlybuilt infrastructure and housing, and byencouraging people to stay in areas that couldotherwise not support them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Subsidies create a sense of socialequality Subsidies help create the equality andnon-discrimination that is essential in the newmulti-cultural states of today. With more andmore people moving across the globe and theclear realization of inequalities in lifestyles,creating this sense of equality is essential. If weare serious about our commitment to universalhuman rights, including the right to equalsurvival chances and opportunities, then we needto consider using subsidies to promote thesevalues. Many of the poorest areas have adisproportionate number of immigrants or ethnicminorities, Seine-Saint-Denis for example hasthe largest percentage of immigrants inFrance(Wikipedia, ‘Demographics of France’) andis one of the poorest department’s(Astier,‘French ghettos mobilise for election’, 2007) sothese communities are where the state needs toshow that it is committed to non-discriminationby helping with subsidies. Without such acommitment to equality, problems like the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Substandard living conditions have a broadenvironmental impact Unless we do somethingabout it we risk seeing our planet destroyed. Thedestruction of forests for coal or agriculturalland, the destruction of farmland through illegalbuildings lacking proper infrastructure, waterpollution, deserting arable land in thecountryside in order to move to the city are allserious environmental problems and their effectsare long lasting (Hande, ‘Powering our way outof poverty’, 2009). Subsidies need to be used toprovide incentives for people to act in wayswhich will preserve the environment for thebenefit of all (Hande, ‘Powering our way out ofpoverty’, 2009).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The change from an agricultural or ruraleconomy to an urban one does not precludesubsidies as a way of lifting people out of povertyit simply means that subsidies have to be moretargeted. As most cities continue to grow andattract more and more people from rural areas,the state needs to find a way to address theproblem of urban migration, which is closelylinked to the formation of poor communitiesparticularly around cities. Illegal immigrationalso contributes tremendously to this problem,particularly in areas such as theMexico-California border. Targeted subsidies canslow the pace of migration, by giving those in thecountryside and in poorer countries a betterstandard of living where they already live.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Rather than criticising the inefficiencies ofcurrent subsides we should put efforts intoimproving subsidies so they work efficiently. Thisis clearly a very complex issue and would involvetaking each poor community as individual withdifferent needs. One specific example of wherethis has been efficient is subsidising housing inpoor communities, such as the Gautreauxprogram in Chicago. This project involved theCHA (Chicago Housing Authority) handing out7,500 housing vouchers out to residents ofdeprived communities (thus providing a housingsubsidy to those residents). The project waswidely considered a success and was supportedby the government until its completion in 1998.Longitudinal studies suggested that participantswhere ‘pleased to be living in saferneighbourhoods with quality schools and greaterjob opportunities’, which all occurred as a resultof the Gautreaux project (Fisher, GautreauxAssisted Housing Program, 2005). This projectshows that subsidies can be successful if we look", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The risk of creating dependence Always lookingat the state for solutions makes thesecommunities dependent on the government in aworld in which the state will continue togradually lose its power. On an individual levelincreases in people taking disability benefits overthe long term are a good example ofdependency, in Australia for example between1972 and 2004 those receiving the DisabilitySupport Pension rose fivefold well above theincrease in the disabled population(Saunders,‘Disability Poverty and Living Standards’, 2005,p.2). Putting more pressure on increasinglyweaker states is probably not the best idea.While strong social-democratic states such asFrance might be able to handle it, developingcountries or unstable states will never be able towithstand these pressures. We need to look forsolutions elsewhere, and we need to accept thefact that there might not be one solution for all.Each community, facing different kinds ofproblems, will have to be addressed differently.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Communities should be engineered to be selfsufficient As the introduction and oppositionargument 1 explain, subsidising poorcommunities involves taking money away fromwealthy communities. It is unfair to make thewealthy members of a community pay for thebenefit of the poorer members, when the poorermembers should be putting in the effort to raiseand support their own communities. Those whoare wealthy have earned their wealth by workinghard. If they wish to be subsidizing poorcommunities they can give to charities that workin poorer areas.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Social change As modern societies are clearlymoving away from an agricultural economy to anindustrial and post-industrial economy, newdemographic challenge arise with highconcentrations of people in urban areas wherejobs are available. From 2008 more than 50% ofthe world’s population lives in cities meaning thatpoverty is now growing faster in urban than ruralareas (UNFPA, ‘Urbanization: A Majority inCities’, 2007). The solution here is not subsidies,but rather the spreading of jobs across the wholeeconomy, including rural areas, and there-education of those who need to fill these jobs.These are structural problems that every societywill need to address, regardless of how manysubsidies the state is providing or not.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Government supervised redistribution of wealthis inefficient Given that in general state taxationand redistribution systems have been under firefor being inefficient, it is doubtful that subsidies,as a particular form of tax redistribution wouldbe more efficient. Not only is a bureaucraticmechanism for creating and distributingsubsidies a nightmare, but the effects of suchsubsidies have often been questioned as well.Fuels subsidies to keep prices down for examplemight help the poor to heat their homes but theyalso encourage wasting fuel and not getting themost efficient heating systems so more fuel isused resulting in more need for subsidies(Jakarta Globe, ‘Subsidies a Costly, InefficientCrutch’, 2010). The needs of poor communities,such as the immigrant communities in thesuburbs of Paris, as often much larger than thestate can provide, and patch solutions are oftenno solution at all. Subsidies will not be able tosolve the problems of unemployment and theconcentration of the poor and immigrants in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Telling poor communities they should helpthemselves is not the answer; they already wantto help themselves. Poverty often occurs in acycle, meaning that for many it is inescapable.Education in poor areas is often worse, leading topeople being less qualified for higher payingjobs, stuck in badly paid work, therefore living inundesirable housing that often has inadequateeducation, and thus the cycle continues for theirchildren. The only way for people to escape thiscycle is with government subsidies. Some wouldargue that forcing people to live in theseconditions while others live in wealth is moreimmoral than asking the wealthy to help thepoor.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-ecegthwspc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While getting the private sector involved mightindeed be a more effective solution, the reality isthat many of these poor communities are groupsof outsiders. They often discriminated against bythe rest of the population, including decisionmakers from private business. For example inFrance employers databases often have theabbreviation BBR or NBBR to indicate if someoneis white.(SOS Racisme, ‘Discrimination,Présentation’) These communities often findthemselves abandoned, and at the mercy of thestate. Despite its inefficiencies, the state remainsthe main organisation capable to reaching out toall different communities, of gathering funds andredistributing them, and of making newinvestment opportunities in places where thefree market would not otherwise have createdthem. At the risk of some inefficiency, thisproblem does require solvency, and while ideallythings might run otherwise, this is the closestsolution to the problem at hand. Governmentshave also been creative with their subsidies", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This is exactly what makes HS2 a bad scheme.Yes there is overcrowding but the worstovercrowding is on peak services travelling intoLondon – commuter services – not on longdistance trains. It is notable that the operatorthat is most over capacity is First Great Westernwhich covers a route – to Reading and on toBristol, South Wales and the West country -which will be unaffected by HS2 which goesnorth.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "More capacity is needed on Britain’srailways Capacity on the railways is a bigproblem in the UK. Due to growth sinceprivatisation Britain’s railways take as manypassengers as it is physically possible to do;more than a fifth of rush hour passengers haveto stand. [1] Growth is almost certain tocontinue as the roads too are at capacity andpopulation continues to rise. The result is morerailways are needed. Rail freight meanwhile ifforecast to double by the 2040s. The West CoastMain Line is a particular bottleneck for freightwith 40% of UK freight services using the line;any increase would have to come at the expenseof passenger services. [2] Transferring the mainrail services to the high speed line would free upthe WCML to increased freight and commuter useso HS2 would not just mean an increase in longdistance capacity. [1] BBC News, ‘London-boundtrain overcrowding: 100,000 have to stand’, 24July 2013, [2] Department for Transport, ‘TheStrategic case for HS2’, gov.uk, October 2013, ,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The UK is densely populated and concentrated inone part of the country so has less need of highspeed connections. Other countries having alarge number of high speed route miles shouldnot be considered evidence that the UK needsmore or that the UK is somehow ‘behind’ asconditions vary between countries.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Faster travel between British cities The mostobvious benefit from high speed rail is thatjourney times will be less. From London thejourney to Birmingham will be reduced from 84to 49 minutes, Leeds from 132 to 82 andManchester 128 to 68. [1] While faster journeysprovide some economic benefit the are as mucha social benefit of making more places accessibleby allowing individuals to spend less timetraveling and more doing what they want towhen they get there. [1] Hs2, ‘facts, figures andjourney times’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Bridging the north south divide The UK has anorth south divide in terms of wealth andincome. London and the South East has for thelast few decades done much better than thenorth; while industry and mining in the north hasdeclined financial services in the south haveboomed. The result is inequality betweenregions. High Speed Two will help to solve thisinequality by increasing connections betweennorth and south. The government “suggests thatHS2 could provide a boost to the Birminghamcity region equivalent to between 2.1% and4.2% of its GDP. For the Manchester city regionthe figure is 0.8%-1.7%, for the Leeds cityregion 1.6%”. [1] This is because businesses willbe more likely to invest there when there isbetter infrastructure, companies based in Londonin particular will be much more likely to see thebenefits of investing in, or partnering withbusinesses in the north when they can easilyreach those cities. [1] Department forTransport, ‘The Strategic case for HS2’, gov.uk,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This makes the strange assumption that Leedsand Manchester, or even Birmingham is thenorth. In pure geographic terms they are noteven half way up the country from London –what about Newcastle and Scotland? Theevidence for the possibility of a high speedrailway helping to solve regional inequalities isdecidedly mixed. Theoretically if one region hascomparative advantage then providing it withbetter transport infrastructure should mean thatregion simply expanding its market – in this caseLondon would likely have the comparativeadvantage so increasing inequality. [1] While thishas not happened with all high speed links whatwill happen is that the regional hubs may growbut it will likely be at the expense of surroundingtowns that are not connected and areas furtheraway from the line. The government’s ownfigures estimate the cost to the North East ofScotland would be £220million per year. [2] [1]Puga, Diego, ‘Agglomeration and cross borderinfrastructure’, European Investment Bank", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "This is not going to be the case with all cities forexample journey times to Scotland could bereached for much less. With using tilting trainson the East Coast and upgrading to 140 mphrunning the journey time from London toEdinburgh would actually be marginally fasterthan using HS2. [1] The figures for the journeysavings notably exclude the possibility of fasterjourneys on the existing routes so the savingswould not be as big. [2] Because Britain’s bigcities are not particularly far apart journey timesare already not long by comparison to manycountries. Trains from London to the second cityof Manchester take just over two hours, becauseof the much longer distance from Paris toFrance’s second city even with the TGV thejourney time is about the same while from Tokyoto Osaka takes 2hours 25 minutes. [1] Webb,Jonathan, ‘East Coast Pendolinos could deliverfaster journey times than HS2 for Anglo-Scottishservices’, Global Rail News, 2 August 2013, [2]Millward, David, ‘HS2 time savings exaggerated", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Estimates and guesstimates. We don’t knowexactly how much HS2 will benefit the economyand still won’t even if it is built because we willnever know how well the alternative spending ofthe money would have affected the economy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Britain is behind the rest of Europe on high speedrail The United Kingdom has been somewhat ofa laggard when it comes to high speed rail. Inthe first half of the century Britain’s railwayswere the fastest in the world (still holding theworld speed record for steam). But since whatwe would now consider to be high speed startedwith the launch of the Shinkansen in 1964 theUK has only marginally upgraded its ownrailways to 125mph. This means the only highspeed line the UK has is the link to the channeltunnel which does not serve a large number ofinternal passengers. The UK therefore has113km of high speed rail against 1334 inGermany, 1342 in Italy, 2036 in France and3100 in Spain. Even much smaller countries suchas the Netherlands and Belgium have longer highspeed lines. [1] [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "HS2 would benefit Britain’s economy Biginfrastructure projects often provide a big boostto the economy. HS2 will do this in two ways;the first will be in the economic activity createdin building the line and the estimated 3100 jobsstaffing the railway. Much more importanthowever are the wider economic benefits. On acost-benefit basis HS2 is considered to be ‘highvalue for money’ because it will have a 1:2.3cost:benefit ratio. This ration however could beconsiderably better if ridership keeps increasingfor longer or faster than expected. The overallbenefit to the economy is estimated at £53billion. [1] [1] Department for Transport, ‘TheStrategic case for HS2’, gov.uk, October 2013, ,p.31", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The spending for HS2 would not contribute to thedeficit as it is investment that will pay back themoney over time and will also be creating assetsthat can in extremis be sold. The high cost bycomparison to other high speed networks isalmost entirely due to high land prices; thismeans that any big transport project is going tocost a similar premium.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Some of these costs have already been includedin the cost:benefit ratio such as the impact ofpollution and greenhouse gases. Moreover therehave already been changes made to ensure thatthe high speed line runs in tunnels through areaswhere the damage would otherwise besignificant. More than 50% of the route toBirmingham will be in tunnels or cuttings andmuch of the remainder will have barriers toprevent noise pollution. [1] Given the number oftunnels it is wrong to consider the railway onelong barrier to wildlife. If it is considered aserious problem then solutions would not beimmensely costly – tunnels under the trackscould be constructed for example. [1]Railway-technology.com, ‘High Speed 2 (HS2)Railway, United Kingdom’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con02a", "title": "", "text": "There are other options There are plenty ofother options that don’t have the disadvantagesof HS2 (high cost, environmental impacts etc.)but do meet most of the requirements likeincreased capacity. First because it is capacity onmain commuter lines that is mostly needed itmakes more sense to lengthen platforms andtrains, and if that is not enough raise bridges toallow double deckers on the busiest routes. Thegovernment rejected such an option in 2007 dueto the cheapest option costing £2.4billion, whichseems cheap compared to HS2. [1] Similarly ifthe capacity problem is for freight as a chunk ofthe business case is then reopening the GreatCentral Railway could be the answer – most ofthe track bed still exists. It has been proposed asa useful freight corridor that would help take theload off the West Coast. [2] Finally terms offaster journey times as already noted there islittle need for more speed in the UK but evenwithout HS2 journey times will improve as EastCoast and Great Western are to be upgraded to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Does not easily connect to the continent Wouldit not be nice to be able to travel from Edinburghstraight through to Paris without having to stopin London? This was part of the initial dream ofthe Channel Tunnel with proposals for regionalEurostar services. [1] Unfortunately HS2 will notprovide this option. There is a proposed link butit is currently single track and unlikely to beenough even to meet demand for domesticservices running around London let aloneinternational services from Birmingham andManchester. [2] The much more sensible optionof not having a terminal station, or at least somethrough platforms, has been ignored. [1] BBCNews, ‘Regions ‘cheated’ over Eurostar’, 27January 1999, [2] Railnews, ‘Rethink urgedover 'absurd' HS2-HS1 link’, 1 June 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con04a", "title": "", "text": "High speed rail never makes a profit The UKalready knows that it is difficult to make railservices pay their way, currently fares frompassengers despite regular criticism of thembeing too high, only cover 65% of operatingcosts. [1] High speed rail is no different in thisregard; most of China’s high speed lines make aloss [2] indeed the only lines to have made aprofit are Tokyo-Osaka and Paris Lyon. [3] [1]‘Rail ridership hits new highs as will regulated railfares from January 2014’, Rail.co.uk, 19 August2013, [2] Wan, Zhang, ‘High Speed Train TooExpensive’, Chienglish.com, 1 April 2013, [3]Feigenbaum, Baruch, ‘High-Speed Rail in Europeand Asia: Lessons for the United States’, ReasonFoundation, 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con03a", "title": "", "text": "HS2 is too costly HS2 is already looking verycostly. California’s San Francisco to Los AngelesHigh Speed rail is 520 miles at a cost of$68billion (£42bln), [1] HS2 will only be 33milesbut is already expected to cost about the same£42.6billion. [2] The cost has already grown andthere are regular claims even by respectedeconomics analysts such as the Institute ofEconomic Affairs that it will eventually rise to£80 billion. [3] Britain is only just recoveringfrom a long recession and does not yet have itsdeficit under control, can it really afford such animmense cost? The money could be spent on agreat many other things, not just upgrades tothe existing network but schools and hospitalstoo. [1] AP, ‘No One Knows Where The MoneyWill Come From For California's $68 Billion HighSpeed Rail Plan’, Business Insider, 3 April2012, [2] Hs2, ‘Route, Trains &Cost’, [3] Leftly, Mark, ‘The wrong side of thetracks: Lobbyists for HS2 rail line funded by thetaxpayer’, The Independent, 25 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con05b", "title": "", "text": "This is not a particularly big problem for theproject and could easily be fixed by doubling thetrack later if there proves to be sufficientdemand to justify it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con01a", "title": "", "text": "HS2 would damage the England’s green andpleasant land Railways are supposed to begreen – they produce less greenhouse gasemissions than cars or planes. Yet many of thosebenefits are sacrificed by the desire for highspeed which makes these trains much lessenvironmentally friendly than normal trains dueto the extra power necessary to reach suchspeeds. The impact on the British countrysidewill be immense. The railway will run throughfour Wildlife Trust reserves, 10 Sites of SpecialScientific Interest (SSSIs), more than 50 ancientwoodlands, and HS2 will run through 13 miles ofthe Chilterns Area of Outstanding NaturalBeauty. The result will be the fragmentation ofpopulations of insects, bats, birds and mammals.The Wildlife Trusts argue “The very last thing weshould be doing is creating new linear barriers tothe movement of wildlife.” [1] [1] The WildlifeTrusts, ‘HS2’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con04b", "title": "", "text": "We should not just be considering fares as the beall and end all. Successful rail companieselsewhere don’t tend to make a profit on ticketsales but instead through diversification. Tokyu,one of Japan’s private railways, has revenue of$2.63 billion and profits of $587millio but only athird of the revenue comes from rail fares withreal estate bringing in about the same amountand much of the rest from retail. [1] Franchisesmake this difficult to operate in the UK but HS2might have tracks/land/stations and operatingtrains integrated so providing an opportunity.Moreover it is wrong to suggest that only acouple of lines have made a profit as this is onlya couple of lines have made a profit including theimmense construction cost on the loss side of thebalance sheet. Most high speed lines at leastbreak even without subsidies after a few years ofoperation, as has been the case in Taiwan [2] –which is better than Britain’s other railways. [1]Jaffe, Eric, ‘The Secret to Tokyo’s Rail Success’,The Atlantic, 18 May 2012, [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-epeghwbhst-con02b", "title": "", "text": "None of the alternatives is a comprehensivesolution and particularly not to the capacityproblem. What happens once the double deckertrains are at capacity? Then you are back tothinking of building new lines. Upgrading existinglines would require 14 years of weekend closuresto allow the needed capacity increases. Thiswould be “a patch and mend job that wouldcause 14 years of gridlock, hellish journeys andrail replacement buses. The three main routes tothe north would be crippled and the economywould be damaged.” [1] The difference betweenHS1 and the upgrade to the West Coast MainLine should also be mentioned. HS1 was a standalone line that was on time and on budget, [2]WCML on the other hand was £6 billion overbudget, four years late and caused immenseamounts of disruption to passengers, what’sworse is the proposed upgrade part of the planto make the line 140mph capable wasabandoned. [3] [1] Syal, Rajeev, ‘HS2alternatives could require 14 years of weekend", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Grey imports limit a company's control over itsown products. Many manufacturers/distributorswish to control their distribution outlets for soundcommercial reasons, for example, to protect theimage of their brand. This becomes very difficult,possibly impossible, to do if grey imports areallowed, as this circumvents their planneddistribution network. It becomes much harder fora manufacturer/ distributor to track theirproducts where they have been used in a greyimportation. This can lessen their effectivenesswhen they need this information, such as for asafety recall. \"It is unclear whether adequatemechanisms are in place to adequately recallparallel trade medicines. Batch number recordingis not consistently applied throughout the supplychain and in practice may make comprehensiveproduct recall difficult, creating a risk to patientsafety\". 1 1 Trade and Industry Committee,Eighth Report, 29 June 1999", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Allowing grey goods breaks down monopoliesand passes on lower prices toconsumers. Allowing grey imports means thatmanufacturers do not concentrate economicpower in a monopolistic way which can bedamaging to free trade (even AdamSmith1believed certain monopolies wereantithetical to free trade). Banning them istantamount to granting a licensed monopoly orcartel on a country-by-country basis, whichinevitably means higher prices for consumers. Asmanufacturing has increasingly been relocatedinto a smaller number of offshore countries,rather than in the country of purchase, it makessense that other parts of the supply chain shouldmake a similar move so that they too can realisethe efficiency benefits of a globalisedeconomy. 1 Smith, Adam, \"An Inquiry into theNature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations\"1776", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It may be impossible to completely stop suchimports however the vast majority of shops willnot import these items while they are notallowed to. Opening the market up will simplylead to a flood of imports with a resulting effecton native manufacturing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Buyers benefit from grey imports, in the form ofgreater consumer choice. Consumers benefitfrom grey imports. The economics of greyimportation drives sourcing to low-costeconomies. Even if retailers take some of thisbenefit as improved profit margins, typically atleast some of it will be passed on to consumersin the form of reduced prices. Grey imports alsoallow consumers to buy products that may notyet be available in their own market, becausethey have not yet been released, or because intheir market the manufacturer feels there isinsufficient demand. Thus, grey imports expandconsumer choice. Many films, DVD's and videogames are released in one region months beforeothers, and grey imports allow enthusiasts toaccess their favoured products earlier than theyotherwise would1. 1 Bun, Mara and Horrocks,Steve, 'In Support of Parallel Imports of CDs',Australian Consumers' Association, February1998", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Consumers do not really benefit overall fromgrey imports. Although manufacturers mayreduce prices in some (typically, richer)countries, they are at least as likely to raiseprices in less developed economies, deprivingconsumers there of access to internationalbrands and luxury goods, and so depriving themof a real choice and in some cases the fullproduct.1 In addition, they will still have to payall the taxes and the losses from lack ofregulation which have been avoided in some wayor lose the services those taxes provide. The lossof revenue from grey imports can mean thatproduction is limited or even halted goingforward, even though there is market demandfor more products from the manufacturer. Thefilm industry shows this clearly. Manufacturerprotections of their products (for example regionspecific DVD's and PCs) actually increase costsfor all consumers. 1 Etherington-Smith, James,'\"Grey\" imports: The black and white of it',mybroadband.co.za, 14 December 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Free trade involves a principle of free will. Thebuyer should be able to decide to whom hewishes to sell and on what terms, and if theseller does not accept those terms then thebuyer should be able to refuse to deal with him.Manufacturers can have many good reasons forchoosing to price goods at different levels indifferent countries, such as their wish to build along-term brand preference by cheaper initialmarketing in a developing economy, or theirdesire to maintain an aura of exclusivity inmature markets through high pricing andconfining sales to specialist retailers. Greyimports result in the manufacturer/ distributoreffectively losing some, and often most, controlof their pricing and retailing strategy in theimporting country. This reduces their capacity toposition the brand as they see appropriate. Inextremis, a company can be put out of businessin one nation by its own operations overseas!", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Impossible to Stop. Governments might as wellaccept that allowing retailers to sell grey goodshas benefits because government will never beable to completely prevent such imports.Government regulation may prevent mostretailers from selling grey goods but it won't stopall. For example Tesco in the UK sold cut priceLevi jeans for years, and fought Levi Strauss inthe courts for four years to try and keep sellingthem.1 If even the biggest retailers are willing tosell grey goods unless stopped by the courtsmany smaller ones will be getting through thenet. Moreover consumers will simply buy thegoods elsewhere, particularly online. Thegovernment should instead legalise the import ofgrey goods so that it can make sure that theseimports are of a high standard and do not breakany other standards 1 BBC News, 'Tescodefeated in cheap jeans battle', 31 July 2002,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The free movement of goods is consistent withthe basic principles of free trade Allowing greyimports is consistent with the basic principles offree trade. (Free trade principles – WTO1) If amanufacturer/distributor is selling the same itemat different prices in two countries, free marketeconomics suggests that the rational purchaserwill purchase in the cheaper of the two,presuming, for example, that the difference willnot be wholly swallowed up by transaction andtransportation costs or taxes. If this logic holdsfor a consumer choosing between two jeansshops in his town, it must also hold for a retailerchoosing between a jeans manufacturer’s pricelists in two countries. Until recently, there was aninformation asymmetry (rational marketsrequiring information symmetry), as themanufacturer knew about their differentialpricing, but the purchaser did not; informationtechnology has now changed the equation andallowed the market to operate more efficiently.Not only this, but consumers can already buy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "A free flow in goods is a desirable end in itself.The rational, efficient supply chain of greyimports reflects the ideal of the free market.Moving it from the shadows to a position oflegitimacy would make it even more efficient, byreducing the effort currently employed to keepthe imports' trail hidden, etc. There is also jobcreation involved in the distribution network. Forexample, the logistics and transportationactivities involved in grey imports will create newwork as the trade grows.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Grey imports benefit the importing economy. Assome grey imports will be products originallytargeted at a foreign market but which turn outto achieve some popularity in the host market,they increase foreign trade. In this way, greyimports act to internationalise consumer tastesand cross-cultural understanding. Through thedownward pressure on retail prices, grey importswill also encourage industry to more efficiency,as ultimately factory gate prices will be expectedto fall too. This leads to rising living standards inthe cheaper economy as prices balance out, aswe can see in for example China, with it's recentmassive rises in living standards.1 1 Mortishead,Carl, ‘China’s rising living standard cranks upresource competition’ The Australian, 18 October2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Once a good has been sold, manufacturers haveno business telling their customers how to use it.This includes selling that good on. In general wedo not accept as moral or socially permissible theidea that the makers of a good can tell theircustomers where and when they may use thatgood, who they may give it to, where and when.Car manufacturers do not sell cars on the basisyou will only drive to the shops and back, clothesmakers do not sell clothes on the basis you willonly wear them on Sundays or every full moon.Limiting customer ability to resell items theyhave paid for in full is irrational and immoral.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Grey imports limit a company's control over itsown products. A free flow of goods is not alwaysan automatic good. The extra transport andpollution involved in grey imports alone is aserious argument against it. Grey importersoften do not make clear that products sold underthe same brand name in different markets are infact sometimes tailored to suit the local marketenvironment. So, for example, one of thereasons for lower pricing in some products inparticular countries is that they do not include allof the same ingredients as a product sold underthe same brand name in another country. Thiscan be, for example, because the performanceneeds (e.g. the climate), regulatory framework,or consumers' willingness to pay in the twocountries vary. Accordingly, in the importingcountry, consumers may end up paying for afamiliar brand that is not actually as welldesigned for their needs as the domesticallymarketed version. 1 There are many practicalproblems with grey importation. For example,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Grey goods come into the country, but moneygoes out, weakening the economy. Grey importsdamage the importing economy. By reducing theprofitability of the manufacturer/distributor inthe importing country, grey imports accordinglyoften lessen the amount of money that thecompany can invest in its operations in thatcountry. This is a vicious circle which may reducedemand and so lead to greater inefficiencies inofficial importation. An acceptance of imports –especially of unclear provenance – hastens thedemise of the manufacturing base of theimporting country.1 The manufacturer will haveless reason to support the brand locally through,for example, advertising, as the benefit does notshow up in their local results and, in any case,grey imports tends to start focusing consumers’minds on price rather than the brand identity.This can be detrimental to the advertising andmedia spend in the importing country, which fora premium consumer goods brand (e.g. perfume,clothing) could represent quite a significant", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-beghwarirgg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While we do not see limitations on reselling bycustomers in general, there are, in fact, a goodfew occasions where such limitations on resellingand use occur. Books and other media arelimited through copyright laws in their ability tobe legitimately re-sold, motor insurance isindeed sold at least partly on the basis of whatyou are going to do with your vehicle.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-tiacphbtt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "We need to be critical of the cumulative potentialof the tax model proposed. Firstly, the theory ofthe state’s capacity and how it functions inpractice differ substantially. The idea of taxationacting to enhance the productive capacity of anation is based on assumptions that theinstitutions, human resources, andstate-capacity, are already present. This is notalways the case in Africa. Corruption and badgovernance are prevalent. Reforms in 1996 tocurb corruption in the TRA were reversed due tomisunderstanding the nature of corruptionamongst tax officials and administration(Fjelstad, 2003). Tax-revenue performanceremains comparatively low [1] , there is littlereason to simply altering what taxes there arewill change this. Finally, alternative methods canbe used to assist rural infrastructure projects,and enable national savings. For example,revising the role of agricultural marketing boards[2] . [1] See further readings: Gray and Kahn,2010. [2] See further readings: Baffes, 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-tiacphbtt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Building productive capacity through increasingrevenue Between 2003-2009 the annual growthrate of mobile cellular subscriptions in Tanzaniawas 44.21%, higher than the average in Africa(Ondiege, 2010). Estimations suggest around18bn Tsh [1] will be collected a month throughthe SIM card tax model (Rweyemamu, 2013). In2012, Tanzania’s total GDP was calculated at~45tr Tsh [2] - the tax could therefore providealmost 0.5% of GDP in taxes. Such a boost ingovernment taxation will enable projects such asimproving rural infrastructure (includingpotentially mobile phone coverage!) or helpreduce the deficit. That one tax can raise somuch shows the potential of this kind oftaxation. [1] Equates to ~11.2mn USD (January2013). [2] Calculated based on World Bank Data(2013) and exchange rate as per January 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-tiacphbtt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The SIM card taxation is an inequitable model forTanzania’s poor. The tax fee proposed will havedetrimental effects to low-income users, wherebythe cost exceeds the amount of money theyspend on their mobile. For example consideringthe cost of tax, living, and mobile phone usage,the poor may be placed in a vulnerable position.Evidence suggests 8 million out of 22 million SIMcard owners will be affected - with the rural poorfeeling the greatest economic burden [1] . Theburden of taxation may simply mean the poorcan’t afford a phone. Taxation cannot bepromoted without recognising the constraints onhousehold savings and income. Universalbenefits are debatable when the initial disposableincome is polarised to start - the price tag isnot-so-small for some. [1] See further readings:BBC, 2013; Luhwago, 2013.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-tiacphbtt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The importance of mobilising domesticresources In order to sustain development andgrowth nations need to build domestic resourcemobilisation capacities - through collecting taxand savings. Domestic resource mobilisationenables the transition into a capitalist mode ofproduction - poverty can be targeted andsufficient economies built. Social and economicfacilities can be provided. To meet theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) andenhance performance capacity Africannation-states need to improve the amount offunding they raise through taxes [1] . In orderfor development to be assisted, internationaldonors and intervention needs to focus onencouraging innovative models of taxation suchas taxing mobile phones. Such taxes don’t havethe track record of failure other taxes haveproviding a new opportunity to redesign thetaxation system. Initiatives such as the mobilephone tax provide a trial for such a new modelhelping to gain support for future changes. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-tiacphbtt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Taxation remains a vital component of domesticresource mobilisation however focus needs to beplaced on improving Tanzania’s top revenuesources before innovative new models. Althoughthe performance of tax collection has improved -with tax revenues rising by a rate of 15.7%between 1996/97 and 2007/08 (AfDB, 2011)taxation does not reach many areas that couldbe taxed; despite increasing exports of mineralsand natural resources,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-tiacphbtt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "A fair tax The model is for rolling out a tax forall, on a commodity used by all. The cost is smalland fair, only applying to individuals who areable to afford to buy and use a working mobilephone. Those who can afford multiple phones willbe hit harder so this is a progressivetax. Arguments suggesting the tax cost isunreasonable fails to look at the politicsconstructing such a discourse and manipulatingwhat collected tax can do. Motivations foropposition are not necessarily emerging out ofconcern for individuals’ well-being, but ratherhave alternative motives. The MOAT (MobileOperators Association of Tanzania) oppose thetax fearing profit margins may decline; andpoliticians may use fear over the new tax policyto gain political support for oppositional parties.The opposition of the operators however merelyreaffirms that it is a fair tax and those who wouldsupport opposition to the measure can be wonround through explaining this.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-tiacphbtt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The SIM card tax is actually under-ambitious forpotential change to be maximised. Nevertheless,the tax initiates a step in the right direction.Firstly, it will ensure reductions are made in taxavoidance. Secondly, the model shows thepotential role the private-sector can play in taxcollection. Decentralisation, and shiftingresponsibility, to independent providers meansvaluable resources can be collected outside ofthe criticised TRA structure. For example, theAssociation of Tanzania Employers may begranted greater involvement in enhancingcorporate tax collection. Estimations suggestcorporate tax exemptions resulted in annualrevenue losses of 4% between 2011-2012(Gaddis, 2013). The SIM card tax indicatesdomestic resources can be mobilised byengaging in public-private partnerships. Forprogressive tax systems, Tanzania needs toutilise private actors.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-tiacphbtt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "With mobile phones now a crucial commodity foreveryday life, the digital revolution will not bestopped by the SIM card tax. The initial reactionto the tax may result in a temporary decline innew subscriptions and SIM card set-up, however,in the long-run subscriptions will continue to rise.Many people are willing to spend large amountson a new phone; the addition of a tax will notdeter them.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-tiacphbtt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Taxes cannot be justified while the network ispoor Can taxation be justified when the networkremains poor, limited, and temperamental innumerous locations? Network coverage inTanzania is 2G and geographically concentrated(see MDI, 2013). It must be improved before thegovernment begins to use it as a tax resource.Tanzania’s Right to Information Act recognisesthat government transparency and publicinformation is a right. Therefore increasing costson how people access information, and failing toprovide good service, neglects individual rights.A right to information is not just a right toinformation for those who can afford the tax.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-tiacphbtt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Quick-fix policies: a failing model ofimplementation Tax evasion remains a keyconcern across Tanzania. There remains a lowtax base and high evasion. Imposing a quick-fixsolution by taxing mobile phones fails to solveunderlying issues. The model is widening thebase of taxation, whilst neglecting the issue oftax evasion. Therefore, to what extent will themodel provide future benefits? Domesticresource policies need to ensure the taxationenables state-building and future capacities toimpose tax more effectively and equally. Themodel relied on MOAT to collect taxes monthly,reducing the need for the TRA to construct afunctioning tax-collection system or resolvesocial resistance to taxation. This then iseffectively privatising a vital state function.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-tiacphbtt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Halting the technological revolution The taxcreates disincentives when we consider thepotential losses that will result in the technologysector. The technological revolution in Tanzaniawill be jeopardised. The growth of mobile phonesacross Tanzania indicates the emergence of a‘network society [1] ’ but if the population stopsbuying mobile phones this will end. Taxing SIMcards may deter individuals from buying mobiledevices, due to the additional cost. Further,alternatively if the manufacturers and providersattempt to take the burden of the tax to keep theprice of a mobile down then supply will beaffected. Currently individuals use multipleservice providers to get cheaper phone callrates; however, this would no longer be asensible option. Taxing SIM cards will introducecosts to the entrepreneurship and serviceprovision operating through mobiles. Technologyholds great benefits within the twenty-firstcentury; imposing taxation acts to excludeaccess and limit potential job opportunities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-economy-tiacphbtt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The SIM card tax will provide positive knock-oneffects for network expansion and improvement.By enforcing tax payment to individual users,mobile phone customers are able to demandbetter service quality and distribution. Thepublic-sector have the obligation andresponsibility to ensure tax can be justified sowill encourage the development of the network –and if necessary use some of the taxes raised topay for it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwlavpiems-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Even though this point correctly presents atheoretical possibility, the reality is different.Europe has since come up with an alternativesolution that means the need for unanimity doesnot always mean decision-making can be slowedby a spoiler; the opt-out. Countries can negotiateto opt out of further integration on areas wherethey believe their national interests arethreatened. This then allows all the other statesto carry on with integration without risking aveto from the states that do not wish to followthat path. What further corroborates this point isthat since Luxembourg accord, nothing similarhas ever occurred, and even the compromiseallowing for invoking national interests to haltQMV is no longer used. Thus it is irrational tofear “empty chairs” now, when all the states areaware of the possibility of a stalemate, andwould, perhaps, never wanted to be heldaccountable for such situation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwlavpiems-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Unanimity requirement gives an enormousbargaining leverage to the hands of individualstates Unanimous voting provides statesseeking additional gains with a tool to actuallyachieve their egoistic goals. In order for thewhole Union to pass legislation that would bebeneficial to all, a single state has power tonegotiate further benefits for itself, thus holdingup a deal and sometimes making it lessbeneficial for others. Similar concerns wereexpressed in the EU Commission White Paper onEuropean Governance as consensus requirement“often holds policy-making hostage to nationalinterest”. [1] What is more, such behavior setsdangerous precedents that nations can putnational interests in front of communal,effectively deteriorating the cooperative spirit ofthe EU and eventually destroying it altogether.As Sieberson claims [2] , such was the case ofFrench objections to the Treaty of Romeregarding the wider use of qualified majorityvoting in the fields of agriculture and the internal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwlavpiems-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "This argument is based on the premise thatfederalization is a great idea. But, is it? It is hardto assess the extent to which federalization ofthe EU help make it a better union. What is clear,however, is that there are a whole load ofquestions to be answered before a federal unionis attempted. As Cocodia [1] concludes “…if itmust be, [it] ought to be a very slow andcautious project which should not be embarkedupon unless issues such as group relations,societal culture/language and trust have beenproperly addressed.” These group relations andtrust require that individual members concernsnot be ignored. A sustainable federal unionwould be able to coexist with a veto because itwould mean interests are close enough togetherthat it would almost never be used. [1] Cocodia,J 2010, ‘Problems of Integration in a FederalEurope’, Crossroads, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 57-81,viewed 1 October 2013, < .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwlavpiems-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The requirement for unanimity isundemocratic European Union has been basedon principles of solidarity and mutual help. Thismeans that sometimes, in order to ensure the‘greater good’, one has to forgo a bit of his ownself-interest. Because European Union holdstogether 28 culturally and economically differentcountries, qualified majority voting is sufficientto ensure that no state will be harmed by thedecisions made on the international level. Thefact that some states would like to retain theirright of veto undermines the basic principles ofthe EU because no such process, where a singlestate is able to prevent majority from adopting ameasure can be called democratic. It this systemthe minority, or individual state, can ignore thewill of the majority indefinitely. Moreover,Zamora (in Sieberson, 2010) [1] states that“international agreement is impossible to obtainwhen any single participant can block a decision;to achieve unanimous consent… a decision mustbe diluted so as to please everyone,” concluding", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwlavpiems-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This is not completely true. The EU’s veryeconomically successful pre-crisis state suggeststhat many of the decisions adopted by the EU arenot “diluted to the point of being ineffective” andthat in fact, EU works quite well. Although thereare stark differences between individual memberstates they are able to overcome them and workmeaningfully as a collective when progress isnecessary. States are willing to sacrifice theirinterests in some areas if they get something inreturn elsewhere, or believe they will in thefuture. Therefore even if we accept the assertionthat unanimous requirement is undemocratic, ina society with knowledgeable individuals, theveto is only used as a last resort. Thus whathappens is that the allegedly \"undemocratic\"process functions as well as democratic process,but on top has an additional check or balance toprevent anything that is found particularlyegregious to pass.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwlavpiems-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Disposing of unanimity requirement would makeit easier advance the long-needed federalizationof the European Union With Greece as a trigger,the Eurozone and the whole EU have significantlysuffered in the last five years as a result ofmassive and still on-going economic crisis. TheEuro currency is, damaged by the vastdifferences between individual Eurozonemembers, with respect to their fiscal andmonetary policies. While some states (commonlyreferred to as PIIGS) do have bigger problemswith their finances, it is unthinkable for theothers to be held responsible when seriousissues, such as an inability to pay the debts,arise. Nevertheless, this was the case withGreece, when tens of billions of taxpayers’money were used to service debts of oneirresponsible state. Despite more than 50% ofprivate sector debt being cut down by creditors,the threat of Greece’s default still lingers in theair. Getting rid of the unanimity requirementwould make Europe much more able to respond", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwlavpiems-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Similarly to the first counter-point, it is arguableto what extent it is true marginalization ofsmaller states when these states comply withterms of agreements. Why do they not seekfurther steps to avoid being included in such“disadvantageous” changes, e.g. opt-outs? Also,if the marginalization was truly that apparent it isto be believed that these states would try to, forinstance, change the QMV weighting. This hashowever not happened. Once again, does it notonly prove that what is attempted to be satisfiedis only selfishness and not common goals aimedtowards improving life of the whole EU?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwlavpiems-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Federalization is a continual and on-goingprocess. It does not happen overnight, and mostimportantly, it has been happening ever sincethe ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community)was founded. Therefore it is incorrect to thinkthat there is anything like ‘hidden federalization,’when its driving force are revisions of thecommon treaties which are agreed upon by allthe member states. It is essential to point outthat the EU is a democratic union, and memberstates joined the EU of their own accord.Becoming more federal would not affect this,there are many federal states that aredemocratic and not artificial such as Germanyand the United States. Disposing of theunanimity requirement is not in any way harmingthe democratic principle of the EU as thechanges will still have to be passed by QualifiedMajority Vote. Strikingly, for many this is notenough, and other members have to understandthat maybe without those who are not willing tomove forward, the EU would be better off, what", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwlavpiems-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The EU was based on the grounds of solidarityand the unanimity requirements ensures that nostate will be repressed for the “greatergood” While understanding the need tocompromise, members of the EU are verydifferent meaning that hardly any importantdecision made will fit all universally. Theunanimity requirement is needed only in fewexceptional cases, such as for common foreignand security policy, which is completelyunderstandable, since it is hardly imaginable thata successful union can act internationally as awhole without the consent of all members.Members clearly need to decide between them,as they do now, which areas need unanimity. Itwill then only be applied to issues where thereshould be no shortcuts when discussing andmaking decisions. The unanimity requirementprovides states with a guarantee that they willnot be left out of the debate and that their voicematters equally, whatever the size andinternational position of the state. Without this", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwlavpiems-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Qualified majority voting (QMV – an alternativeto the unanimity requirement) favors big statesand marginalizes the others QMV in the Councilbefore the accession of Croatia required 74.8%of the votes (258 out of 345). These votes aredetermined by an equation that takes intoaccount size of population, e.g. Germany has 29votes while Malta has only 3 votes. Also, aMember State may ask that the qualifiedmajority represents at least 62% of the totalpopulation of EU. This system, as Novak puts it,may be potentially oblivious to the needs ofsmaller states as “the presidency and theCommission seek the support of big countries asa priority because they thereby achieve aqualified majority more quickly.” Furthermore,Novak continues that sometimes, small countrieslack resources and large civil services “whichseems to lead them pretty mechanically to relyon the Commission’s expertise, or, less often, onthat of representatives of big countries.” [1]There we see that substituting unanimity", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwlavpiems-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Disposing of the unanimity requirements isessentially only hidden federalization of theEuropean Union With the recent developmentsin the EU, the potential that some states mayleave is a growing concern. People’s opiniontowards the EU is becoming increasinglynegative (trust towards EU has in 2012,compared to 2007, declined in all the nationsexcept for Belgium). [1] This stems mainly fromthe fact that the EU is forcefully trying to invadethe decision-making process of the sovereignmembers. Directives and regulations influencinglives within the nations agreed on at thesupranational level, often it is felt without ademocratic mandate, are not kindly welcomed.Therefore it is to no amazement that taking awaythe unanimity requirement, which is now used inthe most important and controversial changes,would create huge pressure on the nationalparliaments to oppose such dictatorship. Fisherargues the idea of federal states “shows itself tobe an artificial construct which ignores the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwlavpiems-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Unlike the former Soviet Union, the EuropeanUnion is no ‘jail’ and members can, even thoughsuch move would be unprecedented, leave theunion at any time. It is therefore hard to define‘oppressing for greater good’ when we realizethat the state tacitly agrees to it by staying inthe union, possibly because the membership isstill beneficial, even if we consider the‘oppression’ in question. In this case then arethese ‘oppressed’ state not just lusting forsomething more rather than a reasonableconcern regarding the national interests?Continuing in this line of thought, is this not theexact opposite of what the members shouldattempt to do? In cases where a state loses theyshould recognise that in some cases they willgain and others loose.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "While African governments may be good atprofessing to want cooperation and integrationthe reality on the ground lags behind thisconsiderably. No regional trade block has yetbeen really successful in creating a free tradearea let alone a customs union andprotectionism, restrictive trade practices andimport bans often remain. [1] The effectivenessand chances of integration through free trade arealso greatly reduced by almost all the potentialmember states having very similar economiesthat rely on the export of primary goods. Thismakes specialisation and a concentration ontrade within the block difficult without a completerestructuring of countries economies. Moreoverfree trade requires effective infrastructure,something Africa is lacking. [2] Integration istherefore unlikely to go anywhere and even if itdoes it may have little effect. [1] Gumede,William, ‘Saving Africa’s free trade area fromfailure’, Pambazika News, Issue 553, 20 October2011. [2] Goodridge, R.B., ‘Chapter 3: Factors", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "There is already some African integration thatcan be built on. While African integration hasbeen slow there has been real progress inconstructing the building blocks to allow furtherintegration. African countries are alreadysomewhat integrated: for example 14 countriesin West and Central Africa use the CFA franc ascurrency [1] and there are regional blocks inWest Africa and East Africa. The existence ofthese regional free trade areas the EconomicCommunity of Central African States (ECCAS),the Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS), the East African Community (EAC),Common Market for Eastern and SouthernAfrican Countries (COMESA), and the SouthernAfrican Development Community (SADC) willeventually provide the springboard for furtherintegration throughout the whole of Africa. [2]The latter three of these communities havesigned a memorandum of understanding tocooperate on integration and harmonise areassuch as trade. [3] More importantly, despite", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Many of Africa’s wars are ethnic conflicts (i.e.Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, the Congo). Theseconflicts will not be dissipated by simplyredrawing – or attempting to dissolve - nationalborders. Instead of integration if borders are theproblem then Africa needs to be redrawn intosmaller states based on ethnicity as in Europe.Secessionist would then movements woulddisappear, each state could have its ownlanguage so facilitating democracy, there wouldbe no more identity politics and each state,though smaller would be stronger. [1] Only whenthis is done can these states begin continentalintegration. [1] Zachary, G. Pascal, ‘AfricaNeeds a New Map’, Foreign Policy, 28 April 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The AU can bring peace to thecontinent Integration can bring peace; just likethe European Union has in Europe. Since the fallof the Berlin Wall, the UN has slowly changed itsrelationship with regional organizations. It ismore willing and through its agenda for peacehas been demanding that regional organizationsbe responsible for peacekeeping, state-buildingand humanitarian assistance. [1] Part of thereasoning is that these states are more sensitiveto local customs, concerns and diplomacy.Already, the African Union has taken on severalpeacekeeping initiatives; first in Burundi in2003m and more recently on-going missions inin Darfur, Sudan, since 2004 and in Somaliasince 2007. [2] The AU also allows regionaleconomic communities to take a lead inresponding threats to peace so allowing action tobe taken at the appropriate level. [3] [1]Department of Peacekeeping Operations,‘Cooperation between the United Nations andRegional Organisations/arrangements in a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There is too much distrust amongst the AU’smembership already: Liberia, Guinea and SierraLeone all accuse each other of backing rebelmovements in their respective civil wars. The UNis asking regional organizations to shoulder someof its \"peace and security\" responsibilities out ofdesperation, as prompted by its failure inRwanda, not as part of some strategy. InKosovo, NATO had to intervene because Russiablocked any UN action at the Security Council.There are as yet no other successful examples ofregional organizations (i.e. ASEAN, APEC, OAS)getting involved in a military conflict andsuccessfully bringing peace.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Integration will fix the problem of borders Forsome commentators, Africa’s biggest problem isthat its countries are remnants of colonialempires. In the post-colonial period, borderswere drawn between states randomly, creatingethnic tension and geographic dissonance.Qaddafi argued that peace will break out whenAfrica’s borders disappear. As Saadi Touvalargued “The borders are blamed for thedisappearance of a unity which supposed existedin Africa in precolonial times… The borders areconsidered to be one of the humiliating legaciesof colonialism, which, according to this view,independent Africa ought to abolish”. [1] Thoughunification is the end goal, the short-termobjective is to create an African free trade areawith some semblance of regional organization.Most importantly, the AU has abandoned thenotion of absolute \"state sovereignty\": it can\"peer review\" the human rights and politicalsituation in any of its members. [2] The EU wasestablished after WWII to assist in the rebuilding", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Africa also has advantages that Europe did nothave; there is no cold war dividing the continentinto opposing armed camps, there are now manysuccessful examples of developing worldcountries industrialising to draw on, andorganisations like the EU that have forged onahead have shown up some of the potentialproblems for Africa to avoid. Kofi Annan has alsonoted that Europe too started integration with adevastated continent \"That, Excellencies, shouldbe our aim - to rebuild, as Europe did, after aseries of devastating wars, uniting across olddivisions to build a continent characterized bypeace, cooperation, economic progress and therule of law.\" [1] Moreover some of Africa’sdisadvantages could potentially be turned intoadvantages if integration is managed correctly.Africa’s lack of industrialisation for examplemeans that member states can choose tospecialise in complementary areas as theyindustrialise. [1] Annan, Kofi, ‘Call forLeadership in Africa’, Business Day, 10 July", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "While it used to be correct that Africa prizedsovereignty above everything else, includingstability, [1] this is no longer the case. Just bysigning up to the African Union states wereshowing that they were now willing to cede somesovereignty to the organisation as it involvedceding some power to the Pan African Parliamentand the African Court of Justice and HumanRights. [2] Some sovereign power is also cededto the Assembly of the AU, composed of heads ofstate and government, as while decisions arepreferably by consensus it can also be by a twothirds majority, and the decision is still bindingon the minority that disagrees. [3] Moreover theprotocols establishing all of these bodiesanticipate more powers slowly being transferredto them. In particular the Pan African parliamentwill slowly gain the power to legislate much asthe European Parliament does. [1] Zachary, G.Pascal, ‘Africa Needs a New Map’, Foreign Policy,28 April 2010. [2] Wachura, George Mukundi,‘Sovereignty and the ‘United States of Africa’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "African international organisations do not have ahistory of effectiveness In its thirty-nine yearhistory, the predecessor of the AU, the OAU isalmost universally judged as an abysmal failure.[1] It failed to challenge any major dictator onthe continent and stood idle while civil war,ethnic conflict, poverty and disease ravagedordinary Africans. Idi Amin, the former Ugandandespot, even served as the OAU chairman for abrief spell. Its only success was in preserving thenotion of sovereign borders in Africa. The AUsuffers many of the old problems of the OAU;particularly its capabilities falling well short ofthe ambitious rhetoric. The institution still doesnot have mechanisms to enforce or evenencourage compliance so cannot resolveconflicts. When conflicts arise there has beendifficulty getting action from the AU due to apreference for consensus and even if there isagreement the Union does not have thecapability to intervene. [2] [1] Amoo, SamuelG., ‘The OAU and African Conflicts: Past", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The role of leaders will prevent success Apan-African organization must be willing to standup to African dictators and military rulers, thereal cause of bloodshed and poverty on thecontinent. So far the AU has failed in thismission: Zimbabwe’s Robert Mugabe is a chartermember of the AU and the AU has done little toencourage him to relinquish control of hiscountry. It continued this trend by beingunwilling to recognise the Libyan rebels untilafter the capital, Tripoli, had fallen. [1] Theconflict in Libya showed that are still happy tosupport autocrats and unwilling to championdemocracy. [2] So long as this is the case the AUwill be unable to pool sovereignty in the way theEuropean Union has as these individuals areunwilling to give up power, whether that is inelections or to international organisations. [1]Adedoja, Tokunbo, and Oyedele, Damilola, ‘AtLast, AU Recognisis Libyan Rebels’, This DayLive, 21 September 2011. [2] Tostevin,Matthew, ‘Has the African Union got Libya", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The AU faces immense challenges that did notaffect Europe The AU’s model, the EU, is awork-in-progress. Even in Europe, there is someconcern that the EU will not hold and the Eurocrisis has shown the difficulties in integratingeconomies. Even if the EU were a perfect model,it was established in a time of peace. In Africa,war still rages in parts of the continent; such asSomalia, Congo, and Mali. And in Europe,unification is broadly supported by internationaland economic heavyweights: Britain, France andGermany. In Africa, the comparable AU anchorsare Nigeria and South Africa, neither of whichcan guarantee AU commitments bythemselves. Africa also has huge economicconcerns that don’t plague Europe: most Africancountries trade with their former colonialmasters rather than each other, Africas tradewith itself is on average only 10% of trade, [1]and the standard of living varies widely acrossthe continent (e.g. South Africa’s GDP is tentimes that of Nigeria). Finally it should be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Africa prizes sovereignty In Africa as elsewherewhere there has been decolonisation thecountries prize their independence. This isentirely understandable, but it makes it unlikelythat they will be willing to forgo their sovereigntyin the near future. Indeed notwithstanding thegoal of integration one of the objectives of theAU is ‘To defend the sovereignty, territorialintegrity and independence of its MemberStates’. [1] So long as there are internal conflictsand a need for state building then it is correctthat this should come first before integration. AsUN Secretary-General Kofi Annan has noted, \"noamount of aid or trade will make the difference\"unless war ends on the continent. [2] Moreoverthe larger nations in Africa; South Africa, Nigeria,and Kenya need to be on-board if any real unionis to be effective. However sovereignty is moreimportant to these states as they have realinfluence as independent nations and as a resultthey are the least enthusiastic about integration.[3] [1] ‘African Union in a nutshell’, African", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "First of all Africa is becoming more democratic;in 1983 there were only three democracies inAfrica but by 2010 this had increased to 23 andwith this comes an increase in accountability anddesire both for cooperation with neighbours andfor economic liberalisation. [1] While individualscertainly dominate African politics and oftenpower is more concentrated in their hands thanin more mature democracies this can be anadvantage. If these leaders do want to movetowards a closer union they can potentially do somuch faster than countries where many moreinterest groups need to be taken intoaccount. [1] ‘Emerging Africa: How 17 Countriesare Leading the Way’, Devprac.org.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbiataucs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "We should not be tarring the AU with the failuresof the OAU. The objectives of the AU aredifferent than that of the OAU. To begin, it ismodelled on the European Union, a successfulblueprint for building regional institutions andalliances. Second, the AU has already acceptedthe need for more coercive measures and as aresult used sanctions nine times between itsfoundation and 2011 in response tounconstitutional changes of government. [1] Thecommon electoral standards already call forindependent observers before and after anynational election so encouraging goodgovernance. And the peace and security councilhas the authority to send troops to stop crimesagainst humanity or war crimes. The buzzwordat the AU is \"people-centred\" as opposed to theOAU’s focus on state sovereignty. [1] Williams,Paul D., ‘The African Union’s ConflictManagement Capabilities’, Council on ForeignRelations, October 2011, pp.17-18.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "These terrorist camps are the responsibility of afew within the Eritrean government, such asColonel Tewolde Habte Negash, not the many. Inother areas, Eritrea has been cooperative withthe global war on terror. In 2012 Eritreaprovided over flight clearance to the US air forcein regional security operations2. 1) Connell,D.‘Eritrea/Ethiopia War Looms’, 2 October 2005 2)Office of the coordinator for counterterrorism‘Country Reports on Terrorism 2012 Chapter 2:Africa’ 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The government has supported terroristorganisations Accusations have been madeagainst Eritrea claiming that they have supportedterrorist groups, particularly those operating inneighbouring countries. Eritrea has been accusedof supporting al-Shabaab, an al-Qaeda affiliatedterrorist group in Somalia who also operate inKenya, as well as several other secessionistgroups. Training camps have reportedly beenestablished within Eritrea, several of which wereattacked by Ethiopia in 20121. The attempts todestabilise East Africa have naturally led tointernational condemnation, especially from theUSA whose “War on Terror” was contradicted byEritrea’s action2. This would suggest thatEritrea’s own actions are responsible for theirisolation. 1) Smith,D. ‘Ethiopian raid on Eritreanbases raises fears of renewed conflict’, 16 March2012 2) BBC, ‘US sanctions on Eritrea spy chiefNegash over al-Shabab’, 6 July 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Many states commit human rights abuse but stillenjoy inclusivity in the international system.China has been associated with mass humanrights abuse1, yet they are still a major actor ininternational relations. They also have one of thelargest economies, a seat on the United NationsSecurity Council (UNSC), and positive relationswith most of the world. Eritrea’s regional rival,Ethiopia, also enjoys fruitful internationalrelations with many powerful states despitesimilar human rights abuses. The resettlement ofthe Lower Omo Valley by Ethiopia is one suchexample of continued international supportdespite killings, beatings and forcedresettlement2. This demonstrates a doublestandard which is not necessarily Eritrea’sfault. 1) Human Rights Watch, ‘World Report2013: China’, 2013 2) Hurd,W. ‘Ignoring abusein Ethiopia: DFID and USAID in the Lower OmoValley’ July 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Eritrea started the 1998 war Eritrea wasresponsible for instigating the war againstEthiopia, making it liable for its increasedisolation. Eritrea was officially recognised by aninternational Claims Commission as the initiatorof the war1. The state invaded the region ofBadme after a long diplomatic dispute over theborder issue as they believed the territory wasrightfully theirs2. They removed the Ethiopianpresence from the state, compromising territorialintegrity and incurred a reaction from Ethiopia.This marked Eritrea as the aggressor. Anaggressor in a war cannot be seen as a ‘just’actor and has therefore contributed to its ownseclusion by acting in such a manner. 1) BBC,‘Eritrea broke law in border war’, 21 December2005 2) Briggs,P. ‘Ethiopia’ pg.30", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Ethiopia provoked Eritrea into invading theirshared border. The lands were technicallyEritrean, as the boundaries commission wouldlater state1. Through these circumstances,Eritrea was not infringing the territorial integrityof Ethiopia. Moreover, some have hypothesisedthat Ethiopia actually encouraged the war tohappen by murdering several Eritrean officialsnear Badme2. This would create an excuse tomake territorial gains, namely to regain accessto the Red Sea and the potential trade thataccompanied it3. 1) Lauterpacht,E. ‘Sixteenthreport on the work of the commission’ 24February 2005 2) Connell,D. ‘Eritrea/EthiopiaWar Looms’, 2 October 2005 3) Shah,A. ‘Conflictbetween Ethiopia and Eritrea’, 20 December2000", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Eritrea has never been fully self-sustainable andstill accepts foreign assistance. The beginning ofthe 21st century has seen Eritrea open up toincreasing numbers of foreign Non-governmentalorganisations (NGOs) providing aid. The countryhas now become a highly favoured aidrecipient1. Even during the Eritrean-Ethiopianwar, when most aid agencies were forced out ofthe country, some were permitted to remain. 1)Smith-Simonsen,C. ‘The pros and cons ofself-reliance: Eritrea’s relations with aid agenciesand NGOs’ pg.347", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Human Rights Abuse Eritrean isolation has beenexacerbated by their poor human rights record.Claims were presented to the UN of ‘extrajudicialkillings, enforced disappearances, extendedincommunicado detention, torture, indefinitenational service, and lack of freedom ofexpression, assembly, religious belief andmovement’1. Eritrea’s President, Isaias Afewerki,has been accused of using the threat of invasionas a justification for the highly militarised andbrutal nature of his country2. This has attractedinternational criticism, with a joint statementfrom 44 countries condemning Eritrea’sinfringement of human rights3. 1) TheGuardian, ‘Eritrea’s human rights record comesunder fire at United Nations’, 25 October2013 2) Blair,D. ‘Eritrea: the African NorthKorea which thousands will risk anything toescape’ 3 October 2013 3) Joint statement of 44countries, ‘Human rights Situation in Eritrea’,Human Rights Council, 13 March 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "President Isaias Afewerki has soughtself-reliance Whilst President Afewerki wasfighting for Eritrean independence he became aproponent of the self-reliant state, which couldsustain its own population with no externalassistance. Since independence the Presidenthas rejected foreign aid to the country throughclaims that aid is a method of enslavement tointernational donors1. Numerous offers ofassistance, including the free food distributionsof the World Food Programme, have beenrejected in favour of the domestic market2.Afewerki claims that as aid decreases, farmerswill work harder to ensure that food demand ismet. The lack of donors and trading partners hasserved to weaken Eritrea’s ties of the outsideworld, making the state responsible for its ownisolation. 1) BBC, ‘Self Reliance could costEritrea dear’, 5 July 2006 2) Saunders,E. ‘Eritreaaspires to be self-reliant, rejecting foreign aid’,Los Angeles Times, 2 October 2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Eritrea has acted in violation of international lawnumerous times through methods such ashuman rights abuse and deserves the UN’scondemnation. Despite these abuses, the UN stilloffers aid to the country1, demonstrating itscommitment to re-engage with the country.Eritrea, however, has been increasing hostile tothe UN over the issue of aid. Having refusedassistance from the United Nations World FoodProgramme and other policies, Eritrea hasweakened its links with the institution, isolatingitself from the international community. 1) BBC,‘Eritrea refuses food aid’, 3 January 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The US has attempted to maintain an equal levelof support for both Ethiopia and Eritrea since theEEBC incident. Both states became military alliesof the USA and joined the coalition of the willingwhich invaded Iraq in 20031. The US has alsoattempted to reach a permanent peace betweenthe two state and has encouraged Eritrea tocontribute to regional stability2. 1) Connell,D.‘Eritrea/Ethiopia War Looms’, 2 October 2005 2)Bureau of African Affairs, ‘U.S. Relations withEritrea’11 February 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Eritrea is surrounded by hostile nations Eritreahas been forced in to isolation due to unfriendlyneighbours. In its short history, Eritrea has beenin conflicts with Ethiopia and Djibouti over borderissues. Diplomatic ties with Sudan, while havingimproved recently, have historically been verypoor as well. The hostility received from thesecountries has fostered a “bunker mentality”amongst Eritreans1. The previous and presentsecurity threats from their neighbours hasensured an ‘us against them’ attitude, which isevident in their wider international dealings. 1)Eshetu,S. ‘Eritrean Leadership’s “BunkerMentality”’, 3 September 1998", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The UN has done little to facilitateimprovement Rather than encouraging Eritrea tobecome more integrated in the internationalcommunity, the United Nations has made thestate’s situation worse. The UN has enforcedsanctions upon the country for links that itclaimed to find between Eritrea and al-Shabaab1which served to weaken ties between Eritrea andthe outside world. The intergovernmentalorganisation (IGO) has also regularly condemnedEritrea for its policies, which Eritrea believes isthe result of hostile states ensuring the state iscondemned by the international community2. 1)The Guardian, ‘Eritrea’s human rights recordcomes under fire at United Nations’, 25 October2013 2) Ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The US has unfairly supported Ethiopia The USis responsible for Eritrea’s isolation through itsforeign policy. The United States has activelysupported Ethiopia, Eritrea’s rival, in regionaldisputes. In 2002, the USA urged Ethiopia todisregard the Eritrean-Ethiopian BorderCommission’s (EEBC) decision which stated thatlands occupied by Ethiopia did belong to Eritrea.This was also a violation of their role as aguarantor for the agreement1. Continuedsupport for Ethiopia’s counterterrorism roleworsened US-Eritrea relations. Relationshipsdeteriorated to the extent of which that the USAattempted to revoke Eritrea’s membership to theUN in December 2011. The US has thereforebeen unnecessarily provocative and exclusionaryin its foreign policy. 1) Weldemichael,A. ‘Eritrea:Bringing Eritrea in From the Cold- We Need toUN-Break the U.S.-Ethiopia-Eritrea Triangle’ 17January 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-apwhberii-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Eritrea has been responsible for the majority ofthis animosity. The country was responsible foraggressively attacking Yemen in 1996. In 2008,Eritrea attacked along the Djibouti-Eritreanborder claiming the territory was rightfullytheirs1. A theme emerges from these examples,confirmed by President Afewerki of Eritrea whenhe openly stated he has sought the removal ofneighbouring regimes2. The excuse of adopting asiege mentality has also enabled the president toincrease his powers and suppress internaldissent3. It is therefore more likely that thegovernment, rather than external players, havecontributed to Eritrea’s siege mentality. 1)Mesfin,B. ‘The Eritrea-Djibouti border dispute’,15 September 2008 2) Eshetu,S. ‘EritreanLeadership’s “Bunker Mentality”’, 3 September1998 3) Blair,D. ‘Eritrea: the African NorthKorea which thousands will risk anything toescape’, 3 October 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-mewhwakapps-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Annan’s peace proposals do not provide cover forAssad; they call for Assad to stop fighting andsingle out the Syrian government as having tostop troop movements and pull back. Assadwould have much more political cover withoutthe proposal providing a benchmark by which torate Assad’s cooperation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-mewhwakapps-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The plan is just political cover for Assad. Theplan is simply being used as political cover byAssad, as long as he is signed up to such anagreement and other countries believe there is achance that he will implement it the Russiansand Chinese will not allow further SecurityCouncil action. Both the Russians and Chineseare showing that they are willing to supportAssad by vetoing anything hinting at sanctions.[1] Therefore the only thing the Annan plan doesis provide more time for Assad to go on killinghis own people so that he can remain in power asis shown by his unwillingness to implement anyof the plans provisions. [2] [1] Bennetts, Marc,‘Russia Says West’s UN Syria ResolutionSupports Rebels’, RIA Novosti, 18 July 2012. [2]Editorial Board, ‘Syria’s cover for murder’,Washington Post, 31 March 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-mewhwakapps-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Ultimately unless one side wins decisively thenthere will have to be a deal. Both sides will haveto shift their positions. There have to beon-going negotiations to be able to facilitate this.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-mewhwakapps-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The plan has failed. The plan has clearly failed;its primary goal was to end the violence but atotal of at least 13,000 Syrians have been killedsince the beginning of the uprising. [1] Around100 people are killed each day and even Annanhimself has conceded the ceasefire is ‘failing’. [2]Assad clearly believes the Annan plan has failedhaving told his cabinet \"When one is in a state ofwar, all our policies and capabilities must beused to secure victory\" [3] this is not the kind oflanguage of someone looking to take part in apeaceful solution. Everything in the plan relies onsome kind of ceasefire; that has not happenedand without it the rest of the points cannot beimplemented. The plan must therefore beabandoned as Susan Rice the US Ambassador tothe United Nations stated when creating themonitoring mission \"If there is not a sustainedcessation of violence, full freedom of movementfor U.N. personnel and rapid meaningful progresson all other aspects of the six-point plan, thenwe must all conclude that this mission has run its", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-mewhwakapps-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While the plan has not yet brought about aceasefire this does not provide a good reason notto continue to use the six point plan as the basisto create that ceasefire. Deadlines may pass butthat cannot mean we simply abandon theintention to create that ceasefire.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-mewhwakapps-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The Syrian opposition will never be willing to dealwith Assad. As a follow up to the six point planon the 1st July in Geneva it was agreed that atransitional government would be set up which“could include members of the presentgovernment and the opposition and other groupsand shall be formed on the basis of mutualconsent”. [1] Mutual consent however meansboth sides have a veto; Assad would have toagree and he is not going to agree to agovernment which he is not involved in. Theopposition meanwhile argues “The country hasbeen destroyed and they want us then to sit withthe killer?” [2] With neither side willing toconsider sitting down with the other it is difficultto see how Annan’s plan can ever get anywhereno matter how long it is kept on life support. [1]Action Group for Syria Final Communiqué, 20June 2012. [2] Lee, Matthew, ‘Analysis: Plan toend Syrian crisis falls flat’, Associated Press, 2July 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-mewhwakapps-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Russia has vowed to veto any such westernresolution arguing that \"To adopt the resolutionwould be...direct support for the revolutionarymovement… To pressure just one side meansdrawing [Syria] into a civil war and interferencein the internal affairs of the state.\" [1] Moreovereven if such a resolution was to get through theUN Security Council it would have little impact.Sanctions have a poor track record in bringingregimes to the table when they believe they arethreatened. Sanctions have not worked againstIran [2] or North Korea, and the sanctionsimposed against Libya last year in a similarsituation clearly failed as armed intervention wasneeded. [3] [1] Bennetts, Marc, ‘Russia SaysWest’s UN Syria Resolution Supports Rebels’, RIANovosti, 18 July 2012. [2] Sadeghi-Boroujerdi,Eskandar, and Sahmi, Muhammad, ‘TheSanctions Aren’t Working’, Foreign Policy.com, 5July 2012. [3] Farge, Emma, ‘Special report: InLibyan oil shipment, sanctions prove dumb’,Reuters, 16 May 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-mewhwakapps-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is little point in talks for the sake of talks ifthey are never going to get anywhere. There areother things that could be done that could helpreduce the violence such as creating safe zonesin neighbouring countries territories, establishingbuffer zones in Syria, and creating an armsquarantine to prevent Russian and Iranianweapons flowing into Syria to help the regime.[1] [1] Tabler, Andrew J., ‘Cut Off Assad’sLifelines’, The Washington Institute, 30 May2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-mewhwakapps-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Without the peace plan there will be furtherconflict. Kofi Annan believes that peace can onlybe found together arguing all members of theSecurity Council \"Either unite to secure yourcommon interests, or divide and surely fail inyour own individual way. Without your unity…nobody can win and everyone will lose in someway.\" Moreover a failure of the peace plan would“turn a humanitarian crisis into a catastrophe.\"[1] Without any prospect of a peaceful solution itis likely that Assad would escalate to usingchemical weapons. Nawaf Fares, the SyrianAmbassador to Iraq who has defected, haswarned that they would be used if the regimefeels cornered. [2] If this were to happen Israelmight be compelled to attack to prevent SyrianChemical weapons being used against it or fallinginto the hands of terrorists. [3] This in turnwould spark off a wider regional war. [1]Beaumont, Peter, ‘Failure of Syria peace plan‘risks wider regional conflict’, guardian.co.uk, 30June 2012. [2] Gardner, Frank, ‘Syria: Assad", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-mewhwakapps-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Annan’s plan should be enforced. Westerncountries such as Britain and France wantattention to shift from monitoring toenforcement. William Hague argues the bombthat killed the Syrian defence minister “confirmsthe urgent need for a Chapter VII resolution ofthe UN Security Council on Syria… All themembers of the UN Security Council have aresponsibility to put their weight behind theenforcement of Joint Special Envoy Kofi Annan'splan to end the violence.” [1] This enforcementwould mean non-military sanctions if the regimedoes not withdraw troops and heavy weaponsfrom populated areas within 10 days [2] – ascalled for in the second point of Annan’splan. [1] Hague, William, ‘Hague: ‘The situationin Syria is clearly deteriorating’, itvnews, 18 July2012. [2] AP, ‘U.K.’s Hague Urges Support forPeace Plan’, Wall Street Journal, 18 July 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-mewhwakapps-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Annan’s plan is the only proposal on thetable. Both the options currently on the tableare continuations of the six point plan. Thewestern states such as the US, France and UKwant to give the plan teeth by adding anenforcement mechanism while the Russians ownplan simply involved extending the currentmonitoring mission. [1] There would be no pointin starting from scratch on a new plan that wouldhave to rebuild support from world governmentsand would likely end up at a similar position. Notonly is there no plan B but any plan B wouldhave to simply mean more of the same. [2] TheAnnan plan at least has a starting framework upand running and is talking to all parties. [1]Lynch, Colum, ‘Does Washington have thestomach to kill of Kofi Annan’s peace plan?’,Foreign Policy.com, 18 July 2012. [2] ‘U.N.chief: ‘No Plan B’ in Syria’, CNN, 24 May 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-mewhwakapps-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This maintains the fiction that the current plan issomehow reducing the level of conflict in Syria; itis not, and that is the whole problem. Alreadythe Red Cross has declared the conflict to be aCivil war. [1] The conflict is expanding regardlessof the peace plan. [1] Nebehay, Stephanie,‘Exclusive: Read Cross ruling raises questions ofSyrian war crimes’, Reuters, 14 July 2012.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions are a proven policy tool and canpressure a regime that is extremely repressiveinto reforms. Aggressive U.S. engagement andpressure contributed to the collapse of the SovietBloc and it can work again. As in the Cold warthere are radio stations that are effective atproviding news and information about theoutside world to Cuba. [1] Sanctions are also,according to Colin Powell, a ‘moral statement’ ofAmerica’s disapproval for the Castro regime.Blaming America for all economic woes didn’ttrick ordinary Russians and it won’t trick theCubans. Now is exactly the time that the UnitedStates should be tightening down the screws sothat Castro’s successor is forced to make realchanges. [1] 104th Congress, ‘H.R.927 -- CubanLiberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD)Act of 1996 (Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed byBoth House and Senate)’, 1996.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions are not working Sanctions arepointless and counterproductive. They’ve madeno political difference in the last 43 years, whywould they now? They mean that the US can beblamed for all the failures of the Cuban economyand to justify repressive measures for security,[1] and therefore encourage the retrenchment ofboth. In times when the Cuban economy isbooming, as in 2005 when the economy grew by8%, the impotence of the sanctions becomesclear. [2] President Bush claimed to want toempower civil society in Cuba but he also arguedthat the best way to achieve this in China was totrade and spread ‘American values.’ [3] Cuba’sgeographical and cultural proximity makes itvery likely to change quickly when they are ableto freely interact with the United States throughtravel and trade. [4] [5] [1] Griswold, Daniel,‘Four Decades of Failure: The U.S. Embargoagainst Cuba’, 2005. [2] Peters, Philip, ‘U.S.Sanctions against Cuba: A Just War Perspective’,p.392. [3] Griswold, Daniel, ‘Four Decades of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The United Nations Resolutions condemning thesanctions have never passed through theSecurity Council and therefore lack anyauthority. The Cubans themselves are alsoviolating international agreements in particularthe 1928 Inter-American Convention on Asylumand the International Covenant on Civil andPolitical Rights by surrounding “embassies in itscapital by armed forces to thwart the right of itscitizens to seek asylum and systematically deniesthat right to the Cuban people.” [1] [1] 104thCongress, ‘H.R.927 -- Cuban Liberty andDemocratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996(Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both Houseand Senate)’, 1996.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Foreign policy should follow the will of thepeople Sanctions are not the will of theAmerican people but of a small minority ofembittered Cuban Americans in Florida who arebeing pandered to due to their importance inelections in a swing state. [1] CongressmanCharles Rangel argues that the only success ofthe sanctions policy has been to “appease theRepublican constituency in Florida”. [2] Nationalopinion generally expresses no preference oropposes the ban, in a 2009 CBS poll asking \"Doyou think the United States should or should notre-establish diplomatic and trade relations withCuba?\" 67% said should. [3] Sanctionsremaining in place is electioneering governmentat its worst, domestic interest groups controllinggovernment foreign policy. As Karl Rove hasadmitted \"When people mention Cuba to me, itmakes me think of three things: Florida, Florida,and Florida.\" [4] [1] Griswold, Daniel, ‘FourDecades of Failure: The U.S. Embargo againstCuba’, 2005. [2] DeYoung, Karen, ‘Sanctions", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions harm the Cuban people. Thesanctions cause real and unacceptable harm tothe Cuban people. Sanctions deprive Cuba of lowcost food that the United States could provide sohitting the poorest yet they do not affect theruling elite. [1] In the 1990’s Cuba lost $70billion in trade [2] and $1.2 billion ininternational loans because of U.S. sanctions.Cuba is too poor a country not to suffer fromthese losses. The dominance of America in thepharmaceuticals industry, moreover, means thatit is actually impossible for Cubans to gain accessto many drugs and other medical equipment,including the only curative treatment for somepediatric leukemias. [3] America would be thenatural market for most Cuban products, and itsrefusal to accept goods with even the tiniestCuban inputs from third nations damages Cuba’sability to trade with others. Other SouthAmerican countries have shown their reliance onthe types of loans that Cuba is denied in the lastfew years to keep their economies on track. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions didn’t cause the economic failure inCuba. The communist political and economicsystem has been shown to lead to economiccollapse all over the world, whether sanctions arein place or not. Centralization, collectivism, statecontrol, bureaucracy, and restrictions on privateinitiative totalitarian style economic policies arewhat are to blame for the Cuban people’seconomic suffering. [1] Even if sanctions werelifted, lack of private ownership, foreignexchange and tradable commodities would holdCuba back. The International Trade Commissionfound a ‘minimal effect on the Cuban economy’from sanctions. [2] In fact, it is by usingsanctions to pressure Cuba into economic andpolitical reform that the US can best contributeto an economic recovery there. [1] Peters,Philip, ‘U.S. Sanctions against Cuba: A Just WarPerspective’. [2] U.S. International TradeCommission, ‘ITC Releases Report on theEconomic Impact of U.S. Sanctions with respectto Cuba’, 2001.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The people who care most about the Cubanquestion thoroughly oppose dropping sanctions.The Mid-Western Republicans who voted to dropthe travel ban are no less blinkered than theCuban Americans who vote to keep it. Opinion onsanctions wavers; the separation of powers isspecifically in place to allow the White House tomaintain a stable policy on issues of nationalsecurity rather than responding to every changein public opinion. It would not be right for theUnited States to change its foreign policy whenthe population is apathetic and has very littleopinion on an issue.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Cuba will never make up more than a tinypercentage of America’s trade and it is able tosource and sell all the products it needselsewhere. Even if Cuba was a vital market forAmerican goods it would be worth giving upsome economic growth in order to maintain acommitment to the freedom of the Cubanpeople. As it is, the total Cuban GDP is a drop inthe ocean and at this point is almost entirelyirrelevant to the United States.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions are illegal Sanctions on Cuba areillegal and damage America’s Internationalstanding. They violate the UN Charter, laws onthe freedom of navigation, and repeated UnitedNations resolutions since 1992 (passed with onlythe US and Israel in opposition). [1]Furthermore, some parts of the Helms-BurtonAct are extra-territorial in their effects onbusinessmen from third nations and thereforecause significant protest around the world. Thismakes a mockery of the US claim to be aguardian of International Law, not only in itsdealings with Cuba but also in the negotiationsover the future of Iraq. America could achieve itsgoals internationally more easily if it was notmarked with evidence of its lack of respect forInternational Law. [1] CNN, ‘U.N. againcondemns U.S. embargo against Cuba’, 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Economic benefits of ending sanctions TheUnited States will also benefit from the openingof trade with Cuba economically. Mid-WesternRepublicans have all voted to drop the embargobecause of the potential for profits in theirfarming states. Even the modest opening of theembargo in 2000 has increased sales of farmproducts immensely having gone from nothing[1] to $344 million in 2010. [2] This is a marketfor American products as well as a localproducer. Further, if sanctions end Americanswill be able to stop pretending that they preferBolivian cigars! [1] Griswold, Daniel, ‘FourDecades of Failure: The U.S. Embargo againstCuba’, 2005. [2] Reuters, ‘U.S. food sales toCuba fall further in 2010’, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There is no reason to believe that yet more yearsof sanctions will make a difference. Cuba hasbeen defiant in the face of much worse andcontinued on the same course. The sanctionscannot provide leverage while other states donot have sanctions; Cuba can get anything itrequires from elsewhere without recourse to theUnited States so why would Cuba be willing toever make concessions before sanctions aredropped. [1] [1] Reeson, Greg, ‘Time to DropSanctions Against Cuba’, 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There are no legitimate grounds for Cuba to besanctioned as opposed to many other states.There is no evidence that Cuba is a sponsor ofterror, and even if it is the U.S. does not place allthe restrictions it places on other designatedsponsors of terror that it does on Cuba. [1] Cubahas no biological, chemical or nuclear weaponsand any allegations about Cuba developing suchweapons have never been substantiated. Cubaholds fewer prisoners of conscience than China,Vietnam or Iran and has recently been releasingmany of them. [2] To maintain sanctions in orderto change the form of government, as the UnitedStates claims it does, is totally illegitimate underInternational Law and, moreover, Cuba is in nosense the only undemocratic country in theworld. Cuba has gone so far as to offer tocompensate the U.S. citizens whose propertywas nationalised in 1959. America has neverexplained the threat posed by Cuba that requiresthese sanctions. [1] DeYoung, Karen, ‘SanctionsAgainst Cuba Are Excessive, GAO Says’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Protecting human rights America is attemptingto protect the rights of its own citizens and of theCubans enshrined in the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights. [1] Something the Castro whoconsiders democratic pluralism to be ‘pluralisticgarbage’ [2] will never live up to withoutcoercion. Indeed Cuba undermines theguarantees made in its own constitution andinvokes sovereignty as a justification for notcomplying with international rights agreementsand further restricting human rights. [3] TheUSA’s status as a guardian of human rights andan enemy of terror is enhanced by its moralrefusal to compromise with a repressivegovernment just off its own shores. [1] 104thCongress, ‘H.R.927 -- Cuban Liberty andDemocratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996(Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both Houseand Senate)’, 1996. [2] 104th Congress,‘H.R.927 -- Cuban Liberty and DemocraticSolidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996 (Enrolled asAgreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions are necessary for nationalsecurity Sanctions are a better alternative tomilitary action. The most recent set of sanctionswere imposed in 1996 in response to two UScivilian planes belonging to the group of exiles‘brothers of peace’ being shot down by theCuban Air Force near Cuba. [1] The UnitedStates would have been justified in reactingproportionally with some military action butinstead reinforced sanctions through theHelms-Burton Act. [2] This shows that thecollapse of the Soviet Union and the end ofsupport for Cuba in 1991 did not mean an end tothe threat posed by Cuba. Cuba has remainedcommunist and the Castro regime has shown it isstill willing to antagonize the United States. AsCuba is situated in a strategic location close tothe United States the US government cannot beprecipitate in removing sanctions at least untilCuba proves it is a good neighbour. [1]University of Minnesota Human Rights Library,‘Armando Alejandre Jr., Carlos Costa, Mario de la", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Sanctions provide leverage In 2003 SenatorJohn McCain argued \"freedom for the Cubanpeople is not yet at hand, and the Castrobrothers clearly intend to maintain their grip onpower\", [1] and this situation is likely to continueif sanctions are dropped unilaterally and thepressure is taken off Cuba. The United Stateshowever might be able to help the Cuban peoplegain more freedom in return for being willing toreduce and eventually drop sanctions when theCuban people are free. Barak Obama whilesupporting improved relations with Cuba and aneventual dropping of sanctions argues that theyprovide leverage to encourage steps towardsdemocracy. [2] [1] McCain, John, quoted in AFP,‘White House runners: Castro’s exit not enough’,2008. [2] Omestad, Thomas, ‘Cuban OfficialRules Out Any Obama Preconditions forImproved Relations’, 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Cuba deserves sanctions Cuba is a repressiveregime which operates one party rule, holdspolitical prisoners and stifles opposition andeconomic freedom through constant harassment.The Cuban administration is on the U.S. list ofsponsors of terror, [1] not least because itprovides a safe haven to many Americanfugitives, [2] and has refused to give help withthe search for Al-Qaeda suspects. Cuba is knownto have a developmental biological weapons‘effort’ [3] and is recorded as breakinginternational sanctions to export dual usetechnologies to other rogue states. [4] Finally,Cuba has failed to stop drug shipments throughits waters [5] and its government profits directlyfrom resources stolen from United States citizensin 1959. [1] U.S. Department of State, ‘StateSponsors of Terrorism’. [2] 104th Congress,‘H.R.927 -- Cuban Liberty and DemocraticSolidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996 (Enrolled asAgreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)’,1996. [3] NTI, ‘Cuba Profile Biological’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The national security rationale for sanctions onCuba has long since disappeared. The embargowas originally imposed in 1960 when Castroseized US property in Cuba and was tightened in1962 in response to Cuban alignment to theSoviet Union. These sanctions were in order toneutralize Cuba as a potential threat through itbeing a proxy of the Soviet Union. Since theSoviet Union has collapsed this is no longer aproblem. Instead Cuba is left with no powerfulfriends and by itself its military power isnegligible and is certainly in no position tothreaten the world’s preeminent power. [1] [1]Defense Intelligence Agency, ‘The Cuban Threatto U.S. National Security’, 1997.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwdsac-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Opening to trade is the way to human rightsrather than cutting of contact. Trade anddevelopment encourage communications thathelp to undermine oppression. [1] Far fromengaging in sanctions the United States shouldbe encouraging Cubans to use mobile phonesand the internet; technologies that can be vital inundermining authoritarian regimes as shown bythe Arab Spring. [1] Griswold, Daniel, ‘FourDecades of Failure: The U.S. Embargo againstCuba’, 2005.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Failing states do not infect a whole region. Thecontagion theory is hard to apply beyond a smallgroup of countries in West Africa - elsewherefailed states do not tend to drag down theirneighbours with them. For example, countriesbordering Somalia, such as Djibouti, Ethiopia,Kenya and Eritrea, are far from perfect but noneof them are close to being considered a failedstate. In fact, whilst Somalia is seen as thebasket case in the region after the failed U.N.intervention in 1992, the percentage of itspopulation that lives on less than $1 a day is infact less than those of its West Africanneighbours. [1] Therefore, in most cases thebest solution to the problem of failed states isnot intervention but for regional groups (e.g.ECOMOG in West Africa, the African Union inWestern Sudan, the European Union inMacedonia, Australia in East Timor) to takeresponsibility for their areas rather than tooverburden the USA and UN. In sum, ‘not allfailing states pose true dangers to the peace’ and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Failing states can infect a whole region It is inthe interests of international stability that failingstates are rescued before it is too late. Failedstates often infect a whole region, as the collapseof Liberia did in West Africa - a problem knownas contagion. Neighbouring states back differentfactions with arms and squabble over resources,such as the diamonds of Sierra Leone and themineral wealth of Congo. Internally neighboursare destabilised by floods of refugees andweapons from next door. Their own rebel groupscan also easily find shelter to regroup and mountfresh attacks in the lawless country just overtheir borders. Former U.N. SecretaryBoutros-Ghali claimed, as his justification forsupport for failing states, that the U.N. has aresponsibility under its Charter to ‘maintaininternational peace and security’ amid fears ‘thedemise of a state is often marked by violenceand widespread human rights violations thataffect other states’. [1] Intervention preventsthis by entailing the establishment of conditions", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There is very limited evidence to support thetheory that failed states become havens forterrorists. It is true that there are some Al-Qaedasympathisers in Somalia, but these seem to befew in number and no greater in threat to theUSA and its allies than similar groups in othercountries. Nor is Afghanistan a good example ofthis theory; Osama Bin Laden was invited to takerefuge there by an established government - theTaliban - only after they had successfullygrabbed power in Afghanistan. Before this, BinLaden was sheltered in Sudan - not in thewar-torn and lawless south, but in the northernpart where the government was in firm control.[1] Here the problem was not a failed state, butrather one with an extreme Islamist government.On the other hand, Iran and Syria are bothaccused of providing bases for terrorists, butneither could be considered a failed state. [1]Hehir, A. (2007) ‘The Myth of the Failed Stateand the War on Terror’, Journal of Interventionand Statebuilding, Vol. 1/3, pp. 307-326", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "States should act to help civilians in failing statesto prevent humanitarian crises States should actto help the people of a failing state, as once itcollapses no government services will beprovided, including law and order. States shouldwork with the UN in leading attempts at conflictresolution, and should engage in subsequentpeacekeeping missions and investment innation-building initiatives (e.g. funding andorganising the reintegration of non-combatantsinto society, organising elections, building upcivil society, creating effective governmentinstitutions, etc.). The failure of the UN operationin Somalia in 1990 is telling; the country has nothad a functioning central government ever since.[1] Intervention to prevent such outcomes willrequire both greater willingness to commit fundson the part of the powerful states and acommitment to conflict resolution which hasbeen largely lacking in recent national policyworld-wide. [1] CNN (2011, June 21) Somaliaagain is at top of failed states list. Retrieved June", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "States should act to protect their own civiliansfirst and foremost, not those in failing states. Assuch, soldiers should not be sacrificed for thelives of civilians elsewhere; that is not whatsoldiers enlist for nor does it fit a state’s role as aguarantor of security for its own citizens.Civilians in failing states are the ones thatultimately need to take the responsibility forusurping the incumbent powers in their state.Furthermore, even if it were the case that statesshould act to prevent failing states, there aremeans to do this that do not includeintervention; charities can provide humanitarianassistance, states can offer mediation services ifthere is a dispute and diaspora communities canprovide finance.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The United Nations has demonstrated that itlacks both the organizational ethos and theforces required to effectively prevent the failureof states. The veto power on the Security Councilensures that troops for intervention are onlymandated when they suit the interests of themost powerful states. Furthermore, the nature ofthe UN’s forces, almost always composite forcesmade up of a number of different states, rendersthem ineffective once on the ground. Theexample of Sierra Leone is telling, a ceasefirewas only agreed upon three years after the UNentered the state, and as late as 2009, the UN’sown head in the region noted the country is stillin a precarious situation, ‘with ethnic andinterreligious conflicts and increasing threatsfrom international crime’. [1] Failure was notprevented, merely put off. [1] Security Council(2009, September 14). Sierra Leone’s success intransition to stable democracy depends ongovernment providing ‘peace dividend’, SecurityCouncil told. Retrieved June 21 from United", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Failed states are havens for drug-smugglers andterrorists Failed states also export dangers morewidely, as they often provide an opportunity fordrug crops such as Opium (Afghanistan) or Coca(parts of Colombia) to be grown, processed andtraded without fear of authority, with devastatingeffects both locally and globally. Desperatepeople may also take refuge in religious orpolitical extremism, which may in time come tothreaten the rest of the world. In so doing, failedstates often become havens for terrorists, whocan find safety in them to plot against the West,to establish training camps for future terrorists,and to build up finance, weapons and otherresources with which to mount campaigns. Inwhat was a key claim that later underpinned the2002 US National Security Strategy and the U.S.War on Terror, Stephen Walt, a professor ofinternational relations at Harvard University, hasdescribed failed states as ‘breeding grounds ofinstability, mass migration, and murder’. [1] Thiscan be seen in Somalia, where states in recent", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The United Nations has the constitutional powerand capability to intervene to prevent failedstates The United Nations, and its residentbody, the Security Council, has both the rightand the capability to intervene in countries inorder to maintain the peace. Peace in this senserepresents more than the absence of bloodshed,but also provides the means by which aidorganizations can enter a territory and providethe requisite resources to prevent civiliansuffering. The United Nations have proven theirefficacy in this area, mandating an interventionin the Ivory Coast in 2003 that sought to preventthe exacerbation of tensions between thegovernment and rebel forces. [1] A ceasefire waseventually brokered in 2007 and the failure ofthe state averted. U.N. forces in Macedoniaduring the 1990s were also credited with‘successfully contributing to the prevention ofconflict spill over and having a stabilizing effectin the country’. [2] U.N. interventions to preventthe failure of states can and do work. [1] BBC", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The cost of intervention is lower than the cost ofinactivity. Sometimes, as in Afghanistan and theformer Yugoslavia, the situation will become sobad that US military intervention is necessary -this is hugely costly compared to fundingpreventative action through the United Nations.The role of failed states as reservoirs from whichrefugees, narcotics, terrorism, illegal diamonds,etc. are exported means that the USA alreadyspends many billions of dollars a year in dealingwith the mess they create. Finally, there is anopportunity cost of lost trade and investmentwhich applies to the developing world anddeveloped economies alike (e.g. the benefits tothe US of trade with oil-rich Angola, Sudan andCongo).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Interventions can, and do, fail, however so longas their intentions are good, they must still beattempted if the effects of failed states are to beprevented. Furthermore, the humanitariancatastrophes linked to failing and failed states:‘mass migration, environmental degradation,regional instability; energy insecurity andtransnational terrorism’ are not the fault of afailed intervention, but a failed state. [1] TheU.S.-led intervention in Somalia in 1992 is a casein point; though the intervention failed and, itcould be argued, exacerbated conditions inSomalia, it did not lead to the state’s failure, itmerely failed to prevent it. As such, the U.S.cannot be blamed for attempting to stand withSomalis and save their state; that they failed isunfortunate, but the subsequent continuinghumanitarian catastrophe is not the fault ofintervening forces. So long as there is hope thatinterventions can prevent failed states, thesuccess rate is above 0%, they should beattempted for the alternative is little better for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Failing states should not be provided a safetynet Being willing to step into every fragile statecould create a moral hazard. Irresponsiblegovernments will assume that they will be bailedout by the powerful states, like the US, and theUN, who will always intervene to preventunnecessary and wide-spread suffering. [1] Thisin itself makes future failures much more likely,as there is no incentive for governments totackle corruption, crime or the other issues thatpush states to the brink of failure. [2] Thereneeds to maintain a culpable fear of failure,separate from the regime change and economicreconstructing often enforced by the UN and IMFon failing states. [1] Kuperman, A. (2006)‘Suicidal Rebellions and the Moral Hazard ofHumanitarian Intervention’ in T. Crawford and A.Kuperman eds. Gambling on HumanitarianIntervention (London: Routledge). [2] Rotberg,R. I. (2002, July/August). Failed States in aWorld of Terror. Retrieved March 16, 2011, fromCouncil on Foreign Relations:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Intervention in fragile states is simply a newform of imperialism It is not for either the USAor the UN to impose a government uponindividual countries. Doing so would deny thepeople of the failed state the right to chart theirown future and be absent of the authorisation ofthe UN Charter, which states the organization isnot allowed to intervene ‘in matters which areessentially within the domestic jurisdiction of anystate’. [1] Furthermore, if the USA, or any onecountry, regularly intervened it would createmore hostility towards that country, withaccusations that it is acting out of aself-interested desire to exploit peopleseconomically. The personnel of that countrycould rapidly become a target for attacks. Nor isit desirable to encourage the UN to increase thelevel of its intervention in the domestic affairs ofmember states. This might start with weakcountries but could rapidly become a habit andencourage the organisation in its ambitions tobecome a world government. [1] Ratner, S. R.,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con04a", "title": "", "text": "International development is a more effectivemethod of preventing failed states. The currentUS approach to international development, inwhich aid, loans or market access are conditionalupon good governance, should be maintainedand even extended more widely. Such conditionsprovide incentives for developing countries to putconstructive policies in place and reward thosewho fight corruption. As past failures show all tooclearly, there is no point throwing money atchaotic, lawless and corrupt regimes - it willnever reach the people anyway. In any case,humanitarian relief is not conditional and theUSA continues to respond with compassion toemergencies anywhere in the world. It shouldalso be noted that special measures to supportstates identified as at risk of failure could inthemselves be harmful. Discussion ofintervention will scare off investors and help tobring about economic collapse - becomingself-fulfilling prophecies.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The cost of intervention is too high The cost ofintervention is too high. The United Nations hasneither the money nor the support of theinternational community to undertakespeculative missions. Already it fails to meet itstargets for troops to provide peacekeeping incountries which request its help. The USAalready contributes nearly a quarter of the UN'speacekeeping budget and cannot afford more ata time when it is already stretched by majorcommitments in Iraq and Afghanistan. It isdifficult to see where else the necessary fundscould come from. The reconstruction ofAfghanistan is expected to cost as much as $15billion over the next ten years, ‘plus the cost oftraining a new army and police force’. [1] At atime of financial austerity, American citizens areentitled to ask whether their money is beingspent prudently. The lives of intervening soldiersare not pawns, they should not be unnecessarilysent into death-traps like Somalia in 1990.[2] [1] Rotberg, R. I. (2002, July/August).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con05b", "title": "", "text": "The questionable foreign policy of previous U.S.administrations should not pre-empt futureinterventions, either by the United States orother nations genuinely intended to protectcivilians in failing states, when mandated by theUnited Nations. The United Nations has expertiseand is widely respected, which will be requiredconsidering the international reputation of theUSA is now sufficiently damaged that thehostility it generates can undermine the goodwork it wishes to do. In partnership the USA canprovide resources to enable the UN to secure thefuture stability of many fragile countries, whilethe UN's involvement can show that theseoperations are altruistic and pose no imperialistthreat. Over time, commitment through the UNto international peace and humanitarianconcerns will allow the USA to change the way itis viewed worldwide - an important aspect of theWar on Terror. Regarding violations ofsovereignty, former U.N. Secretary-GeneralBoutros-Ghali dismisses objections: ‘the time of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Interventions can fail and eventually cause moreharm than good Interventions are not a panaceafor failing states; they do not ensure the successof either the military offensive or subsequentreconstruction efforts on the ground during theoccupation. If the intervention fails to overcomelocal forces, civilians are powerless to overcomea political hierarchy boosted by military victoryand reliant on violence. Furthermore, even if themilitary offensive is successful, the underlyingcauses of the failure of the state are still presentand may be exacerbated by the presence of anintervening force. As such, intervening forcesmust be aware that the decision is not simplywhether intervention is necessary, but whether itwill do more harm than good. Coyne describesthis fallacy as the ‘Nirvana Fallacy’, wherebystates assume that the ‘grass is always greeneron the other side’. ‘It is assumed that the foreigngovernments can generate, via occupation andreconstruction, an outcome preferable to thatwhich would occur absent of these interventions’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Western aid ‘cannot reach its intended recipientsbecause of violence, irreconcilable politicaldivisions, or the absence of an economicinfrastructure’. [1] There is a need to change therules for access to US aid programmes (e.g. theMillennium Challenge Account) and tradepreferences (e.g. the African Growth andOpportunity Act), and those of internationalorganisations in which the USA is influential (e.g.the World Bank, G8 moves on debt relief). Atpresent these programmes are structured toreward developing countries with particulargovernment policies (e.g. protection of propertyrights, focus on education, sustainable budgets,anti-corruption measures, etc). Sensible thoughthis seems, it denies international help to thosestates whose people need it most - those wheregovernment is weak or absent. Fundingmicrocredit schemes, education, health andsanitation programmes in the more stable partsof failing states, and providing meaningful tradeaccess could all provide long-term benefits to the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ghwipcsoc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Punishment for the actions of irresponsiblegovernments should not be handed down tocivilians. The ‘safety net’ purports to protectcivilians by preventing the failure of states; itdoes not guarantee the protection of thosegovernments responsible for the near-failure.Furthermore, the fear of future failures is muchmore pronounced when states are left to fail, toexport their anarchy to neighbouring states andtheir contraband to the world. As Rotbergtherefore claims, ‘preventing states from failing,and resuscitating those that do fail,are…strategic and moral imperatives’. [1] [1]Rotberg, R. I. (2002, July/August). Failed Statesin a World of Terror. Retrieved March 16, 2011,from Council on Foreign Relations:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-atwhwatw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The idea that the US and NATO have a moralobligation falls flat when considering that thiswould put the US and NATO in a position ofhaving a moral obligation to many other thirdworld countries that are struggling and inconflict. Yet, such a broader obligation obviouslydoes not exist, so why should it exist inAfghanistan? The US/NATO cannot solveAfghanistan's problems, and may actually bedoing more harm than good. In so far as a statecannot have a moral obligation to do somethingimpossible, the US and NATO should not have amoral obligation to fulfil the impossible task ofstabilizing Afghanistan.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-atwhwatw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "American and NATO moral responsibility toAfghanistan The US overthrew the Taliban in thewinter of 2001. It has a moral obligation toensure that when it does leave Afghanistan itdoes so secure in the knowledge that the countrywill never again be a launching pad for theworld’s deadliest terrorist groups, and that thecountry is on the way to a measure of stabilityand prosperity. [1] Withdrawal before this hasbeen achieved would amount to a terriblebetrayal of the Afghan people, some of whosetroubles are the result of Western intervention.Millions of refugees have returned and millions ofchildren have the chance to go to school. But theWest has failed to protect civilian lives, to bringthe development it promised, to wean theeconomy off its poppy-addiction and to ensurefair elections—and failed even to agree aboutwhat it is trying to do in the country. Locally,NATO forces have done fine and heroic work. Buttoo often the best initiatives are dropped whenthe best commanders end their tours. The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-atwhwatw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "As the British learned in two wars withAfghanistan in the 1800s and the Soviets learnedin their bloodbath of the 1980s, Afghanistan is nocountry at all. Rather, it's a diverse collection ofprimitive tribes occupying a harsh landscapepockmarked with tens of thousands of hidingplaces ideal for guerrilla warfare. The war thereis a quagmire and makes Vietnam look like aneasy place to conquer. [1] These tribes mayconsider themselves Afghani but this does notreflect any form of nationalism and does notshow any more unity than that someone inMorocco and someone in Saudi Arabia may bothconsider themselves Arab. Why should NATOcountries continue to risk their troops in thisdeath trap? Without the timetable forwithdrawal, there is no end in sight to this war.In recent testimony to the Senate ArmedServices Committee, (retired) Lieutenant GeneralDavid Barno, a former commander inAfghanistan, said the counter-insurgencycampaign that he and other experts are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-atwhwatw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The war in Afghanistan is necessary for US andNATO security The timetable for withdrawalfrom Afghanistan means withdrawing by the endof 2012, regardless of the security situation, andhanding over the conflict against the Taliban andAl Qaida (which will almost certainly still begoing on) to a largely Afghan force which isill-prepared to handle the war on its own. Thismeans that proponents of the timetablewithdrawal must support pulling NATO forces outof Afghanistan even if the war is going badly atthe end of 2012 and it is clear that thewithdrawal will benefit the Taliban and Al Qaedaon the battlefield. \"Afghan forces simply do notcurrently have the capacity to do the protectingthemselves at this point and, given thechallenges of building up new institutions inAfghanistan after decades of war, will notnecessarily have the ability until by the end of2012.” US and NATO forces are needed tomentor and partner with Afghans as they buildup an army and police force largely from scratch.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-atwhwatw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Afghanistan is only of limited value to Americanand other NATO countries' security, especially inthe context of other areas where the resourcescould be used. Amdrew Bacevich argued in2009: \"What is it about Afghanistan, possessingnext to nothing that the United States requires,that justifies such lavish attention? InWashington, this question goes not onlyunanswered but unasked. Among Democrats andRepublicans alike, with few exceptions,Afghanistan’s importance is simplyassumed—much the way fifty years agootherwise intelligent people simply assumed thatthe United States had a vital interest in ensuringthe survival of South Vietnam. As then, so today,the assumption does not stand up to even casualscrutiny. [...] For those who, despite all this, stillhanker to have a go at nation building, why startwith Afghanistan? Why not first fix, say, Mexico?In terms of its importance to the United States,our southern neighbour—a major supplier of oiland drugs among other commodities deemed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-atwhwatw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Keeping NATO troops in Afghanistan is necessaryfor creating a successful Afghan state Due to theimpotence of the Afghan state and its fledglingarmed forces, withdrawing by the timetableddate would most likely mean abandoning theproject of building a successful Afghan state, aproject which can be successful if NATO troopscontinue to play their vital role in it. It is a myththat Afghanistan is unconquerable orungovernable. The level of violence inAfghanistan is actually far lower than mostAmericans believe. In 2008 more than 2,000Afghan civilians died at the hands of the Talibanor coalition forces (almost 7 per ten thousand).This was too many, but it was also less than aquarter of the deaths in 2008 in Iraq, a countrythat is both more sparsely populated and oftenassumed to be easier to govern. Not only areAfghan civilians much safer under Americanoccupation than Iraqis, they are also statisticallyless likely to be killed in the war than anyoneliving in the United States during the early", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-atwhwatw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "It seems deeply illogical to argue thatwithdrawing NATO forces, which wouldessentially allow the Taliban and Al Qaeda to win,could somehow lead to these parties being in aweaker position than if NATO forces remained inthe country and continued military optionsagainst them. As the necessary consequence ofwithdrawal by the timetable is a Taliban and AlQaeda victory, arguments that continuing NATOoperations 'help' them should be ignored, as aNATO withdrawal would help them even more byremoving the one player who could compete withthem on the battlefield.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-atwhwatw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "History suggests the war in Afghanistan cannotbe won History suggests the war in Afghanistancannot be won: Mohammad Omar, leader of theTaliban, has issued a taunting statementreminding Western leaders that for more than amillennium, would-be conquerors have tried andfailed to subdue the mountain fastness known asthe 'graveyard of empires' (Alexander the Greatin the 4th century B.C., the British in the 1800s,the Soviets from 1979 to 1989): 'The invadersshould study the history of Afghanistan. Themore the enemy resorts to increasing forces, themore they will face an unequivocal defeat.'[1] As galling as it is to accept tutelage fromone of Osama bin Laden's key enablers, this doesseem to be what history teaches. Pouring forcesinto Afghanistan has always provedcounterproductive. The presence of largenumbers of foreign troops is the one thing thatreliably unites Afghans, if only for long enough todrive the foreigners out. Tom Andrews, NationalDirector of Win Without War, argued in February", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-atwhwatw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The continued presence of American and NATOforces benefits the Taliban and Al Qaeda Theon-going NATO mission means continued combatconfrontations and an ever-increasing risk to thecivilian population of Afghanistan. These sorts ofdeaths, injuries and destruction of property haveso far been demonstrably destructive to theU.S.-led international effort to stabilizeAfghanistan and defeat the violent insurgencybeing waged by the Taliban and other militantgroups. [1] According to a report released lastJanuary by the United Nations Assistance Missionto Afghanistan, the 2,118 civilians killed in 2008was an increase of 40% over 2007. [2] Thecontinued presence of American troops intoethnic Pashtun areas in the Afghan south onlygalvanizes local people to back the Taliban inrepelling the infidels. [3] A 2009 study by theCarnegie Endowment concluded that \"the onlymeaningful way to halt the insurgency'smomentum is to start withdrawing troops. Thepresence of foreign troops is the most important", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-atwhwatw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Peter Bergen argues that \"Objections to Obama’sramp-up in Afghanistan begin with theobservation that Afghanistan has long been the\"graveyard of empires\"—as went the disastrousBritish expedition there in 1842 and the Sovietinvasion in 1979, so too the current Americanoccupation is doomed to follow. In fact, anynumber of empire builders, from Alexander theGreat to the Mogul emperor Babur in thesixteenth century to the British in the SecondAfghan War three decades after their infamousdefeat, have won military victories inAfghanistan. The graveyard of empires metaphorbelongs in the graveyard of clichés.\" [1] NATOcan succeed in nation-building if it persists inempowering and protecting the Afghan state. Itshould be remembered that Afghanistan hasbeen a successful, stable nation in the past, andcould be so again. Afghanistan’s majesticmountains, verdant valleys, and jasmine-scentedgardens may once again draw the tourists thatonce flocked there. [2] [1] Bergen, Peter.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "An ineffective message in this case might wellhave been worse than no message. Had theWest attempted to intervene, either by settingup a no-fly zone or even sending in groundtroops, and the killings not stopped, it wouldhave sent a message that Western threats andWestern power are a paper tiger. Worse, if thegenocide had reversed itself after Westernintervention, the West would have found itselfwith both the moral and the politicalresponsibility for the violence, and accusations ofWestern bias and even complicity would spreadrapidly.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The West has demonstrated that hiding behindChina is a viable strategy Perhaps as damagingas the humanitarian consequences of the failureto intervene is the message it sent to otherleaders considering solving their political andethnic problems in a similar manner toKhartoum. Rather than deterring them fromfollowing in Bashir’s footsteps, the West by doingnothing, gave the impression that Bashirsurvived not through his own efforts, butbecause China protected him. Given the rapidexpansion of Chinese influence around in Africa,this makes accepting Chinese investment insteadof western investment vastly more attractivebecause in addition to the economic benefits, it isnow perceived as buying Chinese politicalcover. In turn, this increasing interest in seekingout Chinese political cover will lead to morestates being willing to imitate Bashir in thefuture, safe the knowledge that they will not bebombed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Past experience in Iraq and Afghanistan indicatesthat terrorism tends to flourish when states areweak. An Invasion of Sudan, especially if it hadled to a collapse of the Sudanese state, wouldhave create a vacuum terrorists could kill,especially when the very invasion would providethe resentment and motivation for thousands ofjihadi volunteers to fight the Western “crusaders”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The conflict has a racial identity The conflict inSudan took on racial overtones. The inhabitantsof Darfur are largely black, the governmentforces of Arab descent. Much of their treatment,including kidnapping and slavery, is a legacy ofcenturies of racist mistreatment and conflictbetween “white” and “dark” Muslims. [1] As astrong opponent of Racism, the West had a dutyto act, given that the conflict was reinforcingnegative views in the Arab world against those ofdarker skin. [2] [1] Mutua, Makau, ‘Racism atroot of Sudan’s Darfur crisis’, The ChristianScience Monitor, 14 July 2004, [2] Fatah,Tarek, ‘From Bangladesh to Darfur: Racismamong Muslims’, , 24 April 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The Behaviour of the Sudanese government wastantamount to Genocide The violence thatoccurred in the Darfur region of Western Sudansince 2003, approached genocide proportionswith the death toll estimated between 300,000and 500,000 out of a population of a little over amillion and a half. Not only was this a humantragedy. It was also a political crisis. The Westinvested enormous political capital in the ideathat genocide, whether deliberate or throughgovernmental negligence, is unacceptable, andGeorge Bush even termed the events in Darfur agenocide in 2007 . [1] By having called theevents a genocide and then failed the Westdiscredited itself, both as a moral force(showingit cared more about SE Europe than it did Africa)and indicated to dictators that they have noreason to fear a Western response in thefuture. [1] ‘Bush blasts Darfur 'genocide'’,MailOnline, 29 May 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The events in Darfur were first and foremost aCivil War, even if their consequences included amajor humanitarian crisis. Darfur rose inrebellion against the central government first,and even the local conflict was a civil war, theAbbala tribe from which the janjaweed are drawnhas a long history of conflict with settled Darfurtribes, which drove them off their land centuriesago. That the death toll in these conflicts wasraised by the introduction of modern armamentsis clear. What is not clear is how Westernintervention would have solved either theunderlying problems, or created a deterrent. Themost likely outcome would have been genocideof the Abbala, as the West already demonstratedin Kosovo that it is unable to protect the“perpetrators” of genocide from its “victims”even with large military forces present.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The Sudanese government has long beenintegrated, and black Sudanese as well as Arabsserving in the cabinet and Army. The rebellion inDarfur is primarily political and was launched byformer supporters of the government. There isno clear evidence it is based on race.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There was and continues to be a compelling casefor a humanitarian response to the crises, butthis does not suggest that military interventionwould have solved the situation. Militaryintervention and the collapse of the Sudanesestate would have quite possibly led to far greaterdestabilization. Rather than only one group ofrefugees, it would likely have led to the Abbalafleeing over the border into Chad as well.Potentially this could have meant thedevelopment of a situation akin to that in theDemocratic Republic of Congo, were the refugeesrefought the Civil War among themselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The Sudanese regime has a history of supportingterrorism and other unsavoury groups TheSudanese government’s unsavoury behaviourgoes beyond its actions in Darfur. Its campaignagainst the southern rebels was replete withatrocities, and it has a long history of supportingterrorism including hosting Osama Bin Ladin inthe early 1990s. [1] While Sudan has been morecooperative in recent years against Al-Quada, itcontinues to harbour Islamic extremist groupsresponsible for attacks in Egypt and SaudiArabia. Combined with the conflict in Darfurthere was a pressing case for regime change,and reason to think Sudan’s neighbours would beopen and supportive of the idea as well. [1]Bhattacharji, Preeti, ‘State Sponsors: Sudan’,Council on Foreign Relations, 2 April 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The Chaos in Darfur is a threat to regionalsecurity Sudan’s internal problems activelydestabilized the entire region. More than amillion refugees fled Darfur, many travelling torefuge e camps in Chad and Southern Sudan.This in turn has placed stresses on localresources. [1] Furthermore, the tendency forresistance forces to base themselves in theserefugee camps, threatened and continues tothreaten to spread the war into these regions,either igniting the north-south Civil War inSudan, or destabilizing Chad’s government. [1]Polgreen, Lydia, ‘Attacks Pushing DarfurRefugees Into Chad’, The New York Times, 11February 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Even if the conflict was inter-tribal, it had beenbrought to a boil and allowed to turn genocidalby the Sudanese government. It may well bethat the conflict would have continued of its ownaccord without Sudanese intervention, thoughthe continued air support provided consistentlyby the Sudanese government to the Janjaweedargues against this. [1] And all interventions areby nature one-sided – that reconstruction mightbe difficult is a reason to plan for it, but in and ofitself it does not justify allowing thousands to dieand for Western opposition to genocide to be leftan empty letter. [1] ‘Sudan: Government andMilitias Conspire in Darfur Killings’, Human RightsWatch, 22 April 2004,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Even eliminating the Sudanese Air Force wouldhave had a major impact, as one rebel groupargued that the Air Force was responsible for60% of the attacks launched by Sudanese forcesin the region. [1] Even if a non-Fly zone did notcompletely eliminate the Sudanese militaryforces, it would even the playing field andperhaps persuaded the government to sue forpeace. Furthermore, the difficulty of gainingover-flight rights was also an issue with the airwar in Kosovo, eventually forcing the use ofGerman bases and carrier launched planes dueto Italian reluctance. Such issues can beovercome, and the Sudanese air force poses littlethreat with its aged inventory. [1] Polgreen,Lydia, ‘Attacks Pushing Darfur Refugees IntoChad’, The New York Times, 11 February 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Intervention might destabilize the peace deal inthe South The focus on the failure to act inDarfur ignores the real progress that has beenachieved in ending decades long violence inSudan. In 2011 Southern Sudan peacefully votedto secede and all indications are that the processwill not be contested by Khartoum. The UnitedStates under George Bush played a key role inthe peace accords which ended that part of theCivil War, with Prospect Magazine noting that thePresident “deserves much of the credit” for theagreement . [1] While the government inKhartoum has accepted them, it seems likelythat if the US were to have participated in abombing campaign or invasion, that theSudanese government would have responded bytearing up the accords. This is especially true asthey would have a pressing motive that does notexist in Darfur, namely the Oil reserves that willbe leaving the country with the rest of the South.[2] [1] De Waal, Akex, ‘Sudan’s chance’,Prospect, 28 August 2005, [2] ‘South Sudan", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The West should not atagonise the Muslimworld Any intervention by the West in Sudan,following so closely on Iraq and Afghanistanwould have been looked upon as a further attackon the Muslim world and therefore act as arecruiting tool for terrorism. While it is true thatthe intervention would have been couched interms of helping oppressed Muslims, so too werethe interventions in Iraq and Afghanistan. Anattack, especially if it was air-only, and thereforeleft Bashir in power in Khartoum might also havestrengthened the regime by providing it withreligious legitimacy, and might well have as aresult inspired volunteers to enlist in order tofight in a jihad to protect it. The latter would beeven more true in the event ground troops wereused, in which case volunteers might flood infrom around the world to fight the“Crusaders”. Such an added dimension couldnot have helped but place the Christian SouthernSudanese in an awkward and very uncomfortableposition.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The Conflict is an internal inter-tribal conflict –arming the Darfur tribes would be better Theconflict in Darfur has been largely inter-tribal,and even the Sudanese government, lacking thefull resources needed to suppress the oppositionitself, has resorted to playing on thesedifferences. Any Western effort to intervenewould have been seen as intervening on one sideby virtually all of the locals. The Fur, Zaghawa,and Masalit would have seen the West asintervening to support them – the Abbala andthe Janjaweed, as intervening to attack them. Inthis context intervention would be seen as apretext to reverse the sides in the war ratherthan to end it. If our sole goal was to push for asettlement, it would have made far more senseto attempt to pay off the Janjaweed to turn onthe government forces, and then to arm theDarfur tribes. It would have been cheaper, andprevented the Sudanese from playing the sidesoff against each other.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Airstrikes would likely be politicallyineffective Military intervention, unless launchedagainst the Sudanese state itself, was veryunlikely to have been effective. While a no-flyzone would have limited the participation of theSudanese air force in Darfur, the Sudanese airforce was and is not vital to the continuedgenocide, as Sudanese ground forces and theJanjaweed would still be able to operate. Any airoperations would furthermore have required overflight rights from Libya, Egypt, Ethiopia andeither Somalia or Eritrea. Libya until Gaddaffi’soverthrow was unlikely to work with the West,and the new government is moving closer toKhartoum . [1] Chad would have feared militaryretaliation, whereas Revolutionary Egypt is in nocondition to make major decisions aboutanything. Both Ethiopia and Eritrea have humanrights concerns of their own. Avoidingoverflights would limit NATO to using carrierbased aircraft from the Red Sea that would havehad to cross more than a 1000 KM of Sudan to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The United States at least had already steppedon various religiously sensitive toes due to itssupport of the Christian Southern Sudanese.These groups had support and lobbying inWashington from influential evangelical Christiangroups,[1] and President Bush mentioned theirreligion in his speech celebrating the Peacesettlement. [2] If this failed to produce anupsurge in Islamist sentiment, it is hard to seehow helping Muslims who are being slaughteredwould have, especially if Western interventionwas limited to providing air cover. [1] Phares,Walid, ‘The Sudanese Battle for AmericanOpinion’, The Middle East Quarterly, March1998, [2] Hamilton, Rebecca, ‘U.S. Played KeyRole in Southern Sudan’s Long Journey toIndependence’, the Atlantic, 9 July 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-alhrhbushdmd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is unclear whether the Northern governmenthas any desire to go back to war with the Southeven if an excuse existed. The Foreign Ministerdenied any such interest in December of 2011,[1] and the fact is that Sudan ended the warbecause it was costing far more to wage thancould possible have been recovered.Furthermore, after 20 years government forceswere losing, and it is hard to see how they woulddo better with a war on two fronts. Secondly,even if it would destabilize the Peace Agreement,that means in effect that the internationalcommunity is allowing the South Sudanese to beused as hostages for their “good behaviour”regarding Darfur. If so, that seems less like atriumph of Diplomacy and more like a bad deal.It would incentivise dictators like Mugabe toattempt to make similar deals, say offering tocompensate white farmers in exchange for theWest ignoring his treatment of blackopponents. [1] ‘Sudan’s FM rules out return towar with South Sudan’, Sudan Tribune, 14", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Every country engages in spying against othercountries and so are not surprised by therevelations. These countries leaders are obligedto sound like they are outraged but in practicethey will already have known such actions occur– they might be interested to learn the detailsbut little else. Hollande’s own Direction Généralede la Securité Extérieure (DGSC) has beendescribed by Bernard Barbier, its formertechnical director, as \"probably the biggestinformation centre in Europe after the English\".It uses similar methods to the NSA withsystematic collection of emails, sms messages,phone records, social media posts which is thenall stored for years. [1] President Obama is rightto point out “I guarantee you that in Europeancapitals, there are people who are interested in,if not what I had for breakfast, at least what mytalking points might be should I end up meetingwith their leaders. That's how intelligenceservices operate.” [2] [1] Follorou, Jaques, andJohannès, Franck, ‘Exclusive: French intelligence", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Damages diplomatic relations with allies Everycountry needs friends and historically the UnitedStates has managed to maintain a large numberof close relationships with states around theworld; it has alliances with various Asian statessuch as South Korea and Japan, with manyMiddle Eastern states, and with almost the wholeof Europe. The NSA’s spying has damaged theserelationships. French President Hollande said “Wecannot accept this kind of behavior from partnersand allies,” [1] while the president of theEuropean Parliament, Martin Schulz complained“the United States of America treats its closestpartners, including Germany for example, butalso the European Union as a whole like hostilepowers”. There have even been suggestions thatthis would jeopardise trade talks as warned bythe Commissioner Viviane Reding that “if there isany doubt that our partners are bugging theoffices of European negotiators, then the futuretrade talks could be in difficulty”. [2] [1] Chu,Henry, ‘European leaders angered by U.S. spying", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Most other states accept that there is a largedegree of self interest in the United Statesopposing Russian and Chinese proposals forinternet governance, finding out that there issome hypocrisy too is unlikely to sway theirvotes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Indiscriminate spying damages trust Trust isimportant in international relations. Wheneverthere is an international agreement each sidehas to trust that the other side will fulfil its sideof the bargain; there is no court to step in andensure that they do. Trust therefore needs to bebuilt up. A large part of this is simply fulfillingpromises that have been made in such treatiesbut trust can also be about being open with eachother. When a country engages in an immensespying operation against another nation it isclearly damaging the trust between thosenations. With the United States this is just one ina long line of issues that have undermined trustin the US government; the Iraq war,Guantanamo bay, drone strikes etc. and thecontinued violations of international law theserepresent have all undermined trust in the UnitedStates internationally. [1] [1] Dunn, Matthew,‘PRISM: An International Relations Disaster?’,Huffington Post, 10 July 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "It is not so much the spying that damages trustas the revelations that do so. As former CIAdirector Michael Hayden commented “Who onthis planet [now] believes the Americans cankeep a secret? This really erodes the kind ofcorporation that our intelligence service has withother intelligence agencies.” [1] Trust comesfrom working together and this is just as true inthe intelligence sphere as elsewhere.Governments already knew the NSA spies onthem, that so much information about the howand when has been revealed will be what is theshock. [1] Coleman, Michael, ‘Besides BruisedEgos, Will NSA Spy Leaks Cause Lasting Pain?’,The Washington Diplomat, 30 July 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "There is no reason for foreign companies to beworried about NSA surveillance. The companiesinvolved such as Google have deniedinvolvement “we have not joined any programthat would give the U.S. government—or anyother government—direct access to our servers.Indeed, the U.S. government does not havedirect access or a “back door” to the informationstored in our data centers. We had not heard of aprogram called PRISM until yesterday.” [1] Thereshould be no concern about companies’ data asthe NSA is about protecting national security andis not interested in the commercial work ofmillions of businesses around the world. [1]Page, Larry, and Drummond, David, ‘What the…?’, Google Official Blog, 7 June 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Undermines US position on internetfreedom The United States, along with Europe,has been the key voice arguing for freedom onthe internet and in particular that the internetshould not be controlled nationally. Russia andChina in particular have been advocating formuch more control over the internet by stateswith Russia’s proposal advocating that “MemberStates shall have equal rights to manage theInternet” and “Member States shall have thesovereign right to establish and implement publicpolicy… on matters of Internet governance, andto regulate the national Internet segment”. [1]Essentially every state should have the right tocensor and surveil their chunk of the internet.With the United States already doing thiscountries that have previously been waveringmay be much more inclined to support theseproposals over US objections. [2] The US wouldstand to lose out as it is currently the countrywith most control over internet governance. [1]Russian Federation ‘Proposals for the work of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Damages US commercial interests The UnitedStates is the preponderant power in internetcommerce; most of the big internet companies,the big software companies, even many of thehardware companies are companies that arebased in the United States. This both enables USuse of these systems for spying as occurred withPRISM because it happens that most web trafficpasses through the United States, and makes theUnited States vulnerable when the world’sconsumers think these companies have beenbetraying their trust. If consumers don’t think UScompanies can guarantee their data and privacyit should be no surprise that they will considertransferring their business. [1] Cloud computingis particularly affected, among the revelationshas been that Microsoft helps the NSA withaccess to its cloud storage service skydrive. [2]According to a survey by the Cloud SecurityAlliance 10% of non US responders had cancelleda project with US based providers since the leaksabout NSA projects and 56% say they would be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While this is clearly a benefit of spying it is not somuch of a benefit of the kind of indiscriminatespying such as the PRISM program. Tappingdiplomats mobile phones and setting up fakeinternet cafes is clearly not indiscriminate, farfrom it this is targeted surveillance.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "No one disputes that some surveillance isnecessary, the question is how much. Is the useof bulk catch all surveillance useful? In the casecited it seems not – this was the monitoring ofspecific individuals who were already known toUS intelligence services; Ayaman al Zawahiri, alQaeda’s leader and Nasser al Wahishi the head ofal Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula. [1] Normalintelligence methods without the broad basedsurveillance would have caught the samemessages. Monitoring the communications ofknown terrorist leaders was done long before theinternet was on the scene. [1] Associated Press,‘AP sources: Al-Qaida chief’s interceptedm,essage to deputy in Yemen caused embassyclosures’, The Washington Post, 5 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Broad web surveillance prevents terroristattacks Over the last ten years, and right up tothe present day, the most important nationalsecurity interest of the United States has beenpreventing terrorism. A fight against terrorismrequires a large amount of resources invested intracking terrorist networks and in finding thosewho may turn to terrorism. Intelligencegathering cannot just focus on those we alreadyknow to be terrorists as people can easilybecome radicalised while not meeting anyindividuals already considered to be terrorists.This means that there needs to be a broad brushintelligence gathering operation that finds thosewho are on the path to terrorism. This is whyoperations like PRISM and xkeyscore are soimportant; they allow the United States to findpeople who are being radicalised by materialonline or those who are just working out how tolaunch an attack themselves. The NSA DirectorKeith Alexander has stated that the surveillancehas helped prevent “potential terrorist events", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Allows monitoring of foreigngovernments Governments expect to bemonitored by other governments and do sothemselves as well. Monitoring othergovernments provides major advantages evenwhen those governments are ostensibly friendlyas no government is going to tell even its allieseverything there need to be other ways to learnsuch information. Surveillance can provideadvantages in negotiations; it can let you knowhow far the other side is willing to go. GCHQ forexample engaged in interceptingcommunications by monitoring phones and evensetting up fake internet cafes during the G20meetings in London in 2008. [1] [1] MacAskill,Ewen et al., ‘GCHQ intercepted foreignpoliticians’ communications at G20 summits’,The Guardian, 17 June 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Surveillance is necessary to protect nationalsecurity The primary concern of the state is theprotection of its people from foreign powers. Thisusually means physical protection but thisphysical protection relies upon knowing whatothers are doing; where the threats are comingfrom. That means surveillance. There needs tobe monitoring of groups that potentially pose athreat to the state or to its citizens. In a worldwhere terrorism is as much a threat as otherstates there is a clear need to be watching asmany people as possible around the world.Threats such as that to western interests inYemen at the start of August 2013 demonstratethe need to be watching out for threats asintelligence picked up high level threats towestern interests so allowing the United Statesand others to take pre-emptive action by closingembassies and evacuating personnel. [1] [1]Hicks, Josh, ‘Chambliss: Threats ‘veryreminiscent of what we saw pre-9/11’, TheWashington Post, 4 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-gsidfphb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Clearly the intelligence efforts on such a scalemust provide some return in terms of stoppingterrorism or they would not be worth the cost.However it is open to question whether theimpact has been nearly as big as had been citedby the intelligence agencies. We clearly don’tknow if these terrorists would have beendetected through other methods. Additionally inat least one case where the FBI and NSA havestated that electronic surveillance has played akey role it has turned out not to be the case. FBIdeputy director Sean Joyce has claimed that anattack on the New York Stock exchange wasfoiled by electronic surveillance; “We went up onthe electronic surveillance and identified hisco-conspirators” yet the emails involved wereperfectly ordinary – the only information gainedfrom the broad brush surveillance was that theplotter was in contact with al Qaeda leaders inYemen. Something which surely could have beencaught the other way around – by looking at theal Qaeda leaders communications. [1] Other", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aehbssccamm-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "If Ceuta and Melilla were to be given to Morocco,then immigration would not halt. The higherstandard of living in Spain would still attractimmigrants who would face greater perils thanrestriction of movement and employment.Irregular migrants and refugees already attemptto travel from Morocco to Italy and Malta (thestrait of Gibraltar is too well guarded)1 andnumbers would only increase if the land routewere dismantled. Hundreds of irregular migrantswill hide on inadequate boats trying to reachEurope and thousands die every year in theattempt2. One boat which sunk off the Italianisland of Lampedusa resulting in more than 300deaths3. Despite these risks, high risk migrationcontinues which that immigration numbers wouldcontinue even without a land border. 1)Peters,K. ‘Ceuta and Melilla: Europe’s High-TechAfrican Fortress’, 10 August 2011 2) Herman,M.‘From Africa to Europe: A Surprisingly DangerousJourney for Migrants’, 3 December 2013 3) BBC,‘Italy to hold state funeral for shipwreck", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aehbssccamm-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Decrease immigration to Spain The Spanishpossession of Ceuta and Melilla has resulted inan influx of illegal immigrants. Due to theirpositioning and membership to the EU, the twocities are subject to numerous attempts byimmigrants to gain access to Europe1. In Melillathis has resulted in a social experiment with direimplications. To discourage illegal immigration,non-Moroccans who illicitly gain access to thecountry will not be permitted to move on fromthe city. They are trapped in Melilla without legalrights and generally live in extremely poorconditions with no means of legal work2. If theSpanish relinquished control of the two citiesthen these then there would be no permeableland border for illegal immigrants to gain accessto. 1) Ribas,X. ‘The Border Fences of Cueta andMelilla. A Landscape for the Future’ 2) Davies,N.‘Melilla: Europe’s dirty secret’, The Guardian, 17April 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aehbssccamm-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Spain claims that there is a difference betweenGibraltar and its own territories. While Gibraltaris an overseas territory, otherwise known as acolony, Ceuta and Melilla are part of Spain andmaintain the same semi-autonomous statuswhich other regions in Spain have1. The UnitedNations maintains a similar view, recognisingGibraltar as an ‘overseas territory’ which isreviewed annually by the Committee onDecolonisation2. 1) Govan,F. ‘The battle overCeuta, Spain’s African Gibraltar’ 10 August2013 2) United Nations General Assembly,‘2231 (XXI) Question of Gibraltar’, 20 December1966", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aehbssccamm-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The dispute damages Morocco-Spainrelations The dispute over the two cities onlyserves to harm co-operation between Moroccoand Spain. Bilateral disagreements haveprevented the resolution of other issues andgenerally heightened diplomatic tensionsbetween these geographically close countries.When the Prime Minister and King of Spain bothvisited Morocco to resolve the Perejal crisis andWestern Sahara issues, relations periodicallyimproved. However a subsequent visit by the PMand King to Ceuta and Melilla in 2006 and 2007reversed the progress made due to Moroccanoutrage1. If Spain ceded these cities to Moroccothen relations would improve, which could leadto increased co-operation on other issues. 1)Arieff,A. ‘Morocco: Current Issues’ 30 June 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aehbssccamm-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The disagreements between Morocco and Spainover Ceuta and Melilla have had minimal impacton diplomacy between the two countries, whichgenerally remains positive. Co-operation oncounter-terrorism, counternarcotics and illegalimmigration all continue to progress in aproductive manner1. Joint operations betweenthe two countries’ military forces continue on thestrait of Gibraltar and a joint police panel hasbeen proposed2, implying relations are stillconstructive. 1) Arieff,A. ‘Morocco: CurrentIssues’ 30 June 2011 2) Benmehdi,H. ‘Morocco,Spain partner against terrorism’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aehbssccamm-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Spain is being hypocritical Spain refusing tocede Cueta and Melilla to Morocco is inconsistentwith its policy towards Gibraltar. Whilst theSpanish refuse to cede their two cities toMorocco, they expect the British to return thecircumstantially similar Gibraltar. Gibraltar is aBritish overseas territory which is located insouthern Spain, taken from the Spanish by anAnglo-Dutch fleet in 1704. Spain asserts a claimto this territory as it was once part of its ownlands, despite signing the Treaty of Utrecht andrelinquishing the land ‘in perpetuity’1. The claimthat a state should return exclaves whichrightfully belong to the nation which originallyowned them is therefore inconsistent with theirpolicy towards Ceuta and Melilla2. If Spainexpects to reclaim Gibraltar then they shouldalso expect to relinquish control over Cueta andMelilla. 1) ‘Treaty of Utrecht’ April 1713 2)Tremlett,G. ‘A rocky relationship’ 14 January2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aehbssccamm-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While they were not a recognised state in thesame sense as Spain is, [1] Berbers have lived inMorocco for thousands of years; making Ceutaand Melilla part of their history as well. Thepresence of the Berbers in Morocco can be tracedback 4,000 years, with today’s Berbersmaintaining a similar language and customs1.Their association with this territory means thatmany Berbers see these cities as their land andfeel they have a stronger claim to it thanSpain. 1) Morris,C. ‘Who are the MoroccoBerbers?’, Journey Beyond Travel, data accessed21 January 2014 [1] This should not besurprising; our current notion of the state is aWestern European invention.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aehbssccamm-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The wishes of a population are often overlookedby governments when deciding upon territorialsovereignty. During the Franco-Prussian War of1870-1 the provinces of Alsace and Lorrainewere ceded to the German alliance. The majorityof citizens were French, or preferred French toPrussian leadership1. This factor was disregardedhowever, as it usually is in the redrawing ofboundaries. Morocco does not appear to haveaddressed this argument as they do not deem itrelevant against their territorial interests. Spainhas also been hypocritical by its claim to respectthe people’s decision on sovereignty, particularlywhile observing the situation in Catalonia. As ofearly 2014, the Spanish government has statedit will not allow any form of referendumconcerning the independence of the EasternSpanish state, despite the population’swishes2. 1) Wikipedia, ‘Alsace-Lorraine’, dateaccessed 21 January 2014 2) Vilaweb, ‘TheSpanish Government “will not allow” and “willnot negotiate” on Catalonia’s self-determination", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aehbssccamm-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The cities are a source of revenue forSpain Ceuta and Melilla are economic assets toSpain; it is in Spain’s interest to maintain them.Spain was particularly damaged by the 2008economic recession which left many of therichest countries in decline1. With no sign ofrapid recovery in the near future, it is withinSpain’s interests to hold on to two cities whichhave strong economies2. The ports of Cueta andMelilla are of particular importance as theyprovided a large portion of the cities’ income,catering to many luxurious boats. The low taxzones also encourage a lot of financial activity3.Spain’s economic position therefore dictates thatthey should not cede them. 1) Cala,A. ‘Why isMorocco Picking a Fight with Spain?’ 15 August2010 2) Sotogrande, ‘Ceuta and Melilla’, dataaccessed 20 January 2014 Ibid", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aehbssccamm-con03a", "title": "", "text": "They have been Spanish possessions forcenturies The cities of Ceuta and Melilla havebeen an integral part of Spain’s territory and tocede them would be a compromise of territorialintegrity. The two cities have been part of Spainfor almost as long as the country has existed.The marriage of Isabelle I of Castile andFerdinand II of Aragon united two major regionsof Spain in 1469. The conquest of Granada finallyjoined the South of the country with the North in1492. The capture of Melilla was only five yearslater, and Ceuta was merged in to the countryless than a century afterwards. These cities arean integral part of Spain and should thereforeremain Spanish. 1) Snelling,N. ‘The history ofSpain, Spain’s unification and elevation to worldpower’, Culture Spain, data accessed 21 January2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aehbssccamm-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The citizens do not want to be ceded Many ofthose living in Ceuta and Melilla do not want tojoin Morocco, to cede them would be unjust.Walzer, in his book Just and Unjust Wars, claimsthat the only people who should decide who hassovereignty over a territory are the population ofsaid land1. If the people associate themselveswith Spain, then it is only right that Spaincontinues to rule over them. This is the case withCeuta and Mellia, where there is a nearlyuniversal feeling of belonging to Spain2. Moroccoand Spain should therefore respect the wishes ofthe population. 1) Walzer,M. ‘Just and Unjustwars: A Moral Argument with HistoricalIllustrations' 2) Govan,F. ‘The battle over Ceuta,Spain’s African Gibraltar’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aehbssccamm-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The financial future of the two cities is uncertain.It has cost copious sums of money to protect theborder against immigrants who travel from as faras India to reach EU territory. In 2011, €30million was spent on fortifying the border fencesof Ceuta and Melilla1. Not only was this afinancial burden, but it served to worsenrelations with Morocco who temporarily haltedtrade with the cities in 2010, leaving Melilla’smarket stalls empty. The development of theMoroccan ‘super-port’, known as the Tanger Medproject also financially threatens the ports ifCeuta and Melilla2. Built on the straits ofGibraltar, it is designed to intercept shippingtraffic which would usually go to Ceuta andMelilla. 1) Peters,K. ‘Ceuta and Melilla: Europe’sHigh-Tech African Fortress’, 10 August 2011 2)Arieff,A. ‘Morocco: Current Issues’,Congressional Research Service, 30 June 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The UN’s own failures in the past should be awarning, not a motivation, regardinginvolvement in a conflict where it has limitedpower to implement an outcome. The UN’s goalneeds to be the creation of a stable Palestinianstate living in peace with Israel. This policywould in reality encourage the exact opposite.While it would do little to help the Palestinians,delegitimizing Israel’s creation would be a tool inthe hands of figures in the Arab world andelsewhere whose interests in the region are notin peace with Israel but in its destruction. Itseems likely Iran at the very minimum wouldseize on a claim that Israel’s license to exist hasbeen withdrawn. In turn, if Israel interpretedthe UN’s move as a an attack on its legitimacy asa state, it would be likely to interpret the moveas having anti-Semitic overtones, strengtheningthe hands of those in Israel who see the UN as astalking horse for anti-Semitism, and therebyreducing the UN’s ability to play a future role inresolving the conflict.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Such a move is historically and morallyjustified There is significant justification, bothfor recognition of a Palestinian state and for theUN recognition in particular to carry more weightthan it otherwise might. For one thing, Israelwas created by a resolution of the UN GeneralAssembly, and to the extent Israel denies thelegitimacy of the UN’s actions and its right toengage in them, it is implicitly questioning thelegitimately of its own creation and continuedexistence, leaving them both a product of “bloodand iron.” Secondly, the UN has a responsibilityto help resolve a situation its own failures helpedcreate. By passing a partition plan, and thendoing nothing to prevent first its collapse intowholesale war, and then the Jordanianoccupation of the Palestinian territories in theWest Bank , the UN has a an obligation to thePalestinians. [1] [1] Palestine Facts, ‘JordanRenounced Claims to West Bank, 1988’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "In the long-run UN action may freeze thenegotiations into a discussion of a two-statesolution, but UN action is not required to reachthis eventuality. Even Avigdor Lieberman on theFar Right accepts that there will be two states,and that has been the basic premise of the PeaceProcess since 1994. On the issues which haveactually prevented a two state solution fromcoming to fruition- disputes about borders,armaments, security, and settlements, the UNwould accomplish nothing. Furthermore, it mightwell make both sides intransigent, the Israelisdue to perceiving themselves as being backedinto a corner internationally, the Palestinians dueto the belief they no longer need to makeconcessions.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Independence Matters – there are real legal anddiplomatic consequences to such a move Goingto the UN would transform the legal status ofPalestine. While this would not immediatechange the physical contours of the conflict –Israeli incursions, the occupation, the existenceof settlements, it would transform the context inwhich they take place. For one thing, therewould no longer be ambiguity about the status ofthe West Bank and the settlements on it. [1] TheUN would be making clear that in the eyes ofinternational law they would be illegal. Thismight not force an immediate withdrawal fromthe settlements, but it would incentivise thesettlers themselves to crave the legal legitimacyof a settlement that could confirm them inpossession of their property. After all, who wouldwant to invest as much in land that might haveto be abandoned? This in turn might make Israelmore likely to make concessions elsewhere,because the Palestinian signatures on anagreement recognizing the legality of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The UN proclaiming Palestine an independentstate would do no more to advance the cause ofpeace than the UN proclaiming a Palestinian anda Jewish State in 1948 did. The day after thedeclaration the Israeli Army would remain, thesettlements would still be there, and the Israeliswould be determined to prove exactly how littlethe UN’s actions means to them. As a result it’slikely that military incursions rather thandeclining would increase. Israel already has abad reputation, and has long since given up anyambition to be loved by its neighbours in theshort-run. On the contrary in some cases it hasdeliberately fostered a sense of fear, perhapsbest illustrated by its non-denial policy regardingits officially non-existent nuclear program , [1]and the Mossad’s efforts to build up a reputationfor invincibility as well as the motive for fear ofIranian nuclear weapons. [2] Bowing to theworld community would badly damage Israeli’sdeterrence in this respect. The best way ofmaintaining that fear would be to launch a new", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "While issues like the “Right of Return” mightbenefit from an international approach, it’s hardto see why international recognition would makeneighbouring states more likely to pay for orallow the settlement of, Palestinian refugees.Furthermore, a “sovereign” state may feel lessinclined to compromise on its rights, especially ifthe International Community seems to have justconceded the legitimacy of those claims.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The will make that a two-state solution will bethe final settlement even if its contours areunclear The recognition of a Palestinian state bythe UN would have de facto effect of freezing outalternative plans for a settlement – i.e. a onestate solution, or some sort of autonomy – andmaking clear that the end result, if notnecessarily two states on boundariesapproximating those of 1967, will none the lessbe two states in some form. This is because thePalestinians, once they have gained recognitionas a state, are unlikely to ever bargain it away.This in turn removes a number of the fantasiesabout “autonomy” floating around in Israel, aswell as fears about Jews being swamped in abi-national state. The issues of dispute willtherefore be reduced to those of settlingboundaries, setting up trade and customspolicies, and deciding on sovereignty over holyplaces. [1] [1] Rosenberg, M.J., ‘Obama ShouldSupport Palestinian Statehood at the UnitedNations’, HuffPost World, 22 July 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "A UN move would internationalize the problem,and pave the way for broader for internationalsolutions One of the major problems with theIsraeli-Palestinian conflict up to now is that it hasbeen localized between the Israelis andPalestinians, with outside involvement limited toputting pressure on one side or the other atvarious times. The result is that negotiationshave become a zero-sum game whereconcessions from one side have to be extractedfrom the other. Allowing the Israelis to keepsettlements means that the Palestinians mustgive up land. Allowing a “Right of return” toPalestinians is seen is something Israel alonemust carry the burden of, when the vast majoritylive in other Arab states that perhaps should playa part in any sort of compensationscheme. Consequently, negotiations have beenfar more brutal than they otherwise might havebeen. UN Recognition or at least a debate aboutit would move the forum of the discussion awayfrom bilateral talks, and into the international", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Israel’s concerns are not with sovereignty per se,but with the willingness of Palestinians to behavein a legally responsible manner becoming of aninternational state. Adopting a policy of seekinglegitimacy at the UN and then asserting theirrights legally is probably the best Palestinianstrategy in this respect, as it makes clear thatthey wish to move the conflict from one of eitherviolent or nonviolent resistance to one of legalarguments under international law. Rather thandenying Palestine sovereignty Israel insteadshould be seeking to gain guarantees withintreaties that Palestine will not allow any foreignbases on its soil. Russia does not want NATObases in the former Soviet Union but this doesnot mean it denies these states sovereignty.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The problem of expectations exists on bothsides. The Israelis also have an expectation thatthey can continue the status quo indefinitely,that the Palestinian “problem” is a containablesecurity issue, especially after the success of the“wall”, and that the international community isall bark. UN action, especially if the US were toallow it through an abstention rather than apositive vote would indicate that bothinternational and American patience are notinfinite and probably have as great an impact onIsrael as the recognition would have on thePalestinians.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Israel remembers past failures of theinternational community when it came to Jewsand doubts the UN’s Impartiality Regardless ofwhether some degree of outside impetus mightbe of benefit, the UN is a particularly bad actorfor pressuring Israel. For one thing, the UN isnot viewed as an impartial entity. Israeligovernment officials have repeatedly claimed itis biased against them, and the UN has not triedparticularly hard to dispel these impressions withits recent conferences at on racism, mostprominently at Durban in South Africa, dissolvinginto denunciations of Zionism and holocaustcomparisons. [1] Reinforcing this is thepersistent feeling that the world did nothing forthe Jews when they were facing annihilation,which feeds into the narrative that while theinternational community may talk endlesslyabout Palestinian rights, they would do little forIsraelis if the balance of power ever shifted.When Israeli politicians can state that they knowexactly what would happen (a second Holocaust)", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Even a successful move for statehood wouldplace the United States in a challenging position,and alienate American opinion which thePalestinians are dependent on Any UNRecognition of Palestinian statehood wouldrequire at the very least US abstention. Even ifthis were to be achieved, it would only comeafter the request had placed the United States ina very awkward position. Vetoing Palestinianstatehood at the UN would force the US toalienate world opinion, while abstaining orsupporting the Palestinian demand would mean aclash with Israel with all the US domestic coststhat entails for any American politician. [1]Barack Obama’s less than stringent support ofIsrael was seen as contributing to the defeat ofhis Democratic party in a 2011 special election ina heavily Democratic and heavily Jewish seat inNYC. It is likely a future US President would faceworse. Furthermore, allowing the UN torecognize Palestinian statehood explicitly bringsthe UN into the Peace Process, undermine the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-con03a", "title": "", "text": "An attempt to build up international supportreinforces Israeli fears of a Palestinian statebeing used as a platform for attacks againstthem Among Israel’s prime security concernsabout a prospective Palestinian state is that itmight become a base for Israel’s other enemiesto attack it. Israel is particularly vulnerablestrategically from the West Bank, and thedistance between East Jerusalem and Tel Aviv isbarely 15 miles. [1] The great fear therefore isthat a legitimately independent Palestinian statemight well allow the basing of Iranian weaponson its territory, or provides a base for IsraeliArab dissidents to launch an attack. While therewould be little practical change in the ability ofIsrael to stop foreign forces being allowed intoPalestine the Palestinians would be able to claimthat they are within their sovereign rights toallow foreign basing rights just as many othercountries around the world do. Repeated effortsto bring in International support, and a focus onlegal sovereignty to the exclusion of actual", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Such a move will make Palestinian expectationsmuch higher and their position moreintransigent One of the major obstacles to peacehas consistently been the unrealisticexpectations which have existed on thePalestinian side. From 1994 onwards, thePalestinians have confused the Peace Processwith a process by which “wrongs will be righted”and their “rightful demands” met, rather than acompromise process of give and take. This hasbeen fed by leaders like Yasser Arafat who havetold Palestinians for so long that they will have astate with a capital in Jerusalem, with a right ofreturn, etc. that it has become impossible forthem to then go back to their constituents andsell concessions. The fact is that no viable PeaceDeal with satisfy everyone, and Israel hasminimum demands of its own – somesettlements will be maintained, millions ofPalestinians will not be allowed to settle in Israelproper, and Israel will not allow an armedPalestinian state. The problem with UN", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-con04b", "title": "", "text": "One reason why the United States would find apush for UN Recognition of a Palestinian state soawkward is because it has so many otherconcerns it has to value against theconflict. Whereas relations with Israel are thedominant issue in Palestinian foreign policy, anda leading one in Israel’s, the US has to maintainits position and interests else ware in the world.This means that the United States has to balancedomestic considerations with the need to appealto world opinion. It also means that the UnitedStates has an interest in a settlement to theIsraeli-Palestinian conflict. Even if the US wereinclined to allow the Palestinians to suffer inpunishment for bringing up the issue, thedynamics of UN Recognition would raise the priceof the continuation of the conflict for the UnitedStates. That is because it would be increase theinterest of every other country in the world in theconflict, if for no other reason than rather thanan internal affair, there would now be a principleof national sovereignty involved.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ggsurps-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Israelis have a low opinion of some UN organs,and with a good degree of justification. But theyare also remarkably pragmatic. They understandthat while they need to protect their owninterests, they also need friends, and Israelivoters will turn on their own leaders with avengeance if they ever think they arejeopardizing the relationship with the UnitedStates. This can be seen in the reaction to thedecision of the Bush Administration to freezeloan guarantees to Israel in 1991 due to therepeated refusal of the government of YitzhakShamir to halt settlement construction. Theresult, despite outrage on the American Rightand in sectors of Israeli opinion, was thecrushing defeat of the Shamir in the 1992elections by Yitzhak Rabin . [1] If the USabstains on UN recognition of Palestine, whichwould be necessary for such recognition to pass,it will send a message to the Israeli public andlikely severely impact the next election. [1]Rosner, Shmuel, ‘When US doesn’t meddle in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This is exactly why simply giving money to thepoor is a bad idea; not everyone who is poor willhave a bank account. Indeed those who are thepoorest are by far the least likely to have one. InIndia only 21% of the poor have a bank account.[1] [1] Glassman, Amanda, and Birdsall, Nancy,‘Can India Defeat Poverty’, Foreign Policy, 8January 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Government money can go directly to bankaccounts Direct cash transfers can obviously bedone very simply through simply handing outcash but this is clearly open to corruption.Instead money should be sent directly to thepoorest’s bank accounts. In India the proposal isthat the payments will be linked to the newbiometrics based ID system that assigns aunique number to everyone based upon physicaltraits [1] (although this is not yet fullyimplemented) this will reach the wholepopulation including those who currently have noidentity papers. [2] This will enable those whoget these ID to set up a bank accounts to enablethe cash to be transferred to them as it will ineffect be giving them with new ID. [1]Glassman, Amanda, and Birdsall, Nancy, ‘CanIndia Defeat Poverty’, Foreign Policy, 8 January2013 [2] Majumder, Sanjoy, ‘World’s biggestbiometric ID scheme forges ahead’, BBC News,13 February 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Providing money may in the long term reducecorruption for the reasons outlined but in theshort term it may mean more corruption. WithIndia’s program there have been accusationsthat the government is only enrolling people indistricts that support the ruling party. [1] [1]Thakur, Pradeep, ‘Why divide india into UID, NPRstates?’, The Times Of India, 6 January 2013", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Giving money to the poor is the fairest way ofeliminating poverty One of the reasons whypoverty does not get eliminated is that it isgovernments who provide the subsidies that areintended to do just that. Many countries spendtheir money for subsidies poorly, for example inIndonesia before fuel subsidies were combinedwith cash subsidies in 2005 the top income decilereceived more than five times the amount of fuelsubsidy as the bottom decile making the policyhighly regressive despite it being politically soldas a subsidy to the poor. [1] No matter theintention such subsidies are clearly not fair.When the government provides lots of differentsubsidies for different things; fuel, food, housingetc., and especially when some of them areuniversal, it is clear that it will never be possibleto distribute the money fairly on the basis ofneed. [1] ‘Winds of Change East Asia’ssustainable energy future’, The World Bank, May2010, Pp93-5", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Subsidies are much fairer than providing cash.Subsidies can be directly targeted to provide thethings that the poor need rather than letting thepoor buy what they want. The governmentshould not be providing money that is then beingspent on cigarettes, instead it should be spent onfood, heating, or the children’s education. Yessome subsidies are poorly targeted but thissimply shows that these subsidies are poorlyimplemented, not that they cannot be thesolution to poverty.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "When it comes to the use of cash transfers on alarge scale this is so far just wishful thinking; itmay work but we don’t yet really know. How canthe proposal of all subsidies being changed tocash be compared to a small stipend for sendingthe children to school?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Providing money directly is efficient andeliminates corruption Most methods ofattempting to eliminate poverty through stateintervention are bureaucratic and inefficient andtherefore inevitably are not very helpful. Thesubsidies India has previously provided to thepoor is a case in point. In reference to foodsubsidies that provide for a 50% subsidy forthose below the poverty line a 2010 study by theAsian Development Bank found that in ruralareas 73% of recipients were above the povertyline so should not have been receiving thesubsidy. [1] Providing money directly into bankaccounts on the other hand is efficient as it istransferred electronically and can be set up totransfer without any human intervention. For thesame reason it is very difficult to embezzlebecause it is going straight to a bank accountfrom central government funds without passingthrough anyone’s hands. [1] Jha, Shikha, andRamaswami, Bharat, ‘How Can Food SubsidiesWork Better? Answers from India and the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Providing money directly works. All the evidenceis that providing money directly to those whoneed it works much better than providing amishmash of subsidies and credits decided bygovernment. Providing money directly has beenworking with limited programs around the world,most prominently with Brazil’s Bolsa Familiawhich has meant millions of children get primaryeducation because of a small cash incentive.[1] In India the state already spends a hugeamount on inefficient poverty reductionprograms. If all the money that is spent on theseprograms was transferred to providing for thedirect cash payments equally among the70million households below the poverty line thenit would provide a monthly transfer of 2,140 Rs;more than the poverty line income for ruralhouseholds. [2] [1] Economist, ‘Give the poormoney’, 29 July 2010 [2] Kapur, Devesh, et al.,‘More for the Poor and Less for and by the State:The Case for Direct Cash Transfers’, Economicand Political Weekly, 12 April 2008, p.3", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "There are of course some occasions where theindividual may use their money unwisely, but ifthey do then this is their choice. Those whoreceive aid are as deserving of being free tochoose how to use their money as any wageearner. This choice only comes from providingcash rather than subsidies. [1] [1] Glaeser,Edward, ‘Cash Is Better Than Food Stamps inHelping Poor’, Bloomberg, 28 February 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Dependency is potentially a problem for any formof transfers with the intention of eliminatingpoverty while it is slightly different to bedependent on transfers of food the effect is thesame. Direct transfers can however be madeconditional upon the recipients doing what thegovernment wants them to. In Brazil for examplesmall cash transfers have been made conditionalupon parents keeping their children in school. [1]There is little reason the conditions could notinclude earning some money from other sourcesif it is suspected that individuals are becomingdependent. [1] Economist, ‘Give the poormoney’, 29 July 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Money cannot be targeted to meet specificneeds Governments have accepted, indocuments like the universal declaration ofhuman rights, that one of their primary roles isto provide a basic standard of living for theircitizens. When the state simply hands out somemoney this responsibility is not fulfilled. Thestate is simply leaving the poor to fend forthemselves with a little extra money.Governments provide subsidies in kind or forspecific products and services for a reason; thoseare the things that are necessities rather thanluxuries. If money is transferred directly then theperson who is getting the money can use thegovernment’s money on anything. Some mayuse it on the things the government wasproviding before but others will spend the moneybadly on tobacco, alcohol, or drugs. Subsidieshowever can be targeted at the things that thepoor really need. This means the state providessubsidies for food, free or cheap housing andhealthcare, fuel for cooking and heating etc.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "It is wrong to assume that the individual alwaysknows best With subsidies at least thegovernment knows what their money is beingspent on. This is not the case with cash; it justgets taken and can be spent on anything. Asalready mentioned the most obvious examplesare where the individual uses the money theyare given on drugs or other harmful products notwhat they need. Yet there are times whereindividuals may simply not have their own bestinterests at heart for various reasons,particularly because they know no better. Thisdoes not just happen in economic situations butalso in public heath. For example developmentagencies know that cooking on open fires inhomes leads to thousands of deaths every yearand is costly in terms of fuel. So thousands ofclean smokeless stoves have been given out yetthey are not being used despite them beingcheaper to run and potentially a life saver.[1] [1] Duflo, Esther, et al., ‘Up in Smoke: TheInfluence of Household Behavior on the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Giving out money does not encourage people totake responsibility The beauty of direct cashtransfers is that it simply adds a new incomestream but this is also its Achilles heel. Providingdirect cash transfers will create dependencyupon the transfers and reduce the incentive to beearning money from elsewhere. There areseveral reasons for this. First because thetransfers from the government will be reliable,unlike much of the income the poorest have, thetransfers will become the recipients main form ofincome. This will mean that there is lessincentive to be earning money from othersources, which would often mean hard work, soas a result both harming the individual as theydo not earn as much and the economy as theywill not be contributing to theeconomy. Secondly people will take up less workin order to qualify for the transfers; there is noreason to work more if that is simply going tomean that money you would have got from thegovernment is taken away. The advantage of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-aghwgcprp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "This is simply creating individual responsibility. Afew will spend the money badly but most willrealise that they need it for necessities. Thewhole point of the system is that it is flexiblerather than limiting in the way other subsidysystems are. It should be considered that whilesome may misspend their money as suggestedon drugs others may find ways of investing it sothat they make more money and pull themselvesout of poverty which then saves the governmentin the long term. Ultimately however it is thegovernment that controls the flow of money; ifsomeone is misspending it they can always haltthe transfers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "It is true that the founding treaties are long and,in some places, rather difficult documents. It isalso true that many EU citizens know little aboutthe EU. It is too simplistic to say that the treatiesare the reason for this as the majority of thepopulation are not interested in reading theoriginal documents and will be happy forbureaucrats or the media to highlight relevantparts. So a concise constitution is not thesolution to these problems. Whilst the treatiesthemselves might be intimidating, manypamphlets, books and websites exist that do afine job in summarising and explaining thesedocuments – one such site is Europa.eu . [1] TheEU also provides many European briefing unitsacross Europe to educate citizens about the EU.The job of providing a simplified and accessibleexplanation of the EU is already done wellwithout a constitution. If there is still widespreadignorance about the EU then this is unlikely to besolved by the introduction of yet another legaldocument which will also [1] Europa.eu, ‘Basic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The current treaty-basis for the European Unionis enormous, ambiguous and extremelycomplicated The current treaty-basis for theEuropean Union is enormous, ambiguous andextremely complicated. The existing treatiesregulate multiple levels from the constitutional todetailed market regulations. As a result of thisindividuals cannot easily read and understandthe treaties as a US citizen for example. [1] It isdifficult to keep track of each new Treaty thatamends the pre-existing treaties. The adoptionof a shorter, clearer document will make the EUmuch more ‘user friendly.’ The EU currentlysuffers from the fact that many of its citizens donot know what it is or what it does; EU citizenseither do not know where to look for thisinformation or are deterred and intimidated bythe size of the Treaty of Rome and the MaastrichtTreaty. Having an easily digestible constitutionwill mean that the EU’s citizens can easily findout what the EU is and what it does. [1]Gjørtler, Peter, ‘ Lisbon Treaty - the Reform", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There is no consensus for a United States ofEurope. Most citizens identify themselves morewith their nation-states rather than with the EU.[1] Only 28% of Belgians and 5% of Britonsconsider themselves equally their nationalidentity and European. [2] It is also by no meansclear that eroding national identities is adesirable phenomenon. The EU is an organisationin which twenty five nation-states cooperate witheach other. Where necessary, these states pooltheir sovereignty in order to tackle commonproblems. The EU is thus an instrument used bynation-states to pursue their own interests in aworld that makes it increasingly difficult forstates to do this in isolation. The EU is a usefulinstrument of nation-states rather than achallenger to these states for the patriotism andloyalty of their citizens. [1] Manuel, PaulChristopher, and Royo, Sebastián,‘Re-conceptualizing economic relations andpolitical citizenship in the new Iberia of the newEurope’ Suffolk University, 4 May 2001, [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A comprehensive reform of the EU institutionallayout is a must A comprehensive reform of theEU institutional layout is a must given thepressures created by the continuing enlargementprocess as well as the integration process. Theexisting EU architecture worked fine for acommunity of six states, and even for a group oftwelve, but it is now desperately out-dated andunsuitable for a Union of 27 or more. Forexample, the national veto still applies in manyareas, meaning one state can block progresseven when the other 26 agree. Even whenagreement is reached, it is often agonisingly slowand difficult to implement across the whole ofthe Union, often having to pass through everyparliament. As a result EU decision-making hasoften been criticised as slow, complex andproducing too many ‘lowest commondenominator’ solutions, therefore Ireland canbring to a halt a vital treaty like Lisbon [1] andthe role of the Presidency and ‘foreign minister’is a compromise that does not result in more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "While comprehensive EU reform is in theoryclearly desirable, in practice the EU has provennot to be ready for such a radical step.Historically, the EU has evolved by taking aseries of little steps, as opposed to taking bigjumps with big risks- “Europe has always movedforward one step at a time and it should continueto do so” - German Finance Minister WolfgangSchäuble. [1] The EU is now facing a number ofdifferent crises – from the economic crisis thatengulfed the Eurozone, to the social crisis thathas spread throughout most of the EU membersin the form of increasing opposition to migrantsand a worrisome rise in nationalist and extremistparties and policies. The recent massacre inNorway (although outside the EU) is an exampleof this increasing extremism. Such violence“points to a dangerous undercurrent of hostilityagainst the left’s platform, which is committed toopen borders and multiculturalism.” [2] Anymove to have constitutional reform will simplyadd to these pressures. [1] Kovacheva, Ralitsa,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Having a European Constitution would make verylittle difference to the role of the ECJ. It couldstill have an activist agenda in terms ofinterpreting the new constitution. The UnitedStates Constitution is one of the shortest in theworld yet the United States Supreme Court hasfelt free to either stick very closely to the text orvery liberally interpret it depending on thecomposition of the court. Accusing judges of“judicial activism” is often just cover for someonesaying that they don’t like the decision. [1] Theadoption of a binding constitution will thereforenot increase democracy in the European Union.It will tie the hands of democratically electedgovernments in the member states and forcethem to an even greater extent to besubordinate to the judges in the ECJ. [1]Wallace, Chris, ‘Ted Olson on Debate OverJudicial Activism and Same-Sex Marriage’, FoxNews Sunday, 8 August 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "A EU constitution will foster a “Europeanidentity” Since the Maastricht Treaty, thecitizens of EU member states have possessedparallel citizenship of the EU. However, Europeancitizens do not identify themselves with the EU inthe way that citizens of the USA self-identify asAmerican. An important part of the patriotism ofAmericans is ‘constitutional patriotism;’ pride intheir constitution and civic institutions. TheEuropean Union aims to bring about ever closerunion between the peoples of Europe. It shouldfoster a shared sense of ‘European identity’ byadopting a constitution, in which every citizen ofthe EU can take pride.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The ECJ has often been accused of over-steppingthe legitimate boundaries of The European Courtof Justice (ECJ) has long treated the foundingtreaties as the constitutional documents of theEuropean Union. Many commentators have notedthe efforts of the ECJ to “constitutionalise” manyprinciples – such as the direct effect andsupremacy of Community law over the domesticlaws of member states and the increasingprotection of human rights – The ECJ is oftenoverstepping its bounds when it comes toapplying and interpreting the treaties. [1] TheECJ has often been accused of “judicial activism”in over-stepping the legitimate boundaries ofcourts in a democracy. By enshrining much ofthis creative jurisprudence in a democraticallyratified constitution, the EU can assert andemphasise its status as a democratic entity,rather than an elite-driven process separate fromthe citizens of Europe. [1] Roberts, Linda, ‘TheCARICOM Single Market and Economy and theCaribbean Court of Justice’, Southampton", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Any constitution need not be a step towards aEuropean superstate or even a federal Europeanstate. It may simply be rationalising currenttreaties and making the EU more accessible withlittle in the way of real changes to the location ofpower. None the less such a change would not beall bad as Paavo Lipponen, Prime Minister ofFinland argues “The EU ought to develop into agreat power in order that it may function as afully fledged actor in the world.” [1] The EU as agreat power would be more effective in solvingconflict and promoting development in otherparts of the world, particularly in Africa, parts ofAsia and even Latin America as well as providingeconomic benefits for its own members. [1] FreeEurope, ‘Building the EU SuperState: whatleading EU politicians say about it’, 26September 2005,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Constitutional ‘documents’ is exactly theproblem. The EU is a very large (as of January2007, 27 member states) internationalorganisation with a considerable number ofcompetencies and several important institutions.It is important to have one, clear document thatprecisely defines the different powers of, andrelationships between the 27 member states, theEuropean Commission, the European Parliamentand the Courts of Justice. But also therelationships between states that may haveopted out of some parts of the EU; betweenthose who are in Schengen and those who optedout, between those in the Eurozone and thoseoutside. Complicated federal polities such as theUnited States, Germany and Switzerland haveconstitutions which define the limits of centralpower and the areas in which the states haveautonomy; the EU should in this respect be nodifferent.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Adopting a European Constitution and failing toabide by it would be a big and challengingfailure The European Union should be wary ofadopting a European Constitution as many statesmay not be able to abide by its terms. Thereason why Greece is in so much financialtrouble is its unwillingness to abide by theEuropean Growth and Stability Pact, howeverothers, Germany and France had already brokenthe pact. [1] Such a failure to abide by the ruleswith a constitution, something which is meant tobe at the heart of the state, would greatlydamage European credibility and wouldpractically rule out the possibility of morecomprehensive change in the future. Accessioncountries have shown little interest in theConstitutional Treaty overall, given a series ofother more immediate concerns. Therefore aconstitution is unneeded in order for the EU todevelop, enlarge or prosper. It can only lose if itcreated a constitution which turned out adisaster. [1] Aznar, José María, ‘Europe must", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "A EU Constitution will lead to a superstate, whichis undesirable at the moment A Europeanconstitution is a first step on a slippery slopetowards a United States of Europe. Such aEuropean superstate is widely opposed bycitizens of all EU members, not least because itwould be undemocratic, unaccountable andremote. Many EU citizens already believe this isthe case. In Britain polls regularly show that farfrom wanting deeper integration the country is infavour of leaving the EU. [1] As has already beenshown members do not consider themselves‘European’ nearly as much as they do their ownnational identity. [2] [1] The DemocracyMovement Surrey, ‘The EU - Superstate or FreeTrade Partner? We Can Leave.’ 2007 [2]Turmo, Ivan and Bradley, Simon, ‘Poll revealsEuropean mindset among Swiss’, swissinfo.ch,11 August 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There already are constitutional documents Wealready have such constitutional documents –the Treaty of Rome, the Maastricht Treaty andmost importantly the Lisbon treaty from veryrecently (2009). The powers of, and relationshipsbetween the different institutional actors areclearly defined in the existing treaties. Justbecause the EU has expanded to incorporate newmember states does not mean it needs aconstitution. The Treaty of Nice was meant tohave made the necessary amendments tofacilitate enlargement. If it has failed, then wecan simply amend the existing treaties again.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ephbesnc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "A failure of not having a ratified EU constitutionwill actually represent a more significant blow tothe EU’s image abroad and at home. Talk aboutthe decline of the EU is not helping the Europeaneconomy, or the way in which the EU isperceived. The failure to reform could potentiallylead to an actual collapse of the EU as we knowit, which would have disastrous effects for theregion as well as the world. The failure of theConstitutional Treaty would also result inpowerful disillusionment in the countries thathave recently entered the EU or are applying toenter. This could significantly slow down furtherenlargements and put their domestic reformagendas at risk.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "This was meant to prevent colonies being carvedup into irregular pieces not to allow a newcolonial master over a territory almost 1400miles away from the main country as the ChagosIslands are from Mauritius. The reasoning forsetting administrative borders at the beginningof the 18th century cannot have any rationalbearing on who the islands belong to when thoseborders are not either clear physical or ethnicboundaries. The borders of Mauritius changedregularly; they originally included the Seychellesuntil 1903 when they were made a new colony.Two more islands were transferred in 1908 and1921. [1] Which was the real colonialborder? [1] Sookhoo, Narainduth, ‘Mauritiusindependence: Myths and realities!’, LeMauricien, 3 March 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Uti Possidetis The borders of states that gainindependence are set by the administrativeboundaries that the colony had prior toindependence. This prevents any gaps insovereignty, or any attempt by the coloniser tokeep a chunk of the territory, and the conflictthis would inevitably bring. General AssemblyResolution 1514 made this clear “Any attemptaimed at the partial or total disruption of thenational unity and the territorial integrity of acountry is incompatible with the purposes andprinciples of the Charter of the United Nations.”[1] This also means that Mauritius should havecontrol of the Chagos Islands which were, upuntil 1965, a part of Mauritius. [1] UnitedNations General Assembly, ‘Declaration on theGranting of Independence to Colonial Countriesand Peoples’, un.org, resolution 1514 (XV), 14December 1960,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The islanders do wish the right toself-determination but that does not have tomean they wish the return to Mauritius.Self-determination would mean a referendum inwhich the islands might chose to remain British,or possibly become independent. [1] It would notmean simply being handed to Mauritius with noregard to the people’s views. [1] Morrison, Alex,‘Chagos Islands’ future lies with UK’,theguardian.com, 25 January 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Mauritius is far closer The UK should not becontrolling territory that is almost 5786 milesaway from London. The Chagos Islands shouldbe under the sovereignty of an Indian Oceancountry like Mauritius that is much better placedto look after the interests of the islands. The agewhen countries had the right to control territoryhalf a world away on the basis of might makesright are long gone. The Chagos islands, as withother remnants of colonialism, should be handedover to the nearest state with a good claim. Inthis case Mauritius.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "If distance is anything to go by then the ChagosIslands should be a part of the Maldives whichthe islands are 600 miles closer to than they areto Mauritius. [1] Moreover the Maldives are onthe same geographical feature as the Chagosislands; the Chagos-Maldives-Laccadive Ridge.[2] The irregularities of the borders of colonialadministration should not determine who rulesoffshore islands. [1] Both distances taken fromgoogle search. [2] Whitmarsh, Robert B., ‘Someaspects of plate tectonics in the Arabian Sea’,deepseadrilling.org, p.527, Incidentally thiswould potentially matter if the Chagos islandswere uninhabited as the Maldives might have aclaim due to territorial contiguity", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "With the exception of the far greater humanrights abuse of the expulsion of the islandersthere have been few actual abuses on theChagos Islands. Mauritius however itself doesnot have a clean record. The U.S. StateDepartment notes there have been arbitraryarrests, particularly of the opposition parties withthe leader of the Militant Socialist Movementhaving been arrested and interrogated as aresult of naming the government a “paedophilegovernment” for not suspending a teacheraccused of raping a student. “Other reportedhuman rights problems included officialcorruption, violence and discrimination againstwomen, abuse and sexual exploitation ofchildren, discrimination and abuse based onsexual orientation, discrimination againstpersons living with HIV/AIDS, restrictions onlabor rights, antiunion discrimination, and childlabor.” [1] [1] Bureau of Democracy, HumanRights and Labor, ‘Mauritius 2012 Human RightsReport’, State Department, 2012,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Self determination The most important principleof the international system since the end of theSecond World War has been self determination;the right of nations or peoples to \"freelydetermine their political status and freely pursuetheir economic, social and cultural development\".[1] The UK has staunchly defended the right ofself determination in other cases such as theFalkland Islands about which the ForeignSecretary, William Hague has stated “We havealways been clear that we believe in the rights ofthe Falklands people to determine their ownfutures and to decide on the path they wish totake. It is only right that, in the twenty-firstcentury, these rights are respected.” [2] The UKhas also said it will accept the result of areferendum in Scotland. If areas that are farmore important to the UK are allowed their selfdetermination so should the Chagossians. [1]International Covenant on Civil and PoliticalRights, New York, 16 December 1966, [2]Foreign & Commonwealth Office, ‘Falkland", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "A human rights black hole The Chagos Islandshave been excluded from almost every humanrights treaty from the Geneva conventions(III/IV), the Convention against Torture, throughto the Statute of the International CriminalCourt. Resulting in what Peter Sand calls “a kindof human rights black hole” which has enabledrendition flights to pass through the base. This ispossible because the British government claimsthey have no permanent inhabitants. Sandsuggests “the fiction of the “unpopulatedarchipelago”, staunchly defended by the BritishForeign and Commonwealth Office [FCO], willinevitably come back to haunt its authors in thevery near future”. [1] With the islands being‘uninhabited’ they are not entitled to anExclusive Economic Zone under the UN Law ofthe Sea. Britain’s claim to the islands as a wholeis also made more tenuous. [1] Harris, Peter,‘Review Article: Not just a military base:Reframing Diego Garcia and the Chagos Islands’,African Affairs, 110/440, pp.491-99,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The establishment of the MPA is clearly anattempt to strengthen UK control over theislands. A State Department cable leaked bywikileaks states “He [Colin Roberts, the Foreignand Commonwealth Office's (FCO) DirectorOverseas Territories] asserted that establishing amarine park would, in effect, put paid toresettlement claims of the archipelago's formerresidents.” [1] Moreover the UK, or rather theUS occupation, is not good for the environmenteither. The US base at Diego Garcia hasaccommodated nuclear-powered submarinesopening the potential for radiation leaks as hashappened before in Japanese ports. Similarly alarge amount of air and sea traffic creates thepossibility of oil spills; there have been at leastfour major spills at Diego Garcia, the one in 1991involved 160,000 gallons being lost. [2] [1]Mills, Richard, ‘HMG floats proposal for marinereserve covering the Chagos Archipelago (BritishIndian Ocean Territory)’, Wikileaks, 15 May2009, [2] Carey, Sean, ‘The UK’s role in Diego", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is no national interest in the ChagosIslands or Diego Garcia. If there were truenational interests then Diego Garcia would be aBritish base not a US one, handing such securityover to the US clearly shows that the UK doesnot have sufficient national interests at stake tomaintain a base on the islands themselves.Moreover if it is in the national interests of theUnited States to have a base there is little reasonto assume that the US could not negotiatesimilar terms from the government of Mauritiusas that of the UK to secure those interests.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Chagos islanders don’t all want to belong toMauritius Many of the people of the ChagosIslands don’t want to belong to Mauritius. Theywant the right to return to their homeland, butalso that the Chagos Islands should remainBritish. Allen Vincatassin, a leader of the DiegoGarcians in the UK, argues “We weresecond-class citizens in Mauritius and if theygovern the islands, we will be second-classcitizens in our own land… We are British IndianOcean Territory citizens, which we are proud tobe. We believe we are part of this country. In anormal situation the people would come first butit seems the state of Mauritius comes before therights of our people.” [1] The islands whenresettled could survive very well as a part of theUK just as other territories such as the BritishVirgin Islands do with administration done locallybut sovereignty remaining with the UK. [1]Morrison, Alex, ‘Chagos Islands’ future lies withUK’, theguardian.com, 25 January 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Marine protection The UK government hasturned the Chagos islands into a MarineProtected Area. This would cover 544,400km2around the islands with a no take zonepreventing any fishing in the zone. The MPA willprotect 60-80,00km2 of reefs and eightendangered or critically endangered species. [1]As the biggest such protected area in the worldthis will be making a critical contribution toprotecting global biodiversity. While the ChagosIsland’s seas are almost pristine Mauritius hasbeen overfished with the overfishing furtherdamaging coral suffering from coral bleaching.[2] Mauritius has objected to the establishmentof the MPA [3] clearly showing that they wish toengage in exploiting the resources of the islandsrather than engaging in marine protection. [1]Sheppard, Charles, ‘British Indian OceanTerritory’, UK Overseas Territories and CrownDependencies: 2011 Biodiversity snapshot,2011, p.33, 35 [2] Harris, Ed, ‘Warm seas andoverfishing his Mauritius lagoon’, Reuters, 7 June", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-con01a", "title": "", "text": "National interests It is in British and US nationalinterests that Diego Garcia and the Chagosislands stay under UK control with the UKcontinuing to allow a US base on the islands.Diego Garcia is clearly strategically located as abase in the middle of the Indian ocean a basethat may be useful for action in any direction.The military base has a significant runway,satellite tracking facilities, and is one of only fivecontrol bases for the GPS. It has been used inevery US military operation in the Middle Eastsince 1973. [1] The island is therefore anecessary base for combatting terrorism andmaintaining a US presence in the region. The UKhas said that it will keep the islands until it is nolonger needed for defence, with the Middle Eastas unstable as it ever has been now is not thetime to be giving up the islands. [1] Salter, MarkB., and Mutlu, Can E., ‘Securitisation and DiegoGarcia’, Review of International Studies, 2012, ,p.6", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahwrcim-con02b", "title": "", "text": "If there is concern with the Chagossiansbecoming ‘second class citizens’ then this can beaddressed in negotiations to return the islands toMauritius. The British have not in the past beenwilling to take the views of the islanders intoaccount, there seems to be little reason why theynow should just because the UK might now standto benefit. Regardless a poll of all Chagossiansmight equally lead to the islands being handedover to Mauritius.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwmepslmb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The European Parliament may ‘speak for Europe’but the Council speaks for the EU’s memberstates. Privileging the European Parliament atthe expense of the Council erodes theintergovernmental nature of EU decision-making.It is important to protect the sovereign powers ofthe individual member states; this is achieved inthe Council, which is comprised ofrepresentatives of each national government.This has been particularly the case in the UnitedKingdom where there have been rows oversovereignty in relatively obscure areas such asprisoners voting rights. [1] The European Unioncan only work if national considerations are putabove all others. The Council works because thebest possible conclusions are reached preciselybecause compromise between the varyinginterests is required. Involving the EuropeanParliament would shift the emphasis of the entireEU from being a forum for independent nationsto being a decision making body for a largenumber of states, undermining the sovereignty", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwmepslmb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Voice of Europe The European Parliament is theonly pan-European, directly elected institution inthe EU. As such, only the European Parliamentcan authentically ‘speak’ for Europe on any issue.It should consequently be a more privilegedinstitution in the EU decision-making process. Asa step in this direction, the Parliament shouldhave equal powers of co-decision with theCouncil on all legislative matters in the EU.[1] This would turn the European Parliamentfrom being a mere talking shop to a body whichcan affect real change by providing a balance tothe Council of Ministers. By having a directlyelected body making decisions on a par with theindirectly chosen body, better decisions will bemade that will benefit all Europeans at once,turning the council from a body that focuses onimplementing European policy instead of thecouncil being a means for sovereigngovernments to negotiate based on partialconsiderations of what their electorateswant. This would prevent leaders from being", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwmepslmb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The argument that we should increase theEuropean Parliament’s powers in order toincrease people’s interest in it is as flawed as it iswell-rehearsed. This argument has been used torepeatedly expand the competencies of theParliament. However, far from becoming moreinterested in the Parliament, fewer and fewerpeople at each election have bothered to vote,turnout was a much higher 61.99% in 1979(although the average is partially reduced bynewer members on average having lowerturnouts). [1] This argument merely signals thefailure of the Parliament as a democraticinstitution and unhappiness with the increasinglyfederal European project. Rather than rewardingthe EU Parliament for failure, we should considerseriously its abolition. There is already ademocratic check on the Commission – theCouncil of Ministers made up of democraticallyelected national governments. It is the Councilthat sets the agenda for the Commission toimplement. The fact that the Commission acts on", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwmepslmb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Democratic Deficit The European Parliament’spowers need to be expanded because there is awidespread perception that the EU suffers from ademocratic deficit: national parliaments have lostmuch of their power vis a vis nationalgovernments through the committee baseddecision-making in the Council of Ministers. Thisloss of national parliamentary influence has notbeen matched by a proportional increase in thepower and influence of the European Parliament.To reduce this deficit the European Parliamentmust be given parity with the Council so that itcan provide checks and balances in thesystem. This becomes particularly pertinentgiven other developments such as the creation ofthe Single Currency, which has imposedmonetary policy upon varied economies withoutthe necessary oversight from democratic bodies.In the worst case scenarios that have befallenmember states such as Greece and Italy,unelected apolitical governments lead bytechnocrats Lucas Papademos in Athens and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwmepslmb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The democratic deficit is a myth. Nationalgovernments have a strong democratic mandatefrom national elections. Therefore, theirdecisions are already imbued with considerabledemocratic legitimacy. National governmentsalso rely on national parliaments to enact theirlegislation at home. As a result it would beextremely foolish of a government to pursue acourse of action in the Council which wasopposed by national parliamentarians, or whichwould be unpopular enough to lead to a futureelectoral defeat at home. Democracy is protectedsufficiently by the Council already; there is thusno need to increase the powers of the EuropeanParliament. The current crisis is also not a goodexample as the policies that led to the ultimateundermining of democratic mandates inEurozone nations were supported by the votersin the respective countries. Had those countriesvoted for more realistic fiscal policies then therewould be no need for the drastic measuresrequired to prevent the Eurozone from", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwmepslmb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Relevance The levels of turnout in elections forthe European Parliament are worryingly low, in2009 the average EU turnout was 43% and thelowest was in Slovakia with a turnout of only19.64%. [1] EU citizens clearly feel that theEuropean Parliament is not important enough,does not have enough power over their lives, tojustify them voting in European elections.Therefore, we must increase the powers of theEuropean Parliament to increase its relevance toordinary people. By making it more powerful wecreate an incentive for people to vote. Peopleview the EU as being dominated by theCommission, unelected bureaucrats who canchange millions of people’s lives with littleoversight from elected bodies. This corrodespeople’s faith in the European Parliament tomake change, thus affecting turnout. If theParliament had the power to truly influence thecommission then it would seem much morerelevant, encouraging increased turnout. [1]‘European Parliament election turnout 1979 –", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwmepslmb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is because the Parliament is not the primarybody in the EU that it cannot be truly able to splitalong the traditional ‘left-right’ cleavage as is thecase many of the member states domesticpolitics. A consensus had to be acquired fordecision-making in the Parliament in order to beon par with the council, which for all its flawssought to operate in a similar manner. Eventhough there has been consensus between thetwo largest groups, it has still been able toeffectively scrutinize the Commission with thepowers it currently has. Giving more powers tothe European Parliament would ensure that thisremains the case. Indeed, increasing theimportance of the Parliament within thestructures of the EU will give greater impetus forconsensus between all political groupings,resulting in better decision making.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwmepslmb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Instead of facilitating greater Europeanfederalism, granting the Parliament more powersmay actually do much to prevent it. By having abody directly accountable to the people directingthe Commission, instead of the indirect Council,there can be greater room for criticism of whatthe Commission does and advocacy of alternatepolicies for the Commission. As the Parliament isdirectly accountable to constituents, theParliament has a clear stake in representing theirinterests, which may be preventing ‘federalism’which is agreed upon by national governmentsthat make up the Council of Ministers for thesake of expediency. Parliamentary control of theCommission gives people a direct say in how it isrun, preventing accusations of ‘federalism’ infuture.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwmepslmb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "What Parliament currently does Proposition likesto maintain that the European Parliament doesnot do anything to hold the Commission toaccount. However, this is not true. TheParliament has the power to reject appointmentsto the Commission as well as force the entireCommission from their jobs in the event ofmaladministration (While extremely rare, it hashappened in the past such as the rejection ofRocco Buttiglione) [1] . As well as having thepower to reject resolutions proposed by theCouncil and Commission. [2] The status quoplaces Parliament in a co-equal position inrelation to the Commission and Council,respecting the importance of the role nationalgovernments have in dictating Europe-widepolicy. If the Parliament is made superior to theCouncil, then the risk is run of giving itsupremacy over the national governments. Thestatus quo can be seen as appropriate as there isa fine balance between the Parliament andCouncil in dictating matters to the Commission.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwmepslmb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Ineffectiveness of Parliament While theParliament is able to hold the Commission toaccount in a somewhat limited manner, theinstitution as a whole is rendered ineffective byits structure. As the parliament is largely electedby Proportional Representation, compromise isrequired in order to pass resolutions. In mostparliaments the two largest groupings wouldsquare off against each other and try to dictatepolicy with the help of smaller groups, thusallowing for varied opinions to come to the fore.Instead in the European Parliament, the Socialistand the Center-Right groupings have dominatedproceedings since the first elected Parliament satin 1979, with the success and failure ofresolutions being contingent upon these twogroups being able to find compromise, they evenshare the presidency. [1] This means that oncethe compromise has been reached, theresolution passes with a large majority andsmaller groups such as the Greens and theLiberals are unable to voice opinion on the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwmepslmb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Creeping Federalism Awarding more powers tothe European Parliament would signify a shift inthe Parliament – and by extension – theEuropean Union’s relationship with its memberstates. If the Parliament is the body in primarycontrol of the Commission the following harmswould be created: 1) The democratically electednational governments that make up the Councilof Ministers will be side-lined, creating theprecedent of a central European bodydetermining the actions of the Commission, thuseffecting European citizens. 2) This creates asituation where sovereign nations end up beingtied to one particular policy as dictated by thecentral Parliament, undermining the sovereigntyof National Parliaments and making it difficult fora nation to go against said policy (See thecontroversy over the Common Fisheries Policy,for instance). These dual phenomena caused asa result of the Parliament gaining more powerswill further centralisation within the EuropeanUnion, creating what critics would call a ‘federal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ehwmepslmb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Parliament may on paper be able to influencedecisions made by the Commission, but a lot ofwhat the Commission does is still heavilyinfluenced by the Council, a body established fornational governments to negotiate based on theirown partial self-interest. Such negotiations canlead to major anomalies in the European Unionsuch the Parliament having a seat in Strasbourgorder to appease France. Moreover theparliament’s powers over the commission arelimited, the opposition cites being able to rejectthe appointment of members of the commissionbut it can’t reject individuals only the college ofcommissioners as a whole. [1] By making theParliament the primary body in the EuropeanUnion, decisions can be made with the view offully representing the needs of their constituentsrather than having to constantly be careful of thepartisan Council. This can result in betterdecision making on how the Commission and byextension, the European Union should moveforward. [1] European Parliament, ‘Oversight", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The wall would also entail a large overall ofcurrent border checkpoint protocol. This disruptsthe routine of the cartels and makes it harder tosmuggle drugs across the border and it will takea while before the figure out the new system.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Cartels can maneuver past checkpoints Thecurrent 650 miles of wall has done nothing tostop the flow of drugs. Cartels heavily studycheckpoints and find their weaknesses andexploit them. Checkpoint officers can also becorrupted and/or ineffective. Most drugs alsocome through ports of entry, not the borderaccording to the Institute for Policy Studies.Drugs is the biggest danger that comes from thefree flow between the borders, yet a wall wouldnot effectively stop the flow of drugs. If it doesnot stop the bringing of drugs into the US thenthe wall does not fulfill its purpose.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Preventing terrorism is not the primary goal ofthe wall, only an added benefit. The primarygoals of the wall is to stop the flow ofundocumented people and illegal drugs. Anyprevention of terrorism is an added benefit to theutility of the wall, however small the addedbenefit may be.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A lot of undocumented workers are already inthe US According to data from Department ofhomeland security most of the people who arehere illegally arrive here legally and thenoverstay their visa. Over 400,000 people whoseVisas expired in 2015 were still living in thecountry in 2016. That's about the same as thenumber of people who cross the southern borderevery year (328,00 - 479,00). The wall would donothing to the people that are already here.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There are still a large number of people that docross the border every year that would beaffected if a wall was constructed. Even if thewall does not stop illegal immigration alltogether, even stopping some of it does make iteffective.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The state of the economy does nothing to changethe effectiveness of the wall at keeping drugsand people from crossing the US-Mexico border.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Terrorists are not undocumented 80% ofterrorists than have been apprehended since2001 in the US are homegrown. Only one of 154terrorists in the US since 1975 has beenMexican.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Economic downturn would cause a surge ofimmigration People leave Mexico because ofpoor employment opportunities, the wall wouldlikely hurt the economy of Mexico and create asurge of immigration. Building the wall has anegative effect on natural resources as well asbusinesses in the area. Also it would discourageinvestment in Mexico because it would look like aserving of the partnership between the US andMexico. Any hit to the Mexican economy wouldlikely increase illegal immigration, despite thewall’s construction.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "This is a large time jump and can be attributedto other exogenous factors, not just theconstruction of the prototype wall.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "US is currently enduring a construction laborshortage. So the jobs that would be createdwould not likely to be filled by American workerand not have a very large effect on theunemployment rate. All the people who want ajob in that sector likely already have one due tothe shortage. Also border security agents makeup a huge portion of the Department ofHomeland Security’s budget so this would causea huge increase in spending.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "At the very least it slows peopledown Navigating past the wall will be a problemthat people trying to cross the border or bringdrugs through the border will have to face. It willcreate apprehension from attempting to do so. Itwill make it harder for these crossings to occur.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Prototypes have seen success A prototype inSan Diego has been built and has seen asuccess. The number of illegal crossings droppedfrom 560,000 in 1992 to 68000 in 2010 after theprototype had been constructed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Would create US jobs A building project thatlarge would likely create close to 25000 US jobs.There would also be a large increase in borderpatrol agents. This would make the wall aneffective way to decrease unemployment andcreate economic opportunity that the Trumpadministration promised.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-ahbwsuambwb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "According to the Department of HomelandSecurity, people attempting to cross the borderis already on the decline, so this wall mightalready be a mute point.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "If this conflict really is zero sum then a leaseover the whole of Crimea is a big loss to Ukraine;it is after all losing a whole province in return forsome financial assistance. Moreover we havelittle evidence that it really would mean Russiagetting what it wants; Russia continues to denythat it even has military forces in Crimea, “thesewere local self-defence forces”, let alone spellout to the world exactly what its objectives are.President Putin says “This is a humanitarianmission” that “corresponds with our interests ofprotecting people who are historically tied to us”.If protection is all that is necessary then a leaseshould not be necessary. [1] [1] Siddique,Haroon, ‘Putin: Yanukovych ousting was‘unconstitutional overthrow’’, theguardian.com, 4March 2014", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Russia gets what it wants There have beenmany suggested motives for Russia’s sendingmilitary forces into Crimea. Providing a lease onCrimea to Russia would provide a solution tomost of Russia’s main objectives; the Russians inCrimea are protected, and the Russian hold onits Black Sea base is secure. More importantlythe crisis started after the defeat of PresidentYanukovych and the resulting blow to Russianprestige in what Russia sees as a zero sum game(if one side wins the other automatically loses tothe same extent). An invasion or Crimearegained Russian leverage but left Russia withlittle room to manoeuvre as any climb-downwould leave Putin with nothing. [1] A lease getsout of this zero sum problem as both can gain. Alease would enable Russia to make an agreementwith the Ukrainian government and recognisethat government without having to lose face asany other solution which maintains Ukrainianterritorial integrity would. [1] Crowley, P.J.,‘Crimea: Putin’s mission accomplished’, BBC", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "A lease is not all a financial gain for Ukraine. Anytax revenues from Crimea would be lost as theywould instead go to Russia. As would anyrevenues from natural resources either now inthe future; Crimea with its strategic location wasintended to be the hub for gas pipelines acrossthe Black sea so Ukraine would be losing transitfees.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "A peaceful solution Agreeing a lease wouldprovide a much needed peaceful solution to theCrimean crisis which would not only solve theimmediate crisis but would also prevent futureflare ups. Shortly after Russian forces movedinto Crimea Prime Minister Arseny Yatseniuk ofUkraine said “This is not a threat: this is actuallythe declaration of war to my country”. [1] It hasnot so far been a shooting war, and no onewants it to escalate. Russia’s UN Ambassadorhas said “Russia does not want war… We don’twant any further exacerbation of the situation.”[2] But when there are constant tensions thebest way to prevent a potentially unpredictablesituation is to provide a solution to the situation.A lease should be considered. [1] Zinets,Natalia, and De Carboonnel, Alissa, ‘Ukrainemobilises after Putin’s ‘declaration of war’’,Reuters, 2 March 2014, [2] ‘Ukraine crisis:Russia tells UN it does not want war’, BBC News,14 March 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Everyone wants a peaceful solution but that doesnot mean that a lease is the best solution.Having some form of shared sovereignty –Ukraine owning the land and Russia having theright to use it and control it requires a great dealof trust. This is especially true if the UkrainianBlack Sea Fleet were to remain based on thepeninsula. With potentially overlappingjurisdictions there is a lot of potential cause fortrouble.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Leases reflect inequality between those involvedin the lease; Panama was much less powerfulthan the USA so had little choice – it also neededthe money. China was a defeated state; it hadjust been defeated by Japan and had lost twoprevious wars to the UK. The treaties wereconsidered to be ‘unequal treaties’ and thosecountries that were subjected to them threwthem off at the first opportunity.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Helps Ukraine financially Ukraine is in a direfinancial situation; it has gone to the IMF seeking$15billion to help stabilise the economy with abailout. [1] The interim finance minister YuriKolobov suggests that even this amount will notbe enough for the full year with Ukraine needing$34.4billion. [2] Finance was one of the reasonswhy Ukraine turned to Russia in November 2013;Russia was offering money when the EU was not.The lease agreed for the Black Sea Fleet involvesthe payment of $90million per year and therenegotiations in 2010 involved giving Ukrainecut price gas as well. [3] A lease for the whole ofthe peninsular with almost 2 million inhabitantsand is close to the size of Belgium would cost alot more, potentially enough to fill much of thatfinancial hole. [1] Talley, Ian, ‘IMF Making ‘GoodProgress’ in Ukraine Bailout’, The Wall StreetJournal, 13 March 2013, [2] Schmeller,Johanna, ‘Crimea crisis further imperils Ukraine’seconomy’, Deutsche Welle, 4 March 2013, [3]Harding, Luke, ‘Ukraine extends lease for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Precedent While of the core points ofsovereignty is that is indivisible this has notstopped the existence of other similar dealshappening in the past. Locally the Black SeaFleet is a good example There have howeverbeen more famous examples in the past; thePanama Canal Zone was leased to the UnitedStates from 1903 to 1977 for $250,000 per year(later increased). [1] There are other instancesof territory being leased; the clearest examplebeing Hong Kong’s new territories which wereleased rent free for 99 years from 1898 afterChina was defeated by Japan [2] – at the timethere was a general view that if one great powergained then all the others have to as well. Thatleasing territory is an established practice meansthat it should be easy to apply to this case. [1]Lowenfeld, Andreas, ‘Panama Canal Treaty’,Institute for International Law and Justice, [2]Welsh, Frank, A History of Hong Kong, 2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Ukraine would clearly find it difficult to trustRussia however it has several reasons for doingso. The first is that Russia and Ukraine \"fordecades had warm and friendly relations\" towhich they can return if they sign an agreement.Second Ukraine has little choice; it does not havethe military strength to oppose Russia. Finallythe United States and other countries could be apart of the agreement providing formalguarantees which would provide much moreguarantee of action to help Crimea in the eventof a repeat situation in the future.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "While legitimising a reward for Russia’s actionsmay hurt it is far better that the dispute beresolved than it be left to fester. Under thestatus quo there are concerns that war will breakout because the situation is unstable and Russia“reserves the right to take people [Russianspeakers elsewhere in Ukraine] under itsprotection”. [1] This is in large part a result ofthe Russians and Ukrainians not speaking to oneand other as the Russians won’t recognise theUkrainian government. Peace will only comewhen both sides give some ground no matterwho is in the right. Under this deal there will bepeace, not further aggression. [1] MacAskill,Ewen, and Luhn, Alec, ‘Russia and west oncollision course over Ukraine as talks fail inLondon’, theguardian.com, 14 March 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Does not provide guarantees for the protection ofother Russian minorities Although it is theregion in which Russia has acted its interest inUkraine is not just about Crimea. ForeignMinister Lavrov has made clear “Russiarecognises its responsibility for the lives ofcountrymen and fellow citizens in Ukraine andreserves the right to take people under itsprotection”. [1] A lease over Crimea will resolvenothing if it does not also resolve other issuesbetween the two countries such as the protectionof minorities and Russia’s economicinterests. [1] MacAskill & Luhn, 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The crisis affects more than just Crimea There isa lot more at stake than just the Crimeanpeninsula. While suggestions that it may destroythe whole international system are hyperbole theterritory becoming part of Russia would be themost major territorial change in Europe since theunification of Germany and breakup of the USSRboth of which were peaceful and mutually agreedevents. The G7 notes “the annexation of Crimeacould have grave implications for the legal orderthat protects the unity and sovereignty of allstates.” [1] A lease however would be a de factochange of territory, a hand over from Ukraine toRussia. Hong Kong was on a lease from Chinabut during that time it was essentially consideredas part of the UK. [1] G7, 12/3/2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Why would Ukraine trust a lease when theprevious one was violated? It is hard to see whyUkraine would be willing to sign a lease withRussia when Russia has already proven it will notstick to the terms of its lease. Russia signedagreements in 1997 that recognised Crimea as apart of Ukraine in return for a lease on the baseof the Russian Black Sea Fleet. [1] Under thatlease Russia was allowed to keep up to 25,000troops based in Sevastopol so long as theyremain on the base unless. [2] Russia hasviolated both of these; its troops have clearlymoved off the base without Ukrainian permissionand it is estimated to have 30,000 soldiers inCrimea. [3] When Russia has violated whatwould be a similar agreement once why shouldUkraine believe it will not happen again nexttime Russia wishes to extend the lease eitherphysically by incorporating more territory or interms of duration. [1] Felgenhauer, T., ‘Ukraine,Russia, and the Black Sea Fleet Accords’,dtic.mil, 1999, [2] ‘Ukraine crisis: Does Russia", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Rewards aggression The US Secretary of statecondemned Russia’s action in Crimea as \"Youjust don't in the 21st century behave in 19thcentury fashion by invading another country oncompletely trumped up pre-text\". [1] Yet it isexactly 19th century thinking that expects that agreat power will get away with launchingaggressive acts against a weaker neighbour. Ifthe result were to be effectively a hand over ofCrimea, and a legal recognition of that statuseven if it is in the form of a lease Russia wouldbe getting away with this act of aggression andmight be tempted to try it again elsewhere.Russia has already got away with one aggressiveact when it launched an assault on Georgia insupport of separatist regions. Under suchcircumstances it is better for everyone if Russiais isolated and there is no deal that rewards andlegitimises Russia’s acts. [1] Dunham, Will,‘Kerry condemns Russia’s ‘incredible act ofaggression’ in Ukraine’, Reuters, 2 March 2014,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The big advantage of a lease is that it maintainsthe territorial status quo while giving Russia whatit wants. If the concern is about the legal orderand sovereignty of states then a lease providesthe answer because the actual sovereignty overthe territory is not handed over, merely thecontrol over the territory and functions of thatterritory are.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-international-epgwhwlcr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Any deal for a lease would clearly involvenegotiation on other concerns that Russia andUkraine have. Russia would clearly need torenew its guarantees of Ukraine’s territoryperhaps with the acceptance that the leasewould become null and void if Russia again takesaggressive acts. Ukraine for its part would needto guarantee the rights of minorities; this shouldnot be a problem as both countries are signed upto the Council of Europe’s Framework Conventionfor the Protection of National Minorities. [1] [1]Council of Europe, ‘Geographical reach of theFCNM’, coe.int, 24 October 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The case given is quite different. The parentsdirectly acted to cause harm to their child,inflicting a series of violent beatings over asustained period. Such a course of action isalready illegal and they were rightly convictedand punished. In this instance, a course of actionis being avoided with the best interest of thechild uppermost in the minds of the parents.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Religious freedom does not allow for the right toharm others Nobody is questioning the rights ofadults to take actions in accordance with theirfaith, even when these may cause them somepersonal harm. Their beliefs may well lead themto conclusions that others might considerreckless but that is their concern. However,when those actions impact others in society, it isa matter for social concern and, frequently, theintervention of the law. If that harm is caused tothose who cannot resist or who are incapable ofresponding, intervention is required. The lawexplicitly includes children in this category. Wedo not, for example, allow religious practicessuch as sacrifice or torture in pursuit of areligious end, however religiously convicted theparents might be. The case of Kristy Bamu,murdered by his parents, practitioners ofvoodoo, in the belief he was a witch, is just onesuch example [i] . We expect the legal andmedical professions to accord particularprotection to children against the actions of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "We fully accept that children are treateddifferently in the eyes of the law. However, thevery fact that proposition allows for thatexceptionalism must require them toacknowledge that the role of the parent is givena status different from any other in society. Weacknowledge their right to make decisions in thestead of their child, fully accepting that thosedecisions have enormous implications. We acceptthat parents take life and death decisions fortheir children on a regular basis and we musttrust them to do so. Society respects the rightsof parents to keep their children safe in no end ofperilous situations, and when their judgement iswrong, it is a matter for regret, not legislation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The right to live to regret The primary dutyplaced on doctors, by society and themselves, isthe preservation of life. In pursuing this goalthey use not only medicines and scalpels but,first and foremost, their judgement. In manycountries practising medics swear an oath to thiseffect; although these vary greatly in detail, theyare well encapsulated by the Declaration ofGeneva [i] , the critical clause of which for thepurpose of this debate is “The health of mypatient will be my first consideration”. Askingdoctors to take other considerations into accountis not only a breach of their professionalintegrity, it also poses grave risks for society.They are being asked, in this situation, to allowthe opinions of a third party take precedenceover the wellbeing of their patient. If this were ayounger relative with their eye on an inheritanceor a distant sibling seeking to settle an old score,the dangers would be all too apparent. In thisinstance, the motivation may be well-intentionedbut it is no more reasonable. Allowing relatives", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Proposition have made a lovely argument, exceptfor one small detail, nobody is suggesting prayeror ritual as a replacement for medical attention.The issue here, as defined by proposition, iswhether JW parents should be able to rejectblood transfusions on behalf of their child. Nomore than that; no witchcraft wards or miraclecures. This is just a consideration of whether,given the time for discussion and consideration,the religious views of parents and, usually, theirchild should be able to say that perspectivesother than a strictly medical one should beconsidered in addressing a complex humansituation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The status of the child The protection of childrenis treated differently from how we address theneeds of adults. The very fact that their parents’consent for procedures is required acknowledgesthat fact. We further accept that when thatconsent is questionable - when the parents maynot be acting in the best interests of the child -that right may be revoked. In most instances ofsuch revocation, if the parent is an addict ormentally incapable of a particular decision, sucha decision can be determined well in advance.However, in this instance, the status of theparent has not previously been an issue.However, the same principles should surelyapply. For example, if a parent has been deniedaccess rights to their child by a court, they wouldhave no standing in making any such decision. Iftheir child is a ward of the court, the same wouldapply. Society has a general duty to at least keepchildren alive until they reach the age of majorityand remove all possible obstacles to thathappening. We do not allow parents to give their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Society does intervene in the private sphere toprevent harm. Domestic abuse is simply themost obvious example but parents are alsoresponsible in most societies for ensuring theirchildren receive an education in accordance withthe law. If a parent were to deny their childrenfood when it was available, it would be neglect.If they were to deny them shelter and protectionwhen available, it would be neglect or abuse. Itis difficult to see how denying them healthcare,when available, would not fall into the samecategory.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "We frequently set limits not on religious beliefsbut on their practices. The two determinant usedthere are the possible harm to others andwhether the person being harmed can bedeemed ‘capable’ in a legal sense. There can beno doubt that the decision to refuse availablemedical treatment causes harm, that is beyonddispute. The issue then is whether the personharmed, the child, can be considered capable.Legally they cannot, they cannot enter into acontract, they cannot marry or vote, legally theyare not allowed to make many decisions becausethey are not full members of society until theyare adults. It is worth noting that if the child isnot deemed competent to make a decisionregarding their own healthcare, it is difficult tosee how their determination of their ownreligious choices can be assumed asauthoritative. So the child cannot make thedecision and the parents actions would causeharm to the child. In the light of this, the onlyremaining opinion is that of the doctor.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The burden of parental responsibility Societiesrecognise the importance of parenting and theenormous responsibilities that go with it. In lightof these, the parent is allowed broad discretion indetermining how those responsibilities are bestexercised. It seems likely that a parent in asituation such as this is likely to undertake agreat deal more soul searching and thought thancould be expected of an external party. This is adecision that is made in good conscience and, asthings stand in most countries, within thelaw. Medical experts and others may well haveopinions, frequently strongly held, but they arejust that – opinions. The very fact that this issuehas come to court, been heard and judges havereached differing decisions demonstrates thatthis is not an argument against fact. Theopinions of parents are often supported byexpert and legal authority. The parents can beexpected to consider these opinions amongmany but must be left free to act in what theybelieve is the best interest of the child.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The division between the personal and socialspheres The law is a cumbersome tool to use inmatters that relate to family life; this can beseen in the reluctance to legislate too much inthis area. In those areas that require massivesocial interaction and agreement, such aseducation, there is a need for legislation buteven that frequently proves to be controversialand many parents take the opportunity to optout. This is particularly true in the moral, ethicaland religious education of children as it isrecognised, both implicitly and explicitly that thisis a matter for the family. How then is thisdifferent? That there are repercussions to thedecisions individuals make regarding theirreligious beliefs is beyond question but we stillleave them free to make them – the pacifist maygo to prison but cannot be compelled tofight. The same principle applies here; decisionsbased on deep religious conviction are a matterfor the individual or, in this case, their family.The views of the family are respected in the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Freedom of religious observance Most culturesrespect the right of adults to practice thereligious observances of their choosing and toraise their children within that tradition. Theprohibition of blood transfusion is a part of theobservances of JWs and is worthy of the respectthat might be expected of other religiouslymotivated decisions. There are other religiousobservances that have medical implications, forexample the rejection of certain vaccines, butsociety accepts that it is appropriate for parentsto inculcate their children with the values in thepractical outworking of their faith [i] . Therefusal to accept blood products may seemreckless to outsiders but there is no suggestionthat parents take their decision lightly; it wouldbe difficult to conceive of how they would do so.What then is the alternative? Allowing the stateto sanction which religions are acceptable orwhich practices of those religions? Such an actwould strike not only at the freedom of religiouspractice but at the very principle of freedom of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-philosophy-ehbidachsb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Parental responsibility is a duty, not a right.Society trusts parents to act in the interests oftheir child but does not do so unreservedly.Where those actions lead directly to a provableharm, we consider it either neglect or abuse ofthe child and the parental privileges are revoked.No matter how earnestly the parent may believeit is in the child’s best interest, they may notsend them out to work in injurious conditions,they may not allow or encourage them to engagein sexual conduct, they may not allow them touse armaments or certain drugs before a certainage. Because these things cause harm to thechild and that is a breach of the duty of careentrusted to the parent by wider society. Thesame is true of denying them medical treatment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "For intelligence to be effective, the governmentwill need to collect personal information, likebank transactions, emails, phone records, andmore, without the citizen in question knowingthis. However, democracy works on theassumption that each citizen has a privatesphere, separate from the public sphere, ofprivate information, thoughts and opinions, andthat the citizen decides who to let into thatsphere. Put differently, the citizen has controlover when to release private information, andwhen not. Investigating them without theirknowledge means taking away that control, andthat is a violation of the right to privacy. Policeinvestigations, on the other hand, are legitimateand not invasive of democracy - the police aregenerally obliged to inform a citizen when he orshe is subject to a criminal investigation, and cangenerally only investigate a citizen without theirknowledge after seeking specific permission fromthe judiciary, not just by a minister signing off awhole batch of requests as it’s done with", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Domestic intelligence operates just like the policedo. Domestic intelligence does require thecollection of information, but this is notfundamentally different from a standard policeinvestigation. The differences are minor when wehave national security at stake. Furthermore, therights, duties and powers of a domesticintelligence service are carefully restricted bylaw. For example, under Dutch law, the GeneralIntelligence and Security Service (AIVD) is onlyallowed to wiretap someone after permissiongranted by the Minister of Interior Affairs (the UKsituation is very similar). [1] Generally speaking,for every surveillance action the domesticintelligence can take, it needs to weigh whetherthe action satisfies the principles ofproportionality and subsidiarity, meaning thatthe invasiveness of a surveillance method shouldbe proportional to the risk the person poses, andthat the method chosen should be the leastinvasive of all possible methods. [1] vanVoorhout, Jill E.B. Coster, ‘Intelligence as legal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The AIVD example shows exactly that judicialand political control is not enough: the judicialcontrol is control after the fact, so it didn’tprevent the AIVD from listening in to journalistsconversations in the first place. Moreover, aregulatory committee judged that the Minister ofInternal Affairs, who is supposed to be the apriori control, had given permission too easily,which is to be expected when a Minister faces alot of requests like this, and has to decide inbetween the regular work of actually governing.[1] It is the lack of initial oversight which isanti-democratic, citizens expect theirgovernment and courts to prevent theintelligence agencies from infringing on privacynot simply demand an apology later when theintelligence agency is found out. How many morecases are there which are not caught? [1] NISNews Bulletin, ‘Press Sector Sues State forEavesdropping Telegraaf Journalists’ 9/07/2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Intelligence is necessary for the safety of thepublic. Domestic intelligence is very importantto the national security and to the safety of thepublic. Domestic intelligence is imperative inpreventing terrorist attacks on the country whenterrorists are as likely to be natives asforeigners, for example the 7/7 bombers inBritain were all native. [1] In order for adomestic intelligence organization to beeffective, its organizational discretion must belimited by establishing clear legislation that is notsecret, on the focus, limits, and techniques ofdomestic intelligence. When this is in placedomestic intelligence is not harmful, norinfringement on democracy – it is in the people’sbest interest. As Professor Dahl notes“Intelligence is about the thousands andthousands of routine, everyday observations andactivities… in many cases these observations,this intelligence, is about routine activitiesundertaken by ordinary Americans and otherswho do not intend to cause harm.” This intrusion", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Even if it is protecting lives the scale of theintelligence gathering is undemocratic. Byallowing interception, widespread tracking ofpublic records, unfair legal treatment, we erasethe trust between citizens and the government inreturn for very occasionally preventing a terroristattack. As shown by 7/7 terrorists still getthrough despite intelligence even when thebombers have already been noticed. [1] When allyour library patrons can be seized and all yourbrowsing logs checked just on a claim that theyare relevant to intelligence information, asinitially happened under the patriot act, toomuch liberty is being given up in the name ofvery little extra security. [2] [1] BBC News,Special Report London Attacks ‘Thebombers’, [2] Strossen, Nadine, ‘Safety andFreedom: Common Concerns for Conservatives,Libertarians, and Civil Libertarians’, HarvardJournal of Law & Public Policy, Vol. 29, No.1, Fall 2005, p.78", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The military or foreign intelligence or just as ableto conduct counterintelligence, because thepotential targets for foreign intelligence servicesare well known. But even if a domesticintelligence service is best placed forcounter-intelligence, this is just an argument forlimiting their functions to counter-intelligence,where they won’t harm citizen’s privacy as much.The arguments above deal with the other work adomestic intelligence does, and that work isillegitimate.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "There is sufficient political and judicial controlover intelligence service Even if not every citizencan control exactly what the intelligence servicedoes, there is sufficient political and judicialcontrol. An example of this is a recent caseinvolving the Dutch AIVD, which startedwiretapping journalists after they had found asource within the AIVD to leak about the run-upto the Iraq War. The journalists were wiretappedbut when the case came to court, the courtjudged that the AIVD was in error, should stopharassing the journalists, and must delete thefiles on the journalists immediately. Such casesshow that the intelligence agencies, and thoseinvolved domestically in particular, have judicialand political oversight to make sure they remainwithin bounds. [1] Democracy is therefore notthreatened as there is democratic oversight. [1]Webber, Liz, Netherlands: De Telegraafjournalists win suit over secret servicephone-taps, World Editors Forum, 27/07/2009", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Domestic intelligence services are the onlyorganization that is capable of performingcounterintelligence Domestic intelligenceservices are the only organization that is capableof performing counterintelligence. They have thecapacity and the authority to detect foreign spiesin the national jurisdiction, and experience withlocal surveillance and investigation. Part of thejob of domestic intelligence is to maintain anetwork of informers and agents, and this can beused to find and track foreign intelligenceservices on a mission – these functions can’t beeasily performed by the military or foreignintelligence so an independent domesticintelligence agency is necessary.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is better to have some fear and suspicion insociety than letting a terrorist attack which costslives through. Without a domestic intelligenceagency we probably would not even know aboutthe 1600 potential terrorists. Now that many ofthese plots are known by the intelligence agencythey can be prevented.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Some citizens don’t just have political differenceswith the current government, but arefundamentally opposed to the democratic stateand are willing to use violence against state andsociety. Such is the case with Germany’s far-leftparty where the Federal Administrative Courtruled that the Federal Office for the Protection ofthe Constitution (BfV) could continue to observeBodo Ramelow, leader of the Left Party in theeastern state of Thuringia. [1] Or wheredomestic intellegence agencies are necessary tomonitor home grown terrorist organisations likethe IRA. To protect itself, society and mostimportantly, the lives of other citizens, it’snecessary for a government to sometimes wantto keep a close eye on some of their owncitizens. A democratically elected governmenthas both the authority and the legitimacy toorder such surveillance, and can be heldaccountable for the way in which it uses itspowers. [1] Der Spiegel, ‘Is Germany's LeftParty a Threat to Democracy?’ 22/7/2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Domestic intelligence agencies cannot becontrolled There are no effective ways ofcontrolling the activities of a domesticintelligence agency. With an information request,an investigated citizen has no way of being surewhat the intelligence service in question actuallydoes with the information, once it has gatheredit, and whether the service actually upheld theprinciples of subsidiarity and proportionality asthey should, because the methods used are notgiven out. Also, the intelligence service mightpromise to delete a file after a court honoured arequest, but no one can ever be sure that theintelligence service didn’t make an extra, secretcopy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Intelligence agencies inflate threats. Havingdomestic intelligence agencies creates suspicionand fear, and ultimately resentment. Domesticintelligence agencies are created in response towar and external threats, for example MI5 wascreated in the build up to world war one, andAustralia’s intelligence service was created inresponse to the discovery of a soviet spy ringwithin the Australian government. [1] Havingany such service involved in more than simplycounter-intelligence against foreign servicesshows that the government does not trust itsown people. The United States has until veryrecently not had a domestic intelligence exactlybecause it was considered that the FBI could doeverything that was required without creatingundue suspicion. Bureaucracies inflate threats soas to gain more resources, MI5 is a goodexample, it was given more resources than itneeded to engage in counterintelligence againstGermany so expanded its role to surveillance ofelements such as pacifists and organised labour.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The government does not have the right to spyon its citizens The government should not wantto spy on its own citizens – that is the mark of atotalitarian regime. If some citizens disagreewith the current government or current form ofgovernment, it is their fundamental democraticright to do so, and the government has no rightto judge their different political preferences as‘dangerous’. Experience shows that electedgovernments are not always able to control theirdomestic intelligence services, which maydevelop their own views of what constitutessubversive behaviour. In the 1970s MI5 keptfiles upon Labour Party MPs, including ministersin the UK Government. Elsewhere, fragiledemocracies such as Pakistan and Turkey haveseen military coups launched against electedgovernments with the involvement of thedomestic intelligence services which weresupposed to be guarding them. In Turkey despitea coup against army leaders in 2008 thedomestic intelligence agencies remain very", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lgdgtihbd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "It is quite possible to put checks on the power ofa domestic intelligence agency in order toprevent abuse of authority. An important way, inwhich individual citizens can actually control theintelligence service, is through lodging aninformation request at the domestic intelligenceservice. In a democracy, the service is obliged toshare if it has a dossier on that citizen, and if it’sunfounded, can request the deletion of it. Ofcourse, the dossier will not include specificintelligence gathering methods used nor mentionsources, but overall, it will provide a good pictureof what the intelligence service has beeninvestigating so far.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Atrocities have continued on both sides of theconflict throughout this war. Military threats ofintervention have not caused any reduction inhostilities – they just ramped up tension. Thereis a very real prospect that an ICC interventioncould just fan the flames of the existing warfare;UN weapons inspectors being in the country didnot deter the use of chemical weapons, theywere used only a few miles from where theinspectors were staying. Also, the ICC has notbeen a useful deterrent in other situations, suchas Darfur, which while referred to the ICC by theUN Security Council is still an ongoing conflict.[1] One of the few academic studies done on theissue suggests ICC involvement simply damagesthe prospects of peace by ensuring that an actorwho may have been willing at some point tonegotiate has to fight on. [2] Combatants arealready fearing death – would the prospect ofspending 30 years in a European prison cellreally add too much of a deterrent? [1] Kristof,Nicholas D., ‘Darfur in 2013 Sounds Awfully", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The threat of investigation could deter future warcrimes, including the use of chemicalweapons The ICC has a high level of soft powerin this case. It has the resources to investigateand prosecute, backed up by widespread supportfrom large swathes of the internationalcommunity. The ICC is part of a growinginternational norm against war and crimesagainst humanity. The willingness to prosecutefor these crimes – particularly if it is doneconsistently – will build norms where evenruthless leaders realise they can’t get away withsuch crimes. Pursuing war crimes from theSyrian conflict alone will not be enough but whencombined with similar measures elsewhere andthe arrests of other leaders such as CharlesTaylor, Slobodan Milosevic and Laurent Gbagboshow that even leaders are no longer out ofreach of international law. [1] The ICC could actas an effective deterrent to the use of chemicalweapons and other war crimes by threatening toprosecute individuals who commit them. [1]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Even if the ICC brings proceedings, that does notguarantee that individuals, even if captured byforces that oppose them, will be transferred overto the ICC – the new Libyan government is stillholding Saif Gaddafi. [1] The ICC can also onlyact when the state is unwilling or unable toprovide a trial – this this is the principle ofcomplementarity. However there is not ICC forcethat can act to arrest a suspect. This means ineffect that it will be down to the forces on theground which may mean summary justice bythose who capture the suspect if they think itwon’t get a sufficiently stiff sentence at the ICC –there is no death penalty. At any rate, many inSyria would want to see a fully militaryconclusion to the conflict, rather than any resultthrough the international courts or a politicalsettlement. [1] Aliriza, Fadil, ‘Is Libya too scaredto put Said Gaddafi on trial?’, The Independent,16 August 2013,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC is there to prosecute war crimes – therehas been evidence of a war crime The purposeof the ICC is to be the venue for theimplementation of international criminal law, aprinciple that the international community hassupported since the creation of the ICTY andICTR and prior to that. [1] The crimes that thecourt is to prosecute include genocide – which isprobably not occurring but has been alleged, [2]crimes against humanity and War Crimes [3] –which have certainly happened the chemicalattacks being just one among manyexamples. The allegations against the Assadregime are serious – including the use ofchemical weapons, which are specificallymentioned as a war crime under article8/1/b/xviii the Rome Statute. It would set aterrible precedent for such crimes to not bepunished under international criminal law. [1]‘About the Court’, International CriminalCourt, [2] Chulov, Martin, and Mahmood, Mona,‘Syrian Sunnis fear Assad regime wants to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "In any conflict, the apportionment of blame forindividual crimes committed against civilians to astandard of proof that would be acceptable in acourt is extremely difficult, even such a highprofile crime as attacks using chemical weaponshave been disputed. [1] That is why the ICCtypically gets involved after conflicts, rather thanduring them because it provides the time forthorough investigations, availability of witnesses,and means the investigators will not be atrisk. Whenever the indictment is issued, theconflict would be likely to have finished beforethe ICC would be able to actually have thedefendants in the dock. This therefore would beno help in ending the conflict. [1] Radia, Krit,‘Putin Rejects Syria Chemical WeaponsAccusations as ‘Utter Nonsense’’, ABC News,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Just because a reference to the ICC is possibledoes not mean it would be effective. It would stillrequire individuals to be captured, and enoughevidence to be ascertained in order for aconviction. Also, Russia has a track record ofopposing the reference of the Syria case to theICC, or any other involvement in the Syria issue.Negotiating with Russia could amount to afruitless exercise Also, such a reference couldcause problems if a Western military interventionwere to take place later, possibly exposingforeign peacekeepers to liability if any incidentwere to occur.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC would prevent show trials The use ofthe ICC could work better than domestic showtrials in the aftermath of a civil war. Instead ofdomestic courts, prone to all their biases, aninternational, unbiased, criminal system couldreplace the prospect of a Ceausescu-stylenon-trial followed by summary execution, orsome other form of unfair trial which could sowthe seeds for problems down the line. Even thetrial of Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein done whilethe United States had a lot of influence over thecountry as a result of its occupation wascondemned as having “serious administrative,procedural and substantive legal defects”.[1] Instead, an ICC trial would allow the fulldetails to be probed, investigated andindependently prosecuted without being subjectto domestic post-war recriminations. [1]‘Judging Dujail The First Trial before the IraqiHigh Tribunal’, Human Rights Watch, 20November 2006,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "An ICC referral may be the only UNSCoption. The UN Security Council has so far beenundecided over any future action in Syria. Chinahas so far been unconvinced over any action.Russia has supported Assad, selling the Assadregime arms. Russia and China, beingpermanent members of the UNSC means thatthey can block any action on this issue that theother permanent members (USA, UK and France)may wish to bring for any form of sanctiontowards the Assad regime. While it may not bepossible to get Russia to support a militaryintervention, which is something that they areopposed to [1] , it may be possible to swingRussia round to a position where they abstain ona reference to the ICC [2] . Russia has had aflexible (or, more cynically, hypocritical, view onthe ICC before, opposing a Syria reference inFebruary 2013 [3] but supporting one in to theactions of NATO in the Syrian conflict [4] )position on the ICC, having voted in favour ofreferences to it before. Because the involvement", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The Syrian Civil war is far larger than any of theconflicts where the truth and reconciliation modelhas been implemented. The divisions in societywill not be healable through a system of truthand reconciliation – like other atrocities, such asthose in Sierra Leone and the Balkans there willneed to be a system of criminal trials. Inaddition, a South African style truth andreconciliation commission with an amnesty forperpetrators of human rights violations [1] wouldgrant impunity to perpetrators on other sideswho have committed some of the gravestatrocities in the 21st century, from cannibalism[2] to the use of chemical weapons. Lettingthese people remain free would not promotereconciliation it would simply mean Syrianswould believe that justice has not beendone. [1] Simpson, G., ‘A Brief Evaluation ofSouth Africa's Truth and ReconciliationCommission: Some lessons for societies intransition.’, The Centre for the Study of Violenceand Reconciliation’, October 1998, [2] Muir,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The problem with fears of fuelling the conflictfurther is that the conflict is already almost aslarge as it can be within the borders of Syria, andhas already spilled over in to neighbouringLebanon, with bombings in Tripoli and Beirut) –it is a full scale conflict which will be difficult toresolve peacefully as it is, with existing threats ofmilitary intervention on the table there is nomore possible escalation to fear.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Waste of time – won’t capture Assad or rebel warcriminals. Even if the situation were to bereferred (which would require abstention orsupport from both Russia and China on the UNSecurity Council, which itself is unlikely), it wouldbe necessary to capture Assad and othersuspects before trying them. This has provenvery difficult, for example none of the suspects inthe investigation in to the Lords Resistance Armyactivity in Uganda have been captured [1] – it isequally likely that they would be killed duringany capture attempt as occurred in Libya whenGaddafi was captured and then shot on the spotby the insurgents [2] ; one cannot put a corpseon trial. [1] Dicker, Richard, and Ebenson,Elizabeth, ‘ICC Suspects Can Hide – and That Isthe Problem’, Jurist, 24 January 2013, [2]Kofman, Jeffrey, and Dolak, Keven ‘MoammarGadhafi Dead: How Rebels Killed the Dictator’,ABC News, 21 October 2011, n.b. the video inthis article is rather graphic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Bar to truth and reconciliation After theconclusion of the war in Syria, there will have tobe a period of nation building – either Assad willhave destroyed his enemies and have analienated nation to deal with, or the SyrianNational Congress will have to take effectivecontrol over the country. Syria will need aprocess of truth and reconciliation [1] - acollective understanding of events that happenedon the past, such as that which occurred afterthe end of Apartheid in South Africa - in order tomove forward: this may be hampered byreopening old wounds by prosecuting largenumbers of people for offences in the civilwar. [1] For more information see theDebatabase debate ‘ This House supports the useof truth and reconciliation commissions ’", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "ICC referal would fuel the conflict further TheSyrian Civil War has already claimed over100,000 lives, but it could get worse. The Assadregime is infamous for its stockpiling of chemicalweapons – it is one of few states to not sign theChemical Weapons convention, and is known tohave stocks of mustard gas, VX and otherweapons of mass destruction. Assad still haschemical weapons to use. An ICC referral couldcause the regime to regard itself as in a positionwith nothing to lose so making it more willing tomake use of these weapons against its ownpeople. If there is no hope of a swift decisivevictory by either side then by far the bestsolution to the conflict would be to have anegotiated settlement – the ICC seeking toprosecute senior figures on either side wouldmake this much harder to arrive at. In SouthAfrica – in a less volatile situation – formerPresident Thabo Mbeki has stated “Had therebeen a threat of a Nuremberg-style trial overmembers of the apartheid security establishment", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilppwhb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While it is not possible to guarantee the captureof any suspect that has not stopped the ICCattempting to build a case. If any defendants arecaptured alive, it will not be a waste of time:bearing in mind that the ICC does capture manyof the individuals it seeks to put on trial, it is notbeyond the bounds of possibility that some or allpeople indicted after a Syria investigation wouldbe captured.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Guantanamo Bay didn't create anti-Americanismin the Islamic world. Al-Qaeda existed andcarried out 9/11 before Guantanamo bay wasestablished, so it is unlikely that closing thedetention centre would make any of those whohate the US now reconsider. Furthermore,closing the facility could be seen as apropaganda victory for the US' enemies, andfurther embolden terrorist organisations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Guantanamo harms the War on Terror: Theexistence of Guantanamo Bay is cited byterrorists as a tool of \"the great Satan\" and isseen by Muslims in general as a demonstrationof US disregard for their dignity. It is, in turn, aneffective tool used by terrorists and Jihadists tobring recruits on-board. The highly unpopularexistence of Guantanamo Bay also makes itmore risky for intelligence sources to come outand provide useful information that they mightotherwise be willing to provide. This is because,for many Muslims, Guantánamo stands as aconfirmation of the low regard in which theybelieve the United States holds them. [1] Someof this stems from the association of detention atGuantanamo with the specifically anti-Islamicabuses which have reportedly occurred there,such as allegations of having a guard dog carrythe Koran in its mouth, guards scrawlingobscenities inside Korans, kicking Korans acrossthe floor, urinating on the Koran, ridiculing theKoran, walking on the Koran, and tearing off the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is possible to reform treatment at GuantanamoBay without closing the facility. The conditions inthe facility have in fact greatly improved since itsestablishment and in many ways differ from thepublic's negative perception of it. [1] But even ifin fact these negative reports of the conditions atGuantanamo are true, it is likely that many ofthose detained at Guantanamo may not be evenmore anti-American than when they arrived, soreleasing them could mean they pose an evengreater threat to the US. [1] Davis, Morris D.“The Guantánamo I Know”. New York Times. 26June 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Detainees have the right to trial in UScourts: Prisoners have been detained atGuantanamo for long periods without clearcharges being filed and without trial. This is aviolation of the international legal principle ofhabeas corpus. One of the primary problems isthat, without clear charges and a presentation ofevidence against a suspect, the suspect cannotcontest the charges and prove their owninnocence. And, as a matter of fact, numerousdetainees have been found innocent, but onlyafter excessively long periods without beingcharged or brought before a court. [1] ManyGuantanamo detainees may have nevercommitted terrorist acts or fought against USforces in Afghanistan at all; they were simplyturned over by Northern Alliance and Pakistaniwarlords for bounties of up to $25,000. Foralmost seven years they have been held withouta fair hearing or opportunity to demonstratethose facts. Courts who reviewed the cases of 23detainees to see if there was reasonable", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Reforms can always be made to the legal processat Guantanamo, and so this is not a reason toclose the facility or to try the detainees in UScourts. Moreover, much of the credible andreliable evidence that justifies the continueddetention cannot be admitted in US courts forlegal reasons, such as the fact that thosecaptured in Afghanistan and elsewhere were notread their Miranda rights on their arrest. Othercases involve evidence that is insufficient for trialbut still sufficient to determine that release is anunacceptable security risk. [1] Furthermore, Iftransferred to U.S. courts, some of the detaineesmight be freed because of the aggressiveinterrogation techniques used against them.Mohammed al-Qahtani, the alleged \"20thhijacker\" in the Sept. 11 plot, was interrogatedso severely at Guantanamo Bay that Bushadministration officials said he was tortured anddid not refer his case for prosecution. [2] [1]Wall Street Journal. \"Obama and Guantanamo\".Wall Street Journal. 22 January 2009. [2] Fox", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Conditions at Guantanamo are unjust andunacceptable: UN Reports indicate that thetreatment of detainees since their arrests, andthe conditions of their confinement, have hadprofound effects on the mental health of many ofthem. The treatment and conditions include thecapture and transfer of detainees to anundisclosed overseas location, sensorydeprivation and other abusive treatment duringtransfer; detention in cages without propersanitation and exposure to extremetemperatures; minimal exercise and hygiene;systematic use of coercive interrogationtechniques; long periods of solitary confinement;cultural and religious harassment; denial of orseverely delayed communication with family;and the uncertainty generated by theindeterminate nature of confinement and denialof access to independent tribunals. Theseconditions have led in some instances to seriousmental illness, over 350 acts of self-harm in2003 alone, individual and mass suicide attempts", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that the majority of detainees may beguilty of terror-related crimes or attacks doesn'tjustify the continued detention of those whowere clearly detained under mistakeninformation, and who will only be clearedthrough trial in a civilian court. Otherwise justicewill never be truly served at Guantanamo Bay.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-con01b", "title": "", "text": "After years of detention and separation from thebattle field and terrorist networks, manyGuantanamo detainees have no more value toUS intelligence gathering efforts and nationalsecurity, and so this is not a reason to continuetheir detention. Moreover, there are tens ofthousands of anti-American terrorists around theworld. Releasing a handful of the 250 detaineesthat are actually terrorists but that can't be triedin the US would be a drop in the bucket forterrorism and the war on terror.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Guantanamo deters terrorists: Guantanamo Bayand the threat of detention helps deter terrorists.This coupled with the lack of a trial adds to thefear of the place and thus denounces terrorism.What is a deterrent and why is it necessary? Adeterrent is something which persuadessomeone not to act in a certain way. Similar tothe accumulation of nuclear missiles actuallydeterring a war between large nations, adeterrent can be created around somethingdeemed morally wrong (a prison which may/maynot breech human rights) and yet help thegreatest number of people and is, thus,justifiable. The whole basis of terrorism is formedupon an ideology and stems from indoctrination.If there is a seed of doubt then it is likely thatthe person in question will not commit acts ofterror.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Sufficient justice and due process exists atGuantanamo: The US Constitution does notextend to alien unlawful enemy combatants.They are entitled to protections under CommonArticle 3 of the Geneva Conventions, whichensures they are afforded 'all the judicialguarantees which are recognized asindispensable by civilized peoples.' US SupremeCourt Justice John Paul Stevens, in the Hamdandecision that rejected an earlier plan for militarycommissions, observed that Article 75 of theAdditional Protocol to the Geneva Conventionsdefines the judicial guarantees recognized asindispensable. A comparison of Article 75 and theMilitary Commissions Act of 2006 shows militarycommissions provide the fundamentalguarantees. [1] Moreover, enemy combatants atGuantanamo Bay are afforded a form of habeascorpus (ie. charging the imprisoned with aspecific crime), as each detainee accusedreceives a copy of the charges in his nativelanguage. [2] Claims that most of the prisoners", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Closing Guantanamo would harm US nationalsecurity: The current operations of GuantanamoBay are aiding the War on Terror, and closing thefacility would harm the US' security situation.Putting an important section of a terrorist groupsuch as Al-Qaeda in prison obviously stops thecoordination and the indoctrination of youngermembers. This makes it harder for terroristgroups to operate effectively. The presumption isthat during that time the USA will have gatheredadequate intelligence and information uponwhich to destroy the group and the war on terroris that little bit nearer to ending. Former US VicePresident Dick Cheney has stated that,intelligence-wise, \"Guantanamo has been very,very valuable [in the war on terror.\"[1] Moreover, if released many Guantanamodetainees will likely return to terrorism. [5] Manyof those that have been already released fromGuantanamo done just that. The WashingtonPost reported in 2005 that at least 10 of the 202detainees released from Guantanamo were later", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilphwcgbd-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The \"deterrent effect\" of Guantanamo onterrorists cannot be confirmed. This is mainlydue to the fact that terrorists' feelings or fears inregards to the Guantanamo Bay prison cannot bestatistically gathered. Similarly, the terroristsposing a threat to the safety of Western Nationsare typically so ideologically fanatical andassured that their path is the righteous one, thatthere is nothing that would persuade themotherwise, including the risk of imprisonment atGuantanamo. These are often people who arewilling to die for their cause.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The reasons for different categories is for escaperisk – escape being the antithesis of a utilitarianpurpose of prison, that of incapacitation. Thosewho are unlikely to seek to escape – prisonersserving short sentences or near the end of theirsentence so have little reason to risk having theirsentence extended – are those kept in morecomfortable conditions. The measure inConnecticut meanwhile is a last minute politicalfudge, and one brought in solely to appeasethose who demand irrational justice policies suchas retributivism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Differences in treatment are alreadyaccepted Differences between differentcategories of prisoner are already accepted inthe criminal justice system – prisoners aregenerally kept in different conditions due tofactors such as escape risk and other factors. Forexample the UK has open prisons which offer thefreedom to move around within the prison andthe system is aimed at reintegration so freedomslike alcohol are allowed, as are home visits.[1] Once it is accepted that not all prisons andnot all prisoners are treated the same then adifference in treatment based on the crimecommitted makes sense. If that is the case, itcould be calibrated that those serving certainsentences for certain offences should be held incertain conditions – for example, in Connecticut(a state that has abolished the Death Penalty soLWOP is the greatest penalty imposed) thoseserving life without parole are now deniedcontact visits and are given no more than twohours of recreation per day [2] . [1] James,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Prison itself is already a deterrent. Harsherprison conditions do not prevent recidivism, andcould actually make convicts more likely toreoffend when released. Chen and Shapiroestimate that if all inmates were housed in aboveminimum security facilities there would be “anincrease in the crimes committed by formerconvicts of approximately 82 per 100,000Americans” – this would be higher than thereduction of 58 crimes per 100,000 found byKatz et al. as a result of deterring those outsideprison [1] . [1] Chen, M. Keith, and Shapiro,Jesse M., ‘Do Harsher Prision Conditions ReduceRecidivism? A Discontinuity-based Approach’,American Law and Economics Review, Vol.9,No.1, 2007", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Punishment is good Retributive theories ofjustice accept that the reason why a criminaljustice exists is to punish offenders – societydeclaring its rejection of crime by inflictingdeliberately unpleasant punishments. Prisons donot reflect this – a prisoner is a prisoner, andprison officers generally do not care about whatoffence they are convicted of. Their motivationfor doing this being to make the prison easier toadministrate. [1] “The past counts”. If we aremaking prisoners stay in prison we should makethem feel as if they are being punished. Thismeans deprivation of more than just the libertyto move from the prison but also of otherluxuries. [1] Blecker, p.103", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "This is all based on the vengeance-fuelledconcept of “retributive justice”. This is not amodel of thinking that has much merit.Imprisonment in the criminal justice works bydeterring individuals from crime (prison alwayswill be a deterrent), and incapacitating criminals,making them unable to commit crimes due to thefact they are in prison. The intent of prison is toprevent crime, not to impose harsh conditions ofpunishment. Imprisonment with legitimateutilitarian goals is acceptable. Simply inflictingconditions on people for no practical reason ismere sadism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Harsher conditions are a deterrent Worse prisonconditions for particular offences would act as adeterrent. If people, in prisons generally and insociety as a whole, see that those who areconvicted of particularly bad crimes will bedeterred from committing those worse crimes. Ifprison is simply a holding place that preventspeople inside from committing crime then it isfailing in creating deterrence; criminalssometimes feel it is better to commit a crimewhen released in order to get back into prison.[1] Katz, Levitt, and Shustorovich using deathrates show how harsh prison conditions are likelyto mean lower crime rates overall – though adoubling of the death rate only reduces the crimerate by a few percentage points. [2] [1] Blecker,p.68 [2] Katz, Lawrence et al., ‘PrisonConditions, Capital Punishment, and Deterrence’,American Law and Economics Review, Vol.5,No.2, 2003 , p.340", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Punishment is irrational, but it is a legitimatedesire for a justice system to meter outretribution to those convicted of serious crimes.Punishment does not have to have a beneficialimpact on public safety to make it the right thingto do. The desire for victims for retribution islegitimate; they should not have to see acriminal who abused them live a cushy life inprison – at their expense.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The fact that the prison system is not designedto be punitive doesn’t mean it shouldn’t be.Retributive justice demands that criminals arepunished. Prison should do that, and it should fitthe crime, by having more than one category ofpunishment based on the offence. It isunderstandable that prison services themselvesdo not consider their task to be to punish; theyclaim that is done by the judge or jury thathands out the sentence. This however in effectmeans that no one takes responsibility forpunishing those who have done wrong. Insteadeach stage of the criminal justice systembecomes solely an attempt to prevent futurecrime without consideration to past victims.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "A tiered system already exists To some extent,prisoners will be categorized according to theoffences they have committed. For example,those convicted of offences like armed robberyand many murders will start of at a higher levelon the security system, which will meanrestrictions in terms of activities, prison workand association with other prisoners. A personconvicted of a sex offence against children, oranything else particularly notorious, would belikely to be placed in some sort of protectivecustody. In the UK, this is done under Rule 45 ofthe Prison Rules [1] . [1] England and Walesprison rules, available from , rule 45", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Harsh punishment iscounterproductive Punishment for its own sakeachieves nothing practical. When putting peoplein prison we need to look to the future, not to thepast. However, harsher prison conditions can actin a way that makes individuals more likely toreoffend [1] . This is because those who havesuffered harsh conditions do not becomeprepared for life outside; they do not learn thenecessary skills that would bring them a jobwhen released. Harsher prison conditions alsobreed mental health problems; isolation insupermax prisons has been observed to causeanxiety, paranoia, hallucinations, and selfmutilation – one study has found isolation in asecure housing unit caused 88% of prisoners tosuffer from irrational anger and 91% anxiety. [2]It is notable that the opposite is also the case theBastøy prison in Norway, derided by some for itssupposedly “soft” conditions, has a reoffendingrate less than a quarter of that of the Europeanaverage [3] . [1] Chen, 2007 [2] Haney, Craig,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Punishment is not purpose of prison Prison itselfalready has punishment value: the loss of libertyand exclusion from society. However,punishment is not the purpose of prison. This isaccepted in the US, where state prison systemsdo not claim punishment is a goal: see California[1] , New York [2] and Nevada (“Protect thepublic by confining convicted felons according tothe law, while keeping staff and inmates safe.“)[3] . Similarly, the UK’s Ministry of Justice doesnot list “punishment” as a priority of HM PrisonService [4] . Instead the aim is to prevent crimeby holding prisoners, and to rehabilitatecriminals so that when they are released theyare able to reintegrate into society withoutreoffending. [1] California Department ofCorrections & Rehabilitation, ‘Vision,Mission, Values, and Goals’, CA.gov, accessed6/2/2014 [2] Department of Corrections andCommunity Supervision, ‘The DepartmentalMission’, NY.gov, accessed 6/2/2014, [3]Nevada Department of Corrections, ‘Mission", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-cpphwmpfcp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "That system is based on security risk, not theactual offence per se. There is no extra punitivevalue attached to the offence in terms of prisonconditions for the pure reason of theoffence. The reason why those inmates are keptseparate is for their own safety (capitalpunishment should not be meted out by otherprisoners!), not based on any ideal ofpunishment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Deterrence only works if the court actuallyprosecutes people; however, its cripplinginefficiency renders its deterrent effectnonexistent. To date, the ICC has yet to actuallypunish anyone. The lack of hard power andenforcement mechanisms makes it impossible forthe ICC to be effective. Tribunals like the ICTYwere effective because of US support, militarybacking, and financial power; the ICC lacks thistype of sway and is destined to fail. (See more inthe opposition point #2). If the court does notactually punish people, there is little to nodeterrent effect, since it poses no credible threatto criminals.1 1 Goldsmith, Jack. \"TheSelf-Defeating International Criminal Court.\" TheUniversity of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 70 No. 1,Winter 2003, 89-104.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "If supported, the ICC will set a precedent anddeter leaders from committing crimes againsthumanity. The ICC demonstrates that there isan existing legal court that will hold individualsaccountable should they decide to commit gravecrimes. The mere existence of the court and thepossibility of prosecution (even if not 100%) isbeneficial in terms of deterring future atrocities.No leader wants to lose power, and an ICCwarrant limits the movement and liberties ofleaders. This is empirically true – in Uganda,high-ranking officials of the Lord’s ResistanceArmy specifically cited potential prosecution bythe ICC as a reason they put down their arms.LRA officials like Joseph Kony have to spendvaluable time on evading the ICC that wouldotherwise be used to perpetuate crimes, showingthat there are still marginal benefits even ifleaders themselves are not always apprehended.[i] [i] Scheffer, David and John Hutson.“Strategy for U.S. Engagement with theInternational Criminal Court.” Century", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Pursuance by the ICC doesn't actually result inpunishment of the leader; empirically, it hasactually strengthened criminals' power aftercriticizing them. Nations, such as African nationslike Chad, have painted the actions of the ICC assigns of Western imperialism and domination.Sudan's Bashir, accused of genocide and othercrimes against humanity, used the ICC's arrestwarrant against him as a sign of heroism andcreated a rally-around-the-flag effect, furtherstrengthening his regime. Moreover, the ICC'swork encourages leaders to cling to their powerrather than give it and face prosecution, makingpunishment even more difficult. At worst, theICC is actually counterproductive when it comesto punishing leaders and giving them retribution;at best, it is simply an ineffective court.1 1 \"TheInternational Criminal Court: Why Africa StillNeeds it.\" The Economist, 3 June 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Efforts to strengthen the ICC will promote globalcooperation, norms against crimes, andinternational stability. There is a growing globalconsensus that crimes against humanity need tobe punished, as demonstrated by the tribunals toaddress the crimes of Yugoslavia and Rwanda.The question is no longer whether we should setup an international court but rather how to bestdo it, and the ICC gives the internationalcommunity a framework within which to work toestablish a strong courts.1 Rejection of the ICChas become a symbol of rejection of internationalnorms, and countries that have refused to ratifythe Rome Statute in the name of nationalinterest, such as the United States, have beenseen as imperialist, isolationist, and againstglobal efforts to tackle important issues. 1Prakash, K. P. \"International Criminal Court: AReview.\" Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 37,No. 40, October 5-11, 2002, pp.4113-4115. 2Carter, Ralph G. \"Leadership atRisk: The Perils of Unilateralism.\" Political", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC is the best way to prosecute seriouscrimes because of its permanence; individualtribunals are not enough. The ICC is uniquelybeneficial because of its intention to be apermanent force that will always hold peopleaccountable, instead of slowly reacting to crimesafter-the-fact. It is intended to be universal andapply to every situation without mandating thecreation of a new tribunal every time somethinghappens, and may be even more effective thantribunals at responding to crimes. Even thoughtribunals such as the ones for the FormerYugoslavia and Rwanda may have worked, theywere \"necessarily limited in scope\" and cannotbe applied on a large scale, which is what isneeded.1 Additionally, those tribunals wererelatively ineffective, as they took two years toset up, and relying on establishing new tribunalsevery single time wastes precious time. Doing sowould also let smaller but still serious crimes slipunder the radar, as they would not warrant thecreation of a new tribunal, but may still count as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Individual tribunals are actually better ataddressing the specific situation. The idea of\"universal jurisdiction\" becomes dangerous whenit is regarded as a blanket solution. For example,after the Spanish Civil War, post-Franco Spaindecided to avoid trials for the sake of nationalreconciliation that enabled it to become apeaceful democracy. Setting a precedent ofuniversal jurisdiction for punishmentunnecessarily precludes better reactions moretailored to the specific scenario.1 (See oppositionargument #3 for elaboration). 1 Kissinger,Henry. \"The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction.\"Foreign Affairs, July/August 2001, Accessed 14August 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Promoting the ICC will only further split theglobal community by allowing the court tobecome a political tool. The US Department ofState published a report explaining that one ofthe reasons it opposes ratification of the RomeStatute is because it would complicate militarycooperation with allies, who would be obligatedto hand over US nationals even without USpermission if a warrant were issued for theirarrest. This would strain international relations.Additionally, this would decrease global stabilityby discouraging the US from conducting missionsabroad that are key to political stability innumerous areas; US peacekeepers are currentlyin about 100 nations.1 (See the last oppositionargument for more information) 1 Grossman,Mark (Under Secretary for Political Affairs).Remarks to the Center for Strategic andInternational Studies. Washington, DC, 6 May2002, US Department of State.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The ICC actually fails to account for theindividual nature of crimes and is not the bestsolution for a \"globalizing world\" because itpromotes retribution at the expense ofpeace. Sometimes, amnesty and reconciliationare better than pursuing retribution andpunishment. Even if the ICC does punish people,it may be doing so at the expense of the overallprotection of human rights – emphasizingprosecution potentially detracts from goals likedemocratic reconstruction and conflict resolution.For example, the South African Truth andReconciliation Committee was widely consideredsuccessful because it promoted peace even whilegiving amnesty to many criminals. Ultimately, itaccounted for victims, allowed for open dialogue,and laid the foundation for South Africa totransition to a stable situation. The ICC’s focuson arrest and punishment precludes these typesof solutions. [i] [i] Mayerfeld, Jamie. “Who Shallbe Judge? The United States, the InternationalCriminal Court, and the Global Enforcement of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC will prosecute leaders who commit themost severe crimes and give them theirdue. The only way to ensure that leaders getwhat they deserve is to establish a free-standing,independent court that holds people accountable.The ICC acts as a permanent international court(as opposed to tribunals set up by a specificgroup of nations).1 By issuing arrest warrants forleaders who would otherwise continue theiractions without any blame, the ICC attempts topunish them. The goal is to ensure that noindividual gets away with committing terriblecrimes. Additionally, the court gives victims arole in the process, has the power to give themreparations, and ensures they see criminalsbrought to justice.2The court has not punishedanyone yet because it is still considerably young,but has proceedings going on currently. 1Carroll, James. \"The International CriminalCourt.\" Bulletin of the American Academy of Artsand Sciences, Vol. 54 No. 1, Autumn 2000,21-23. 2Duffy, Helen. \"Toward Eradicating", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC is the most suited towards the risingnature of crimes in a globalizing world. Intoday's world, crimes are no longer confined tosingle nations and affect the world due to theeffects of globalization. An international court isnecessary as a global solution to problems thatoften involve multiple actors; a permanentinternational court accounts for all partiesinvolved.1 For example the Lord's ResistanceArmy has been mostly active in Uganda but hasoften hidden from the Ugandan military bycrossing into Southern Sudan or the DemocraticRepublic of Congo. Because it is not limited to aspecific territory, the ICC has truly globaljurisdiction and therefore is most appropriategiven the recent rise of international crimes.Joining the ICC would also encourage nations torecognize that crimes are no longer confined tospecific borders and that the notion ofterritoriality provides a dangerously limited viewof the scope of crimes today; ratifying the RomeStatute would force nations to recognize that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The ICC has jurisdiction to defy unwillinggovernments and is still a step towards globalenforcement of rights, even if it does notcompletely solve the problem. The ICC can havejurisdiction over criminals whose states refuse toprosecute them (provided certain conditions aremet), meaning that they can issue warrants forthose who come from or lead countries that willnot comply with the ICC. Moreover, the ICCcentralizes prosecution efforts under one court,making possible prosecution much more efficientand likely and increasing whatever originalchance there was of prosecuting theleader. Even if the ICC does have trouble fullyenforcing its decisions, it is still a step towardsthe idea of \"collective enforcement,\" whichentails states agreeing upon and followinginternational norms by incorporating them intodomestic law and promoting their enforcement.Ratification of the Rome Statute represents acommitment by national governments to assistthe ICC with prosecution efforts.1 1 Mayerfeld,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "To date, the ICC has empirically only issuedwarrants against leaders that nations havealmost universally agreed upon committedheinous crimes. The existence of the ICC wouldonly deter actions that are so atrocious, theywould be comparable to the ones committed bythose the ICC is currently pursuing. Countriesthat refuse to prosecute its own individualsshould submit to the court to ensure that there isa baseline standard for rights protection, even intimes of war. Otherwise, these crimes gounexposed and unpunished – for example, therehas been very little discussion about certain USactions because certain presidentialadministrations have been adamant aboutprioritizing national interest over globalstandards of rights. US attacks on apharmaceutical plant in Sudan, US invasion ofPanama in 1989, US choice of targets inAfghanistan in 2001, and other actions havebeen left unexamined because of the lack of athird party with the consent to regulate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC does not have enough checks onprosecutorial powers, inviting prosecutorialabuse. The issues the ICC deals with areinherently subjective, as there is cleardisagreement about what counts as a war crimeor what the exact definition of genocide is. Thisleaves dangerous room for the prosecutor tosimply decide what he thinks counts as a crimeunder the statute. Under the Rome Statute, theprosecutor has the power to both initiate aninvestigation based on reasonable evidence (ofwhich there are no clear standards for outlined inthe Rome Statute) and refuse to follow up on aninvestigation in the name of \"justice.\" There areno clear higher checks on the prosecutor, puttingtoo much power in the hands of one singleindividual. Additionally, there is very limitedjudicial review, as the pre-trial chamber iscomposed of 1 or 3 judges, and the prosecutor isable to find a judge who is sympathetic to hisviews.1 1 Rubin, Alfred P. \"The InternationalCriminal Court: Possibilities for Prosecutorial", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC infringes upon national sovereignty byinherently implying that there is a higher courtnations must answer to. The ICC forces nationsto accept that there is a binding power thatoverrides national law, undermining thegovernment. John Bolton, former USambassador to the United Nations, explains:\"The ICC's failing stems from its purportedauthority to operate outside (and on a planesuperior to) the U.S. Constitution, and thereby toinhibit the full constitutional autonomy of allthree branches of the U.S. government, andindeed, of all states party to the statute. ICCadvocates rarely assert publicly that this result iscentral to their stated goals, but it must be forthe court and prosecutor to be completelyeffective.\"1 More specifically, Article 12 of theRome Statute entails that the ICC's jurisdictionapplies to all individuals, even of states that havenot ratified the treaty. Governments cannotunconditionally bind its citizens to laws that areinflexible and contrary to the idea of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC is not democratic in nature and is likelyto be used as a political tool by powerfulnations. Parts of the Rome Statue, such as theclauses relating to the Security Council, make itseem like a tool that will be used by thepolitically powerful. The Security Council has thepower to refer cases to the prosecutor. Article 16of the Rome Statute declares that the SecurityCouncil may postpone investigation andprosecution for 12 months if it decides, and mayinfinitely renew this delay, giving it final say onwhat gets tried and what doesn't. The ICC is nota truly independent judiciary and gives certainnations more power than others, making it anunfair and unjust court that does not treat itsmembers equally.1 1 Teitelbaum, Alejandro.\"Statute of the International Criminal Court: ACritique.\" Social Justice, Vol. 26 No. 4, Winter1999, 107-114.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC has no real enforcement mechanism andcannot be a force for good if it has no way ofensuring prosecution. The court has no obviousenforcement mechanism, as it ultimately relieson states to take action in finding and turningover criminals. Although it can issue searchwarrants and declare that governments are notdoing enough to prosecute criminals, that doesnot translate into real-world change that getscloser to punishing criminals. There is no reasonfor nations to submit to a court with noenforcement mechanism while simultaneouslyexposing themselves to a variety of risks asoutlined in other arguments.1 For example, Chadis a party of the ICC but welcomed SudanesePresident Omar al-Bashir in July 2010. AlthoughChad was technically obligated to arrest him,there was no arrest made and Chad's presidentIdriss Deby welcomed Bashir with open arms,clearly demonstrating the ICC's lack ofenforcement powers.2 1 Nanda, Ved P. \"TheEstablishment of a Permanent International", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con05b", "title": "", "text": "The ICC does not infringe upon nationalsovereignty because it only has jurisdiction if thenational justice system is either ineffective orunable to prosecute the criminal. National courtsstill have the responsibility and ability toprosecute their own criminals, and the ICC isonly meant to be used as a last resort in casethese national measures fail; there is nocontradiction between the two.1 Sovereigntyonly exists if the state has internal control, andthe ICC will only have jurisdiction in cases wherethe national justice system has proven that forsome reason, it will not prosecute thecriminal. 1 Nanda, Ved P. \"The Establishment ofa Permanent International Criminal Court:Challenges Ahead.\" Human Rights Quarterly, Vol.20 No. 2, May 1998, 413-428.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The ICC interferes with national operations (bothmilitary and humanitarian) because of howloosely the Rome Statue can be interpreted. Alarge issue with the ICC is that it subjectsmember states to definitions that can beinterpreted in a number of ways. For example,University of Chicago law professor JackGoldsmith explains that the ICC has jurisdictionover “a military strike that causes incidentalcivilian injury (or damage to civilian objects)‘clearly excessive in relation to the concrete anddirect overall military advantage anticipated.’Such proportionality judgments are almostalways contested.” [i] First, nations have a firstand foremost obligation to protect their owncitizens, but states’ ability to fulfill this dutywould be hindered by the threat of ICCprosecution. Certain nations face asymmetricalwarfare – for example, the US routinely fightscombatants who use innocent human shields,soldiers disguised as civilians, hostage-takers,etc. When put in context, the US has had to take", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The ICC is an independent court with enoughchecks that only pursues the most heinouscriminals. The ICC was designed to pursue the\"future Pol Pots, Saddam Husseins, andMilosevics who terrorize civilians on a massivescale.\" The fear of politically motivatedprosecutions has yet to come true; the currentwarrants have been issued for only the gravestviolators of rights on a widespread scale. Even ifthe Security Council has certain extra controls,the court is still ultimately fair in its actualprocedure with its prosecutor, judges, etc.1Additionally, there are numerous checks in theRome Statute, as outlined in the first propositioncounterargument. 1 Kirsch, Philippe. \"TheInternational Criminal Court: Current Issues andPerspectives.\" Law and Contemporary Problems,Vol. 64 No. 1, Winter 2001, 3-11.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-hrilhbiccfg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "There are numerous checks that limit the powerof the prosecutor and regulate the ICC'soperations. There are numerous checks outlinedin the Rome Statute that limit the power of theprosecutor, eliminating any concerns of abuse.For example, Article 7 clearly defines what acrime against humanity is, and other types ofcrimes are extensively defined in the statute.Second, the ICC is allowed to step in only if thenational government fails to prosecute criminals,meaning that it will never have to step in andexercise its power as long as countries are doingtheir jobs domestically, checking its jurisdiction.Third, there are multiple chambers that checkeach other; for example, the pre-trial chambermakes sure that the prosecutor has enoughevidence before proceeding. Fourth, there are 18judges from differing impartial backgrounds,ultimately making the ICC objective. Otherchecks can be found upon closer examination ofthe Rome Statute.1 Moreover, empirically, theprosecutor has not excessively punished any", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Not only is intelligence often badly flawed,internment simply doesn't work as a strategy tocombat terrorism 1. Instead it iscounter-productive, because it makes martyrs ofthe individuals and groups who are beingdetained. The experience of Northern Irelandwas that internment acted as a \"recruitingsergeant\" for the IRA, radicalising manydetainees without previous terrorist contacts,and rallying supporters to their cause inresponse to the perceived injustice. Similarresponses can be seen to Guantanamo Bay todayin the Muslim world. Moreover, the confidence ofordinary citizens in their governments isundermined by such harsh measures, reducingtheir support for the overall \"war effort\". Indeed,if we compromise aspects of our free and opensocieties in response to pressure, then theterrorists who hate our values are winning. 1.Nossel, S. (2005, June 12). 10 Reasons to CloseGuantanamo. Retrieved May 12, 2011, fromDemocracy Arsenal .", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The protection of intelligence sources is moreimportant than trying suspects. At a time whenour society is under threat, it is more importantto protect our intelligence sources than it is to tryand punish individual terrorists. Even whenstrong proof exists, charging and trying terrorsuspects in open court would requiregovernments to reveal their intelligence sources.This would risk the identification of their spies inforeign countries and within dangerousorganisations. Not only might this lead to themurder of brave agents, it would also shut offcrucial intelligence channels that could warn usof future attacks 1. For example, the head ofpolice in Northern Ireland has admitted ‘if peoplewere not confident their identities would beprotected they would not come forward’ 2. In adeal with the devil, the intelligence procured ismore important and saves more lives than theviolation of one’s right to a fair trial. Even ifspecial arrangements were made to presentintelligence evidence in court, hostile", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Governments clearly have powers to protectcitizens from harm, but there is a limit to thatextension of power. It is a limit that does notinclude the undermining of the very values thestate is built upon, restricted executive power.Captured enemy combatants are not comparableto those captured during World War II, for theformer were arrested for the perceived threatthey caused, whilst the latter were captured andinterned for a tangible, real threat 1. Soldiers areimplicitly guilty when captured, enemycombatants who have yet to commit a crime canreasonably claim their innocence and deserve afair trial. Furthermore, there is little evidence tosuggest that internment without trial is a meansto protection; the period of internment only stirsup sentiment that can be directed against thecaptors once eventually released. It may be thecase that the safest way of protecting civilians isin fact to offer suspects a fair trial and, if foundinnocent, rendered back to where they werefound. The existence of a strong, impartial legal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Tribunals are adequate replacements thatmaintain respect for detainees' rights. Thedenial of normal legal processes does notautomatically confer the absence of legalprocesses altogether. Though a normal publictrial is not possible for security reasons,detainees' rights are still respected during theinternment process. Safeguards are built into theinternment process so that each case can beconsidered fairly, with the suspect representedbefore a proper tribunal and given a right toappeal to a higher authority. At GuantanamoBay, President G. W. Bush introduced militarytribunals made up of five U.S. armed forceofficers and presided over by qualified militaryjudges to handle the legal ambiguities ofsuspects held in the facility 1 . The accused stillhave the presumption of innocence and proof ofguilt has to be beyond that of a reasonable doubt2. If such a trial is provided (often to standardsof evidence and procedure higher than in normalcourts in many countries around the world) and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Tribunals do not respect detainees’ rights, but infact require the undermining of those rights.Regardless of the procedures with whichinternment is dressed up by embarrassedauthorities, it is open to abuse because trials aresecret with the executive essentially scrutinisingitself. Often there is not a free choice of lawyerto represent the suspect (detainees before USMilitary Commissions can only choose lawyersapproved by the executive). Trials are held insecret with crucial evidence frequently withheldfrom the accused and his defence team, or givenanonymously with no opportunity to examinewitnesses properly. Appeals are typically to theexecutive (which chose to prosecute them),rather than to an independent judicial body. Insuch circumstances prejudice and convenienceare likely to prevent justice being done.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Governments must have powers to protectcitizens from harm. Governments must havepowers to protect their citizens against threats tothe life of the nation. This is not merely todirectly protect citizens from political violence,but also because political violence ‘handicaps theprocess of reconstruction’ 1 in nation-buildingefforts. Everyone would recognise that rules thatare applied in peacetime may not be appropriateduring wartime. Captured enemy combatants,for example, should not expect to be triedindividually in civilian courts; it is essentialhowever that they be held securely until they nolonger pose a threat or an appropriate legalprocess can be established to assess their case.The war on terror is in this respect a war likeearlier, more conventional conflicts wherebycaptured combatants are held until theconclusion of conflicts. No-one captured onD-Day expected to be granted a trial in a civiliancourt to establish their guilt. Just because ourenemies do not wear uniforms or conform to a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The war on terror is not like past, conventionalconflicts but that does not prevent itsclassification as an armed conflict; soldiers arestill dying in fire-fights, territory is still beingfought over and the threat to homeland securityis very real and visceral. According to the Bushadministration, the war on terror represents anew ‘paradigm of war’, whereby the civiliansdirectly engaged in hostilities, ‘enemycombatants’, are not permitted to enjoy theprivileges of international humanitarian law.Prisoner of war status is ‘reserved (for) membersof the armed forces of a party to an internationalarmed conflict…who must distinguish themselvesfrom the civilian population in order to beentitled to POW status upon capture’ 1.Regarding the ICCPR, it has a specific derogationclause that states ‘in times of public emergency’,the states may excuse themselves from the strictprovisions of the covenant. This would, in thecontext of threats to the safety of civilians,permit states to intern without trial enemy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Internment without trial does not justify the badbehaviour of other states, for it is justifiableunder norms of international law. For example,the measures taken by the UK government todetain foreign nationals identified by intelligenceas a serious threat to Britain are justified byconflicting priorities. In normal circumstancessuch people would be deported to their homecountries, but asylum rules prevent the forceddeportation of people to countries which mightpersecute them. Those detained in the UK are infact free to leave if they can find a country totake them 1. Those who cannot are in effectchoosing to remain in detention here. Ratherthan removing completely the government'spower to deport foreign nationals who pose athreat, this is the best solution from a humanrights point of view. 1 Kelly, D. (2010, February20). UK Border Agency response on 'migrantdetainees'. Retrieved May 12, 2011 fromImmigration Matters", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Internment without trial exacerbates theantagonism of enemies and subsequent risk tocivilians. To intern without trial, for prolongedperiods, the believed enemies of a state is tooffer them and their supporters added reason tobe antagonistic. In Northern Ireland, “violencesoared following the introduction of internmentand the British government imposed ‘direct rule’”1. Moreover, Guantanamo Bay, the centralsymbol of the growth of executive power inUnited States’ war on terror, has been describedby Dennis Blair, Director of National Intelligence,as ‘a rallying cry for terrorist recruitment andharmful to our national security’ 2. ArmandoSpataro, a senior Italian prosecutor, hasremarked ‘Muslims around the world are askingwhy there is so little international opposition tothe U.S. policy of internment without trial. Thecollateral damage of Guantanamo is incalculable’3. It appears difficult to argue that the extensionof executive power in the war on terror has hadany effect on the security of innocent civilians", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Internment without trial undermines democraticvalues. Rights are needed to protect the few aswell as the many, otherwise there would be noneed for them in a democracy. Indefinitedetention and lack of a normal public trialundermine the key values of habeas corpus andthe presumption of innocence. The FifthAmendment of the U.S. Constitution enshrinesthe principle that ‘no person shall be deprived ofhis liberty without due process’1. As such,suspects should be tried if there is evidence,deported if they are foreign nationals, but mostimportantly released if a proper case cannot bemade against them. Internment in NorthernIreland was also said to be aimed only at a tinyminority, but thousands passed through the LongKesh detention camp in the four years itoperated. Similarly, the internment ofJapanese-Americans from 1942 onwards led to abelief in the post-war environment that theywere ‘radically predisposed to acts of disloyalty’1undermining the democratic values of inclusion", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Internment without trial fails to make societysafer. Giving the government the power todetain suspects without due process of law willnot in fact make society any safer. Theproposition's arguments rely upon the accuracyof secret intelligence, which supposedly identifiesindividuals planning terrorist acts, but whichcannot be revealed in open court. Past examplessuggest that such intelligence is often deeplyflawed. For example, when internment wasintroduced in Northern Ireland in 1971 over 100of the 340 original detainees were releasedwithin two days when it was realised much of theSpecial Branch intelligence that had been used toidentify them was incorrect 1. Recent intelligencefailures in the campaign against Al-Qaeda pointto the difficulties western intelligence serviceshave in penetrating and understandingnon-white groups, while intelligence on Iraq'sweapons programmes was also clearly flawed.So not only will many of the wrong people beunjustly locked up, many dangerous ones will be", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The war on terror is not an armed conflict, andtherefore internment without trial is illegal. Thewar on terror is not like past, conventionalconflicts, and the government should not be ableto take wartime powers simply on its owndeclaration. The terrorist attacks of September11 2001 were horrific, but they did not threatenthe entire life of the American nation - theeconomy has rebounded surprisingly quickly andno one believes that even a successful attack onthe White House or Congress would have endedAmerican democracy. Separate from warfaretherefore, interment without trial is clearly illegal– as the International Covenant on Civil andPolitical Rights states, ‘everyone has the right toliberty and security of the person. No one shallbe subjected to arbitrary arrest or detention’1. Ifit can be agreed upon that human rights areuniversal, internment without trial outside of theprotocols on warfare is illegal. Furthermore, thewar on terror is not winnable - there is no likelyendpoint at which we will be able to declare an", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con05b", "title": "", "text": "Internment without trial does not undermineeither democracy or its values. Tough measuresare aimed only at very few suspects; only 11 arecurrently detained in Britain, only a few hundredat Guantanamo Bay. Exceptional circumstancescall for special measures, but these are solimited in scope that they do not threaten ourdemocratic values. Similarly, until the cessationof hostilities, the suspension of habeus corpus for‘enemy combatants’ is not unlike the holding ofprisoners of war until an armistice, whereby it isnot legally necessary to provide recourse tojudicial process. As Dick Cheney notes, ‘inprevious wars we’ve always exercised the rightto capture the enemy and then hold them untilthe end of the conflict. The same principle oughtto apply here’ 1. 1. Trott, B. (2008, December15). Don't Close Guantanamo until terror warends: Cheney. Retrieved May 12, 2011, fromReuters:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Internment without trial encourages the badbehaviour of other states. Compromising ourusual high standards of human rights encouragesbad behaviour by other countries. Governmentswith less concern for rights are reassured by theapparent failure of liberal democracy to addressa terrorist threat, and feel justified in tighteningup their own measures against individuals andgroups perceived as a threat. Westerngovernments, meanwhile, lose their moral abilityto criticise abuses elsewhere. Overall, the causeof freedom suffers everywhere. This can be seenclearly in the actions of governments around theworld since September 11 2001, where existingrepressive measures have been justified in newways as part of the war on terror, or new onesintroduced in apparent response to it. India, forexample, has been using repressive measures inKashmir for twenty years, however it stillexploited the war on terror as a pretext forinternational support for its latest crackdowns1. 1. Shingavi, S. (2010, July 14). India's new", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con04b", "title": "", "text": "It is essential to reach an appropriate balance ofrights and freedoms. Everyone recognises theimportance of protecting rights and liberties, butthis cannot be done at any cost. There is a widerduty on politicians to protect society from harm,and their voters will rightly hold them to accountif they fail in this responsibility. As the UK'sHome Secretary, David Blunkett has written:\"How best to protect ourselves effectively whilemaintaining the maximum freedoms is one of thebiggest issues facing all democratic governmentsin the aftermath of September 11… I am willingto take whatever critics may throw at me, aslong as history does not judge that our Labourgovernment failed to do its best to protect usagainst those who would destroy our lives andour democracy.1\" 1. Blunkett, D. (2001,November 20). This is not internment. RetrievedMay 12, 2011, from Guardian:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-law-lghrilthwdt-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The period of internment, however long, doesnot serve to exacerbate antagonisms inherent inadversaries. If anything, the period of reflectionacts as a punitive measure designed to force thesuspect to weigh up his choices and potentiallydisavow his beliefs. If innocent, they maydevelop antagonisms towards their captors, butthat does not automatically place them in thethroes of their suspected associates.Furthermore, even if this were true, theantagonism held towards their captors would notbe permitted to lead to further violence for theywould be interned until the conclusion of the war.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "When homework does take up time in class it ishelpful for learning. And when it does not then itdoes not harm the classwork. Homework aidsclasswork by providing a space for those whohave not finished the work to catch up and byhelping us to remember what we did in class.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Homework takes up class time Homework doesnot only take up time doing the homework athome but also takes up time in class. First thereis the time that the teacher takes whenexplaining the task. Then more time is takengoing through the homework when it is done andmarked. This time could be better spentengaging with the class to find out what they doand don’t understand. The answer to this is tohave more time in class rather than boringhomework.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Teachers will need to mark and go through workwhether it is classwork or homework. It is betterthat the teacher should spend their time in classteaching so leaving practising the methodstaught to homework.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "When out of school we should have time toourselves Time is valuable. We all need sometime to ourselves. School already takes up a lotof time and it is necessary to have time whichdoes not involve concentrating on learning.Education is not the only important activity ineveryone’s day; physical activity, play, and timewith family are just as important as all teach lifeskills just in different ways. The internet makes itpossible to be learning at home, there are evenmany computer games that help with learning.Homework clashes with these other activities. Itcan damage family relationships as it meansparents have to try and make their children dotheir homework.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "We should expect to get a certain amount ofhomework per day and build other activitiesaround the homework. Homework can be auseful part of time with family as it provides achance for parents and other relatives to takepart in schooling.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Whether homework puts us off learning willalways depend on what the homework we aregiven is. Tasks that involve no interaction, or arenot engaging will discourage learning. Buthomework could also mean reading aninteresting book, having to find something out,create something, or doing a task with family.Homework can be as varied as classwork andjust as interesting.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Homework wastes teachers time We are not theonly ones who take a lot of time on homework,our teachers do as well. The teacher needs todesign the homework, explain it, mark eachpiece individually, and tell everyone what theygot right and wrong. If all this is not done thenthe homework loses its value as we need to betold individually what our mistakes are to be ableto learn from homework. Teachers could aseasily use the classwork to find out who knowswhat they are doing and who are makingmistakes and it would save them time.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Homework puts students off learning Especiallyif we get too much homework it can take theenjoyment out of learning. No matter howengaging the teacher is in class homework willalmost certainly be stressful, boring and tiring. Itis simply much harder to make homeworkengaging and interesting as it is often done onour own. We know that there is no direct linkbetween how much homework is set and grades.Studies done on this come to differentconclusions so teachers should only sethomework when they are sure it is needed.When we only get homework occasionally we willconsider that piece more important and a betteruse of time.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Teachers should not set classwork expecting thatthe class will have to finish that classwork ashomework. Students who are falling behindshould receive more attention from the teacherduring class to make sure that all the membersof the class can move at the same speed.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Most homework is simply fulfilling a task that hasalready been explained so not truly teaching youto work on your own. Working on your ownmeans setting your own targets, and working outhow to overcome obstacles.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Doing our homework means we are takingresponsibility for ourselves We are the ones whogain from learning so we should takeresponsibility for some of our own learning. Wecan take responsibility by doing homework.When we don’t do our homework we are theones who suffer; we don’t get good marks anddon’t learn as much. We also lose out in otherways as taking responsibility means learning howto manage our time and how to do the thingsthat are most important first rather than thethings we most enjoy like playing. Homeworkthen does not waste time; it is part of managingit.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Homework makes sure we remember what wehave learnt One way we learn is by repetition,another is by doing things, when doinghomework we learn in both of these ways. Whenwe are taught a method at school, such as howto do a type of sum, then we need to practiceusing that method to make sure we know how toso that we can remember it. If we just learn themethod and don’t practice it we will soon forgethow we do it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Homework is needed to finish classwork. Weshould think of homework as being acontinuation of our classwork. Not everyone inthe class works at the same rate so it isnecessary for teachers to give anyone who isfalling behind the chance to catch up. If this wasdone in class those who are faster would havenothing to do during this time, which would be areal waste of time. Homework then allows thosewho are behind to take as long as they need tocatch up with the rest of the class.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Homework teaches us to learn on our own Themain aim of education is to prepare us for therest of lives. Homework is teaching us a key skillthat we will need in the future. When we dohomework we are learning to work on our own,the discipline to get the work done without theteacher’s prompting, and when we come upagainst difficulties we learn how to overcomethem without our teacher’s help. Millions ofpeople work for themselves (self-employed), orwork from home, they are using exactly thesame skills doing homework teaches us. This isnot a waste of time.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-con04b", "title": "", "text": "We don’t spend all of class time learning newmethods so there should be time in class topractice any new method that is taught. Oncesome repetition has been done in class howmuch more do we really need at home? If wehave not successfully learnt the method in theclass then we will be simply repeating themistake.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-egpsthwtj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The same kind of responsibility is given to us nomatter the kind of work. When given classworkwe are responsible for completing it rather thanplaying around. The only difference at home isthat it is our parents telling us to work not ourteachers.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "We recognise that not everyone should do everysubject, but for practical reasons we have to askthem to give it a try up to a certain level. Apartfrom anything else, this is the most reliable wayto tell whether or not the subject is right forthem – how can you know that if you haven’tever tried it? There are many different ways toset this level, and we feel that the currentstandard is the minimum which will give childrena realistic idea of what the subject is like.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Some people find maths hard It is afundamental principle of education that differentpeople think in different ways. One notableapplication of this is the theory of differentlearning styles, and it also makes people have apreference for certain subjects. [1] Many peoplefind maths hard, 37% of teens think it is themost difficult subject, for a variety of reasons – itsimply isn’t suited to all minds. [2] Anotherfundamental principle is that all children areequal, in the sense that we should support themequally in helping them find the rightopportunities. It follows that we should teachthem something useful and relevant to theirpersonality and preferences. But whatever thatmay turn out to be, it will not be maths, andmaths would just waste their time. It makessense to teach arithmetic to even these people,but there is no need to make them studyfurther. [1] Cherry, Kendra, ‘VARK LearningStyles’, About.com, accessed 12 June 2013 [2]Saad, Lydia, ‘Math Problematic for U.S. Teens’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is undeniable that education is a trade-offbetween different subjects. However, we contendthat maths is one which we want to protect. It isa fundamental subject which is of use in manyothers, as well as teaching children how to thinkabout problems. (Debating lessons are a greatidea, but should replace something else, likeArt.) Teaching maths as part of science justwastes time, as all different science subjectsneed the same maths. All this will do is add tothe burden on teachers, as they will have tocoordinate with each other to make sure theclass has covered the right maths for that pointin the course. Moreover, this will never be aseffective as having a whole class for maths.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Maths is not engaging for students Maths is oneof the least engaging subjects taught at school.Subjects like chemistry are full of flashes, firesand experiments which help people see whatthey’re being taught in front of them. Historystarts with telling stories, and even though that’snot what the subject is really about, it offers awindow into it. By contrast, maths has almostnothing similar. Asking children to usetrigonometry to find the height of a tree does notfool them – all they see is another triangle. Somepeople enjoy it, but many do not. Forcing peoplethrough maths classes which they find boringand irrelevant will only put them off maths; arecent study found that motivation was the mostimportant factor for improving maths grades. [1]This in turn makes their children less likely tostudy maths, and causes a cycle in which a largesection of the population have as little to do withmaths as they can. [2] It would be much betterto not make these people study maths. True,they would end up not knowing any more than", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There are several problems with using“engagement” as a way to measure whether ornot a subject should be taught. Firstly, there isno way to tell whether students are boredbecause the subject is boring, whether they’rebored because they are lazy, or whether it issimply how it is taught. If we always taughtchildren what they wanted to be doing, everywarm, summer afternoon would be PE. Thatwon’t give them the best education. Secondly,we disagree with the final line. The point of theeducation system is not to entertain people, it’sto educate them. We do this by exposing them todifferent subjects enough for them to have a realidea what they’re about. Only this way will theybe able to figure out whether or not they likeit. Finally, maths, more than any other subject,requires you to be really good at the boring andtedious bits (like algebra) before you can evenbegin the more interesting bits (like NumberTheory and Multivariable Analysis). Measuringmaths (or indeed any other subject) for how", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "If we don’t teach maths we can teach otherthings instead Schools are constantly pressedfor time, money and staff. It is simply notpossible to teach everything to everyone. Thismeans that all of education is a balancing act.We try and isolate the most important parts of asubject and teach children what they need toknow, but first, we have to isolate which subjectsare important. So, for example, we teach Historyrather than Philosophy and Physics rather thanAstronomy. Everything we teach therefore comesat the expense of not teaching something elseand there are already some countries thatchoose other priorities; France for exampleprioritises Philosophy. [1] Taking time awayfrom maths has two advantages. Firstly, meanswe can teach other subjects instead, which willbe more useful, such as dedicated classes onwriting (or debating). Secondly, we can spendlonger on those subjects which we already teach,making them better. As a bonus, we could evenuse this time to extend science lessons to include", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Children should not be given power over theireducation, but it doesn’t follow that theiropinions are of no consequence. We should verymuch care what they do and don’t enjoy. Firstly,if they don’t enjoy their schooling they won’t putany effort into it and will not actually learnanything. Secondly, if they feel we are makingthem do things they don’t want to do we will losethe ability to give them sensiblesuggestions. We might think they ought to learnmaths, but forcing them to do it will cause moreharm than good.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Many children find science interesting, 12%consider it their favourite subject, and willchoose it when given an option. [1] Thesechildren will be happy to take maths lessonseven if they’re not compulsory. The only oneswho won’t take them will be the ones who haveno interest in science in any case, for whomthere is no benefit for doing maths. It’s alsoworth pointing out that this argument seeks tomatch the educational system to the desires ofcompanies. We feel this is wrong: it should bedesigned with the interests of the children inmind. That means giving them the opportunity tochoose maths and science, but not necessarilyforcing it on them. [1] Kiefer, Heather Mason,‘Math = Teens’ Favorite School Subject’, Gallup,15 June 2004,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Maths teaches a kind of logic which is useful forother things Most subjects are taught not justfor the knowledge itself, but for the skills thesubject requires. Schools don’t teach EnglishLiterature because they want children to know afew poems. They teach it to encourage childrento think about how people’s perceptions havechanged over time, how two authors can see thesame thing differently, and the way choices oflanguage can reveal the answers. Similarly,maths lessons show you a way of looking at aproblem: what am I being asked? Whatinformation am I given? Is this similar to otherproblems I already know? Do those methodsapply here? This is a general technique which isvaluable for students to learn. Looking ateducation this way makes it clear that, in fact,almost no subjects are studied for themselves.We use them as vehicles to teach childrencertain things. That being the case, whethermaths is “practical” or “interesting” makes nodifference: we should teach it anyway.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Children should not be the arbiters of theeducation system To avoid teaching maths tochildren just because they don’t like the subjectwould be to shape the education system aroundadolescent whims. But children are not bestplaced to put a value on their education. Theydon’t know what knowledge is required for lifeand what skills are required for a career. Theyare likely to choose arbitrarily, influencedperhaps by which teachers are most strict, whichsubject they happen to be good at and whatmood they’re in. It is for this reason that wedon’t recognise children as being fully capable ofmaking decisions about their education.Consequences of this include a government-fixedcurriculum. Adults know the value of maths: onepoll in America found that 34% of people namedit as the most valuable subject they had studiedat school. [1] We think children should belearning maths, and it follows that they will haveto do it, like it or not. [1] Robison, Jennifer,‘Math Tops List of Most Valuable Subjects’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Maths is an important subject Every singlescience subject relies on maths. The whole ofphysics consists of using maths to model theworld. At a basic level, this means drawingdiagrams of forces, and at an advanced level itmeans writing down the gauge group whichdescribes electroweak interaction, but it’s allmaths. Even subjects like psychology, which arenot normally seen as mathematical, would belost without advanced statistics to decidewhether a result is significant or not. Maths is asimportant to science as reading is to subjects likehistory and politics. Making maths optional willmean some students don’t bother doing it. Thesechildren will find that science is closed to them. Ifwe want to have a strong science sector – inboth industry and research – as governmentskeep claiming we do [1] it is important to makesure we have people who are qualified. Thatmeans giving children the educationalbackground required for them to pursue scienceshould they wish to: maths. [1] Osborne,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthbmsnbcs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "At the very least, for this argument to be trueyou would have to rewrite the syllabus to focuson problem-solving rather than knowledge. Buteven then, there is no compelling reason forhaving this particular way of teaching skills, andlittle reason why other subjects should not beteaching the same kinds of questions. Given thatit is hard, not related to the real world andgenerally unpopular, we should drop it. Instead,design other classes, with “being engaging”specifically in mind. This will do a better job.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Parents have a right to act on behalf of theirchildren. It is the right of parents to makedecisions on behalf of their children. It is not therole of the state to intervene in the raising of achild except in exceptional circumstances and theopposition do not accept that raising a childreligiously constitutes exceptional circumstances.It is not the role of the state, therefore, tointervene by banning faith schools simply toensure that children are not educated tooreligiously.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "State has a responsibility to protect and educateits citizens. The state should not allow theeducation of a child to be polluted by what istantamount to brainwashing. Amartya Senargues “Under this system, young children areplaced in the domain of singular affiliations wellbefore they have the ability to reason aboutdifferent systems of identification that maycompete for their attention.” [1] Instead theyhave to learn about all religions to encouragetolerance. It is totally acceptable for children tohave religious education outside of school and tobrought to places of worship but school is a placeof education and they should be given aneducation that is not tainted by trying to ensurethat they grow up with a certain attitude towardstheir religion. [2] [1] Jeffries, Stuart, “To abolishonly non-Christian faith schools would be takenas an affront. The answer is that they all have togo”, The Guardian, 28 July 2006, [2]MacMullen, Ian. “Faith in Schools?: Autonomy,Citizenship and Religious Education in the Liberal", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Faith schools create a sense of community. Thisentire argument is based upon the fact that faithschools create a close sense of community withinthe school themselves. The opposition does notaccept that this is harm and firmly believes thatanything that creates a close sense ofcommunity is a force for good as it creates moreaccountability for actions within the communityand a better support system in the case ofanything going wrong. [1] [1] “The Churchesand Collective Worship in Schools.” The CatholicEducation Service. 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Creates animosity towards religious groups Faithschools continuously perform better than normalschools. This creates a feeling amongst parentsand children of wanting to be included in thesefaith schools. They are, however, excluded onthe basis of their religion. This will create feelingsof unfair exclusion, which will lead to animositytowards the religion running the school and, byextension, people of that religion. [1] As a resultof this 64% of people in the UK believe thatthere should be no state funding for faithschools. [2] It would be easy to convert faithschools to normal schools. The majority of faithschools are already tied closely to the stateeducation system making it easy to convert theminto normal schools which are not faith based.Much of the curriculum is the same or verysimilar so the change would not be difficult forteachers. In England for example there 6783faith schools that are also state schools and 47that are academies. [1] These schools wouldsimply change to having the same systems as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Undermines separation of religion and thestate. Since education is something that thestate is obligated to provide, any organisationthat provides education is a representative of thestate, even in private education. If religiousgroups are allowed to run schools then thismeans they are acting on behalf of the state,which undermines the separation of religion andthe state, which the proposition believes isinherently harmful and undermining to theconcept of democracy. [1] Even the Archbishopof Canterbury believes having greater separationof church and state would be beneficial arguing\"I think that the notion of the monarch assupreme governor has outlived its usefulness.”[2] This separation has to include the educationof children. [1] Gay, Kathlyn. “Church andState.” Millbrook Press. 1992. [2] Butt, Riazat,‘Church and state could separate in UK, saysArchbishop of Canterbury’, The Guardian, 17December 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Running a school is not equivalent to running thecountry. The opposition does not accept thatfaith schools undermine the separation ofreligion and state. The religious groups runningthe school do not, as a result of running theschool, have an opportunity to decide on thenational curriculum or, for that matter, any otheraspect of running the country. The idea that faithschools undermine democracy is ridiculous andunfounded.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "To be encouraged not banned. The idea ofclosing down schools because they areperforming better than other schools seemsridiculous. Rather than banning faith schools soall schools are on an even, but lower, playingfield, a logical course of action would be to tryand determine exactly what it was about faithschools that made them perform so well andattempt to emulate that in ordinary schools toimprove their performance. It may be possibleto convert the schools but they would loose theirethos. Without these schools religious ethos theirstandards would slip and the students would beworse off.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Insulting to religion. This legislation is not simplya message to organised religion telling them thatthey are not a higher authority than the state; itis a message saying that the state does notbelieve they are capable of running schools. Thisserves only to worsen the state’s alreadyfractured relationship with organised religion andcause severe problems in dealing with largereligious groups, who undeniably have a lot ofpower and influence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Faith schools are inherently divisive. At the ageat which children are sent to faith schools, theyare too young to have decided their religion forthemselves, and so, their parents must havedecided it for them. The proposition accepts thatparents have a right to decide a child’s religionon its behalf but this means that faith schoolsend up segregating children based on the faiththat they inherit. School should be aboutbringing children together not segregating them.In the UK the government allows faith schools toask for confirmation of attendance at a relevantplace of worship [1] which is inherentlydiscriminatory and divisive. Proposition believesthat separating children based on what familiesthey are born into creates communities whichfind it difficult to associate with people fromoutside their community and therefore causemassive divisions in society based on whatreligion people were born into. [2] [1]Directgov, “Applying for a school place:admissions criteria”, direct.gov.uk, [2] “The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Shows that religion is not a higher authority thanthe state. When the government allows religionto act on its behalf, it confuses the role of thestate and the role of religious groups. As itstands, religious groups do not appear to be trulyanswerable to the state and, therefore, it isunclear whether they or the government are thehigher authority. [1] For example in the UK faithschools set their own admission standards andincreasingly have control over their curriculum,which in other state funded schools is set by thegovernment, as well as they are being convertedto academies. [2] This legislation would make itcompletely clear that the state is the ultimateauthority. [1] Dawkins, Richard. “Faith SchoolMenace.” Channel 4. 2010. [2] Paton, Graeme,‘Faith schools 'get more freedom over curriculumand admissions'’, The Telegraph, 7 May 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Shows submission to religion. As explainedabove, the proposition believes that allowingorganised religion to act on behalf of the stateindicates that organised religions have as muchauthority as the state. It is important thatreligious people recognise that they areanswerable to the state before they areanswerable to religion. Showing that religion isbelow the state, therefore, is actually a positivestep.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "This is not the government’s responsibility. Thegovernment does not have a responsibility toeducate a child within the exact parameters thattheir parents dictate. If this were true, then eachindividual set of parents would be allowed to pickand choose what parts of the national curriculumthey wished their child to learn.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Relationship with organised religion. Passing thislegislation with be sending a signal to thereligious groups that are running faith schoolsthat we do not think they are capable of runningschools. The state’s relationship with organisedreligion is already a fractured one. Thislegislation would cause a lot of tension betweenthe government and religious communities withinthe country, as well as between the state andstates which hold religion more highly. [1] [1]Gay, Kathlyn. “Church and State.” MillbrookPress. 1992.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Faith schools can be necessary for a religiousupbringing. Sometimes faith schools arenecessary for children to get a full picture of thereligion that they have been born into,particularly religions, like Islam, that are basedmainly in societies unlike our own and far awayfrom our countries. In these cases, banning faithschools is tantamount to preventing parents frombringing their children up in the faith they wantthem brought up in. The opposition believes thatthis legislation is, therefore, equivalent todepriving people of religion. [1] [1] Glenn,Charles L. “The Ambiguous Embrace:Government and Faith-based Schools and SocialAgencies.” Princeton University Press. 2002.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Faith schools perform better than ordinaryschools. Faith schools consistently performbetter than ordinary schools. According toOfsted, the UK schools inspectors, 73% ofCatholic secondary Faith schools are good oroutstanding, compared with 60% of Englishschools nationally. At primary level, 74% ofCatholic schools are rated outstanding or good,compared with 66% nationally. [1] This showsthat the religious aspect of their education musthave some positive impact on the children whoare educated there. Banning faith schools,therefore, would be condemning many childrento a poorer standard of education thannecessary. The opposition believes that it is thegovernment���s role to provide the best it can forits citizens and banning faith schools would,therefore, be the opposite of this. [2] [1] Butt,Riazat, “Gove defends faith schools”, TheGuardian, 17 February 2011, [2] Glenn, CharlesL. “The Ambiguous Embrace: Government andFaith-based Schools and Social Agencies.”", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Relationship with religious people. Thislegislation would send a message of noconfidence in religion and would be tantamountto the government condemning religion. It iswrong for government to suggest that faithschools are divisive as “the average gradeawarded by Ofsted to secondary-level faithschools for promoting community cohesion was\"substantially and significantly\" better than theaverage grade awarded to community schools.”[1] This will lead to religious people feelingundermined and insulted by their governmentwho would be attacking their faith with nojustification based upon the performance of theschools. [1] Pritchard, John, “Church of Englandschools must serve the whole community”,guardian.co.uk, 5th May 2011,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con05b", "title": "", "text": "This is not the government’s responsibility. Thegovernment has a responsibility to educate andto allow its people to practise whatever religionthey wish to. The government does not have aresponsibility to facilitate the practise of areligion where it would cause harms to its peoplein other ways. Since it is outlined in the mainproposition case that it would cause harms inother ways, this is over and above theresponsibility of the government.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Parents have a right to ensure their child isbrought up with the values they considerimportant. Parents send their children to schoolso that they can be properly educated. For manyparents, this education includes proper moralcodes and values. Sending their child to a faithschool that they know will adhere to the moralcodes and values of that particular faith is one ofthe only ways that they can guarantee their childwill be brought up with the values they considerimportant. [1] It is this that in part makes theschools popular as Ed Balls, then UK educationsecretary recognises \"One thing we've learnt as agovernment is that having a distinct ethos,strong leadership, a commitment to promotingopportunity for all, those are the kind of schoolswhere parents want to send their children.”[2] [1] Mott-Thornton, Kevin. “Common Faith:Education, Spirituality and the State.” AshgatePub. Ltd. 1998. [2] BBC News, “Faith schoolsset for expansion”, 10 September 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Creates animosity towards religious groups. Thefact that faith schools perform better thanordinary schools is an advantage only for thechildren who are lucky enough to attend. Thiscauses feelings of resentment on the part ofparents and children who were not of the correctfaith and were, therefore, forced to go to a morepoorly performing school. This resentment growsinto a general feeling of animosity towards thereligious group running the school and to religionin general. The proposition believes this is farmore harmful in the long run than a minorreduction in quality of education for a smallnumber of children.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-eggrhwbfs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Shows submission to organised religion. Theproposition believes that by maintaining faithschools the government is allowing organisedreligion to act on its behalf. This not onlyundermines the separation of religion and thestate but also indicates that organised religionhas as much authority as the state. Theproposition believes this is inherently harmfuland that indicating that organised religion hasless authority than the state would be a positivemove.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Students are going to forget information whetherthey are out of school for three weeks or ten.Therefore, teachers will be performing fourbeginning of the year reviews instead of justone. In addition, students often switch offmentally at the end of term in anticipation of thevacations, which will mean more teaching timewasted. Even if students end up learning moreduring summer months, they are likely to end upno better educated at the end of the year.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Reduce “summer learning loss”. During longsummer holidays, students completely put asidelearning and forget all about their studies for upto three months. In this time, they inevitablyforget quite a lot of what they have learned.Teachers then have to spend the first weeks ofthe new academic year bringing them back up tospeed. By eliminating the long summer breakand replacing it with year-round learningpunctuated by shorter vacation times, thisproblem would be much reduced. [1] [1] Davey,Martin, “The Case For Year-Round Schooling”,Toronto Star, July 14th 2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro06a", "title": "", "text": "Importance of education to national economicperformance. A nation’s most importantresource is its human capital, and in the modernworld it is vital to have a skilled, educatedworkforce in order to remain competitive. Manynations have already adopted year-roundschooling. By following their example, we will begiving our young people an important advantagein the employment market and therebyimproving the country’s economic prospects.[1] [1] US National Educational Commission onTime and Learning, “Report: Prisoners of Time”,April 1994.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro07b", "title": "", "text": "Year-round schooling will probably meanincreased administrative costs, as well asensuring that overheads such as catering,heating and security have to be paid year-roundrather than for just part of the year, as atpresent. [1] Education funding in manycountries has been under pressure for manyyears, and most schools have explored all sortsof ways of maximising the effective use of theirresources and facilities. The best solution tostrains on resources is to make more moneyavailable to schools, not to stretch them everthinner. [1] Richmond, Emily. “Year RoundSchool Could Face Calendar Shift”, Las VegasSun, 16th March 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Year-round schooling does nothing to help theissue of boredom. Many “problem children” aremore bored in school than outside it; others areoften absent from school altogether. There is nohard evidence that social problems such as crimeand drug use go up significantly during breaks inthe school year.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Reducing inequality. Evidence suggests thatchildren from lower-income families tend to “fallbehind” further during long summer vacations.These children are less likely to read books,pursue additional studies or take part in usefulextracurricular activities compared to their peersfrom wealthier families. [1] This has a knock-oneffect on their academic achievement, and oncethey have fallen behind it is very difficult forthem to catch up. (This is the logic behindgovernment-funded programs such as HeadStart in the US or Sure Start in the UK)[2] Year-round schooling would remove thisimportant driver of inequality, give students alevel playing field on which to learn, and helpcreate a more meritocratic society. [1] Johnson,Alex, “Year-round school gains ground aroundU.S.”, MSNBC.com, 27th October 2010. [2]“Early Head Start Benefits Children andFamilies”, US Department of Health and HumanServices, April 2006.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Improves student achievement. Studies showthat students in year-round schooling tend to getperform better on many assessment metricsthan those who do not [1] . Schools operating ayear-round calendar do not have to cram somuch course content into a 9 month schedule,but can space out learning better. This allowsteaching to proceed at a more logical pace,helping students learn better. Furthermore, bygiving students frequent short breaks (instead oftwo or three long ones), pupils are refreshed andready to learn when school resumes. [1]Palmer, Elisabeth A. and Bemis, Amy E.,“Year-Round Education”, University of MinnesotaCollege of Education, 24th October 2000.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro07a", "title": "", "text": "More efficient use of school resources andpremises. Year-round schooling often goes handin hand with multi-tracking, where differentgroups of students at the same school are ondifferent schedules. This has the advantage ofallowing school rooms, facilities and otherresources to be used more efficiently, thusproviding a better education without puttingeven more strain on government budgets.[1] [1] “Year Round Education Program Guide”,California Department of Education, 25th July2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "In actual fact, the evidence on year-roundschooling is inconclusive, with other studiessuggesting that there is no educational benefitfrom holding classes year-round [1] . Indeed,you could argue that some students prefer toconcentrate the bulk of their learning into ashorter time frame and leave time for a longsummer break to take their minds off school fora while. [1] Ohio State University, “ Year-roundSchools Don't Boost Learning, Study Finds”.Science Daily, August 14th 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "It is certainly true that children fromdisadvantaged families do not do as well as theirluckier peers, but it is not clear why changing thepattern of school attendance will change this.The overall proportion of the year spent awayfrom school will not change, so there is noreason to believe that year-round schooling willbenefit students whose homes and families donot provide a positive learning environment [1]. [1] Newland, Christopher, “Letter to AuburnSchool Board”, 20th October 1998.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro06b", "title": "", "text": "This argument is based on the assumption thatyear-round schooling delivers academic benefitsto students. However, as we will see inOpposition argument 6, there is very littleevidence for this. Without concrete evidence thatthis massive change will deliver realimprovements in national educationalperformance, it will merely divert attention frommore pressing problems in our school systems.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Again, there is nothing intrinsic to year-roundschooling that makes it easier for families withseveral children. A single mother who struggleswith young children will not be any better offhaving to take care of their children every sixweeks instead of six months. Year-roundschooling is unlikely to be applied in exactly thesame way in different schools, and differentclasses or groups of students may well be ondifferent timetables – thus, parents may findthemselves having to take care of childrenalmost year-round rather than having time off,as at present.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Reduce social problems from disaffected, boredyouth. The structure of the school year is oftenone of the few fixed points in young people’slives. For many children, particularly those frompoorer families, long summer holidays don’tmean summer camps and foreign holidays, butday after day sitting in front of the TV or hangingaround in their neighbourhood. All the evidencesuggests that boredom is a major factor behindsocial problems like drug use, youth crime andantisocial behaviour. [1] Year-round schoolingwould not get rid of problems like these, ofcourse, but it might help to reduce the level ofsuch behaviour by giving young peoplesomething to do. [1] “Youths bored in schoolholidays”, BBC News, 11th July 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Year-round learning can help reduce the burdenon parents. For many parents, particularly thosewith more than one child, summer vacations canbe a stressful and difficult time. Without thestructure provided by school attendance,children become bored easily and parentsstruggle to cope. This is especially true formothers who may be bringing up childrenwithout a father present, or those who wish tocontinue or resume their careers after the firstfew years of motherhood; trying to combine afull-time job with the rigours of motherhood ishard but trying to do so during a three monthschool holiday is almost impossible. Year-roundschooling makes such a work-life balance easierfor young parents and allows women to return tothe workplace on their own terms. [1] [1]Schulte, Brigid, “The Case For Year-RoundSchool”, Washington Post, June 7th 2009.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Year-round schooling would necessitate a changein the way extra-curricular activities arestructured, not a reduction in such hobbies.Shorter breaks of two or three weeks are morethan sufficient for most extra-curricular activitiesand by spreading them throughout the year,instead of ring-fencing them into a couple ofsummer months, their beneficial impact mightwell be greater. If year-round schooling reducesthe necessity to send students for extra tuition,as is common in some countries, then this shouldbe considered a positive benefit of the change,not a problem. Families whose children are beingeducated year-round will have less reason tospend their hard-earned money on expensiveand often unnecessary private classes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Year-round schooling doesn’t place extraburdens on students; the whole point is that itreduces the stress and strain of school life byallowing learning to take place at a gentler pacethat is dictated more by the needs of studentsthan the timetable. Holidays of two or threeweeks are plenty of time to recharge thebatteries for another few weeks of school.Children will be better off mentally andpsychologically if year-round schooling isintroduced.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Imposes extra costs on education system. Manyschools are simply not set up for year-round use.In particular, most schools are notair-conditioned and often use older,poorly-ventilated buildings and classrooms. Inmany parts of the world, opening schools duringsummer would either involve expensiveretrofitting and renovation, or sweltering hotclassrooms with distracted children. There wouldalso be increased overheads and costsassociated with year-round catering, security,heating and administration. [1] [1] Richmond,Emily. ���Year Round School Could Face CalendarShift”, Las Vegas Sun, 16th March 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Damaging to extra-curricular activities. A lot ofextra-curricular activities take place duringsummer holidays. Summer camps, trips abroad -even debating competitions. Summer holidaysare a sensible time to hold such activities, partlydue to the weather but also because differentregions or school boards often have differentvacation schedules and summer is the only timewhen students are all likely to have free time.Year-round schooling would reduce theopportunities for such activities. Some familiesuse long holidays to arrange extra tuition incertain subjects, either as remedial education orto give their children an advantage [1] .Year-round schooling would make it harder forfamilies who wish to exercise this choice,too. [1] “Summer School”, US EducationCommission of the States, 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Places unfair burden on students. Many childrendon’t enjoy school. Even those who do still lookforward to summer holidays as a time when theycan relax and stop worrying about work for awhile. And for some students, school life isdifficult in other ways – social awkwardness orbullying being a common problem. Taking awaysummer holidays would mean that students haveto work hard year-round, and short small breaksdon’t offer the chance to relax as a propersummer holiday does. For those who dislikeschool, year-round schooling would meanyear-round stress and unhappiness. [1] [1]“Academic Performance Top Cause Of TeenStress”, Associated Press, 23rd August 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-sthwiyrs-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Year-round schooling will increase costs in someareas but more than offset these with efficiencysavings in other areas (see argument 7, above).It makes no sense for buildings to sit idle for athird of the year. As for the argument aboutair-conditioning, this is only an issue in somecountries round the world; in many others itwould not be an issue.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-uehwsnwu-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Journalist Jeremy Shere describes the problemswith most methods of nuclear storage: \"Therehave been a few other interesting ideas –such asburying nuclear waste beneath the ocean floor.Scientists have also thought about putting wastein really deep holes, burying it in polar icesheets, and stashing it beneath uninhabitedislands. [...] But there are problems with each ofthese ideas. For example, it would be difficult tomonitor nuclear waste under the ocean floor.Waste buried deep in the earth, meanwhile,might contaminate ground water. And as icesheets continue to melt, it’s hard to say how longnuclear waste would remain buried, or where itwould end up if it floated away. Plans to storewaste produced in the United States in YuccaMountain, in Utah, have been put on hold. So fornow almost all nuclear waste is kept aboveground in special containers at a few hundreddifferent sites around the country.”1 The pointwith underground nuclear storage is thatgeological conditions are often very different", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-uehwsnwu-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Underground nuclear storage is safer than anyavailable alternative Underground nuclear wastestorage means that nuclear waste is stored atleast 300m underground. The harm of a leak300m underground is significantly limited, if thearea has been chosen correctly then there shouldbe no water sources nearby to contaminate. Ifthis is the case, then a leak’s harm would belimited to the layers of sediment nearby whichwould be unaffected by radiation. By comparisona leak outside might lead to animals nearbysuffering from contamination. Further nuclearwaste might reach water sources should there bea leak above ground, if it is raining heavily whenthe leak happens for example. Further, theother options available, such as above groundstorage present a potentially greater danger,should something go wrong. This is because it ismuch easier for nuclear waste to leak radiationinto the air. This is problematic because even ahint of radiation may well cause people to panicowing to the damaging and heavily publicised", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-uehwsnwu-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Storing nuclear waste underground is necessary- there are no better option available Evenstates without nuclear waste programs tend togenerate radioactive waste. For example,research and medicine both use nuclear materialand nuclear technology. Technologies such asMedical imaging equipment are dependent andthe use of radioactive elements. This means thatall states produce levels of nuclear waste thatneed to be dealt with. Moreover, manynon-nuclear states are accelerating theirprogrammes of research and investment intonuclear technologies. With the exception ofGermany, there is an increasing consensusamong developed nations that nuclear power isthe only viable method of meeting risingdomestic demand for energy in the absence ofreliable and efficient renewable forms of powergeneration. The alternatives to putting nuclearwaste in underground storage tend to be basedaround the reuse of nuclear waste in nuclearpower stations. Whilst this is viable in some", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-uehwsnwu-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Underground nuclear storage is not the only wayto store nuclear material. Economically speaking,it is more expensive, but likely much safer tostore nuclear waste above ground in facilitiesthat can be easily monitored and dealt with.Unlike in underground storage facilities, shouldsomething go wrong above ground, it can beresponded to quickly and efficiently and it islikely that problems will be detected earlier aswell. Further, widely implementing undergroundnuclear storage would also encourage states tobe more cavalier with their nuclear energypolicies. Specifically, whilst nuclear energygeneration may result in zero carbon emissions,the mining and milling of uranium that initiallystarts the process is environmentallydamaging.1 ISN Security Watch. “Europe’sNuclear Waste Storage Problems.” Oilprice.com01/06/2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-uehwsnwu-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Integral Fast Reactors are not a solution for theshort term. There are currently no Integral FastReactors in commercial operation and theresearch reactor that was to be constructed bythe United States was canceled in 1994. Anyattempt to use IFRs to recycle all of the world’snuclear waste would be very expensive andwould not be an immediate solution – the wastewould need to be stored somewhere while itwaits to be used by the new reactors.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-uehwsnwu-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The economic costs of underground storage arehigh. However, given that nuclear power isnecessary to avoid what would likely be a verysignificant amount of economic harm, specificallyfrom global warming. For example, it has beenprojected that not doing anything to addressclimate change would result in an overallincrease in temperate of 5 degrees Celsius whichwould lead to economic costs in the order of $74trillion. This means that the need for nuclearwaste storage is inevitable.1 As such, whilstunderground storage does cost more thanalternate options, it is as mentioned within theproposition case the safest and most reliablemethod of nuclear waste storage. As such,proposition is willing to take the harm of extracost in order to prevent harm to people’s healthand well being. Ackerman, Frank. Stanton,Elizabeth. “Climate Change –the Costs ofInaction.” Friend of the Earth. 11/10/2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-uehwsnwu-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear waste can be put to beneficialuses France is the largest nuclear energyproducer in the world. It generates 80% of itselectricity from nuclear power. 1 It is veryimportant to note, therefore, that it does not relyon underground nuclear waste storage. Instead,it relies on above ground, on-site storage. Thiskind of storage combined with heavyreprocessing and recycling of nuclear waste,makes underground storage unnecessary. 2 Assuch it seems logical that in most western liberaldemocracies that are able to reach the samelevel of technological progress as France, itmakes more sense to store nuclear waste aboveground. Above ground, checks and balances canbe put into place that allow the maintenance ofthese nuclear storage facilities to be monitoredmore closely. Furthermore, reprocessing andrecycling leads to less wasted Uranium overall.This is important as Uranium, whilst beingplentiful in the earth, is often difficult to mineand mill. As such, savings here often significantly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-uehwsnwu-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Nuclear waste can be used in other forms ofpower generation There are new kinds ofnuclear reactor such as ‘Integral Fast Reactors’,which can be powered by the waste from normalnuclear reactors (or from uranium the same asany other nuclear reactor). This means that thewaste from other reactors or dismantled nuclearweapons could be used to power these newreactors. The Integral Fast Reactor extends theability to produce energy roughly by a factor of100. This would therefore be a very long termenergy source.1 The waste at the end of theprocess is not nearly as much of a problem, as itis from current reactors. Because the IFRrecycles the waste hundreds of times there isvery much less waste remaining and what thereis has a much shorter half-life, only tens of yearsrather than thousands. This makes storage forthe remainder much more feasible, as therewould be much less space required.2 Till,Charles, ‘Nuclear Reaction Why DO AmericansFear Nuclear Power’, PBS, Monbiot, George,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-uehwsnwu-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Underground nuclear storage is excessivelyexpensive Underground nuclear storage isexpensive. This is because the deep geologicalrepositories needed to deal with such waste aredifficult to construct. This is because saidrepositories need to be 300m underground andalso need failsafe systems so that they can besealed off should there be a leak. For smallercountries, implementing this idea is almostcompletely impossible. Further, themaintenance of the facilities also requires a lot oflong term investment as the structural integrityof the facilities must consistently be monitoredand maintained so that if there is a leak, therelevant authorities can be informed quickly andefficiently. This is seen with the Yucca mountainwaste repository site which has cost billions ofdollars since the 1990s and was eventuallyhalted due to public fears about nuclearsafety.1 ISN Security Watch. “Europe’s NuclearWaste Storage Problems.” Oilprice.com01/06/2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-uehwsnwu-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Side proposition supports the reuse of nuclearwaste; however, it also believes that theremaining nuclear waste left by the processshould be stored underground. This is because,the nuclear waste created from such a recyclingprocess ends up being more concentrated anddangerous radioactively than normal nuclearwaste. As such, storage above ground isincredibly dangerous if there is a leak. Bycomparison, storing the waste undergroundleaves 300m of sediment between the waste andthe air. As such, the chances of the wastereaching a water source or causing panic arereduced as detailed in the propositionsubstantive. Further, even if there is a leak, thefacilities can often be sealed off to prevent thisfrom happening.1 “Nuclear Waste Facesuncertain future in Europe.” The Nuclear NFormer. 2/11/2010", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Sexual identity is confusing in any situation. Itbecomes even more confusing when one isexposed to sex education and the broadspectrum of sexual preference and practicebefore one is emotionally equipped tounderstand and appreciate it. Understandingone’s sexual identity is an exploration that mustbe pursued at one’s own pace, not at the ratemandated from the state or school. Childrenmature physically and emotionally at verydifferent rates and mandatory sex educationwhich offers the information and the emotionalguidance at the same rate to everyone is not welltailored to the different development rates.[1] [1] Measor et al, Young People’s Views onSex Education, 2000", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A safe framework for understanding sexualityand sexual identity are essential to humanexistence Sex and sexual identity isfundamental part of human life. Sexual desire,for both procreation and recreation, forms one ofthe core human drives that shapes behaviour.[1] Young people want to explore their own, andone another’s, bodies from quite an early age,long before they would be likely to settle downand get married. Sex for almost everyone inWestern countries is not something exclusive tomarriage, and most people have multiple sexualpartners in their lifetimes. In order to face thisreality, young people must be armed with theknowledge of what sexual intercourse entails andthe pleasures and the risks inherent in it. [2]Sexual identity itself can be very confusing,especially for young homosexual or transgenderpeople who may not understand their sexuality.A safe, objective environment in which theobjective physical facts and the emotionalaspects of sexual involvement and activity is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Parents know their children better than anyone.They know what s/he is like, and in whatenvironment s/he will grow up and often live.The state is not infallible and its decisions are notpurely objective. When children are notadequately mature for sex education, parentsmust have the ability to make the decision ontheir behalf to withhold information that could bepotentially damaging to their futuredevelopment. As to homophobic or bigotedfamilies, such views are considered to be sociallyacceptable insofar as people have the right toexpress such views. This does not, however, giveparents license to abuse their children if theyhave alternative sexual preferences. Sexeducation is not necessary to ensure againstabuse, that is the purview of law enforcement.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Sex education provides “Immunization” againstsexually transmitted diseases and preventsunwanted pregnancy It was said at thebeginning of the HIV/AIDS epidemic that theonly vaccination against the virus wasknowledge. Knowledge about what is out there isessential to guarding the self. There are aseveral of ways in which this knowledge isessential; finding out about the risks of sex isjust one, having accurate information about thepleasures as well as the risks is another. [1]Knowledge also prevents misinformation. Youngpeople must be informed about sex, how it worksand what the risks associated with it are, andhow to access the risks and the pleasures. Whensex is not talked about and kept behind closeddoors, young people are forced often to gropearound in the dark, so to speak. This can resultin unwanted pregnancies, and even STDs, someof which can be permanent, a threat to fertilityor even life threatening. IT leaves young peopleconfused. [2] The state thus owes an obligation", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Sex education is not necessary to protectchildren from disease and unwanted pregnancy.Young people can be informed of the dangers ofsex without sex education. Besides, if enoughpeople are versed extensively in sex educationthey should provide sufficient herd immunity thatthe minority who object on ethical grounds canabstain from sex education without negativelyeffecting the overall amount of safe sexualpractices in a society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Sex education does not benefit conservativecommunities as sex education is not simply aprovider of information. Rather, it entails at bestan acknowledgement that kids will have sexregardless of what they are told, and at worst apositive endorsement of sexual activity. It is ashameful abrogation of responsibility on the partof adults to essentially allow children to makebad decisions. Sex education encouragesstudents to make a choice, meaning more willmake the wrong one. [1] Teaching childrenabout sex will necessarily make them moreprone to experimentation, and will likely causethem to view their peers in school in a sexualizedcontext, leading to less focus in the classroom onstudy, and more on sex. Conservative andreligious households have every reason to fearsuch developments. [1] Pogany, Sex Smart,1998", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Parents cannot be guaranteed to provide asuitable amount of sex education Parents have agreat deal of responsibility in raising children,but they are unsuited to teaching about sexualityas the resulting education will not be consistent,be biased and in some cases may not be carriedout at all. Parents tend to view their children asless sexualized; they want them to be innocent.Thus it is often the case that parents seek toshield their children from the realities of sex, andthemselves from the young person’s developingsexuality maintaining their innocence throughenforced ignorance. This tends to be particularlyharmful to young women, as culturally boys areoften expected to be more sexually active thangirls, and such activity is usually consideredappropriate for boys, while not so for girls. Adouble standard undoubtedly continues to exist.[1] It is in the interest of the state, however, toproduce well-rounded individuals who caninteract with society effectively on all levels,including the sexual level. When parents do not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Even religious and conservative communities willbenefit from mandatory sex education sexualactivity and lewd behavior, as religious groupsfear, because everything in life is alreadysexualized. One need only watch a typicalperfume ad on television to know that sexualityinculcates popular culture already. Sex educationwould not lift the scales from the eyes of childrenentirely; they already have some idea of what isgoing on. The danger is when they knowsomething about sex, but not enough to be safe.That is why mandatory sex education is essentialto people’s wellbeing. The research evidencefrom across the world is clear that sex educationholds back the age of first intercourse and mostcertainly does not foster early promiscuity. [3]The abstinence programmes that have beendeveloped in the united states in particular havebeen spectacularly unsuccessful in reducing ratesof sexual exploration and STD and unwantedpregnancy rates. [4] Research has made it clearwhich kinds of sex education are most effective.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While certainly there should always be room forself-exploration in sexuality, a set mandatorycurriculum is essential to understanding thebasics of sex and offering opportunity to considerthe emotional and social aspects of it in thecultures of young people. [1] It is unfortunatethat some students may feel unprepared toundergo sex education, but the value of theinformation outweighs any potential discomfort.Certainly there is nothing so scarring about thenature of sex that someone who is a bitimmature cannot handle with some effort. Weneed also to have some confidence in theabilities and sensitivities of our teachingprofessionals to be able to respond with effectivesensitivity to the different needs of their studentsin the classroom situation. This means that weneed properly trained teachers to be deliveringsex education and teachers themselves haveasked for this to be the case. The researchevidence does make it clear that young peopleare at varying stages of maturity when they are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Parents do not always know best, particularlywhen it comes to sex education. Parents cannotbe trusted to instruct children effectively in sexeducation because they themselves are oftenuneducated in the matter and have personalbiases regarding the subject. [1] Often they willnot understand the finer points of contraceptionand STDs, things that have each changedsubstantially in the past few decades, with thingslike the morning after pill becoming readilyavailable in many countries, and diseases likeChlamydia much more prevalent in populationsthan they were in past generations. [2] Parents’ignorance may thus misinform children to theirdetriment. The parent may not understand theirchild best preventing their children from everdeveloping a meaningful understanding of theirsexuality. Such is the problem for gay childrenraised in homes that say being gay is sinful andunnatural. [3] With the only authority figure onthe subject he knows telling him he is defective,a gay child is left to suffer and wallow in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Sex education damages the educationsystem Sex education damages the educationsystem by confusing the children and byalienating some parents. When children receivemixed signals from home and at school they cansuffer real confusion. When parents tell theirchildren that the teacher is wrong about sex, itcauses the student to raise his mental defencestoward the school thereafter and become lessengaged in the process of education. [1] Childrenwill be told by their parents, and will thus cometo believe, that the school is promoting a liberalview that is fundamentally contrary to their own.For example, a Muslim girl will find schooling ahorrific and alienating experience if she is forcedto attend a sex education class that conflicts withher faith as this will be clashing with what shehas been taught at home. This will alienate theparents of these children who hold the view thatdiscussion of sex in such a framework is morallyrepugnant. [1] Pogany, Sex Smart, 1998", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The state has had no historical role in sexeducation to no ill effect, so should it developone now. Sexuality should not be within thepurview of the state. The state maintains orderand security and provides essential services. Sexeducation does not fall within its responsibility.Sexuality is for many people deeply personal andshould be respected as such; young peopleshould be allowed to explore their sexualityindependently and with the guidance of family,not under the watching eye of the state. [1] Sexeducation programs reduce sexuality to biologyand fail to adequately address the emotionalelements of sexuality in a way that is not seen asa joke by often-immature students. Inevitablyteachers’ personal opinions on sexuality willbleed into their teaching, as will that of the stateofficials that set the teaching standards for thesubject. In this way there is always a normativejudgment in sex education that will be seen asthe state mandating certain sexual behaviourand practice. This fundamentally attacks the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Sexual development is a process of gradualdiscovery and cannot be effectively taught in aclassroom Having a one size fits all sexeducation system cannot effectively dealdifferences within classes. Sexual experience is agradual process and cannot be meaningfullytaught in the structured environment of theclassroom. People must discover much abouttheir own sexuality, through experimentationand self-exploration. By trying to impose a strictcurriculum that explains sexual processes andpractices along set guidelines, much of theopportunity for self-discovery is lost.Furthermore, when people are forced to conformto the set sex education program, they cannotmove at their own pace. This is particularlyharmful to people who are physically oremotionally less mature than their fellowstudents and who would be better served if theywere allowed to pursue sexual knowledge attheir own pace. When other students areinvolved in the classroom, there is necessarily a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Parents should have the final choice in sexeducation for their children Parents are the oneswho are responsible for their children and theyknow what is best for their own. Parents are thepeople who best know their children; they livewith them, feed them, understand them, andknow how and when is best to broach the topicof sex with their children. Parents are in a veryreal way the shapers of children’s psyche anddevelopment, so their input on a central moraland physical issue such as this must berespected. It is a myth that somehow parentslacks the capacity to deal with an issue like sex.Rather, they are the best suited to it. The fact isthat children generally listen to their parents, orat least consider seriously what they are told bythem. Furthermore, parents are more capablethan teachers, in light of their intimaterelationship with their children, to discuss theemotional aspects of sex and relationships,topics that would become jokes in the classroomand the subject of ribald humour. [1] It is better", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This argument is based on a particular view ofthe state and its role in society.it is a view of thestate which is particularly innocent of and whichfails to acknowledge the range of culturalmessages relating to society and sexuality [1]which are broadcast hegemonically although notentirely openly by the state. [2] The state doeshave a role in sex education. It has taken anever more holistic view of young citizens, andthis is reflected in schools whose remit stretchesnot just to the academic education of students,but to the preparation of young people for thefull spectrum of activities and responsibilitiesthey will face in adult life. Sexual interaction is afundamental part of that life. Schools haveevolved far beyond the provision of skill inreading, writing, and arithmetic, and this shouldbe reflected in such programs as sex education.The state does not in mandating sex educationmake any normative judgment regarding sexualpractices, but rather provides the necessaryinformation and the space to consider the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-education-shwmsems-con02b", "title": "", "text": "A disagreement over sex education will notalienate someone, whether child or parent, fromthe entire education system. Students candifferentiate between contentious aspects ofeducation like sex education and the generaleducation over which parents, teachers, andstate do not disagree. Both parents and teacherswill be able to explain the reasons for thedifference in teaching in cases where the studentis taught different things at home and in school.Saying that just because one issue is contentiousall of education is ruined is merely alarmist.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "States should not be overly concerned with sizeas a measure of strength since this is merelyincreasing the area that needs defending.Instead they should be concerned with havingcommon sense of identity that encouragescooperation. Russia, Nigeria and India areexamples of large federated states which sufferfrom internal insurgencies caused by politicalgrievances.1 The Democratic Republic of theCongo is an excellent example of a largefederated state which has proven incapable ofdefending its borders.2 It may be the case acommon identity is better formed in independentnation states. Smaller states like Monaco andSingapore continue to exist with relative securityin contrast. 1 AlertNet, 2011, 'Bin Laden deathweakens Russia insurgency- official,' TheWashington Post, 2006, 'Grievances FuelInsurgency, Says Nigeria Media 'Inside theMaoist insurgency in India's Jharkand state', BBCNews 2 BBC , 2010, 'Inside the Maoistinsurgency in India's Jharkand State", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Federal states are better able to protect theircitizens. Federal states allow local decisionmaking to suit local needs due to their tiereddecision making structures. This ensures thatcitizens are able to determine how they shouldlive their lives without infringing upon the rightsof citizens in other federal units who may havedifferent opinions. However on security matterswhich affect the entire federal state, citizens arebetter protected because the federal units arestronger together than apart. A federal state alsocreates a common sense of purpose than candissuade conflict between the federal units. Agood historical example of this behaviour wasthe agreement of the Swiss Cantons to cometogether to collectively protect and enrichthemselves from outside threats in 1848.1 1History of Switzerland, 'Switzerland's History,'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It is true that there are few states which includehomogenous national groups. However, thereare some (Iceland and Japan for example) butthere are many states which are predominantly asingle \"nation.\" And given that proposition hasaccepted that nations are constructed, it ispossible for people to opt-into nationhood. Thusautonomous nation states can exist wheregroups of people agree to live with commoncultural and political values. Therefore, it is notfutile to attempt to accommodate a common setof political values within a state. Indeed, it isnecessary to have some kind of common history,culture, practices or ethnicity often to bindgroups together.1 1 Stanford Encyclopedia ofPhilosophy, 2010, 'Federalism,'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Federal states are economically stronger Federalstates are able to remove trade barriers betweenmembers which would otherwise exist if therewere independent states (such as difficulties inmoving goods due to borders). This increasesinternal trade and economic growth andencourages investors.1 Federal units are able toshare resources and concentrate on producingwhat they are best at (called comparativeadvantage) at a better economy of scale. Even incases of agreed free trade areas between states,there is no overarching authority to ensuretimely compliance to agreements.2Finally, largereconomic units are more able to influenceinternational trade regimes.3 1 EU Business,2007, 'EU Single Market- benefits,' Departmentfor Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform,2007, 'Guide to Benefits of the EU,' 2 BBC ,2011, 'US and Mexico end cross-border truckingdispute 3 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,2010, 'Federalism", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Free trade areas are able to operate quitesuccessfully even if they lack an overarchingauthority and full integration of currencies, suchas NAFTA.1 Economic homogenisation is notnecessarily a good thing. Common currencies arebest deployed in Optimal Currency Area, whichare areas with sufficiently similar economies thata common currency can successfully function.Problems exist where there is a lack of politicalcapital between nations in a federation or whenthere are logistical barriers (such as the differentlanguages within the EU or the differing strengthof public finances).2 There is no reason whyfederal states are required for comparativeadvantage to exist, though economies of scalecould be less. 1 Office of the United States TradeRepresentative, 2004, 'NAFTA: A Decade ofSuccess,' . 2 Wikipedia , 2011, 'Optimal CurrencyAre", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "In most cases parts of federated states remain insimilar economic positions relative to othersections. California and Texas are regularly themost economically successful US states. Ratherthan receive economic benefit, they have federaltaxes transferred to the weakest performingstates in the Union. A similar argument isapparent with the German bailouts in the2010-11 Eurozone financial crisis.1 1 TheEconomist, 2011, 'America's Fiscal Union: GreekAmericans,' The Economist, 2011, 'Germanbusiness and politics: Goodbye to Berlin,'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Nationally homogenous states are rare and moststates have local differences It is not clear whatthe logical end point for splitting countries overpolitical differences would be. Since eachindividual has a unique set of preferences, or atleast there are large numbers of groups ofpeople with different preferences, the state mustaggregate preferences at some point. It makesmore sense for the state to aggregatepreferences in such a way that creates effectivestates that can meet their (aggregate) goalsrather than attempting to find \"pure\" nationstates. Furthermore, nations are often scatteredin areas which do not provide a clear location fora state. An example of this is Eastern Europe orAfrica where ethnic groups and tribes regularlycross state boundaries and exist as unconnectedpockets.1 It would be impossible to create statesto cater to these groups. 1 Guardian, 2007,'Biafran Lessons,'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Being a federal state helps large states deal withdivergent economic performance Federal statestend to be larger and have different economiccycles. This allows the overall state to cope withdifferent economic cycles by using fiscaltransfers (tax) between wealthier states andpoorer states to fund government programmes.1So for example if Mississippi and New Mexicowere paying for all their services themselvesfrom their own taxes they would have debts ofover 500% of GDP,2however at the beginning ofthe Republic it was the Southern States whowere the richest due to their cotton wealth. 1Euro Economics, 'Example: Fiscal Transfer 2 TheEconomist, 2011, 'America's Fiscal Union: GreekAmericans,'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Often decisions are forced on states by powerfulneighbours. Examples include the South Africanpolicy of dumping crops in neighbouring states,Russia's brief war with Georgia and the UnitedStates' treatment of Latin America.1 Under theproposition they at least have the ability toinfluence and challenge decisions that are beingmade.2 There are also the comparative benefitsof being within the federal state, detailed in theProposition section. 1 'A Good neighbour? SouthAfrica forcing GM maize onto African marketsand policy makersACB Briefing Paper p. 14 'TheRussia-Georgia war, three years onTheEconomist 'Bullying Latin AmericaQuarterlyAmericas 2 'FederalismSection 3.1, Stanford", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The comparative situation is that of a resourcerich region being surrounded by aggressiveneighbours which desire its resources. Weakstates are usually incapable of defending theirborders and thus fall victim to invasion andoccupation (such as the Democratic Republic ofthe Congo).1 Long term control by a federalstate is preferable to repeated violence andconflict as outside forces move in and out of theregion. Moreover, being part of a federal stateensures that there is only one party attemptingto control the region rather than multiplecompeting governments which are likely to bringlong term violence. Finally, there is the otherside to the opposition's case. By being part of afederal state, there is international pressure formembers of that resource rich federal unit tohave something in return and for their state toadequately look after them. 1 Consultancy AfricaIntelligence, 2010, 'Security Situation in theDRC: A case of a weak state leaning on the UN,'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Independent States can suit theirpopulations. Firstly, Federal states involvecompromise between different parties in order toreach proposals which can be acceptable to allmembers of the federation. This often meansthat states are forced to compromise onimportant issues. An example of this is Abortionin the USA.1 Often, in order to protectminorities, voting is skewed towards smallerfederal units (for example the US Senate withtwo Senators per state, regardless ofpopulation). This does not fulfil the principles ofequal democratic representation. Such an issueexists to far less a degree in independent states,which can be more homogenous in preferencesand more reflective of local needs.2 Moreover,given that it is unlikely that any state has chosenthe appropriate position of compromise, allfederal units will end up with a policy which issub-optimal for them. Secondly, Federalarrangements tend to be complex, inhibitingtransparency as vested interests at different", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Federal States often have persistentlosers. Within federal states, some federal unitsare often persistently weaker within the statethat others and thus have to repeatedlyaccommodate (this links to the argumentabove).1 In countries such as Nigeria, resourcerich parts of the country are consistently used bythe rest of the country as a source of wealth withinsufficient investment in return.2 1 Centre forEuropean Economic Research, 2011, 'PoorStates, Rich Federal Government- Winners andLosers of the Emissions Trading Scheme,'Houseofnames.com, 'German Unification,' 2 TaiEjibunu, Hassan. 'Nigeria's Niger Delta Crisis:Root Causes of Peacelessness.' EuropeanUniversity Center for Peace Studies ResearchPapers. 07. 2007.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Federal governments often extend their powersand usurp local authority, especially if one ormore federal units are disproportionatelypowerful. The proposition arguments repeatedlyrely on the federal state being limited in strengthenough to allow local differences and choices.However, historically, federal states have movedto extend their control from the centre often withthe justification of necessity. Both the USA andRussia are examples of this trend.1 In the USA,debates about overstretch of federal control arenumerous and time consuming. This argument isespecially likely if one or a group of federal unitsare significantly stronger than the other unit, forexample the Kingdom of Prussia in the 1871German Union. In this case, Prussia was able touse its financial strength and size to eventuallydominate the Union and control the other federalunits.2 1 Garratt , Thomas and Rhine, Russell.'On the Size and Growth of Government.' FederalReserve Bank of St. Louis Review. 88 (1). 2006.World Savvy, 2008, 'Centralization of Power in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con01a", "title": "", "text": "It is harder to deal with internal repression thanthe invasion of another sovereign state. Federalstates offer convenient guises for the exploitationof resource rich areas or areas of strategicimportance. The Niger Delta is used by theNigerian government to provide oil wealth that isinsufficiently invested in the Delta leading toinsurgencies1. The Nigerian government is ableto remove international pressure to reform byallying itself with UN principles ofnon-intervention in sovereign states which isonly rarely overridden in cases of serious,systemic and widespread human rights abuseswhen 'all peaceful means have failed'.2 Inreality, this gives government's considerableleeway to commit abuses within their ownterritory. If the Niger Delta were a separatecountry, there would be much more politicalcapital to ensure it was appropriately treated anda stronger legal basis to hold Nigeria to account.1 Tai Ejibunu, Hassan. 'Nigeria's Niger DeltaCrisis: Root Causes of Peacelessness.' European", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con04b", "title": "", "text": "This point ignores the fact that weak federalunits would make weak states unable to protecttheir interests anyway. Mississippi would havevery little global influence if it were not in theUSA. Within the USA it gains the benefit ofcollective bargaining. Weaker federal unitstogether are more powerful than apart and havethe protection of more powerful units in globaldiplomacy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-ghbfsabun-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Compromise is not necessarily a bad thing; itprevents federal units from selecting extremepolicies which could harm minoritygroups.1Moreover, the devolved power structureof federal states means that the decisions whichhave to be collective are normally in areas ofcollective interest, for example defence, wherethere is a \"whole\" which should have preferenceover individual federal units. Whilst differentlevels of federal arrangements will have differentinterests, this reflects their different functionsand prevents any one function from beingoverridden completely. Finally, this argumentignores the comparative which includes thebenefits of federation to the constituent units 1Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010,'Federalism,'", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "People are not stupid. They will not vote forsomeone who is using the powers of theexecutive to enrich himself. Rather, leaders willonly be able to stay in power so long as they dowhat the people want. If leaders are maintainingtheir power by other means, such asinstitutionalized corruption and force, it is notbecause there are no term limits on the leader,but rather because of other fundamentalproblems of government in those states, in suchcases as with Chavez the executive will haveenough power simply to override the imposedterm limits. [1] [1] Shifter, Michael. 2011. “IfHugo Goes”, ForeignPolicy.com, 28th June 2011,Available:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The longer a single leader remains in power, themore entrenched his grip becomes, and the morelikely he is to use his office to his personaladvantage. Power has a strong tendency tocorrupt; it is highly intoxicating. For this reason,it should not be left in the hands of one personfor too long. When a leader is firmly entrenched,he may seek to enrich himself at the expense ofthe public. He may seek to shower benefices onfamily and allies in order to maintain andstrengthen his powerful position. Without termlimits the executive runs the risk of becoming apersonal fief, rather than the office of firstservant of the people, as it should be. This isseen particularly in parts of the developing worldwhere leaders use state funds to generateelectoral support from key groups and tomaintain the loyalty of essential supporters. Acurrent example of this is in Venezuela whereHugo Chavez has been able to monopolize powerto the point where it is unclear who his successorwould be should he die suddenly. [1] Term limits", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Voters will choose the leader they think will dothe best job, if this is the incumbent then that isdemocracy. Election machines and lobby groupsmay be able to help an incumbent somewhat,but at the end of the day the leader must be ableto convince the people that he has done a goodjob and is still suitable to lead. As to the issue ofcountries like Zimbabwe, if the people want tokeep electing a revolutionary hero, that is theirchoice. The overruling of election results, asoccurred in the most recent Zimbabweanelection, however, is not democratic and thusunacceptable for a mature state. Mugabe’s abilityto flaunt the will of the people was not due to alack of term limits, however, but on aninadequate separation of powers inherent in thesystem. [1] Adding term limits to that system,and indeed any system, will do little to redressimbalances between branches of government.The case of Vladimir Putin is similarly instructive,despite stepping down after his second term, hethereafter took the office of Prime Minister and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The executive branch of government, having nocountervailing voices to the leader s’ within it,must be checked by limiting tenancy inoffice. Term limits are a necessary check onexecutive power to prevent an over mightyexecutive. Whereas the legislature and judiciaryare composed of many competing views, withmembers of various parties and outlooksrepresented, the executive of a country speakswith a single voice. In legislatures, party leadersare not the sole sources of power, with factionsand alternative nexuses of influence formingthroughout that branch of government. [1]Executive power, on the other hand, rests solelyin the hands of the leader, usually a president.The leader has full power over the policies of theexecutive branch of government. Cabinets, whichform part of the executive in practice, are usuallydirectly answerable to the leader, and ministerscan be dismissed if they are uncooperative ordispute the leader’s policies. Even inparliamentary systems, leaders with a majority", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Leaders may have a single view and be the solecentre of power in the executive branch, but thatdoes not mean the leader’s remaining in officewill somehow shift power away from the otherbranches. The separation of powers isconstitutionally protected in most countries, andleaders’ powers will be circumscribed by thesewhether term-limited or not. In the example ofTony Blair and Gordon Brown while Blair wascentralizing power in Number 10 Brown at theTreasury always had an independent voice andenough power to prevent the prime ministergetting his way on domestic policy.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "A leader who is term-limited suffers from theeffects of being a lame duck. A final term leaderwill not be able to command the same degree ofleverage as one who can potentially serveanother term. Furthermore, as to lobby-groupsupport, a leader on the way out who cannotseek another term has an incentive to favourgroups and firms that will place him on theirboards, a potentially highly lucrative retirementpackage for leaders, paid for often at theexpense of the public.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Term limits check the power of incumbency as anelection-winning tool and allow new andenergetic leaders and ideas toflourish. Incumbency provides a huge electionadvantage. Leaders and politicians generally,almost always win re-election. Such has been thecase in the United States, for example, wherepresidents are almost always re-elected for asecond term. Leaders are re-elected becausethey have better name recognition both with theelectorate and with lobby groups. People have atendency to vote for those who they recognize,and firms tend to support past winners who willlikely continue to benefit their interests. Thisproblem has become particularly serious indeveloping world in which revolutionary leadersfrom the original independence movements arestill politically active. These leaders oftencommand huge followings and mass loyalty,which they use to maintain power in spite of poordecisions and corruption in many cases. Suchhas been the case in Zimbabwe with Robert", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Freeing the executive from re-election concernscan help focus attention on the public interest Afocus of a leader who is looking toward the nextelection is on getting votes. It is often the casethat hard decisions need to be made by leaders,but it is difficult for them to do so when they areconcerned with being re-elected. A leader has anincentive to put tough decisions off if he canretain power by doing so. When constrained byterm limits, leaders must make the most of theirlimited time in office, resulting in greaterprioritization of difficult decisions and reform. [1]Furthermore, the need to constantly fightelections places leaders in the pocket oflobby-groups and election supporters to agreater degree, as they will always need to goback to them for support, and thus cannot makedecisions that are in the national interest alone.While there will always be some of thisbehaviour, it is curtailed by term limits, asleaders in their final term will not be beholden toas many special interests as they cannot run", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "While some continuity is desirable in leadership,it is not worth the costs of allowing a singleindividual to retain so much power for so long. Ifthere are crises to face or long-term legislativeagendas to push forward, the leader may stilloffer insight and support out of office and mayback a candidate to succeed him who willcontinue his policies. The boons of continuity canthus be maintained without the risks ofdespotism and corruption that too long heldoffice encourages.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Term limits protect democracy. While peoplemay not be able to vote for a leader again whohas reached his limit of service, they can stillvote for a continuation of his policies by votingfor his chosen successor or for his politicalparty’s candidate. Limiting individual leaders tospecified terms, however, prevents them frombecoming too powerful and damaging thedemocratic system of checks and balances.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Term limits on leaders unbalances power infavour of non-limited legislators and thejudiciary. When one branch is in constant fluxand another retains the ability to maintain adegree of continuity, the power balance isnaturally unequal. An executive who cancontinuously seek re-election is better equalizedwith the other branches. Fear that a leadersomehow will be able to override the checksinstituted by the constitution and laws of a stateare entirely unfounded. A third-term president inthe United States, for example, is no moreinnately powerful than a second-term one. [1]He can no more change the constitution, or takepower from the other branches of governmentthan he could previously. In cases where leadershave wrested power from the other branches andbecome dictators, as in Zimbabwe, the cause ofthe problem is not a lack of term limits, butrather a lack of adequate separation of powers ingovernment. Term limits do not stop tyranny, asa would-be dictator can easily enough remove", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The incentive for corruption and self-enrichmentin office is increased by term limits. With termlimits, a leader will, after he enters his finalpermitted term of office, not have to face theelectorate again, meaning he can do whateverwants, to an extent. This encourages corruptionand self-enrichment on the part of leaders intheir final term of office when they do not needto face the people to answer for poormanagement. There is likewise less incentive tofollow through on election promises tosupporters, since their withdrawing support canhave little tangible impact on a lame duck.Furthermore, lame duck leaders can devote timeto buddying up to businesses and organizationsin order to get appointments to lucrative boardseats after they leave office. This has often beenthe case in Western democracies, where formerheads of state and government find themselvesbeing offered highly profitable positions upontheir retirement. [1] Imposing term limitsnecessarily increases this sort of behaviour, as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "A strong, consistent executive may be desirablein many cases. Continuity and experience inleadership has real value. Experienced hands canbe best for navigating the often-treacherouswaters of politics, and such experience isespecially necessary in the executive.Furthermore, the prospect of future tenure givesincumbent leaders the leverage to get thingsdone. When there are no term limits, lame duckleaders are generally eliminated. The status quoundermines the ability of last-term leaders to acteffectively, since members of the other branchesof government, and the public, know they are onthe way out and thus lack the same ability toenact policy. [1] Eliminating term limits allowsleaders to make the most of every term theyserve to enact policy. It also allows leaders tofocus on long-term projects that might takemore than the time allotted to them by theirterm limits. When considering the ascension ofnew leaders, it is necessary to consider that theywill always take some time acclimating", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Term limits are undemocratic and suggest,falsely, that voters cannot make intelligentdecisions about their leaders on their own. Termlimits are grossly undemocratic. If a leader ispopular and desired by the people to continue tolead them, then it should be their choice tore-elect him. The instituting of term limitsassumes voters cannot act intelligently withoutproper guidance. This is an insult to theintelligence of voters. The electorate will seewhether a leader is doing a good job and willvote accordingly. Preventing a potentiallypopular candidate from standing for re-electionsimply removes the right to make importantpolitical decisions from the electorate. Thereason some countries have overpoweredpresidents and executives is not due to a lack ofterm limits, but because of a system designed tosuppress opposition. Term limits are not aconcern when considering why countries havecorrupt and authoritarian leaders. [1] In suchcountries or where the leader is very popular the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con04b", "title": "", "text": "A leader who has to constantly concern himselfwith re-election is likely to be far more beholdento special interest groups and lobbyists than onewho is term-limited. While a term-limited leadermay suffer to a degree from lame duck status,the need to continuously seek electoral supportis far more damaging to the ability to do what isright for the nation. Leaders who are notterm-limited will spend more time doing what ispopular than what is necessary. It is far better tohave a leader who has only a limited time toenact the policies he envisions, so that heactively seeks to implement hisvision. Furthermore, reducing the incentive topander to self-interest groups in one’s final termcan be achieved through offering goodretirement benefits to ex-leaders, includinginternational jobs. [1] [1] Ginsburg, Tom, JamesMelton and Zachary Elkins. 2011. “On theEvasion of Executive Term Limits.” William andMary Law Review. Available:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-glvhwetleb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The executive, at least in Presidential andParliamentary systems of government, alreadyhas the extra power of being an individualwielding the entire power of the branch ofgovernment. There are always competing powergroups within legislatures, so it can never runthe risk of becoming tyrannical in the same waythe executive can. Term limits are an essentialcheck on the huge individual power that theexecutive bestows on leaders.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Margaret Thatcher in the UK, and MadeleineAlbright and Condoleeza Rice in the US are highranking female politicians who mostly deal intraditionally 'male' topics. Not all femalepoliticians will represent women's views orneeds. Indeed, sometimes they are badadvocates for women. For example, NadineDorries proposed a bill in Parliament for teachingabstinence to girls in school, but excludedteaching boys; this is a clear bias and suggeststhat boys can get away with being irresponsible.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Women must gain positions in Parliament quicklyas they would raise awareness about 'lessimportant' issues such as family and employmentrights Whilst is it possible for men to speak onwomen's issues, some topics of debate (e.g. onfamily issues or equality in the workplace) arestill seen as less important than economics orforeign policy. Creating more female MPs wouldencourage more debates about social policy, andso do more to produce constructive legislation ofrelevance to real people's lives. For example,Harriet Harman is the first MP to seriouslyconfront the gaps in the treatment of women andother minorities in the workplace1. This waspreviously seen as a 'soft' issue unworthy ofparliamentary attention; she was more in touchwith women's (and, of course, many men's)priorities and acted upon them. If we want ourpolitical system to be in touch with the prioritiesof everyone, we must to act to increase women'srepresentation. 1 'Harman pushes discriminationplan', BBC, 26th June 2008", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Representative democracy is there to representthe interests of every sector of the population,which may be done without MPs visibly beingstrictly representative. To ensure parliamentexactly reflects society's demographic makeup isimpossible. Besides, how can we be sure that byincreasing numbers of women, women's viewswill be any better represented?1 By allowingpolitical parties to fix these election shortlists, itmay prevent constituencies from voting for thecandidate they feel best represents their views.True, legislation plays a role in the formation ofattitude but any legislation that seeks to restricta people freedom of choice is an affront to thevery pillar of democracy where freedom of choiceis a must. 1 'All-women shortlists: a route toequality?' by Mediocre Dave, Dreaming Genius,9th June 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Female role models are needed urgently to raiseaspirations among young women and changeparliamentary practices At present there is avicious circle whereby women see no point instanding for politics because it is viewed as amale-dominated institution. Positivediscrimination is the only way to encouragewomen to stand. Only if one generation ispushed towards politics can there be role modelsfor potential future women MPs to follow; for thatreason it need not be a permanent measure, justone that gets the ball rolling1. It has beenproven by a study at the University of Toronto,Canada, that women need inspirational femalerole models more than men; they need it to bedemonstrated that it is possible to overcomebarrier2 . Positive discrimination would providethis evidence and support. This measure wouldsimply allow women to overcome theinstitutional sexism in the selection committeesof the established political parties, which has forso long prevented a representative number of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "A true role model has to be admired.Encouraging more women to stand for electionshould not be about 'making up numbers':women are extremely capable of becomingelected without help from male party leaders.Shirley Chisholm, in a famous speech on genderequality to Congress in Washington, U.S., on21st May 1969, aired a similar sentiment:\"women need no protection that men do notneed. What we need are laws to protect workingpeople, to guarantee them fair pay, safe workingconditions, protection against sickness andlayoffs and provision for dignified, comfortableretirement. Men and women need these thingsequally. That one sex need protection more thanthe other is a male supremacist myth asridiculous and unworthy of respect as the whitesupremacist myth that society is trying to cureitself of at this time\"1. Apportioning a quota ofseats for women or all-women shortlists will be apatronising implication that women cannotsucceed off the back of their own merits, and", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Parliament must be representative of our societyand that requires a substantial increase in thenumber of women which only positivediscrimination can achieve In a 'representative'democracy it is vital that every part of thepopulation be accurately and proportionatelyrepresented. The present lack of female voices inparliaments across the world symbolises thecontinuing patriarchal societal bias. Women areover half of the population, yet less than 20% ofthe House of Commons is made up of women. Asof 2011, there are only 72 women (constituting16.6% of all Representatives) serving in theHouse of Representatives in the US. In order totruly have a representative government,numbers must be increased to fairly mirrornumbers in society. All women shortlists andother artificial means are a quick and effectiveway of doing this. Even David Cameron, atraditional opponent to positive discrimination forwomen, when asked whether a meritocracy wasmore desirable, said \"It doesn't work\"; \"we tried", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-con03b", "title": "", "text": "All-women shortlists were declared legal in 2001after a debate, and there has not been an issueabout its legality since then1. Judges have ruledthat quotas and other forms of positivediscrimination are not in breach of any humanrights or democratic law, and thus should beused. Positive discrimination compensateswomen for the many years that they wereexcluded and placed in the political wilderness.There is an unavoidable discrimination at work inthe electoral systems worldwide, and if anothertype of discrimination is temporarily necessarilyto combat it then it must be used. A true'meritocracy' only works when candidates arestarting from equal positions. Dame Ann BeggMP has said that positive discrimination isabsolutely crucial for ensuring the bestcandidates apply: \"If under-represented groupsare not encouraged to apply, you cannot get thebest person for the job. Women, for example,are less likely to put themselves forward asMPs\"2. Nobody is saying that positive", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-con01b", "title": "", "text": "MPs will still be freely chosen representatives.Constituents can vote for any of the candidateson the ballot; if they disagree with a party's useof quotas or all-women shortlists they can casttheir vote elsewhere. The emphasis, as always invoting, will be on the party. It does not limit theirfreedom of suffrage at all: we still vote for thecandidate we feel will best represent ourinterests.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Artificial increases in numbers of women are notnecessary, as there are other, less intrusive,alternatives to increase visibility of women inpolitics Positive discrimination is an extremelyheavy-handed way of increasing the numbers ofwomen in parliament. Women should of coursehave the same opportunities for participation inpolitics (and other male-dominated institutionsshould as business) as men; but they should nothave more; Ann Widdecombe has argued thatfemale campaigners, such as the Suffragettes,\"wanted equal opportunities not specialprivileges\"1. Many believe that otherempowerment programs, such as education,would be much more effective for creating equalopportunities and create less controversy whichcould end up being counter-productive for thecause. Statistically, 1 billion people in the worldare illiterate; two thirds of them are women2.Education is the most crucial tool to give womenthe same opportunities of men, particularly indeveloping countries. That will insure that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-con04a", "title": "", "text": "THIS HOUSE WOULD INTRODUCE POSITIVEDISCRIMINATION TO PUT MORE WOMEN INPARLIAMENT Women are vastlyunderrepresented in democratic legislaturesacross the world. Until 20 years ago women hadnever been more than 5% of MPs in UKParliament1. Even today wom How is thisdifferent to being elected because of theparticular party you represent? CertainlyMargaret Thatcher was not helped as a woman,but she was elected to represent Finchley, inMiddlesex, which is a traditionally Conservativeconstituency; it was inevitable that she would beelected because she stood in a Tory 'safe seat'.Thatcher was thus elected not through her ownindividual merit or competence, but ratherbecause she represented the party who alwayswon there. It must also be noted that quotas andall-women shortlists do not necessarily meanthat the best person is unavailable. Jacqui Smith,the first female Home Secretary, was elected onan all-women shortlist1. She would not have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Positive discrimination for women isdiscrimination Merely glossing 'positive'discrimination does not hide the fact that it is stilldiscrimination. The Labour Party's policy in the1990s of discriminating in favour of women inselecting candidates for parliament was rightlyfound to be in breach of the Sex DiscriminationAct 1975 as it disadvantages potential malecandidates1. The law may have been changed,but the principle of the objection remains andall-women shortlists are only legal until20152which demonstrates a level of uncertaintyand reservation about its true legality. Equality isenough to compensate for past unfairness. MPsshould be the best on offer, and the one chosenfreely by constituents, otherwise this is notdemocracy. All-Women shortlists seem to, insome ways, detract from the purpose of havingelections if candidate lists are restricted. 1 'Allwomen shortlists', Wikipedia 2 'Election bill willmake all-women shortlists legal' by Marie Woolf,The Independent, 18th October 2001", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-con01a", "title": "", "text": "All-women shortlists or quotas restrict aconstituent's freedom of choice Article 21 of theHuman Rights Act, clauses 1 and 3, state that\"everyone has the right to take part in thegovernment of his country, directly or throughfreely chosen representatives and the will of thepeople shall be the basis of the authority ofgovernment; this will shall be expressed inperiodic and genuine elections which shall beuniversal and equal suffrage and shall be held bysecret vote or by equivalent free votingprocedure\". Candidates on all-women shortlistswould not be freely chosen by constituents butimposed upon them. Some constituencies wouldhave all-women shortlists, and some wouldn't,and this would be completely arbitrary; people'schoice of candidate would vary immenselyaccording to where they live, and this isundemocratic. By allocating a specific number ofseats to women in parliament parties would beinfringing this universal law which will impactupon the fundamental human rights of the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-con04b", "title": "", "text": "If people feel that a woman has been appointedsimply for her gender rather than for her talents,then this will damage rather than enhance thestatus of female MPs1: they will, many argue,become simply \"token women\"2. Many leadingfemale MPs oppose all-women shortlists on amatter of principle. Ann Widdecombe claims theyare \"an insult to women\": she said, \"NeitherMargaret Thatcher nor I needed this kind of helpto get into Parliament\"3. At a different time, AnnWiddecombe has said: \"The concept of merit isgoing out of the window. I don't care whether anMP is male or female, black or white, rich orpoor, old or young. What matters is the meritthey bring. We really cannot have targets forparticular categories. It's frankly insultingbecause it suggests women and ethnic minoritiescannot get there on their own merit\"4. Whetherit is true that a lesser-able candidate gets aneasier ride in on all-women shortlists, the factremains that people will perceive that as havingbeen the case. This may result in their views", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pggsghwip-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Other options will not have a large enough orfast enough impact on the state of politics. Mostwomen have found that \"Even where womenhave indicated willingness and self-confidence tostand for public office, their efforts had beenthwarted by male dominated and administrativestructures\"1. Certainly women must beempowered through education and other suchindirect methods, but that is not enough alone toincrease female MPs. Shortlists and quotas are anecessary step to raise the profile of women inpolitics, and would only be needed up until thepoint where their representation is equal withoutthis. Education is a crucial part of a long-termstrategy, but we also need short term impetus.Positive discrimination gives women a temporaryplatform from where they can make a differencefor generations to come. 1 'Director calls foraffirmative action for women into leadershippositions', Modern Ghana, 19th December 2006", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Countries can develop their nuclear-relatedtechnologies without the need to direct efforts tothe construction of extremely dangerous,miniature nuclear weapons. Rather, if superiortechnology is desired, the resources exist inWestern countries to do most research withouteven touching nuclear materials, being able to domuch of the research by means of computer.Dominance in nuclear engineering does notrequire the creation of such weapons. It is betterto direct research toward peaceful applications ofnuclear technology.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Designing and constructing tactical nuclearweapons allow a state's scientists to maintain acompetitive position in nucleartechnology. Research and development intotactical nuclear weapons are essential forcountries to maintain their technological edge inthe field of nuclear science. The United Stateshas long enjoyed technological dominance in thefield of nuclear weaponry. However, in recentyears China and Russia have begun to poureffort into developing ever-smaller nuclearweapons for tactical deployment. If the UnitedStates and the other nuclear powers wish tomaintain their position within the nuclear techorder, they must begin investing further indevelopment of similar miniaturized nucleardevices. Research into the design andconstruction of mini-nukes provides a number ofbenefits beyond the tactical flexibility conferredby such weapons. First, developing mini-nukesputs designers and scientists in the West on thesame intellectual page as those seeking to devise", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "All rogue states that might attack the UnitedStates or other Western countries would likely beunable to withstand a conventional militaryattack from one of them. For this reason, anyretaliation to a crude nuclear attack from a roguestate would more likely, and more justifiably,incur retaliation by conventional military force.With its massive conventional bombs, air and seadominance, and tactical superiority, the UnitedStates, for example would be better served byresponding to nuclear aggression withoverwhelming conventional firepower. Ratherthan validating nuclear retaliation, and thusopening the door to similar responses in thefuture, it is better to respond to such situationswith conventional power.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "All countries have an inherent right toself-defense even when they lack the capacity todo so with conventional weapons. States, as thebuilding blocks of international society, have aninviolable right to self-defense, and this rightextends to the possession of miniature, tacticalnuclear weapons. Often states lack the capacityto defend themselves with conventionalweapons. This is particularly true of small andpoor states. Even wealthy, small states aresusceptible to foreign attack, since their wealthcannot make up for their lack of manpower.When armed with tactical nuclear weapons, allstates become equal in terms of capacity to doharm to one another. If a large state attempts tointimidate, or even invade a smaller neighbor, itwill be unable to effectively cow it, since thesmall state will have the power to severelydamage, or even destroy, the would-be invader'smilitary capacity with a few well-placed miniaturenuclear missiles [1]. An example of this is the2008 invasion of Georgia by Russian troops,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Countries need to design nuclear devices toadapt with changing defensivetechnology. There are a number of technologicaldevelopments that have made the use ofconventional weapons ineffective in combatingcertain threats. For example, some bunkers areburied so deeply underground that conventionalbombs cannot penetrate them. Weapons such asthe Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator (RNEP),currently in development in the United States,would be able to penetrate such bunkers, whileleaving no more surface damage than aconventional bomb1. Deployment of a weaponsuch as the RNEP might prove necessary in orderto stop proliferation of nuclear weapons in roguestates, as for example, Iran has built extremelytough bunkers for the purpose of nuclear testingand storage of weapons of mass destruction.Blocking the development of necessary tacticalnuclear technologies actually raises the chancesof these dangerous states obtaining nuclearweapons. Another instance of tactical nuclear", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Conventional weapons are perfectly capable ofdealing with the issues and conflicts for whichtactical nuclear weapons are designed, and areless risky to employ. The predictions by theUnited States government that the RNEP wouldproduce little fallout, for example, appearunfounded. On the contrary, the weapon wouldlikely scatter deadly nuclear fallout for milesaround a target site, causing terrible destructionand collateral damage1. Furthermore,developments in conventional weapons can servethe same purposes, if with slightly greaterdifficulty. New super bunker-buster bombs are indevelopment in the United States that do notcarry a nuclear payload, and fuel-air bombs can,with their wide incendiary range, destroyfactories and incinerate any hazardous materialsquite effectively. New nuclear weapons are notnecessary for the tactical concerns of the future.1 Union of Concerned Scientists. 2005. \"RobustNuclear Earth Penetrator\".", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "While states should of course have the right todefend themselves, this does not extend to thepossession and use of tactical nuclear weapons.Just as biological and chemical weapons arebanned by international treaty, so too has theinternational community generally acknowledgedthat nuclear proliferation is negative, which iswhy so many treaties are dedicated tonon-proliferation [1]. It is a tragedy that nuclearweapons exist, even more so that a fewcountries are still seeking to develop them. It isbetter to fight this movement, to keep nuclearweapons in as few hands as possible so as toprevent their development, testing, and use byrogue states, terrorists, and other dangers tointernational security. This is all the more true oftactical nuclear weapons, whose smaller size anddestructive capacity make them not only easierfor terrorists to acquire, but also to be used, andthus to instigate a rapid escalation to full-scalenuclear war. [1] Shah, Anup. 2009. “NuclearWeapons”. Global Issues. Available:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The unwillingness of the United States andRussia to give up tactical nuclear weapons showssome of the hypocrisy running through the NewSTART. The treaty should make an effort toeliminate nuclear weapons completely, not justsome. Furthermore, tactical nuclear weapons aremore dangerous than their larger strategiccounterparts because they are much smaller,and thus lend themselves to actually be used,which raises serious risks of escalation.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Tactical nuclear warheads are more serviceablefor use in intimidation and retaliation towardenemies, as they are considerably lesscatastrophically destructive than those of currentnuclear arsenals. For deterrence to function,rogue states and other international actors withnuclear capabilities, such as North Korea, mustbelieve that their would-be target will retaliate inkind if attacked, tactical nuclear weapons providea middle option. Given that these rogue stateswould likely only have access to low-yieldnuclear weapons, it is unlikely that they would beable to launch a nuclear attack capable of morethan damaging a Western city. Furthermore, therelative difficulty of developing deliverablenuclear weapons means that rogue nations areincreasingly looking toward the acquisition anddevelopment of alternative weapons of massdestruction, such as chemical, biological, andradiological weapons. Were the United States, oranother nuclear power, to be attacked by any ofthese weapons, it is unlikely that it, or the", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The feeling of security generated by possessionof tactical nuclear weapons will give states thepolitical will to decommission standing nucleararsenals. Development and deployment oftactical nuclear weapons can be viewed as asuitable replacement for the thousands ofstrategic nuclear missiles and launchers beingdecommissioned as part of the recently ratifiedNew START between Russia and the UnitedStates, which represents a major step towardnon-proliferation of strategic nuclear weapons.The treaty exempts tactical nuclear weapons byomitting them from the language of the treaty,including as yet undeveloped miniaturewarheads, as both the United States and Russiahave come to see the possession anddeployment of tactical nuclear weapons as key totheir national security. Replacing large numbersof strategic nuclear weapons with a smallerquantity of lower capacity tactical weaponsmarks a major movement away fromproliferation of potentially world-destroying", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Safeguards can be put in place to ensure thatpower over nuclear weapons is not devolved toofar. Central control of launch codes, for example,can allow dispersed deployment and tacticalcontrol, without compromising the overallstrategic security of the weapons. Furthermore,in the case of Pakistan, it seems more likely thatits deployment of tactical nuclear weapons willsimply serve as an additional deterrent topotential Indian incursions into the country. It isPakistan's right to defend itself by whatevermeans available to it, tactical nuclear weaponsincluded.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Much of the technology of tactical nuclearweapons is still in the early stages ofdevelopment. While many of the weapons, suchas the RNEP, cannot yet be applied in the field,their eventual development could open the doorto a broad range of strategic considerations. Forthat reason, it is imperative that work in thisfield continue, to guarantee that states can havethe best defenses available to them and thegreatest tactical flexibility in the event of conflict.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Moving nuclear diplomacy away from the fear ofMutually Assured Destruction undermines worldstability. Tactical nuclear weapons underminethe overarching structure of deterrence innuclear diplomacy. Nuclear weapons createstability, as described in the doctrine of MutuallyAssured Destruction (MAD). Countries withnuclear weapons have no incentive to engage inopen military conflict with one another; allrecognize that they will suffer destruction if theychoose the path of war1. If countries havenuclear weapons, fighting simply becomes toocostly. This serves to defuse conflicts, andreduce the likelihood of the outbreak of war.When states have nuclear weapons they cannotfight, making the world a more peaceful place.Furthermore, armed with a nuclear deterrent, allstates become equal in terms of ability to doharm to one another 2. If a large state attemptsto intimidate or to invade a smaller neighbor, itwill be unable to effectively subdue it, since thesmall state will have the power to seriously", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The development of tactical nuclear weapons byone state would lead to a new global armsrace. When one state develops a new militarytechnology that could potentially tip the strategicbalance in its favor, other countries are quick totake notice and to attempt to develop thetechnology themselves. During the Cold War, thenuclear arms race between the United States andSoviet Union reached a fever pitch, with bothstates spending vast quantities of money andresources to build newer, deadlier, and evermore plentiful nuclear arsenals. Since thedissolution of the Soviet Union, however, thenuclear arms race has been at low ebb. Recentmoves by the United States, as well as Russiaand China, to develop newer, smaller nuclearweapons, as well as to open discussion of tacticalapplication of such weapons outside theparadigm of MAD, however, threaten to bring thenuclear arms race into the 21st century1. Ifnuclear weapons begin to permeate the tacticaldecisions of states, from use in bunker-busting", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The way tactical nuclear weapons need to bedeployed control of their use is devolved to fieldcommanders, vastly increasing the probabilitythat in the event of conflict they would beused. Tactical nuclear weapons are muchsmaller than their strategic counterparts, and aredesigned to be deployed in higher numbers andnearer the enemy. This reality has a number ofvery negative consequences when consideringthe likelihood of nuclear war. First, control overtactical nuclear weapons is necessarily devolvedto field commanders, since they control both thewarheads and delivery systems for the weaponsdeployed near the enemy. This necessarilyincreases the likelihood of trigger-happycommanders using nuclear weapons, and littlepractical means of stopping them. Second,because of their deployment positions, should anenemy make an incursion into a country'sterritory, its tactical nuclear weapons batteriescould risk capture by the invader. This generatesa \"use them or lose them\" problem, and when", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Tactical nuclear weapons are very expensive todesign and build, yet will likely have no newstrategic value. Countries have spent manybillions of dollars developing tactical nuclearweapons in recent decades in the hope ofmaintaining their positions as nuclear powerswith access to a whole range of terrifyingweapons. However, little real applicability existsfor most of these weapons. Weapons such as theRobust Nuclear Earth Penetrator (RNEP), beingdeveloped in the United States at enormous cost,is designed to burrow deep underground todestroy enemy bunkers, yet it is as yet unusable,since the weapon cannot as yet burrow even atenth of the distance underground necessary toprevent considerable radioactive fallout in thearea surrounding the blast site1. In fact, manyscientists say the weapon is a chimera and willnever be capable of doing what it is meant towithout risking huge collateral damage.Furthermore, it is unlikely that many stateswould consider the use of nuclear weapons", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con04b", "title": "", "text": "There is no real risk of a new global arms racearising from the development of tactical nuclearweapons. No country is suggesting, nor wouldever likely suggest, a relaxing of controls on theuse of nuclear weapons. Tactical nuclearweapons are simply more advanced, morediscriminating nuclear weapons. They would notbe used except in the utmost extremity, as withall nuclear weapons. While tactical nuclearweapons may find greater applicability in thefield, it does not mean they would result in a newarms race.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-dhwdtnw-con02b", "title": "", "text": "MAD is not an effective means of maintainingworld security. It relies upon states being tooafraid to ever attack one another with nuclearweapons, but the risk of one doing so remains,irrespective of the doctrine. It has too manyinherent risks and raises the very real chance, asweapons amass and proliferate, of their beingused1. At the same time, should a nuclearweapon be used by a rogue state against anothercountry, that country must have some means ofretaliation. The problem is that the weapon likelyto be used in such an attack will be crude andincapable of doing the sort of damage that arefined nuclear weapon of the Western nuclearpowers could. This makes the question of whatconstitutes a proportional response difficult toanswer. Should North Korea, for example, everbe able to attack the United States or its allieswith nuclear weapons, its crude missiles willwarrant a response, but quite possibly not astrategic nuclear missile-sized response. For thisreason, the development of smaller, more", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The rules under which an individual citizenoperate are different from those of corporationsand should remain that way. Corporations andindividuals are two completely different entitiesand they represent different interests. While anindividual accounts for her interests, a companyrepresents a large number of people. In addition,difference in the size of individual and corporatecampaign contributions is usually quitesignificant. Despite increasing number ofindividual contributions, the donations from largeinterest groups, such as corporations, oftenexceeds sums from individuals as in 2000 and2001- by $176 million and &171 millionrespectively. Empirical evidence suggests thatlarge sums from corporations almost never buysvotes but access to policy-makers at keymoments of policymaking after campaigns whichhas serious implications on the levels ofcorruption. [1] While individuals often contributeas an act of democratic participation, the interestgroups donate money in campaigns as", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "In regards to free speech, corporations shouldhave the same rights as individuals if they arespending money on the campaigns. When acorporation and an individual are both trying toachieve the same goal, they should be able to doso in the same way. It would be unfair if thecampaign finance reform limits the amount thatan individual could contribute, but not that of acorporation when it is apparent that corporationsare contributing considerably larger amountsthan individuals as seen in the case of thepharmaceutical industry. Corporations need tohave the same rights and limitations oncampaign contributions and economicfreedom. This was why the US Supreme Courtruled that the federal ban on spending bycorporations was unconstitutional under the FirstAmendment Act in 2010. This led to the SuperPACs because they represent an association ofpeople and have the right to freedom of speechand political preference. Reforms, such asBipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) may", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Even under the most radical proposals forreform, loopholes will exist and enablecandidates to spend more or reach theiraudiences through alternative means. This wasprecisely the kind of development which ledreformers to want to close the soft-moneyloophole. As with the tax system, the moreelaborate the regulation, the more obscure anddistorting the ways that are adopted to getaround it. There is actually a higher turnover inpublic office than some critics of the presentcampaign finance systems would like to admit.Retirements, scandals, and careful allocation ofparty resources make turnover possible under avariety of scenarios. Turnover also has significantnegative effects, as critics of term limits havepointed-out. The more often new officeholdersbegin their jobs the steeper the \"learning curve\"for a new Congress or other legislative bodybecomes. Moreover, the effect for challengerscould be different. Finance limitations benefit themost popular candidates who already have a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Anonymity increases the distortive effects ofmoney in American politics. Allowing anonymityof contribution to “Issue Ads” and to Super PACsonly amplifies the corrosive effect money has onAmerican politics. Without knowing where thefunding for particular “Issue Ads” come from, theintentions of contributors can be obfuscated andissues can be easily branded into politicalpalatable campaigns by allowing contributors tokeep themselves and their agendas hidden [1] .Using names such as the “America Future Fund”[2] and the “Coalition of American Seniors” [3]political allegiances and agendas are hidden fromview, removing a much needed critical evaluationof those who contribute and what their ends are.Further to this, the anonymity of Super PACsmake it easy for foreign contributors, who arebanned by US law from contributing tocampaigns, to secretly contribute to campaigns,helping to skew American democracy by givingundue political influence to foreign corporationsand their interests [4] . Anonymity of Super", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Neither individuals nor corporations should bepermitted to make unlimitedcontributions Currently, Super PACs areorganizations that can receive unlimitedcontributions, which encourages the belief thatthe amount of money contributed is directlycorrelated to the amount of influence the donorcould have. By permitting individuals orcorporations to make unlimited contributions, thecurrent legislation undermines the democraticcharacter of the elective process. Political figuresrelated to the sponsored Super PACs have anincentive to satisfy the needs of those whocontribute huge amounts of funding towardstheir campaign rather than meet the needs ofthe average citizen. This is not the way thatdemocracy should be; it must represent theviewpoint and needs of the majority of thepopulation, not just the small fraction of it that iswealthy enough to effectively pay for policiesthey want. Furthermore, caps on contributions toSuper PACs will bring competition in elections", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "To limit the ability of any person or a group, toinfluence a democratic political process is ratherundemocratic and discriminatory. Groups shouldto be able to express their voice, and attempt toinfluence politics. Any form of limitation of that isan infringement of their rights as citizens in ademocratic country. Limiting contributions couldequally be used to achieve a partisan advantage.The Tillman Act banning corporate contributionsto campaigns in 1907 is a good example. It wassponsored by the South Carolina senator Tillmanwho wanted to embarrass President Rooseveltfor his heavily reliance on corporate funding inhis 1904 election campaign. Tillman oftenbragged about his role in vote frauds; thus,revealing his bill was less about public good andmore to gain partisan advantage. [1] This wasrepeated a couple of times since, despite thenumerous regulatory bills that have beenpassed. According to Smith’s research, the effectof campaign-finance regulations has been to helppeople who passed them and to strengthen", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "Releasing the names of individual people whohave contributed to a campaign will in no wayindicate what interests were at play in creating aparticular political campaign ad or strategy.Moreover, this is at best an argument againstpropagandizing political ads, not one forreleasing the names of people who financiallydonated to that ad. The campaign financereform failed to achieve political equality anddoes not affect wealthy donors or prominentcandidates. Often, the most authentic grassrootscandidates and campaigns are burdened by suchregulations. In 2000, Mac Warren ran forCongress in Texas and spent just $40, 000, halfof his money. 2 pieces of the literature failed tocontain the required notice that the literaturewas paid for by the committee and his campaignwas fined by $1,000. [1] [1] Smith, Bradley.\"The Myth of Campaign Finance Reform.\"Campaign Finance: The Problems andConsequences of Reform. Ed. Robert Boatright.New York: International Debate Education", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Even the most radical campaign finance reformproposals have yet to eliminate corporate orunion contributions. Short of such bans, thepotential for large organizations to swamp thedonations of individual voters still exists.Additionally, limitations on the voice of unions,businesses and special interest groups areanother form of potential infringement on therights of free speech and assembly. Who is tosay that a union member’s contribution to theirorganization’s political action committee is notsignificant speech comparable to the individualgesture they make when they donate to acandidate themselves? It is reasonable thatunion members or shareholders choose to trusttheir leaders to use their money in order to bestadvance their interests.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Further reforms would create a level playingfield A further reform limiting super PACs wouldhave the effect of leveling the playing field forcandidates. Candidates with enormousleadership potential but small wallets have faileddue to the lack of resources. Under a reformedcampaign finance system, it will be more difficultfor well-financed candidates to win purelybecause of the money they have. Incumbentcandidates have a unique advantage overchallengers in the present system because oftheir direct connections to important sources ofmoney. Campaign finance reform will makeelections more competitive and thus enhancehigher turnover or \"fresh blood\" in politics. Thisis essential for challenging old orthodoxies andbringing in new ideas. It will also make it easierfor members of ethnic minorities and the workingclass to seek office - such groups aredisproportionately deterred from candidacy bythe current need to raise large sums ofmoney. Quantitative analysis of elections", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Stopping super PACs would place an emphasis onactual issues rather than politicians sellingthemselves. Campaign finance reform gives theindividual donor a voice more comparable toother donors’ interests. At present, theenormous amount of money channeled intocampaigns by large corporations, unions, andspecial interest groups through PACs overwhelmthe smaller, limited contributions of individualdonors. Reforming the super PACs and limitingthese large group donations would increase thesignificance of donations by individual voters,likely increasing the responsiveness ofcandidates to voters/donors and so increasingtheir accountability to their electorate.Additionally, the increased significance ofindividual contributions encourages voterparticipation and activism.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is exactly because certain organizations haveparticular interests that it is important to revealwhen they fund Issue Ads or campaign initiatives[1] . People hold these biases and views oforganizations like the National Rifle Associationfor a reason. If the involvement of thisorganisation invokes suspicion in a conscientiousvoter, then that voter has the right to be alertedabout that suspicion. [1] McIntire, Mike. \"TheSecret Sponsors.\" New York Times 02 Oct 2010,n. pag. Web. 30 Nov. 2011.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-con01b", "title": "", "text": "In the context of sponsoring a campaign figure,there should be no differentiation betweencorporations and individuals. The incentives tofund a candidate and the political outcomes thatresult from corporatist and individualcontributions are the same, therefore, legallytreated as such. The idea that the governmentmay restrict the speech of some elements of oursociety in order to enhance the relative voice ofothers is against the First Amendment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Further campaign finance reform is simplyunrealistic and too ambitious. It is simplyunfeasible for this policy to work effectively.There are two key issues that arise to preventthis policy from having any positiveimpact. Firstly, when dealing with the generalpublic actually knowing who is contributing, thevast majority of these contributions, whetherfrom a corporation or an individual, arecontributed under the names of individuals. Thefirst problem with this is that thousands ofnames of individuals cannot fit into a commercialadvertisement. There would have to be a listcreated which is made public, but, unfortunately,the vast majority of people will not seek this listout and so will not become any more informedabout who is behind the advertisement. Thesecond problem is that even if the public did findthe list, individual names do not hold any weightor indication of the types of interests that arebacking campaigns and advertisements. “JohnSmith” and “Joe Jones” will not indicate to a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Anonymity Ensures that Campaigning Risesabove Identity Attacks. Certain political groupsare politically disenfranchised because ofperceptions about them that exist of in thesociety. Some groups are considered as beingpolitical enemies by their counterparts frommore powerful opposing political parties andtherefore, they cannot engage meaningfully inthe political discourse without being dismissed atthe get-go. Allowing anonymity in Issue Adsallows people and groups to fund political speechand support certain policies and politicaldiscussions without having social perceptions oftheir membership to certain groups taint theirpolitical activity. This is especially important inAmerica where membership to certain groups isconsidered to coincide with political allegiancelike in the case of the National Rifle Associationand the Republican Party. 39% of people saythat they would be less likely to support acandidate if they were supported by the NRA soit is clear that the NRA can best support a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Corporations are fundamentally different thanindividuals and have the right to influencepolitics differently. The rules under which anindividual citizen operate are different from thoseof corporations and should remain that way.Corporations and individuals are two completelydifferent entities and they represent differentinterests. While an individual accounts for herinterests, a company represents a large numberof people and may not fully represent the viewsof any of them. Thus many big companies whilefavoring one party or the other actually give toboth parties, Honeywell International forexample to July 2012 had given more than$2.2million with 63% going to the Republicansand the rest to the Democrats. [1] Thesecompanies clearly then bet on both sides,presumably however their senior staff areactually supporting one or the other. Empiricalevidence suggests that large sums fromcorporation almost never buys votes but accessto policy-makers at key moments of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-pgvhwlacc-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Although it may not be immediately apparent tothe average TV-watcher who is funding thesecampaigns, the importance of releasing thenames of funders is to allow investigativejournalists to conduct research on these namesand draw together any conclusions the publicmay need to know about who is fundingcandidates. This also applies to other techniquesthat corporations may employ to get aroundpublicity. Nevertheless, there is a much betterchance that the dots will be connected for thepublic if the names of donors are released.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-tsihsspa-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Airport profiling is a violation of individual rightsbecause it targets and harms certain groupsmore than others. Muslims and ethnic minoritieswill be especially harmed by security profiling asit will predominantly be members of thesegroups who are detained at departure gates andsubjected to extra scrutiny. This will make themfeel like second-class citizens; they will believethat the government presumes them to beterrorists, even when they areinnocent. Consequently, Arab, Asian and AfricanMuslims, and migrants from majority Muslimstates will benefit much less from securityprofiling than whites and non-Muslims do. If theproposition is correct and profiling is successfulthese groups may benefit from being safer whenflying, however many more of them will alsosuffer far more and more detailed checks inorder to be able to fly. Individual rights sufferwhen a particular person or group is subject tounwarranted discrimination; something whichprofiling, particularly if it had an ethnic", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-tsihsspa-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Profiling is consistent with individualrights: Profiling is not about demonizing peopleor violating their rights. As Mark Farmer argues:\"It still amazes me how words can be so quicklydemonized, so the very mention of the wordcauses irrational outrage. “Profile” doesn’t meanbaseless discrimination against a certainnationality or race — in this case, it meansjudging people at airports by set of criteria whichraise a red flag.\" [1] Profiling, by makingsecurity more effective, would in fact bettersafeguard everyone’s rights. Khalid Mahmood, aMuslim Labour MP for Birmingham, argues: \"Ithink most people would rather be profiled thanblown up. It wouldn't be victimisation of anentire community. I think people will understandthat it is only through something like profilingthat there will be some kind of safety. If peoplewant to fly safely we have to take measures tostop things like the Christmas Day plot. Profilingmay have to be the price we have to pay. Thefact is the majority of people who have carried", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-tsihsspa-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Broad screening at airports does make travellerssafer. As Bruce Schneier, a security technologist,argues: \"As counterintuitive as it may seem,we’re all more secure when we randomly selectpeople for secondary screening — even if itmeans occasionally screening wheelchair-boundgrandmothers and innocent looking children.\" [1]This is because otherwise terrorists can observewhat profiles our security forces are using, byseeing who is stopped and checked more closely,and thus adapt themselves to not be caught bythem. It is not beyond the realm of possibilitythat al-Qaeda could recruit children or the elderlyto be its suicide bombers, and hence randomchecks are essential in order to allow us to havesome chance of catching these terrorists,. If wesimply resort to profiling, we will always be onestep behind the terrorists and will have nochance of catching any of their operatives whofall outside the profiles. [1] Schneier, Bruce.\"Profiling Makes Us Less Safe\". New York Times,Room for Debate. 4 January 2010.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-tsihsspa-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Profiling is effective and necessary: It is anunavoidable fact that most terrorists today fitinto certain demographics and categories, and soit is worth creating profiles of these categoriesand investigating more thoroughly anyone whofits into these profiles, as they are far more likelyto be potential terrorists. As Asra Q. Nomaniargued in 2010: \"As an American Muslim, I’vecome to recognize, sadly, that there is onecommon denominator defining those who’ve gottheir eyes trained on U.S. targets: MANY of themare Muslim—like the Somali-born teenagerarrested Friday night for a reported plot todetonate a car bomb at a packed Christmastree-lighting ceremony in downtown Portland,Oregon. We have to talk about the taboo topic ofprofiling because terrorism experts areincreasingly recognizing that religious ideologymakes terrorist organizations and terrorists morelikely to commit heinous crimes against civilians,such as blowing an airliner out of the sky.Certainly, it’s not an easy or comfortable", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-tsihsspa-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "If terrorists were really unintelligent andunimaginative enough to be beaten by such ablunt tool as security profiling, we would havebeen able to stop them long ago and would nothave the difficult security situation we do now.Rather, if we introduce invasive security profilingsimilar to the procedures used in Israeli airports,terrorists will simply adapt their methods inorder to circumvent it. Terrorists will recruit fromdifferent, non-profiled groups. They will altertheir dress and train their operatives to actdifferently. With respect to American airtransportation, al-Qaeda already appears to bechanging its tactics in response to the stricterscreening and checking processes introduced bythe Department for Homeland Security: since9/11, two attempted attacks on US aviationinvolved a non-Arab Nigerian and a Briton withthe last name of “Reid.” [1] Terrorists can adaptin countless ways which will render securityprofiling not only useless but alsocounter-productive. Innocent men and women", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-tsihsspa-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Profiling is preferable to thealternatives: Expanding the use of profiling willhelp to restrict the use of invasive securitymonitoring strategies such as body scanners andintimate, full contact pat-downs. Body-scanningand patting-down all travelers, including olderdisabled men and women, is an excessive,expensive and humiliating approach topassenger safety. Many civil rights groups inaddition to consumer’s rights organizations andair-travel business analysts feel very stronglythat invasive security procedures violatespassengers’ privacy. Profiling those individualsthat are a real potential threat is a good way toavoid these problems. As Thomas Sowell argues,proponents of invasive pat-downs and bodyscanners “would rather have scanners look underthe clothes of nuns than to detain a Jihadistimam for questioning.\" [1] Alternatives toprofiling are far more invasive and likely to bemore offensive to Muslims than profiling wouldbe. With broad screening of all travelers for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-tsihsspa-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Terrorists have asserted justifications for theiracts long before the idea of security profiling waseven suggested. For example, Osama Bin Ladenjustified the 9/11 attacks on the grounds of thepresence of US troops in Saudi Arabia, USsupport for Israel, and sanctions against Iraq.[1] Airport security profiling will make nosignificant difference to terrorist grievancesagainst the west, but could well make asignificant difference to the efficacy of security.Most Muslims will continue to cooperate withWestern security forces, as their interests are thesame: preventing terrorism and bombings helpsprotect their lives and livelihoods as well. Even ifthe policy is disliked their cooperation willcontinue, as there is simply no workablealternative (short of becoming terroriststhemselves, which is something which the vast,vast majority of Muslims find abhorrent andwould never even consider). [1] Plotz, David.“What does Osama Bin Laden want?”. Slate. 14September 2001.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-tsihsspa-con01b", "title": "", "text": "More screening of travellers who displaysuspicious behaviour does not mean no orinsufficient security surrounding travellers whodo not. Security profiling would simply me a partof the security operation. What it does mean isindividuals who buy one-way tickets with cashand no luggage will be more closely investigated.Yes terrorists may adapt to this, but this willmake it harder for them to operate (as theiroperatives have to act identically to normalpassengers or face exposure) and increase thechances that a ‘slip-up’ of theirs will actually benoticed and investigated by airport security.Moreover it is not so easy for terroristorganisations to find ‘clean’ operatives: theprocess of radicalization and terrorist training isbound to bring such individuals to the attentionof police or security forces at some point,meaning most such individuals will be identifiedas potential terrorists and observed accordingly.Security profiling could actually aid this process.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-tsihsspa-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Profiling is racist: Profiling in many ways wouldsimply result in institutionalized racism, as MarkGerman argues: “racial profiling is wrong,un-American and unconstitutional. It isinstitutionalized racism.” [1] Mark Thompsonadds: “So it’s not 'political correctness' (aka theEqual Protection clause of the 14th Amendment)that is standing in the way of replacing full-bodyscans with a strong and effective profilingsystem: its reality. All that 'political correctness'is preventing is the implementation of an equally(and likely even more) ineffective piece ofsecurity theater in which we single out oneminority group for intensive screening whilegiving a pass to everyone else. This wouldcertainly annoy fewer people, but it wouldn’tmake us safer and its sole benefits would beaccomplished by treating an entire minoritygroup as second-class citizens.\" [2] In any legalsystem which claims to give its citizens equalrights or equal protection of the law, securityprofiling is unacceptable. Profiling will target", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-tsihsspa-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Profiling will increase terrorism not combatit: Profiling alienates groups needed in the fightagainst terrorism. Treating all Muslims assuspects, or being perceived as such,undermines efforts to gain intelligence onterrorists. Profiling the very communities weneed information from to catch terrorists wouldbe counter-productive as they would be lessinclined to come forward. Umar Abdul-Muttallab’sfather for example gave us such information toprevent the Dec. 25 terror plot. [1] Even ifsecurity profiling did make airport security moreeffective as supporters claim (although it wouldnot) without personal intelligence and assistancethe security situation will be far worse than it isnow.. Normal security screening does notalienate these groups in the same way, as it isapplied to everyone (and so they do not feelsingled out) and it can be applied in culturallysensitive ways (for example, ensuring thatpat-downs of Muslim women are always carriedout only by female security officers).", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-tsihsspa-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Profiling is ineffective at increasingsecurity: Terrorists simply do not conform to aneat profile. Many suspects linked to pastterrorist attacks that have been apprehended oridentified come from within the United Statesand European Union countries. Profiling does nothelp against individuals with names and ethnicbackgrounds like Richard Reid, Jose Padilla,David Headley and Michael Finton. [1] Manyterrorists have been European, Asian, African,Hispanic, and Middle Eastern, male and female,young and old. A significant number of domesticand aspiring terrorists have been found to be“clean skins” – individuals with no prior link toknown fundamentalists, who have radicalisedthemselves by seeking out terror relatedmaterials on the internet. Umar Farouk AbdulMutallab was Nigerian. Richard Reid, the shoebomber, was British with a Jamaican father.Germaine Lindsay, one of the 7/7 Londonbombers, was Afro-Caribbean. Dirty bombsuspect Jose Padilla was Hispanic-American. The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-tsihsspa-con02b", "title": "", "text": "As conservative columnist Deroy Murdock put it:“We are not arguing that the TSA should sendanyone named Mohammad to be waterboardedsomewhere between the first-class lounge andthe Pizza Hut.” [1] There is simply no reason whysecurity profiling necessarily has to be, or beperceived as, racist or targeted against certaingroups. The vast majority of Muslim travellers donot display the kinds of suspicious behaviourwhich profiling will largely be based on, there willbe no reason for them to seem nervous, and sowill not be negatively impacted: indeed they willbenefit by not being forced to submit to invasivepat-downs or body scans. They will similarlybenefit from being safer in the air, as securityprofiling will improve the efficacy of airportsecurity and decrease the chances of a terroristattack which would kill Muslim and non-Muslimpassengers alike. If profiling does end upresulting in more of a particular ethnic groupbeing checked then this will not be because theprofiling is racist but because these people are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "The distribution of the vote is more importantthan the percentages for each candidate. Theentire point of having the electoral college is tothat it can act as a check on the majority vote isto ensure that the candidate who is best suitedand had the broadest amount of support winsthe presidency. If it was simply determined bypopular vote than certain regions of the countrywould have a greater influence on the outcomeof who won. The electoral college acts as acounterbalance to that.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The electoral college violates the democraticprinciple that the winner should be the candidatereceiving the most votes. In 1824, 1876, 1888,2000, and probably 1960, the candidatereceiving the most votes for president lost theelection [1] . This occurs because all but twostates award all their electoral votes to thecandidate winning a plurality in the state;because all states receive two electoral votescorresponding to their two US senators; becausethe number of House seats (which serve as thebasis of the remaining electoral votes) oftenpoorly match the population of the state;because states cast electoral votes no matterhow many people actually vote; and because thesize of the House is arbitrary. [1] Factcheck.org,‘Presidents Winning Without Popular Vote’,Annenberg Public Policy Center, 24 March 2008,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "No one defends this aspect of the electoralcollege. It is indefensible. However, it isimportant to note that the election has nevercome to the House of Representatives choosingthe president. It is merely a plan of last resort toensure that there is a president.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "The electoral college weakens incentives forvoting and party building. There is no incentivefor candidates to mobilize voters in states theyare sure to win – or sure to lose, and voters havelittle incentive to vote in noncompetitive stateswhere their vote is likely not to matter. Somestates like Texas just have a fairly predictablevoting record- they have voted republican 9 outof the last 10 presidential elections. Democraticpresidential candidates do not spend much timein Texas for that reason. [1] [1] “Texas” 270 toWin.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The electoral college violates the democraticprinciple of equality in voting Under the electoralcollege, all votes do not count equally. Voters insome states have more say in selecting thepresident than voters in other states. Forexample, California has 55 electoral collegevotes, while Delaware only get 3 votes. There isnot equality in that, every state should be equal,California for voting purposes is no moreimportant that Delaware. [1] [1] Electoral Map.Wikipedia. [Online] Available at:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The US is not a pure democracy. The electoralcollege is one of the checks on majority rule. It isnot violating the principle of equality of voting,because it gives every state a proportional voicebased on their population. The states that havemore of a say also have a larger population ofvoters, therefore it is proportional. California hasthe largest population for any state, andtherefore gets the largest number of votes in theelectoral college.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "This argument is suggestion that there is simplya strategy behind elections- which is true forevery election. The electoral college frameworkdoes make a candidate have to acquire a numberof states, in order to win, and while there may besome states that it is not the best use of timeand resources to campaign as hard in. But thisdoes require candidates have a broad base ofsupport in order to win the presidency.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The propositions argument is not only a logicalfallacy, but also discourages democracy. It isillogical to argue that because Ralph Nader got afew votes in New Hampshire and Florida that ifhe was not on ballot they would have voted forAl Gore instead. Furthermore, the Americanelectoral framework is comprised almostexclusively of a two party system, and anycandidate who runs on a third party ballot needsto be given extra support just to have anychance at all of even securing just a few votes.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "If no candidate receives a majority of theelectoral vote, the House of Representativeschooses the president, with each state receivingone vote. This provision allows the 7 smalleststates with a population of about 4.9 million tooutvote the 6 largest states with a population of119 million. [1] This is blatently unfair. [1]Congress, XII - Manner of Choosing a Presidentand Vice-President, 27 July 1804,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "The electoral college allows small third parties totip the balance in a state and distort thepreferences of the voters. In 2000, Ralph Nadersiphoned a few votes from Al Gore in NewHampshire and Florida, costing Gore victoriesand thus the election. Nevertheless, Gore wasthe preferred choice of voters in a match up withGeorge W. Bush. [1] [1] Archives.gov,‘Historical Election Results’, ‘Electoral CollegeBox Scores 1789-1996’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The electoral college encourages thirdparties. Under the electoral college, a third partywith regional support can win something: astate. The winner take all aspect of directelection of the president with no runoffdiscourages third parties because they have tocome in first to win anything.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-con01b", "title": "", "text": "There is no such thing as a small state interest.States do not embody coherent, unifiedinterests, nor do they require protection. TheConstitution places many constraints on theactions of simple majorities, and the Senateprovides extraordinary representation to smallstates. Moreover, candidates ignore most smallstates in their campaigns.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-con02a", "title": "", "text": "The electoral college is an essential bulwark offederalism. The electoral college emphasizingthe role of states, and abolishing it wouldweaken federalism. This system reinforces thedivision and sharing of powers between thestates and the national government. Without itthe national government would have muchgreater power over the state governments, andthe voice of the people would be quieter. Theelectoral college is essential to preserving thepower of individuals through theirstate. Additionally, the Electoral College helpsreinforce stable institutions that are essential formaintaining a political regime and preserving afree society. [1] [1] England, Trent. “What is‘National Popular Vote’?” Save Our States.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-con05a", "title": "", "text": "The electoral college forces candidates to winbroad coalitions across the country, encouragingnational harmony. In direct election of thepresident, candidates might appeal to clusters ofvoters, whose votes could be aggregated acrossstates and regions, perhaps representing onlyone strata of society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Casting votes by state forces candidates to beattentive to local interests, which they wouldotherwise ignore in a national campaign. Theelectoral college is helping promote democracythrough implementing a mechanism that makecandidates pay attention to local issues, andactually do what they are elected to do- servethe interests of their constituents. A presidentialcandidate is of course going to focus on a morenational level interest, but in order to visit andcampaign across the country, the candidate mustbe at least aware of the issues that of particularinterest to the local area.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The electoral college inhibits the emergence ofthird parties and thus acts as a bulwark againstextremist candidates. The founding fathers hada reason to fear the emergence of extremistparties. A modern day example is with Rwanda.When they gained a multiparty democracy,without checks on majority rule, it allowed forextremist parties to enter politics and madepossible the use of public resources tomanipulate the population which set thenecessary precondition of ethnic hatred thatenabled the genocide to occur [1] . [1]Mamdani, M., 2001. When Victims BecomeKillers. Princeton N.J.: Princeton UniversityPress. p209", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-con05b", "title": "", "text": "Candidates ignore large areas of the country intheir campaigns. Moreover, George W. Bush lostmost major demographic groups in winningelection in 2000 under the electoral college.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-con01a", "title": "", "text": "The electoral college prevents a tyranny of themajority. The interests of states, especiallysmall states, would be lost in a majoritariannational campaign. The electoral college forcescandidates to be attentive to stateinterests. When the founding fathers created theelectoral college it was with the many purposesin mind, but the tyranny of the masses is themost appropriate in mind here. It is important toremember the timeframe that the US wascreated in, there was not a very high literacyrate, and it would become very easy without acheck on majority rule for someone tomanipulate the population when entering power[1] . [1] United States of America, 1787. TheConstitution of the United States. [Online]Available at: [Accessed 27 April 2012].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Candidates do not focus on local interestsbecause of the electoral college. The evidence isoverwhelming. Candidates do not campaign inmost states, nor do they run advertisements inthem. Instead, the electoral college providesincentives to focus on competitive states,especially large competitive states. Moreover,candidates do not focus on local interests in thestates they do visit. We do not need apresidency responsive to parochial interests in asystem that is already prone to gridlock andwhich offers minority interests extraordinaryaccess to policymakers and opportunities tothwart policies they oppose.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-politics-gvhwauec-con02b", "title": "", "text": "The electoral college is not a federal principle.Federalism was not mentioned at theConstitutional Convention in relation to theelectoral college. The electoral college does notenhance the power or sovereignty of states.Federalism is based on representation inCongress and the Constitution’s allocation ofpowers to the states, not on the electoralcollege.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Politicians are not true stand-ins. They representthe interests of the people on a policy basis noton the basis of their personal lives. Trying todivine personalities in politicians inevitablyresults in misallocation of the limited resourcesof time and energy people can generally spendinforming themselves about candidates. Rather,the focus of voters should be drawn to theissues, which is where true policy comes from. Ofcourse temperament and actions in one’s privatelife may be an indicator to how the politician willreact but their ideology and policy positions arelikely to be a much more certain indicator. Focuson private lives only obscures the truth ofpolicies and reduces the quality of representationas a result.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Citizens have a right to know who is beingelected to represent them Beyond the discussionof the balancing of the right to privacy, it isimportant to understand the nature ofrepresentatives as stand-ins for the citizens whoelect them. In other words, politicians aresurrogates. Their duty is to represent the peoplein public life across all issues and policies. [1] Yetit is impossible to ascertain the desires of thecitizens on all issues in the course of an electioncampaign. Even harder is to understand politicaldecision-making in a context that had not existedat the time of the election. For example, if a warwas to begin suddenly in a country that had notexpected any conflict and had not electedrepresentatives on the basis of how they stoodon fighting this war. But that is exactly whypoliticians are elected as much for who they areas what their avowed policy aims are. We electpoliticians who we believe will act best undersuch changing conditions; the ‘3 am phone call’,how a candidate will react in a crisis, is often a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "All intense scrutiny will do is make fewer peoplebe willing to enter politics. This does not meanthe most capable will stay, only those with ahigher tolerance for media intrusion, and thosewith a talent for concealment and spin. Theresult is not better governance, because the poolof potential leaders is reduced by the addedpressures of losing all hope of privacy. Loss ofthe right privacy means worse governance.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The right to privacy is not absolute and issacrificed in standing for public office A rightsuch as that to privacy is not absolute. Rightsare general statements of principle that are thencaveated and curtailed in the interests of society.When an individual seeks elevation to publicoffice, he or she must accept that the role is aspecial one in society. As the representative ofthe people, the politician is more than just theholder of a job appointed by the people, but isthe elected servant, whose duty is to lead.Leadership includes leading by example as wellas simply directing policy. It is a strangerelationship, and it is one that demands theutmost confidence in the holder. But confidencecan only be developed through increasedscrutiny and transparency. This meansunderstanding the private life of the politician,since it so often informs their public life. Thus,when citizens place their political power in thehands of an elected representative, they gain thereciprocal right over that representative to have", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Even if one concedes that such rights are notentirely sacrosanct, it is important to recognisethat rights should apply universally and shouldstill be defended. The right to privacy is alsoimportant, and must include politicians who,while fulfilling an important societal role, are notso special as to merit significant curtailment ofrights. So long as politicians do their duty byrepresenting the interests of those that electedthem in a legislative framework, they arefulfilling their end of the covenant with thepeople, leaving no room for any nebulousadditional right of citizens over politicians. Theyare elected to do a job not for their life.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The power structures that command people arebest challenged through attention to policy andshaping the discourse in a positive manner.Attention to private lives is simply salacious anddoes nothing to actually forward the cause ofgroups outside the elite. In fact, focus on thefoibles of the few serves only to confuse andmisdirect public sentiment away from where itmight do the most good in the furtherance ofchange. If anything deserves intense scrutiny itis the power structures themselves, such asOxbridge in the United Kingdom, not on theindividuals who are mere products of it.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Heavy scrutiny forces politicians to dedicatethemselves fully to their public service Whenpoliticians see themselves constantly under thelens of public scrutiny, they are essentially forcedto dedicate themselves wholesale to their dutiesas representatives. They are disincentivized inthe extreme to pursue any transgressive orhypocritical activities behind closed doors,resulting in more energy dedicated to legislating,and less to lining their pockets or chasinginterns, since the added risk of being discoveredincreases the cost of trying to conceal theirfoibles. [1] Having a culture of scrutiny ofpoliticians private lives will mean those who mostsee their work as a public service and so will bededicated to it will be the ones who seek tobecome politicians. Dominique Strauss-Kahn’slurid sex life has thrown light on the sexualmisconduct rife in French politics and hasactually sparked a major effort to reform thesystem and a change to a more demandingculture towards politicians. [2] Politicians are", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Heavy scrutiny serves to challenge existingpower structures The power structures thatcommand peoples’ lives are often difficult toidentify. While there are usually multiplecandidates to choose from at election time, inmany polities they all tend to come out fromsmall-based elite. Oxford and Cambridge, forexample, serve as the incubators of power in theUnited Kingdom. They hold vastlydisproportionate sway in composition ofParliament and other political posts, and tend todominate the front benches of all the parties.What media scrutiny, particularly with the adventof new media, has served to be is a massivecheck on entrenched elites. They challenge themin their lofty offices and strike at their veryhearts when they behave in ways inappropriateor hypocritical. [1] This scrutiny is often one ofthe only pure democratic powers available toordinary people, even in a liberaldemocracy. [1] Thompson, J. 2011. “ShiftingBoundaries of Public and Private Life”. Theory", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Even if the media occasionally distracts frommore pressing issues, it does not make theissues attending politicians’ private lives entirelyunimportant. The media can be admonished, asit was in the case of Lewinski, to stop gettingoverly fixated. As society’s watchdog, the mediaowes a duty to the people to provide as muchinformation as possible, including informationabout their representatives’ private lives.Without that information they would never beable to adequately gauge who might bestrepresent their interests.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Even if privacy is a fundamental human right, itis certainly not an absolute one. When theauthorities have probable cause they can searchthe property, residence, and computers ofsuspects in pursuit of greater societal justice.Politicians are not simply doing a job for theelectorate they are in a special position as theeffective embodiment of the people’s will, and asa result the powers they wield, which is farvaster than that of any private agent, demands ahigher level of scrutiny into their backgrounds,which means looking into their private lives. Thisis exactly the same as outside politics; the moresenior and powerful the job the more rigorousthe checking of the qualifications andbackground of the candidate must be.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Fixating on personal lives results in infringing therights of more than just the politiciansthemselves Politicians, like all people, are notislands. They have loved ones and families.When a citizen chooses to offer him or herself upas a candidate for office he or she takes on manyresponsibilities. However, the politician’s familycan never be considered to have whollyconsented to the arrangement, even if theysupport them in the election. They are in manyways innocent bystanders, yet when politiciansare treated as having no freedom of privacy,their families too are stripped of that rightunjustly. [1] Thus, the right to privacy is worthprotecting for politicians even if it could beshown that they had no real personal right tosuch respect. Rights exist in part to protectinnocent parties, and the families of politiciansare innocent, and would undoubtedly be primevictims of limitless media intervention. Therecent ads produced by the National RifleAssociation that target President Obama’s", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con04a", "title": "", "text": "The focus of politics and politicians should be onpolicy Delving into the private lives of politiciansdoes nothing to improve citizens’ understandingof who represents them except to show that acertain politician may have issues in his or herprivate life that is unsavoury, or slightlyhypocritical. But that focus on hypocrisy is itselflegislatively meaningless. If voters select arepresentative who then votes in accordancewith their wishes, then he is doing his duty,irrespective of how he lives his own life. Thuswhen Newt Gingrich, for example, as Speaker ofthe House sought to increase federalrecognitions and incentives towards stable,monogamous relationships, while at the sametime leading an extramarital affair of his own, hewas not acting in bad faith with the voters whobacked him, but doing their will, which is theduty of a politician at base. [1] Furthermore,when personal lives are open to attack,candidates can focus their energies ondenigrating their opponents instead of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The private lives of politicians are a harmfuldistraction for the media When the lives ofpoliticians are fair game, they necessarilybecome a major target for journalists. Salaciousgossip sells much better than more complicatedstories about policy, so they are given pride ofplace. The result is the media wasting time andresources on pursuing stories that are ultimatelygenerally useless in divining policy and progressin a society. The media is society’s watchdog,and its duty is to protect the people fromuntruths in policy and to shield them fromwicked decisions. Focusing on the personal livesdoes nothing to serve the actual materialinterests of the people. Thus when the mediareports on the private lives of politicians over themore meaty issues of the day, it abrogates itsmost fundamental duty to its citizens. The bestexample of this occurring is certainly theLewinski affair in America. While it was deeplyunfortunate that the president would use hispower to solicit the sexual favours of an intern,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con01a", "title": "", "text": "All individuals have a legitimate right toprivacy Privacy is a fundamental human rightthat is universal, a right that should be defendedfor all citizens, including those who govern us.[1] What people get up to in their private lives isby and large their own business. Peoplegenerally speaking have a basic respect forprivacy. While some people may think theirpoliticians owe them a special duty and thushave to give up certain privileges like privacy,the covenant between citizen and representativecannot be justified on such stringent grounds. Apolitician is effectively an employee of hisconstituents and the citizens of the polity. If thiswas justification for scrutiny into the private livesof elected officials then why should it not also bejustification for intrusion into the private lives ofunelected civil servants? Both these groups aredoing a job for the public, but undertraining thisjob does not give the public the authority tointrude into their privacy beyond questions aboutwhether they are qualified for the job. The duty", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con04b", "title": "", "text": "Politicians are not merely elected to enactpolicies as stated but to act as a surrogate forthe views and values of the voters who electthem. That is why politicians are expected, andare considered legitimate in doing so, to legislateon issues not necessarily discussed on thecampaign trail. It is the scrutiny of private livesthat allows the public to know how a politicianwill represent their views with regards toquestions that are not asked in the election. Thatis why it is essential to understand the privatelife and character of the representative. Withregard to political attacks, voters are trusted toselect leaders, and can reasonably be expectedto make decisions in their genuine interests.Thus they can be expected to discern policy fromthe campaigns effectively only in the case ofaccess to the candidates’ private lives will theynow have additional information to make aneven better decision.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-phbphnrp-con02b", "title": "", "text": "While it is no doubt unfortunate that the innocentfamily members of politicians might feelunpleasant scrutiny, it remains essential to thepromulgation of political accountability.Furthermore, it is valuable that citizensunderstand who their leaders are, and what kindof people they are, which necessitates knowingwhat kind of people they associate with in theirprivate lives. Obviously, not all personalassociations, such as biological family, may bechosen, but all the same those relationships canreveal much valuable information about thepolitician’s character. All of this is part of thetrade-off politicians must accept if good,accountable government is to be achieved andmaintained.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Our political situation is not as dire as this pointmakes it seem; it is easy to manipulate statisticsbetween voting and reality televisions bydiscounting the fact that many people who votein television shows vote multiple times – often asmany as ten [1] . Young people are notcompletely detached from the political or thenon-electronic world. Many are passionate aboutpolitics and exercising their right to vote [2] .Low voter turnout is a general trend across thenation, and if young people are failing to votethen this too reflects disillusionment withgovernment. For example, many young peoplewho voted for the Liberal Democrats in the UKrecently were shocked when he expressly wentagainst his promise to prevent tuition fee rises[3] . Political disillusionment among youngpeople is also a problem in the USA [4] andEurope [5] . It is the state of politics itself, ratherthan the literal process of voting, which deterspeople from full political participation. [1] ,accessed 24/08/11 [2] , accessed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Modernisation In modern, developed countries,many people spend both work and leisure timeon the internet or using electronic devices [1] [2][3] [4] . Our traditional voting systems, withpolling stations and paper slips, is out of line withhow many of the population now live their lives.When we see an overwhelming number of people– especially young people [5] – voting for realitytelevision programmes such as The X Factor [6] ,it demonstrates a valuable method ofengagement which the political system is missingout on. This had led to sources such as the BBCdarkly questioning ‘Is Big Brother really morepopular than election?’ [7] , indicating that whilethe overall number of votes in the 2005 generalelection in the UK outweighed those cast for BigBrother and Fame Academy, the proportion ofvotes by young voters (18-34) could beunderstood to show more engagement withthese television shows than with the generalelection [8] . In any case, it is clear that weshould bring our voting systems up to date in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Voting machines are far from reliable in thisinstance. Experts have expressed concern that‘hackers, software bugs . . . or power outagescould intentionally or accidentally erase or altervoting data’ recorded by the machines [1] . Inthis case, while the machines may be politicallyimpartial, they are still subject to potentialhuman corruption alongside the opportunity fortechnical faults and breakdowns. Electronicvote-counting machine errors led to almost 2million ballots being disqualified in the 2000 USAelection [2] . Electronic voting systems need alot more work before we should even considerusing them; they certainly do not solve anyproblems currently raised by manualcounting. [1] , accessed 24/08/11 [2] ,,accessed 24/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro05a", "title": "", "text": "Remote electronic voting can be conducted verysafely. Our online security is improving everyday; people feel safe enough to trust their mostimportant details, such as bank details, to theinternet [1] – why not their vote? Securesoftware and encryption protocols have allowedonline markets to flourish, with companies suchas PayPal inspiring a sense of security amongtheir customers [2] . Any software for remoteelectronic voting could be scrutinised well inadvance. It also removes the potential foridentity fraud, which is a problem with currentpostal voting systems [3] . Each voter could begiven a unique password, if necessary alongsidesomething like a special swipe card, ensuringthat everybody who is entitled to vote gets asingle vote. Given that in many jurisdictions,traditional polling stations do not require votersto provide ID [4] , it would arguably be asecurity improvement on the currentsituation. [1] , accessed 24/08/11 [2] ,accessed 24/08/11 [3] , accessed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Electronic voting can make the franchise moreaccessible In many Western democracies, voterturnout has been falling while voter apathyappears to be rising. In the UK, voter turnout fellsharply between 1997-2000, and the last generalelection in 2010 saw only 65% of potentialvoters cast a vote [1] . In the USA, the federalelection of 2010 saw only 37.8% of potentialvoters cast their vote [2] . Voter turnouts acrossEurope follow this trend [3] . When so fewpeople participate in the key act of democracy –voting for the political leader of the country – itbegins to raise worrying questions about thelegitimacy of that democracy in the first place. Ifelectronic or internet voting was introduced asan option alongside more traditional pollingmethods, it would expands the accessibility ofthe voting system in general. Internet orelectronic voting would be a strategic practicalmeasure. It would make voting convenient forbusy modern citizens because it minimalises theamount of effort each individual has to contribute", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Voter apathy cannot be solely attributed tohaving to walk to your local polling station. It canalso be attributed to general disillusionment withthe campaigning political parties, and the ideathat none of them will perform well ingovernment [1] . Political parties which focusmore strongly on national rather thanconstituency campaigning can also inspire voterapathy [2] . The problems behind voter apathyare far greater than can be solved by trying tochange the practical aspect of voting; it is thefact that voters often feel neglected by theirgovernment which is a far greater concern [3]. [1] , accessed 24/08/11 [2] , accessed24/08/11 [3] , accessed 24/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro05b", "title": "", "text": "The most ‘secure’ of websites have been recentlyhacked. For example, Paypal was hacked byLulzsec in response to the Wikileaks scandal [1] .Lulzsec also hacked the US Central IntelligenceAgency (CIA) [2] , supposedly the source of alltheir national intelligence and top secretinformation. If anything, recent events haveshown us that the internet is an unstablemedium for people to conduct personal orprofessional affairs; we certainly should not allowour voting systems to become even morevulnerable to this kind of attack. A better way toprevent identity fraud would be the simplemeasure of now requiring polling stations to askfor ID, rather than going to the extreme of onlinevoting. [1] , accessed 24/08/11 [2] , accessed24/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "The elderly far more frequently find electronicvoting to be a hindrance rather than a help.Those who are partially sighted are unable to seethe position on the text blocks on the screen;small controls such as buttons or touch screenscreate problems; and some cognitively impairedpeople may find it difficult to remember a PINnumber which is used to authenticate the vote[1] . A simple paper ballot is a far morecommonly-recognised and straightforwardmethod. In terms of cost, the electronic votingmachines or voting programmes would certainlycost a great deal to implement and run [2] .Ultimately, the great risk that electronic votingmachines or systems will lose votes [3]outweighs the cost argument: you cannot put aprice on a crucial process at the core of everydemocratic state. [1] , accessed24/08/11 [2] , accessed 24/08/11 [3] ,accessed 24/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Efficiency Because it would not require manualcounting and tallying, remote electronic votingwould allow the results to be known much faster[1] , and would also eliminate the potential forhuman error, which is a common problem withthe current system [2] . For example, in theWisconsin Supreme Court election of 2011, aclerk discovered around 14,000 unrecordedvotes which had been missed by human error –and actually changed the outcome of the election[3] . The clerk is now being questioned regardingher party allegiances under suspicion that shewas trying to turn the election into a victory forher favoured candidate [4] – yet anotherpotential for abuse under the current system.Machines, of course, are impartial concerningparty allegiances and so eliminate the potentialfor individual corruption. [1] , accessed24/08/11 [2] , accessed 24/08/11 [3] ,accessed 24/08/11 [4] , accessed 24/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Electronic voting will create a more cost effectivefranchise Electronic voting would also save agreat deal of money which is currently spent onemploying counters and renting venues to beused as polling stations. For example the UKgeneral election in 2005 cost over £80 million toorganise [1] , Canada’s 2008 election costaround $300 million [2] , and the USApresidential election of 2008 was estimated tocost up to $5.3 billion [3] . Electronic voting alsobrings the opportunity to increase access tothose who currently find it difficult to registertheir votes; for example, electronic voting couldbe conducted in a minority language for thosewho find English difficult [4] . In the past, trialsof this have been shown to improve voterturnout among minority groups [5] . Electronicvoting could also benefit the elderly, as manyfind it difficult to use the lever-operated ballotscurrently in use. [6] Using electronic votingensures that no groups are left out of anessentially democratic process. [1] , accessed", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is impossible to tackle potential problems inparty politics without an input from theelectorate. Young people may have the opinionthat politics itself is inaccessible, but this willnever change if they refuse or fail to vote. Ademocratic government can only ever be trulyrepresentative when everybody casts their vote.At least this mechanism is an attempt to reachthose young people – and in cases where theysay they do not know enough about politics, totry a different medium of teaching. Ultimately,those who have no intention of voting willcontinue to refuse. However, this is at least astep towards educating and enabling those whodo wish to vote, but perhaps do not currently feelwell-equipped enough to do so.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Our understanding of online security is improvingevery day; people feel safe enough to trust theirmost important details, such as bank details, tothe internet [1] – why not their vote? Securesoftware and encryption protocols have allowedonline markets to flourish, with companies suchas PayPal inspiring a sense of security amongtheir customers [2] . Any software for remoteelectronic voting could be scrutinised well inadvance. It also removes the potential foridentity fraud, which is a problem with currentpostal voting systems [3] . Each voter could begiven a unique password, if necessary alongsidesomething like a special swipe card, ensuringthat everybody who is entitled to vote gets asingle vote. Given that in many jurisdictions,traditional polling stations do not require votersto provide ID [4] , it would arguably be asecurity improvement on the currentsituation. [1] , accessed 24/08/11 [2] ,accessed 24/08/11 [3] , accessed24/08/11 [4] , accessed 24/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Electronic voting may harm the principle ofdemocratic accountability The numerous faultsexperienced in trials and small-scale use ofelectronic voting [1] [2] shows that this systemis not yet ready for wide use in elections, andgives no indication that it ever will be. Theargument that they can provide a fastervote-count is negated by the fact that in manycases they aren’t counting all the votes, butinstead missing some out [3] . If the resultscannot be trusted, there is no merit inimplementing an electronic vote. Furthermore,this motion neglects those who do not haveaccess to electronic systems or the internet; theymay end up being disenfranchised if voting wentonline. This is particularly pertinent for seniorcitizens who lack the skills to ‘find, retrieve andevaluate’ information found electronically [4] . Itis also a disadvantage for those who with alimited income and education, who are ‘mostlikely to not use the internet or even understandhow to use a computer’ [5] . 37% of low-income", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Engagement with democracy If voting wereconducted electronically, we would have noguarantee that an individual’s vote was privatelyand freely made. Instead, voting becomes opento manipulation where the head of thehousehold, or another figure, may cast votes forothers to try and ensure their preferred outcome.Indeed, under the status quo there are stillinstances of organised corruption where votesare sold or bullied out of people [1] [2] , despitethe fact that this was the exact reason that thesecret ballot was originally introduced [3] .Electronic voting would just take corruptionfurther out of our hands by hiding it from publicview; this would be detrimental to democraticprocess. [1] , accessed 24/08/11 [2] www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN03667.pdf ,accessed 24/08/11 [3] , accessed 24/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Democratisation If it worked, online voting couldallow more use of direct democracy methods.However, direct democracy is not in itself abetter system, and still contains many dangers.Snap online polls could easily express an opinionwhich has not been properly thought through;the current voting system is more likely to resultin considered voting as citizens have to make theeffort to get to the polling stations in the firstplace. Furthermore, a low turnout or insecuresystems could allow motivated minorities to usefrequent online ballots in order to impose theirwill on the majority. The very ease of onlinevoting could actually result in worse policy thanunder the status quo.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Voter apathy The need to travel to a pollingstation might be a minor consideration, butgrowing disillusionment with the political systemin general is a far bigger cause of voter apathy.Young people in particular believe that their votewill not make a difference [1] , or are confusedover politician’s aims [2] and intentions. Othersdo not believe that a change in governmentnecessarily means a change in real life situations[3] , or state that they do not feel as if theyknow enough about politics to make a decision[4] . Some have even stated that they areembarrassed and patronised by politicians’eagerness over using the internet to ‘harness’the votes of young people [5] . Using theinternet to portray party policies does notnecessarily tackle the problems with the policiesthemselves. It is politics more generally, ratherthan the practical system of voting, which is seenas inaccessible. [1] , accessed 24/08/11 [2] ,accessed 24/08/11 [3] , accessed24/08/11 [4] , accessed 24/08/11 [5] ,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con05b", "title": "", "text": "At what stage do we deem that an individual hasconsidered their vote enough to cast it? Wouldwe stop less-educated people from voting at allin case they hadn’t fully considered it? Thisargument goes completely against anydemocratic principle which values everybody’svote as equal, and denounces the idea that oneperson’s vote is worth more than another’s. Evenif a low turnout means that a minority canimpact more on society, this is still legitimate –as long as everybody has the opportunity tovote. If the majority choose not to voice theirconcerns in online elections, then they lose theright to complain about the outcome. Manygeneral or presidential elections have had a lowturnout [1] [2] , but we still see them aslegitimate. If we did not, nobody would ever beelected and progress could never occur. [1] ,accessed 24/08/11 [2] , accessed 24/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Electronic voting is vulnerable to fraud andsubversion No networked commuter system isimmune to attack or subversion. By their verynature, electronic voting systems must be interconnected and in continuous communication withone another. As a consequence, the devices andmethods used to gather votes can also serve asaccess points to the larger network of votegathering and counting systems. The most‘secure’ of websites have been recently hacked.For example, Paypal was hacked by Lulzsec inresponse to the Wikileaks scandal [1] . Lulzsecalso hacked the US Central Intelligence Agency(CIA) [2] , supposedly the source of all theirnational intelligence and top secret information.If anything, recent events have shown us thatthe internet is an unstable medium for people toconduct personal or professional affairs; wecertainly should not allow our voting systems tobecome even more vulnerable to this kind ofattack. A better way to prevent identity fraudwould be the simple measure of now requiring", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-digital-freedoms-gthwaueai-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Computer literacy is constantly on the rise [1][2] . In state-run secondary schools, children areprovided with information and technology classeswhich helps to bridge any existing divide [3] ,and there are discussions about extending theselessons to primary schools. Easily-accessiblecommunity classes are also available to seniors[4] [5] . Moreover, given the opportunity to savemoney through electronic voting rather thanhaving to pay for polling station venues, manualvote counters and so on, this money could easilybe redirected to provide computer lessons forthose from disadvantaged backgrounds, or tofunnel into state libraries and public computerresources. This mechanism is a much moreefficient way of making sure that everybody isable to participate. [1] Children in the UK: ,accessed 24/08/11 [2] In the USA: [3] ,accessed 24/08/11 [4] Across the USA: ,accessed 24/08/11 [5] In the UK: , accessed24/08/11", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Separation of Church and State would do exactlythe opposite; it would create animosity towardsother cultures. This separation would be seen bymany people, including extremist groups, aspandering to non-Christian religions and culturesin an attempt to show a greater level ofacceptance. This would result in people blamingnon-Christian religious groups and cultures forthe changes and giving ammunition to extremistgroups who wish to incite racism. Rather thanbenefitting immigrants and people who follownon-Christian religions, this would actively harmthem. [1] [1] Iannaccone, Laurence R.“Religious extremism: Origins andconsequences” Contemporary Jewry. Volume 20.1996.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Separation would show acceptance of otherreligions. It is important to note that it is notreligion in general which has this special accessto the state in the UK but the Church of Englandspecifically. This means that the state is showingfavouritism to the Church of England over otherreligions by allowing it a far greater contributionto the running of the state. Therefore, separatingthe church and the state would put all of thereligions in the country on an even level ofcontribution, which is none, and in the processshow acceptance of these other religions.[1] This is especially important as the number ofpeople who identify as following religions otherthan Christianity in the UK has doubled in thelast 20 years. [2] Additionally, many peopleidentify more with their religion than with anycountry and so this move would help showacceptance of those cultures by the Britishstate. [1] Hannan, Daniel. “The ConservativeCase for Disestablishing the Church.” TheTelegraph. 2008. [2] Lee, Lucy, “Religion.” In", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "There are little to no barriers to non-religiouspeople contributing to the state. In present dayUK, there are no issues with non-religious peoplebeing or feeling unable to contribute to the state.It is far from a necessity to be part of a religiousgroup, or to even be religious, in order to be partof, or contribute it any way, to the government.[1] The idea, therefore, that it is important tomake non-religious people feel as if theircontributions are more valued, or that theseparation of the church and state would achievethis, is ridiculous. [1] Gay, Kathlyn. “Church andState.” Millbrook Press. 1992.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The church’s involvement undermines the role ofthe state. The role of the state is to protect itspeople and to create the conditions for itspeople’s prosperity. The Church does not sharethese objectives. The Church’s objectives are,instead, to either convert as many people aspossible to its own religion, and to ‘save souls’brining people into its own perceived afterlife.[1] The Anglican church itself considers itsmission to be “transformation - transformingindividual lives, transforming communities andtransforming the world.” “that calling is carriedout at the national level of the Church of Englandin evangelism, development of parishcongregations”. [2] Such a mission is inherentlyaimed solely at benefiting those within thechurch or those who can be converted notsociety as a whole. The current confusion ofstate and Church, therefore, is likely to cloud thestate’s judgement and limit the state’s ability toprovide the maximum possible prosperity andsecurity for its people. [1] Weller, Paul. “Time", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The Church does not have enough of aninvolvement in UK politics for the objectives ofthe Church of England to have any impact uponhow the country is run. The UK government isstill run in an entirely democratic way. While theChurch is consulted in certain decisions andbishop have seats in the House of Lords, finaldecisions are still taken democratically by thegovernment. There is in no way enoughinvolvement by the church in the state for it toactually undermine the role of the state. [1] [1]Gay, Kathlyn. “Church and State.” MillbrookPress. 1992.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Separating Church and State would not increaseBritain’s moral high ground. No one wouldmistake the UK for a theocracy and as a result noone will consider that a full separation of Churchand State is necessary for the UK to be able tocondemn states where religion has too muchinfluence over policy. In just the same way thatdemocracies can criticise other democracies so astate that has a state religion is capable ofoutspoken criticism of other states where religionhas an influence.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Separation would show non-religious people thattheir contributions to the state are valued. Inthe last 25 years, the number of people in the UKwho identify as non-religious has gone up from31% to 50% of the population, while people inthe UK who identify as religious has gone downby the same amount. [1] Clearly then, there aregrowing numbers of non-religious people in theUK and falling numbers of religiouspeople. Separating the church and the statewould highlight that one does not have to be partof a certain religion to contribute to the state.With the non-religious now making up half thepopulation it no longer makes sense for onedenomination of Christianity to have such anofficial connection to the state. [1] Lee, Lucy,“Religion.” In Curtice, John et al. eds., BritishSocial Attitudes Survey 2009. p.173.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "International signalling. As a government, theUK aims to promote democracy in theinternational community while reducing thenumber of countries adhering to other forms ofgovernment that do not listen to their people.This includes opposition to theocracies, wherethe country is run by a religious group accordingto religious doctrines, particularly in the case ofIran. It is difficult for the UK to legitimatelycondemn such a governmental system while theChurch of England has such a heavy role in therunning of its own government. Although theseare not on the same level, it can still beperceived as hypocrisy by the internationalcommunity and the separation of church andstate would greatly benefit the UK’s ability tocondemn these states.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con03b", "title": "", "text": "The government is not going to suddenly stoplistening to the views of religious minorities inthe country and will keep listening to the viewsof the Church of England. It will simply stop thegovernment being prejudicial towards the Churchof England compared to any other religion orbelief. Currently what we see is the Church ofEngland having privileges that other religiousgroups do not have. Religious groups and peopledo not see this as a representation of theinvolvement of religion in general in thegovernment, they see this as the involvement ofthe Church of England in the government. Theseparation of the church and the state,therefore, will actually be inclusive to religiouspeople who do not identify as Church of England.[1] [1] Hannan, Daniel. “The Conservative Casefor Disestablishing the Church.” The Telegraph.2008.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con01b", "title": "", "text": "The existence and operation of the Church ofEngland can be considered part of the UK’snational identity but its involvement in runningthe country cannot. English culture would remainthe same regardless of the position of the Churchof England in relation to the governance of thecountry. Culture and identity are not things thatcan disappear as a result of a change in thecountry’s constitutional setup.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Separation would create animosity towardsimmigrants and non-Christians. Currently, wealready see problems in the UK with extremistgroups blaming immigrants and non-Christianreligious groups for pretty much everything fromunemployment among whites to a lack ofpatriotism. Completely separating the church andthe state could be seen as a move made due topolitical correctness and/or to try not to offendimmigrants or those from non-Christian religiousbackgrounds. This would be providingammunition to extremist groups, as well asinspiring people who do not share these views tosympathise with them. This would be extremelyharmful to the groups who are perceived asresponsible for this change. [1] [1] Iannaccone,Laurence R. “Religious extremism: Origins andconsequences” Contemporary Jewry. Volume 20.1996.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Minimal practical effect. As it stands, the Churchof England’s involvement in the state actuallyhas little effect on it. Decisions are taken by thePrime Minister and his/her government ratherthan by religious officials and indeed the Churchof England can often be a vehicle for thegovernment’s views rather than the Churchhaving an influence on government. As Bishop ofRochester Nazir-Ali states ‘The church is seensimply as the religious aspect of society, there toendorse any change which politicians deem fit toimpose upon the public.’ [1] Therefore,separating the church and the state will makelittle difference in terms of the way the state isactually run but may result in a reduction of theinfluence of the government on some of thepopulation. [2] [1] Liddle, Rod, ‘The C of E hasforgotten its purpose. Why, exactly, does itexist?’, The Spectator, 7 April 2009. [2] Gay,Kathlyn. “Church and State.” Millbrook Press.1992.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Disestablishment sidelines all religiouspeople. Rather than other religious groupsseeing the removal of the Church of England’sinvolvement of the state as them all being put ona level playing field, it is more likely to be seenas a total removal of religion from thegovernment. [1] Bishop John Pritchard of Oxfordargues that Anglican Bishops can be seen asacting as community leaders for all faiths and arerespected as such, as a result they often supportother religion’s such as Pritchard himself arguinga mosque in Oxford should be allowed to issuethe call to prayer. [2] This separation of churchand state, therefore, will be seen as a declarationby the government that religious groups havenothing to contribute to the operation of thestate. Since nearly 50% of people in the UKidentify as religious [3] this is likely to cause afeeling of being undervalued amongst a hugepart of society. [1] Gay, Kathlyn. “Church andState.” Millbrook Press. 1992. [2] Bardsley,Fran, ‘Bishop backs mosque’s call to prayer’, The", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Separating Church and State in England wouldbe harmful to national identity. The reason theChurch of England has the involvement that itdoes in the state is because it is important partof the UK’s cultural heritage. Completelyseparating the Church of England from the statewould be perceived to many people as severelydamaging to British national identity. As anational church the Church of England has beenat the heart of the country’s political and culturallife since the sixteenth century, religion helpedmake Britain the country it is today. [1] Aseparation would be the country turning its backon this history and its own culture. [1]MacCulloch, Diarmaid, ‘How God Made theEnglish’, BBC, 2012", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con04b", "title": "", "text": "That the separation will have little practical effectis just as much an argument for separation asagainst it. If there will be little change as a resultthen why should we stick with the status quo?The practical effect of the change may not beimmense but the symbolism of the act would bemuch greater.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cshbcesbsb-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Separation would be inclusive to immigrants andnon-Christians. People will not be disillusioned bythe separation of church and state at all, it iseven less likely that they will look for ascapegoat upon whom to pin the blame. TheChurch of England routinely condemns racist andextremist attitudes and separation will notchange this. [1] [1] The Church of England,‘Countering Racist Politics’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cfhwksdr-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Legislation already exists in most countrieswhere this issue is in dispute – including the UKwhere the NOP poll was conducted – have theoption to opt out of working on a Sunday [i] . Inaddition there is an entire body of case law in theUSA where various states have upheld the rightsof individual workers not to work on a Sundayshould they so choose [ii] . The contention thata shared day of rest is beneficial to thecommunity simply ignores the fact that for manythose leisure activities require others to beworking. For example eating out, going to barsor shopping routinely feature as among peoples’favourite pastimes [iii] . [i] ACAS Guidance onSunday Working [ii] Estate of Thornton v.Calder, Inc. (1985) and others [iii] “StatisticalAbstract of the United States 2009”. LandmarkResearch.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cfhwksdr-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A shared day when there is no commercialactivity encourages family life andrecreation There is extensive evidence thatreserving one day for communal recreation hasbenefits in areas as diverse as communitycohesion and the reduction of childhood obesity.The Colombian initiative, Ciclovia, which closessome streets altogether on a Sunday hasdemonstrated impressive results in these areasin the thirty years it has been established. [i] AnNOP consumer poll in 2005 showed that 85% ofrespondents in the UK suggested that they wouldrather have a shared day off for community,family and recreational activities than seeshopping hours extended on aSunday. Representatives of those employed inthe retail sector routinely condemn the impactthat Sunday trading has on the family lives ofthose required to work [ii] . [i] Hernandez,Javier C., ‘Car-Free Streets, a Colombian Export,Inspire Debate’, The New York Times, 24 June2008 [ii] “USDAW lobbyists say extending", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cfhwksdr-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "For many marginalised workers the opportunityto work what many would consider antisocialhours is their only chance of employment.Legislating to enforce leisure time removes avaluable opportunity for earning. There areentire micro-economies based around this realityand it is unsurprising that marginalisedindividuals, families and communities operatewithin these sectors. As a result their leisuretime is also shared. It is worth noting that weremembers of these groups excluded from theopportunity to earn would considerably diminishtheir capacity to enjoy any leisure time at all.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cfhwksdr-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Peoples’ rights to freedom of worship would beundermined if they were compelled to work on aSunday The right to freedom of religiouspractice and association is acknowledged bymost countries and is enshrined in Article 18 ofUN Declaration of Human Rights [i] . In thosecountries that can, on the basis of their historybe deemed to be Christian nations it makessense to recognise this fact by acknowledgingSunday, the Sabbath which was made for allmankind, [ii] as a day free for worship or leisureas the individual sees fit. Equally Article 24 ofthe same Declaration maintains the right toreasonable leisure time. It seems only practicalfor governments to recognise the confluence ofthese two principles by reserving the sameday. [i] The United Nations Declaration ofUniversal Human Rights. [ii] New InternationalVersion, Mark 2:27, 2011", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cfhwksdr-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Compelling individuals to take their leisure timeon one particular day undermines the entirenature of that right. The whole principle ofleisure is that it should not be forced or required,it is that time when the individual is not bound tocomply with the dictates of any authority – bethat an employer, the state or a religion. Leisureshould be time taken at the convenience – and tothe benefit – of the individual. If the individualchoses to use that time for religious observancethat is their right but the presumption that a dayof religious observance is the best day to take isunfair to the many who do not share thoseviews.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cfhwksdr-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Compelling employers to close for a day is theonly way to ensure that marginalised groups arenot forced to work a seven day week Unionsconsistently argue that vulnerable workers –migrants, part-time workers, the young andother groups – are simply unable to choose theirleisure time at their own preference. It is unlikelythat all members of a family all of whom are insuch employment would be likely to have leisuretime to share. It is simply a democratic principlethat the right to an active family life and accessto shared leisure should not be the preserve ofthe wealthy. This divide can only be met byenforcing a day shared by all members ofsociety.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cfhwksdr-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Opposition is making an excellent argument forensuring that workers should be remunerated ata level to support a reasonable level of existencebut does not speak to the issue of keepingSundays as a day of rest. Indeed it is possible totake the issue further and suggest that theunderstanding that everybody has the right toleisure time would require payment at such alevel that would allow that time to be enjoyed. Awork-life balance should not be defined purely interms of time spent active and time spent idle.Rather, it must speak as much to time spentearning and time spent spending and relaxing.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cfhwksdr-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Exactly the same group that Opposition identifyare also those least likely to have any leisuretime at all. They are also least likely to haveleisure at a time when they can share it withtheir families and communities. Sunday isalready the day when most people are likely tobe away from work all enshrining it in legislationwould achieve is expanding what is already thecase for the majority to those who do notcurrently benefit from a shared day of rest.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cfhwksdr-con02a", "title": "", "text": "It is prejudicial to other religions to give Sundaya significance not ascribed to the holy days ofother traditions It is already difficult enough formembers of minority religions to have time fortheir own religious celebrations. It seemsunlikely that employers would be likely torespect the rights of other religious groups tocelebrate their own days of rest if employerswere already compelled to recognise Sundays asa compulsory day of rest. Equally, for the stateto identify one particular day as the ‘religious’day worthy of commemoration would be astatement that one particular religiouspersuasion was in some way superior to others.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cfhwksdr-con03a", "title": "", "text": "It is simply unfair to force low-paid workers tolose a day’s work if they do not choose to doso Many people work long hours not out ofgreed or obsession but out of simple necessity.To deny people the right to work when they needto is unfair and, potentially, financially crippling.In an ideal world everybody would have a goodwork-life balance but that is not the reality facedby millions of workers, even in developedeconomies. Obliging workers to lose a day’s paywhen that may impoverish then and theirfamilies is unlikely to enhance their family life,their level of relaxation, their spiritual experienceor their access to leisure services.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cfhwksdr-con01a", "title": "", "text": "People should be allowed to take their leisure attheir own convenience and not on the basis ofreligious decree It is unfair to compel people totake their leisure at a time that is not of theirconvenience. Workers who have to work acertain number of hours per week just to covertheir costs should not be obliged to take theirleisure time at a time when they cannot accessservices such as shops and banks. For thosewith no religious conviction there is no particularbenefit for Sunday being their day of leisure.Instead a more fluid relationship between workand leisure ensures that those with the leastavailable free time can take it to their greatestconvenience.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-religion-cfhwksdr-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Different cultures have varying traditions of rest.Approaches towards the number of days ofvacations taken each year, the length of theworking day, which annual festivals should betreated as public holidays, siestas, work levelsduring Ramadan and so on are all taken on thebasis of the culture and history of that particularcountry. As a result it is not unreasonable for acountry with a Christian background to identifySunday as their designated day of rest. Thework ethic of any country relates to their historyas is reflected in the festivals that are givensignificance. Observation of Christmas or Eid orCheoseok has little to do with the personalvalues of the individuals concerned but ratherthe historical norms of that society.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cihbdmwpm-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Realistically speaking, music is not even property- for property to really be property, it needs tobe tangible (something physical you can touch).[1] If it is tangible, it is easier to keep you fromusing it, whereas when it is intangible, I can’t.What if you hear a song on the radio which staysin your head all day long because you liked it somuch? In economic terms, we call such a good“non-excludable”. [2] Private property is both arival good (see above), and excludable. Theabove shows that music is neither, even thoughwe happen to call it “intellectual property”. Thatmeans that music can’t be private property, andcopying it can’t really be theft in any normalsense of the word (see above). In addition, themoral right of the artist to be known as theauthor of a piece of music is also not broken bydownloading. People usually sort the music onmp3-players by musician’s name, which meansthat we’re always recognizing that a certain artistmade a certain song. [1] Law.jrank.org, ‘Theft –Larceny’, [2] Blakeley, Nic et al.,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cihbdmwpm-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "A legal transaction is the only way to achievefree exchange of value Because the artist madethe music, it is their property, in this case“intellectual property”. Property means that theowner/artist has the right to ask something fromyou in exchange for you gaining access to themusic. This may be money. It may also be therequirement that you clearly recognize theartist’s moral right to always be mentioned asthe creator of that music. This is called the “freeexchange of value”, and this is the mostfundamental relationship in our free marketeconomy. Whatever the artist chooses aspayment through a legal transaction, it is his/herbasic right to ask this of you. The only way tomake sure that he/she can actually exercise thatright is by making sure you only take music fromthe artist through a legal transaction, i.e. withtheir permission. Only then can we be sure thatthe desired free exchange of value has takenplace", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cihbdmwpm-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "It’s true that musicians have to eat, too, but it’snot true that downloading cuts their income.Most of the money spent on music goes to recordcompanies, not to artists, from each retail CDsold the artist only gets between 3 and 10%. [1]Those record companies have been keepingmusicians on a leash for decades, paying themless than they could. They paid them enough tomake sure they would remain fulltime musicians,but not so much that they didn’t bother to createnew albums. So if downloading music files meansrecord companies miss out on some income, weshouldn’t feel bad about it. [1] Information isBeautiful, ‘How Much Do Music Artists EarnOnline?’, 13 April 2010,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cihbdmwpm-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Theft is an assumption of property rights Theftis taking something from someone who is therightful owner without their permission. Itdoesn’t matter if the rightful owner keeps anoriginal version or not. If you are downloadingmusic from an unofficial source, you are stealingit: you can start listening to that song, withoutthe permission of the original owner. The onlyway you can get the right to listen to that song isvia a legal transaction from which the rightsowner can make a profit", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cihbdmwpm-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Theft always involves a thief taking somethingaway for themselves with the result that theoriginal owner can’t use it anymore. Forexample, if I steal your bike, you can’t use itanymore. And this is exactly why theft is wrong:you had something which you wanted to use,and now you can’t anymore, simply because Itook it. That’s why downloading music is nottheft because it is a form of copying. Youdownload a copy from an original, but the firstowner still has the original on his or hercomputer, and can still enjoy it. In morecomplicated terms: music files are “non-rival”goods, meaning that my use of the good doesnot diminish your future use of it. [1] [1]Investopedia, ‘Rival Good’,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cihbdmwpm-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Musicians have to eat Apart from the moralreason, there is also a simple societal reasonwhy it is wrong to download music withoutpermission. The reason is that musicians have toeat, too. Suppose you are an up-and-comingyoung musician thinking about what to do withyour future. You can either become a full timemusician or take up a job. If you become afulltime musician, you’ll be doing what you love.But at the same time, everyone will bedownloading all your music for free, simplybecause they can. This means that music won’tbe a good, stable source of income for you, andthis means you’d rather take up a job. Sinceyou’re not working on your music every day,your talent will be underdeveloped, and the littlepieces of music you do write, for example in theweekend, are not as good as they could havebeen. So, downloading music without permissionwill lead to fewer good musicians. That’s not onlybad for the musicians, but also for us: we’ll haveless good music to listen to.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cihbdmwpm-con03b", "title": "", "text": "It is a mistake to think that when you’redownloading, there isn’t someone else making ahuge profit. Torrent sites and other “pirate” sitesgain huge amounts of income from theadvertisements on their site. This means thatthey profit from material which is not theirs. Whyshould they profit from material they havegotten unfairly and without permission?", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cihbdmwpm-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Downloading does not fall under the so-called“private copy exception”. The private copyexception only covered those rare cases whenyou took the effort to make a copy from a lawfulsource (perhaps putting a song you owned on CDon to a cassette so you could listen to it in yourcar). With the internet, the situation changedhugely. Firstly, copying became a lot easier.Secondly, the home copy-exception applies towhen you borrow an album from a friend -someone you know. Online, you’re downloadingfrom anyone, anywhere who happens to havethe song you want. Thirdly, when you startdownloading using peer-to-peer software, youwill usually also start uploading at the sametime. It’s the nature of p2p-technology that youboth distribute and consume. So, you’re not justmaking a copy for yourself, you will also bedistributing the same song, and that distributionis in any case wrong. These changes togethermean that the three step-test is not met, sodownloading does not fall under the private copy", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cihbdmwpm-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Downloading is morally right Even whendownloading is illegal, it still is right from a moralviewpoint. The reason is that by downloading,you’re not hurting the artists, but the recordcompanies. And these record companies haveengaged in unfair practices towards consumersfor decades. They asked €20 euros for a CD,when a blank CD only costs about 5 cents. Theystill engage in unfair practices, for example viaDRM. DRM stands for Digital Rights Management,and it means that companies limit how and whenyou can listen to a song. For example, you canbuy a song and listen to it on your MP-3 player,but if you want to play it on your laptop, youhave to buy the same song again. Moreover,record companies have sued individualconsumers for huge fines for downloading just afew songs. Most recently one ordinary womanwas fined $1.92 million dollars, which justdoesn’t add up to the “damage” these individualsare supposed to have done. [1] That’s unfair,and because it’s unfair, we are justified in", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cihbdmwpm-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Downloaders spend more on music Downloadingsongs could mean more income for musicians.Concerts (plus merchandise like T-shirts) arebecoming a bigger source of income. Butsuppose a new musician comes to town. How amI supposed to know if I want to go to theirconcert if I don’t know their music? Previously, Iwouldn’t have gone since I didn’t want to spendmoney on first buying their album and thenbuying the ticket. Now, I can quickly check outtheir music by downloading some songs to see ifI like it, and then go to their concert. I savemoney on the albums, and will go more toconcerts. Indeed a study by Demos has shownthat people who illegally download music spend£30 more on music per year than those who donot. [1] [1] Demos, ‘Illegal downloaders are oneof music industry’s biggest customers’, 1November 2009,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cihbdmwpm-con01a", "title": "", "text": "There is a private copy exception Downloadingmusic without permission is allowed under the“private copy exception”. Practically, theexception meant that you were allowed to copy,but not distribute any music. Downloading musicfrom a torrentsite or newsgroup is essentially thesame. People who download music do it purelyfor their own enjoyment and use. They have nointention to resell the songs and make a profitfrom it. So, if it was legal to make a copy forpersonal use before the internet was invented,why then should it suddenly be differentafterwards? Indeed while the private copyexception is not universal it is allowed under theInformation Society Directive within the EU. [1]And when it comes to peer-to-peer software, youcan turn off the option to upload automatically.This allows you to only download, but at a slowerspeed. [1] European Parliament, Article 6/4,‘Directive 2001/29/EC of the EuropeanParliament and of the Council of 22 May 2001 onthe harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cihbdmwpm-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Record companies have been blamed for unfairpractices, like DRM, “milking” artists (seeopposition argument 3), or suing individualdownloaders for unfair damages. But recordcompanies also have a very positive role to play:they scout every day for new talent, and offertraining and production studios forup-and-coming musicians. Moreover, theyprovide valuable marketing services, makingsure that new artists get heard instead ofdrowning in the vast sea of information that isthe internet. Consider this, how do you evenknow which song to download? A large part ofthat is because record companies get the musicout there, on to radio stations, all over MySpace,on MTV, so that you get to hear it for the firsttime. Those are things a musician is not trainedto do and very often does not want to do, whichis why it is good to have record companies [1]. [1] Hole, Max, ‘The future for recordcompanies’, ifpi, June 2007,", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "People have enough means to protect theircareers Whistleblowers shouldn’t be protectedby internet anonymity, but by legal measures,making it illegal to fire people for whistleblowing,and by building a corporate culture that actually‘prevents whistleblowing by encouraging it’.[1] In the case of job applications, socialnetworking sites like Facebook might not beanonymous, but lack of anonymity isn’t equal tofull publicity. This is why, after criticism,Facebook has increased the visibility andusability of its privacy controls, which means thatusers themselves have more control over who isallowed to view their pictures and who is allowedto read their newsfeed. [2] If an employer stilldiscovers someone’s fraternity party pictureswith just a simple google search, then really the‘victims’ themselves should take part of theblame by deciding to publish these pictures forall to themselves. Moreover, when employerstake a peek at someone’s Facebook-profile, theymight be looking for something different contrary", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Internet anonymity allows people to speak thetruth without fearing harm to theircareers People might do things online that canhave negative consequences for their career.Think of ‘whistleblowers’ for example:whistleblowers are employees of a company thathave direct and first-hand knowledge of theiremployer doing something illegal or immoral. Ifthey speak out about it publicly, they might losetheir job and therefore their sole source ofincome. Allowing them to speak outanonymously enables them to invite publicscrutiny to their employer without fear of gettingfired. [1] Or think of employers using socialmedia in the job application process. Somepeople during adolescence (or in their studentyears) might ‘misbehave’ – where misbehavingcan be something as relatively harmless asdrinking a bit too much, then doing somethingsilly and then having pictures of that end up onFacebook. Because Facebook doesn’t allowanonymity, this means future employers can", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "Internet anonymity can actually make onlinenon-heteronormative communities lesssafe Internet anonymity allows people to‘catfish’: to create a completely different onlineidentity with the specific purpose of engaging inemotional/romantic relationships. In the case ofnon-heteronormative identities, a malicious‘catfisher’ could construct an identity to luresomeone into a trap. [1] But even withoutmalicious intent, catfishing can have negativeeffects on non-heteronormative communities.Take the example of the ‘Gay Girl fromDamascus’, a blog written by a male studentfrom the University of Edinburgh pretending tobe a lesbian girl called Amina Arraf in Syria: byfaking he inadvertently reaffirmed aheteronormative pattern that marginalizedidentities can’t speak for themselves. [2]Moreover, some marginalized identities mightsee the chance to pretend to beheteronormative: the MTV show ‘Catfish’sometimes shows gay men or women pretending", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Internet anonymity enables citizens to exercisetheir right to free speech Citizens have a right tospeak their mind without governmentinterference – which is why in the offline worldpeople also have a right to speak anonymously.[1] Internet anonymity guarantees that peoplecan actually exercise their right to free speech:anonymity takes away the fear of potentialpolitical consequences. The reason whygovernments are cracking down on internetanonymity is exactly this: they don’t like beingcriticized. For example, China recentlyintroduced a bill requiring ‘real nameregistration’ of every Chinese internet user, thushampering free communication and the airing ofpolitical dissident opinions. [2] Conversely,internet anonymity has helped in the ArabUprisings in Egypt and Tunisia: people usedanonymising software like TOR to come onlineand communicate, organize and criticize freelywithout fear of political repercussions. [3] [1]Electronic Frontier Foundation, ‘Anonymity’.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Internet anonymity isn’t necessary to exercisecitizen’s right to free speech Even when weaccept the theoretical principle of free speech,the past years have shown that internetanonymity is not necessary for citizens toexercise their right to free speech. First, look at‘access to the internet’ as a prime factor,regardless of whether it’s anonymous or not: Inthe case of the Arab spring, the causes of theunrest were increased oppression and a decliningeconomic climate. [1] Internet access wasn’tthat much of an enabling factor in the ArabSpring: the countries that saw the highestmobilization of citizens (Egypt, Libya, Syria,Tunisia and Yemen) actually rank lowest ininternet penetration of all Arab countries.[2] Secondly, let’s look at anonymity on theinternet, provided that access is given: Again,the Arab Spring shows that anonymity isn’t adecisive factor at all. In Egypt and Tunisia,Facebook was a main vehicle to organizeprotests, [3] yet Facebook doesn’t allow", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Internet anonymity allows people to experimentand construct with new social identities Peoplecan use the internet to experiment with andconstruct new identities. Think for example ofpeople who don’t have a heteronormativelifestyle (where heterosexuality is considered thenorm/default lifestyle): in their own communitiesthey could be condemned, despised and evenprosecuted, but because of internet anonymity,they can safely join an online community withoutfear of social repercussions. [1] Or think ofpeople who through certain life-experiencesneeded to invent a new identity, for examplesomeone who was addicted to drugs but now hascome clean and is ready to build a new life – withan ‘authentic’ profile, this person willcontinuously be confronted with his or herprevious identity. [2] One solution would thenbe to require social networking sites likeFacebook to drop the ‘real-name requirement’,which is something that the regional Germandata protection agency ULD has been arguing for", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Banning internet anonymity wouldn’t decreasecyberbullying and trolling Cyberbullying is bad,but internet anonymity isn’t the cause of risingsuicides - cyberbullying is a circumstantial factorthat triggers deeper, underlying problems in itsvictims. [1] Actually, banning internet anonymitycan increase cyberbullying: when World ofWarcraft announced their intentions to bananonymity, female gamers voiced concerns ofbeing forced to reveal their gender to otherplayers, thus generating unwanted attention.[2] As to the problem of trolling causingdiscussions under newspaper-articles and forumsto go ‘bad’: this isn’t necessarily the case. Amediating factor could be the exact system inplace for placing comments: comment systemslike Disqus allow people to commentanonymously but still be judged for the quality oftheir contribution to the discussion. [3] Iforganizations care about the quality of theironline discussions, they will implement systemslike this by themselves and wouldn’t need any", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Banning internet anonymity doesn’t decreaseillegal activities Full traceability across the entireinternet is difficult to implement: it would requirea centralized worldwide agency certifying whohas access to the internet – we don’t even havethis for physical passports. But even if activitieswould be traceable to an IP-address, it doesn’tstop online illegal activities: criminals can remainanonymous by setting up anonymity servers,which allows them to rout their informationthrough anonymous servers, even when theirIP-addresses are known. [1] Even worse,malicious hackers can even recruit other people’scomputers into engaging in illegal activities, forexample in recruiting innocent people’scomputers for collecting and distributing childpornography. [2] [1] Bruce Schneier, ‘Schneieron security. Anonymity and the internet’,blogpost February 3, 2010. URL: [2] HuffingtonPost, ‘Internet Virus Frames Users for ChildPorn’, September 11, 2009. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Internet anonymity leads to spam Internetanonymity is a boon for spammers: even thoughspamming (sending unsolicited mass-emails) isillegal in many countries, the ability to sendemails anonymously, either through altering the‘sent-from’ address in the email or by openingand immediately closing an email address,enables spammers to keep on spamming. [1]Even if spam-fighters do find an email addressand domain name from which spam is sent, thenprivacy protections still make it almostimpossible to find out who exactly owns thedomain name. [2] By restricting email traffic sothat it can only be sent through officialemail-servers, we can ensure traceability ofemail senders and thereby increase thelikelihood of catching spammers – which is whatSouth-Korea, the world’s second largestgenerator of spam emails, recently proposedunder the ‘Block 25’ proposal. [3] [1] SpamReader, ‘Why is it so difficult to catch aspammer?’, March 6, 2013. URL: [2] Spam", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Internet anonymity increases cyberbullying andtrolling In normal social life, people restrainthemselves in what they say to others. Whenanonymously online, people behave differently:whatever they say and do can be said and donewithout consequence, because it isn’t traceableto them as persons, or, as comic artist JohnGabriel is often paraphrased 'Normal Person +Anonymity + Audience = Idiot’. [1] Theconsequences of this behaviour are ugly ordownright harmful. Massive Multiplayer OnlineRoleplaying Games (MMPORGs) like World ofWarcraft face a constant atmosphere of verbalabuse created by their players. And there’sworse than simple trolling like this: anonymityincreases the effects bullying. For example,where schoolchildren originally were bullied inschools by bullies whose faces they knew, withonline anonymity the bullying goes onanonymously online and invades every aspect ofthe victims’ lives – aggravating their suffering somuch that in some cases they actually commit", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Internet anonymity allows internet users toengage in illegal activities The internet is beingused for illegal activities. Examples of these aretrading and trafficking in child pornography, drugtrading and planning and coordinating terroristactivities. [1] Anonymity makes it easier forthese criminals as they can engage in theiractivities with less fear of being caught. [2] Byregulating internet anonymity, we can combatillegal activities better, because a key resourcefor criminals has been diminished. This is exactlywhy Eugene Kaspersky, founder of antivirus firmKasperksy Labs, called for an ‘internet passport’for every internet user, allowing everyone to beidentified as persons. [3] [1] UNODC, Use of theInternet for Terrorist Purposes, 2012. PDF can bedownloaded here: [2] Interpol, ‘Cybercrime’.URL: UNICRI, ‘Terrorism and the internet’.URL: 2013 [3] Zdnet,’Microsoft OneCare wasgood enough’, October 16, 2009. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-ihbrapisbpl-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Regulating the internet doesn’t stopspamming Restricting internet traffic by blockingports doesn’t reduce spam at all: spam networkswill be able to find another means of sendingmass-emails within hours, if not seconds.[1] But there’s another consequence ofregulating internet traffic this way: it makesinternet traffic and email slower and morecumbersome, hampering small businesses andcompanies working mostly through onlinechannels. It thus hinders the smooth functioningof the economy and hampers innovation. [2] [1]Zdnet, ‘South Korea to block port 25 asanti-spam countermeasure’, November 15,2011. URL: [2] BBC News, ‘Email spam 'Block25' crackdown readied in South Korea’, 14november 2011. URL:", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Mobile phones may help us keep in touch overlong distances which is useful. However somedoctors are concerned that keeping in touch bymobile phone comes at the cost of less face toface talking. When communicating by textmessage we are losing many parts ofcommunication such as facial expression", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Mobile phones enable us to keep in touch Mobilecommunication is very useful and its main use isnot to keep us safe but to make life easier. It isclearly useful that we can phone to ask to bepicked up rather than always having to set ameeting time in advance. It is equally useful thata mobile phone can tell us if it is likely to rain, orif the train is late. We don’t need thisinformation, but it certainly is helpful, and it isjust as helpful for children as for adults.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "These are certainly good things but we don’tneed mobile phones for them. For example mostpeople already have access to the internet. It isalso not a good reason for why everyone shouldhave one. If it is being used for learning phonescan be used by more than one person.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Mobile phones make sure that we aresafe Mobile phones mean we are never out ofcontact with our friends, parents, guardians, or ifnecessary our school. They provide a way we canquickly contact someone if we are in trouble orare lost. Mobiles are most clearly helpful ifcaught in a large scale disaster such as a flood orearthquake as we can tell rescuers where weare. But they are also helpful for every daysecurity. With a mobile phone parents knowwhere we are and can be quickly contacted if wefeel unsafe somewhere.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "Phones are certainly a useful tool in helping tokeep in contact so can be useful if you get intotrouble. But they don’t always help because theydon’t always keep us in contact. There are manyreasons why a mobile may be useless. Theremay be no signal. Or the phone may have beenturned off. Or the battery may have run low. Ifany of these things happen then it adds toparents worries as they can’t get in contact whenthey expected to be able to.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "Increased independence for children is notalways a good thing. Children should besupervised by adults and mobile phones are nosubstitute for this. Mobiles simply provide uswith another means of communication with theoutside world over which parents has littlecontrol. This is particularly relevant when thephone has internet access which is not restricted.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Mobile phones help us to learn Having a mobilephone helps us to learn in a lot of different ways.First we learn about technology; about how touse the mobile phone. Second most phonestoday have apps (programs) to enable learningusing the phone, or else through the internet.Phones can access online courses and lessonswhich can be provided in fun ways and can insome cases instantly tell you if you have theright answer. It may even sometimes be possibleto do homework on a phone and send it to yourteacher. Even without the internet phones can beused to provide short assignments, or to providereminders to study.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Mobile phones lead to increasedindependence Mobile phones bring us increasedindependence. Being able to use a mobile phoneis clearly a basic skill to allow children to beindependent. It means that they are notdependent on an adult being with them forparents to know where they are. The mainreason for parents being unwilling to let childrenout on their own is fear for their safety. This is afear that mobiles help prevent. This increasedindependence has other benefits, such asteaching us to be responsible for ourselves.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "No research has shown health risks. The adviceis only because we do not yet know the longterm results. As studies continue for longer thisfinal worry will also be ended.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Mobiles are not always a distraction. Researchhas shown that when allowed the use of mobilephones in school children do get better results.This is because it can increase motivation towork. For example, phones can be used to setreminders to do homework.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-con02a", "title": "", "text": "We should not be encouraging interest inmaterial things Mobile phones are a part of adesire to keep up with fashion and friends. We allwant the biggest and the best. Mobile phonecompanies know this and regularly bring outflashy new models that are immediately the oneeveryone must have. The more children havemobiles the more are caught up in this fashion.Our compulsion to want new things all the timeis not good for us. Mobile phones, as with manyother electronics, are damaging to theenvironment. Since we buy them and oftendispose of the phone only a couple of years laterthey pile up in gigantic rubbish dumps. Mobilephones are clearly a luxury not something thateveryone should have, and we certainly shouldnot keep buying new ones.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Mobile phones are expensive Mobile phones areexpensive. First there is the cost of buying thephone. Then there are all the charges for usingit. Often there are more charges for downloadingapps and other extras. Sometimes we go overthe limits of our call time or data allowance andare charged extra. Finally there may be extracosts when the phone needs to be replaced orupgraded. The average cell phone bill in theUnited States is $70 for a month but it cansometimes be much higher. Clearly not everychild can afford their own mobile and oftenparents cant either.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-con03a", "title": "", "text": "There are possible safety concerns When mobilephones first came out there was a lot of worryabout the possible effect on children’s health. Wenow know there is little risk. But the advice fromhealth experts is still that children should avoidtoo much use of mobiles. Experts still worry thatthe use of mobiles could be linked withbehavioural problems in children, this can meanproblems such as being disruptive or havingdifficulty sleeping.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Mobile phones distracting Mobile phones caneasily distract us. They can be a particularproblem in schools where they discourage us andthose around us from working. Using a mobilephone while doing a piece of work will reduceyour concentration making it more likely you willmake mistakes. Mobile phones, like videogames, are also a distraction from doing otherthings. We don’t just use phones forcommunication but also for games. Most youngpeople spend well over an hour on their mobiles.As a result there is much less time for otheractivities.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The expense clearly depends on the kind ofphone and how much it is used. Parents clearlyhave control over these costs; they decide on thedeal that their child is on. The parents can thenmake sure there is little chance of their childrenrunning up large bills.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-science-cpecshmpj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Something being a luxury does not mean it is notsomething everyone should have. The effect onthe planet is minimal and can be reduced if werecycle any phones that we are going to throwaway. It would certainly best for the planet if wedid not keep buying upgrades but this is notnecessary for every child to have a mobilephone.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "First off, it is quite possible the gender ratioimbalance is not as large in China as it is thoughtto be because many families do not register theirfemale children in order to circumnavigate theone-child policy. Proposition thinks thattrafficking will decrease under their policy. Wewould argue that it would increase or at the veryleast not decrease. These atrocities take rootwhen a society finds more value in women aseconomic objects than as people. The cashtransfer scheme does little to increase women’svalue as people but explicitly and dramaticallyincreases their value as economic objects. Thisplan does not reduce or create any disincentivefor exploitation of women or girls, but it doesguarantee a revenue stream from doing so Insome traditional cultures, women are used astender to settle debts, through forced marriages,or worse. Presumably the cash transfers are tothe families, not the girls themselves. Thisreinforces the powerlessness of women relativeto their families and only reinforces their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "The policy will help alleviate the social problemsarising from the imbalance A balanced genderratio allows that every man has a woman tomarry – theoretically of course as not everyindividual wants to marry and not everyindividual is heterosexual. The majority of menand women do want to get married. In China,men face such competition to find a wife thatthey spend several years living in horrificconditions in order to save up enough money tohave a property with which to present aprospective wife. Without a property these menwill never find a wife. These men clearly have adesperate desire to find a woman. [1] There are3 problems with this situation. 1) Thedissatisfaction men experience when theystrongly desire to marry but cannot is anunhappy thing and surely lowers their quality oflife. By 2020 there will be 24 million Chinesemen of marrying age with no wives. It has evenbeen suggested that this dissatisfaction iscontributing to a rising crime rate in China. [2]", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "We agree that a policy to ban abortion is notconducive to the encouragement of women’srights. We would argue, however, that morerigorous policing of prenatal genderdetermination could be effective. For example,an amnesty could be issued for handing in ofillegally used ultrasound devices, possibly evenwith a financial reward for turning these in.Further investigation could be made intorumours of places where one might accessprenatal gender determination. It may bedifficult but all crime detection is difficult but wedo it because it is important. Propaganda hasbeen known to change age old ideas. It is anextremely powerful force. China has shown thepower of propaganda through its censorship ofthe internet, protectionist policies in the filmindustry and control of print and radio mediawhich help ensure that the Communist partystays in power. Of course, propaganda can alsobe used to create positive effects. What’simportant to note about propaganda is that it", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Gender equality Men and women deserve toenjoy equal rights. In China and India women donot enjoy equal rights. By encouraging couplesto produce girls we contribute to the resolution oftwo problems. Female children are likely to betreated poorly in comparison their brothers. Theymay be given smaller quantities of food, lesseducation etc. It is not only the physicaldifferences in the upbringing of boys and girlsthat are noteworthy but also the emotional.Particularly in families without sons, daughtersare led to experience guilt and a sense ofinferiority because their parents are disappointedin their gender. These girls will grow up in ahome without gender equality and therefore willcome to accept a smaller share of family wealthas an adult and be unfit psychologically todenounce male dominance. The girls are likely tolater perpetuate gender inequality amongst theirown children. [1] By making it beneficial forparents to have female children, we makeparents less likely to make their daughters feel", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The shortage of women in China has a positiveeffect on gender equality because there is ashortage of women and men therefore have tocompete for romantic attention. Women canafford to be picky. “Many Chinese women placehigh value on a husband with money andstability. In a now famous moment from aChinese dating show, a female contestantrejected a suitor with the iconic line, \"I wouldrather cry in the back of a BMW than laugh onthe back of a bicycle.\" [1] One gentleman said, Ifyou're poor, nobody will go with you.\" [2] Thisplaces women in a position ofpower. Furthermore, simply increasing thenumber of female babies alive will not alter thegender dynamics because the preference formale children can be attributed to age old beliefsthat men continue the family name and providefinancial protection for their parents in their oldage as well as to the dowry system in India.[3] The following is mentioned in the People’sDaily Online regarding the traditional and cultural", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "We do not disagree that abortion is a generallyundesirable thing. Even those who believe thatabortion is ethical feel it would be preferable notto have an unwanted pregnancy in the firstplace. It may be very distressing for mothers ifthey have not made an autonomous choice to gothrough with the abortion but the proposition iswrong to assume that they have not. Culturalbiases towards male children are ofteninternalised by women. It makes sense that bothmothers and fathers would be concerned aboutwho will care for them in old age – not just men.Men and women from the same socio-economicand cultural background are also likely to havesimilar ethical views and therefore are unlikely todisagree on their ethical standpoint on abortion.Therefore, it is not the case that women sufferbecause they are forced or coerced intoabortions. Furthermore, this is not a problemexclusive to gender selective abortion. Whilstthere is a greater prevalence of abortions offemale babies, there are a lot of abortions of", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Ineffectiveness of alternatives One possiblealternative to our possibly is to better policeprenatal sex determination. This is highlyunfeasible. In 1982 the Chinese governmentdistributed masses of small, light ultrasounddevices to ensure that women who’d already hadone child were either sterilized or continuing towear their intrauterine device. Women startedusing these devices for prenatal sexdetermination and therefore “more than 8 milliongirls were aborted in the first 20 years of theone-child policy.” In China prenatal sexdetermination is illegal and, though ultrasoundsare allowed in certain cases for medical reasonsso long as they are on security camera, doctorswho reveal the gender of the child can no longerwork as doctors. The masses of distributedultrasound devices, however, are the basis for alarge and successful black market. A secondpossible approach is propaganda. “Thegovernment has launched a campaign toconvince parents that having daughters is a good", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Abortion It is estimated that around 10 millionfemale foetuses were aborted in the past 20years in India. [1] These abortions weremotivated by cultural and financial reasonsdiscussed above e.g. dowry, parents fear thatdaughters can’t care for them in old age, need tocontinue male lineage. Regardless of what onebelieves about the ethics of abortion, abortioncauses a lot of emotional distress to women. Insome cases this is because the woman hasformed an emotional attachment to her unbornchild. In some cases it may be because thewoman has an ethical disagreement withabortion but is unable to refuse the abortion.Women are especially unlikely to have this kindof decision making power in the very countrieswhere men are valued more highly than womenand husbands tend to have power over theirwives. Our policy changes the incentives thatfamilies have to get an abortion. Whereas afemale child was one a costly liability, our policynow makes having female children less of a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con03b", "title": "", "text": "Whilst the Indian government may have policiesthat empower women, they do not currentlyhave programs that encourage more femalechildren to be born. Thus, there is a reason tofund both of these independent programmes.This is an investment in creating a socially stablesociety in the long-run. The benefits of educatingwomen have been seen in other nations. Aswomen become more educated they gain morefreedoms as they are better equipped to fight forthem and their achievements make it hard formen to argue that they are inferior. This is a longterm effect, however, that will not reap thementioned benefits for some years though it isvery important. Extra educational subsidies cnaeasily be run alongside other policies simply bybeing well organised and communicative. Again,opposition’s argument applies only to India whilethere are not educational programmes of thisnature in other nations mentioned. Secondly, thepension programme we are proposing directlyand immediately deals with the problem by", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Our policy provides far more than these existingprogrammes (which are, we could mention,exclusive to India). By offering parents offemales an annual lifelong pension we removethe fear that their female children will notsupport them in their old age. This will certainlyencourage parents whose primary goal inreproducing is to be financially secure in old ageto have girls. Giving parents preferentialemployment and housing benefits wouldcertainly be an effective incentive as 42% of theIndian population lives below the bread line. [1]There are NGOs around the world concerned withwomen’s rights who will help to fund theseinitiatives and the UN has existing women’srights projects in China. [2] This policy isnecessary to ensure that women are born in thefirst place so that there is a larger united groupworking towards gender equality within thesenations. Furthermore men will not be disgruntledat all because the money that government issupposedly spending on women is in fact going", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con02a", "title": "", "text": "Commodifying women. Surely providing afinancial incentive for families to produce womencauses women to be likened to a product thatneeds to be manufactured. Families will continueto have a social stigma against female childrenand they will be viewed simply as a financialasset. This is not only bad for women in generalin the country but for babies that are only alivebecause they provide income. These children areunlikely to be loved and cared for as a male childmight be and it is cruel to encourage them to bebrought into the world to live life in such acondition. Furthermore, the commoditisation ofmoney can only serve to worsen the problem oftrafficking mentioned earlier by the proposition.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con05a", "title": "", "text": "Autonomy (Please note that this argumentcannot be run in conjunction with argument fouras they are contradictory) 42% of the Indianpopulation is under the international poverty lineand it is they that contribute the most toimbalanced sex ratio due to economic concerns.[1] Offering a financial incentive for people toproduce female children will undermine theautonomy of parents. In order for there to beautonomy, the individual needs to be able tomake a rational, unforced decision. Whensomeone is extremely impoverished, as manypeople are in developing economies like those ofChina and India, financial incentives are an offerthat cannot be refused. Proposition would haveyou believe that we offer the parents anautonomous choice between having a femalechild and receiving money or not having the childand not receiving money. Of course they willtake the money! Poverty removes the possibilityof choice. In this way, poor parents are beingforced to have female children to ensure their", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Financial incentives do not break down culturalbias The reason why there is a bias towardsmale children in India is cultural. When womenget married in India they become a part of theirhusband’s family and a dowry must be paid. Asone Hindu saying goes, \"Raising a daughter islike watering your neighbours’ garden.\" In orderto change the gender ratio imbalance in India,therefore, it is important to deal with theunderlying prejudices in society, not merelythrow money at the problem. There are similarcultural prejudices in other countries with genderdisparities. In China there is concern that femalechildren cannot continue the family name aslineage is something male. A good case study ofa place where financial incentives have notaltered the social climate regarding reproductionis Germany. Germany Kindergeld policy isparticularly generous, giving 184€/month for 1child and 558€/month for 3 until the children areat least 18 (regardless of gender). This is verysimilar to the Proposition plan but the birth rate", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con03a", "title": "", "text": "The proposition policy will interfere with currentgovernment policies Prop's plan is not onlyredundant with some current governmentprograms but is also wasteful of worthwhilegovernment funds. For example, the plan paysfor the education of young girls up through thehigh school level. This is targeting a problem thathas been addressed with significant success.Currently, the rates for primary school enrolmentamong young girls and young boys are 94% and97% respectively in 2007. This is a drasticchange from the year 2000 when it was 77% and94%, a 17% disparity. [1] Additional policies inthe same area are inefficient and the additionalbureaucracy risks disrupting this positivetrend. There are currently at least 27 ministriesin the Indian government (account for almost5% of total budget expenditure) that areallocated to providing programs for femaleempowerment, and of these most are taking atargeted approach that identifies actual needswithin communities. [2] [2] Side Prop does not", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con05b", "title": "", "text": "It is ridiculous to say that a decision based on afinancial incentive is not an autonomousdecision. We allow poor people to make thedecision to take on a job or sell items that theyown even though these decisions are incentivisedby money. We still regard these decisions asautonomous. Furthermore we do believe thatfamilies make careful considerations when theydecide whether or not to have children. This isevidenced by the fact that families make thedecision to abort female but not male children.Parents obviously consider the choice to have achild and we do not think that this will changewhen there is a government based financialincentive. This is especially the case because thereason that parents currently DO NOT havefemale children is for financial reasons. As youmentioned, male children tend to be more ableto financially support their parents in their oldage in these countries. Surely then a financialincentive is exactly the right kind to provide forthese parents since it is financial incentives that", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Ineffectiveness The policy will be ineffective intwo ways. Firstly it will not even achieve the goalof a balanced gender ratio but secondly, even ifit did, it will not reduce the divide between menand women and make women a more valuedpart of society. 1. How does this plan offeradvantages to the families of girls in excess ofwhat is already available? The Indianparliament's most recent budget includes severalprograms designed to increase the resources,specifically including medical and educationalresources, available to women and children.Programs exist to provide education to women[1] . Most importantly where do these financialincentives come from? India is currentlycommitted to cut budget deficits especially since“General government debt now stands at 82% ofGDP.” [1] 2. The plan proposed by Prop willsimply exacerbate resentment of women by menwho see taxpayer funds preferentially directedtowards women. Men will take this resentmentout on the women in their lives.. It’s possible", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con04b", "title": "", "text": "The German example is incomparable to thecountries we are discussing. It’s most likely thecase that the policy in Germany did not workbecause the population is too wealthy to bemotivated by a financial incentive. Germany is adeveloped country with GDP per capita 40,874US dollar and a “luxury” state welfare system.High education, no financial worries about thelife after retirement and the fact that womenpursue careers all contribute to a low birth rate.India, on the other hand is a developing countrywith only GDP per capita 2,941 US dollar andpoor state welfare system. Moreover, 42 percentof the Indian population is under theinternational poverty line. Hence a financialincentive is far more effective in these Asiannations. Unlike in India, Europeans tend toregard children not as investments but as anopportunity for emotional fulfilment. They areunlikely therefore to make a decision about childrearing based on financialreasons. Furthermore, the sense of community", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gfhbcimrst-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Encouraging families to have female children atleast gives people a reason to value females atall, even if this is merely a financial value. In thecurrent scenario women are not valuable in anysense. They are valued so little that their livesare ended without a flinch when they are onlyinfants.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Western nations are not as powerful as theywould like to think. Their “soft power” cannotpropagate norms as effectively as they would liketo think. The dominance of Western countries ininstitutions does not put them in a place of greatinfluence, but rather puts them in a place to beaccused of imperialism and exploitation. TheWest’s preaching to the rest of the world is notseen as constructive or admirable advice by therest of the world, but rather is viewed as “moralarrogance” and cultural imperialism. It is highlyunlikely that most places will change their lawsbecause someone tells them that they do notagree with them, especially when those laws arerooted in a deeper moral or religiousobligation. Moreover, with the hypocriticalnature of this particular policy due to countrieslike the USA not respected homosexual rightseither, it is very easy to dismiss this policy as theWest simply being hypocritical and telling thedeveloping world to “do as I say, not as I do”and thus is easy to dismiss it as unimportant.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "This policy of asylum pressures governments toreform discriminatory laws This will help changepractices of sexuality-discrimination in nationsacross the world. One of the most effective waysto engage the international community on swiftaction to protect certain rights is to make a clear,bold statement against a particular type ofbehaviour. By acting to not just condemn acertain behaviour, but actively circumvent states’ability to carry out such a behaviour, theinternational community sends a message of theunacceptability of such practices. Moreover, andmore importantly, regardless of if the countriesare persuaded into agreeing with theinternational community on the issues of LGBTrights, this action will still change statebehaviour. This will happen for tworeasons: Fear of sanction and condemnation.Most countries in the world are heavilyinterdependent and specifically dependent on theWest. Falling out of popularity with Westerncountries and their populations is a particularly", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "As explained in counterargument two, it is highlyunlikely that countries will craft policy based onthe preaching of the West. Moreover, it becomesincreasingly unlikely that countries will bereceptive to discussions on liberalization of theirpolicies on sexual orientation when the Westoutright condemns their views as immoral andabhorrent and takes active steps to stop themfrom enforcing what they see as their moral lawson their populations.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "The LGBT community fulfills the basic principlesand purposes of asylum The LGBT communityfulfills the most basic principles and purposes ofthe concept of asylum. Asylum was created as adirect protection of Article 14 of the UnitedNations Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR)1948 [1] which states that “Everyone has theright to seek and to enjoy in other countriesasylum from persecution.” [2] This article wascreated in order to protect the third article of thedeclaration “Everyone has the right to life, libertyand security of person.” [3] This concept ofasylum was created to develop a separatecategory of migration that would allow itsapplicants to breach normal immigration protocoland application procedures [4] on the basis thatthese people were in immediate danger and thatwithout creating a specific bypass for them, theywould endure great harm or death. The point ofasylum as a specific and emergency measureand, indeed a moral necessity, was two-fold: 1)The immediate nature of the threat/danger to", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "There has yet to be an international consensusforged around LGBT rights and state treatmentof sexual orientation. Many countries around theworld are not secular Western LiberalDemocracies and operate on a completelydifferent moral standard than the West does.Many religions, and in fact state religions, do notrecognize homosexuality as a legitimate lifestyleand specifically see it as a sin and a crimeagainst the religious authority they uphold. It isnot the West’s role to tell the rest of the worldwhat their morality should be. There is not evenconsensus amongst Western Liberal Democracieson this issue. The United States of America stilldoes not recognize homosexuals as deserving ofequal rights to heterosexuals and many states donot allow gay marriage or gay adoption as aresult [1] . The west cannot circumvent the lawsof other countries when they themselves do noteven hold themselves to the legal and moralstandard they would like to impose onothers. [1] Law, Jeffrey R., and Justin H.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "This policy of asylum helps manufacture globalconsensus on the protection of the LGBTcommunity Global consensus on progressiverights for the LGBT community will be aidedthrough this policy. One of the most powerfulweapons in the international community’sarsenal is the soft power of condemnation. Oneof the most important things the internationalcommunity can do is use its weight and influenceto advocate protection of vulnerable peoples andpromote moral and social causes. The West withits immense wealth and importance ininternational institutions such as the UnitedNations have a lot of power when it comes toinfluencing discriminatory policies in othernations. Granting asylum to people on the basisof sexual orientation sends a clear message tothe international community that it is not okay todiscriminate on the grounds of sexual orientationand that the West not only strongly disapprovesof this behaviour, but that, more importantly,they will take active steps to counter-act your", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con03b", "title": "", "text": "As explained in counterargument two, therationale behind this form of discrimination isnonnegotiable and absolutist due to itsreligious/moral nature. Consensus-building willnot happen in the near future on this issue andeven if the potentiality of social acceptance ofthe LGBT community was in the not-so-distantfuture, this does not offer any protection to thosein danger now, nor remove our obligation to theirprotection from discrimination and unjustpunishment.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Insofar as asylum exists, there is therefore asituation where the opposition would consider itokay to impede on sovereignty for a purpose ofprotection of individuals. The question istherefore about not if sovereignty can beinfringed upon, but rather if this situation fits thecriteria to do so. The banning of homosexualityis not a legitimate point of view to impose onsociety through legislation. It is discriminatory todo so as sexual orientation is not a choice, it is anatural occurrence like race, gender, ethnicityetc. An individual has no control over their sexualorientation and therefore any legislation on it isdiscriminatory and unjust. This means that noone should have to follow that law, and moreimportantly, should not face punishment for it,as punishment in this situation is simply just theapplication of discrimination. This is the “lastresort” as the opposition would put it. When thestate- the only people in the protection to usecoercive force to protect individuals in societyfrom harm and persecution. When the state", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con02a", "title": "", "text": "This policy breaks down importantinter-governmental dialogue on LGBT rights Thispolicy damages international discourse andprogress in LGBT rights. This policy makes itvery unlikely that governments will be willing orreceptive to discussions on liberalization of theirLGBT laws and policies. Discourse andcompromise only happens when both sides of thedebate accept the validity of the other personholding the view that they do. If the Westoutright rejects the views of other nations as“immoral” or “unacceptable” these nations areunlikely to want to engage with the West onthese issues as they feel that their opinions willnot be respected or be treated fairly or equally.You effectively remove these countries from thenegotiating table when you do this. This can beillustrated by countries deemed “backwards” or“immoral” such as Iran and North Korea, whobecome more isolationist the more they arecategorized as and rejected for being “evil” or“unacceptable.” Construction engagement does", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con04a", "title": "", "text": "Asylum is not the best way of dealing withdiscrimination against LGBT people. The vastmajority of LGBT people who are discriminatedor harassed on the grounds of their sexualorientation will never have a chance to claimasylum. Poor people from Africa or India maynever be able to afford transport to countriesthat are more accepting of their lifestyle, andeven if they could afford it they may not havethe knowledge that they could go elsewhere. Assuch any policy of asylum for LGBT people whoare being discriminated against is never going tobe a good solution. And indeed could even beconsidered to itself be discriminating againstthose who will never have theopportunity. Instead countries who would wantto consider sexual orientation grounds forasylum should be putting their energies intopreventing the discrimination in the first place.As in the UN Declaration of Human Rights “Allare entitled to equal protection against anydiscrimination”, [1] all should mean all. Pressure", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con03a", "title": "", "text": "This policy undermines the grassrootsmovements that are necessary for full andsustained protection of the LGBTcommunity Lasting change to anti-homosexualattitudes will only happen from the ground-up.This hinders the ability of governments toengineer more accepting attitudes toward theLGBT community. Even if you could getcountries to discuss their policies and liberalizethem through this policy, this will not actuallychange the reality for the LGBT on the ground.Nations where anti-homosexuality laws are inplace have large swathes of support for theselaws as they represent and enforce the moralityof the vast majority of their populace. Simplyremoving anti-homosexuality laws does notprotect homosexuals in their home countries.Simply not being pursued by the governmentdoes not mean the government is willing or ableto protect individuals from society. Moreover, itmakes it nearly impossible for the government ofthat country to try to liberalize and engineer a", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con01a", "title": "", "text": "This policy is an illegitimate breach of nationalsovereignty Asylum is a concept reserved forthe direst cases of political persecution ofindividuals. It was created as a last resortprotection mechanism for people beingunlawfully or unjustly pursued by their homecountry when no other form of protection willwork to guarantee the safety of theseindividuals. The reason it is such a last resortoption is because it is effectively interveningwithin the sovereignty of a state and removingits monopoly on violence and coercive forcewithin that state and administering a parallelsystem of justice. No nation has the right toinfringe on the sovereignty of another nationwithout just cause. The moral viewpoints of anation and its peoples are not what can beconsidered ‘just cause.’ It is a religious andmoral viewpoint to believe that homosexualityshould be prosecuted and it is the obligation ofany individual living in a state to abide by thelaws of the state that they live in. It is not within", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-gihbsosbcg-con02b", "title": "", "text": "International discourse on this issue has notbeen working. When society is the onepersecuting the LGBT community, thegovernments have plausible deniability in thematter and thus can skirt their responsibility innegotiations. This means that all talk and“dialogue” is meaningless as the government’scan claim a lack of responsibility or agree toprotection for the LGBT community, but then notoffer it because they are “unable” to. Manytimes discrimination against sexual orientation isa religious one, and when it is not, it is a moralone. These views are not reconcilable withalternative moral claims as they are absolutistforms of thought. They are not negotiable or amatters of opinion; they are simply right. Thiswill never lead to consensus-building throughfriendly dialogue. Even if the leaders of thesecountries have made laws against certain formsof sexual orientation on a calculated politicallevel, it will be because of the religious/moralviews of the citizens within their country. This is", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro02b", "title": "", "text": "Whilst it is important for people to remember theterrible troubles people have surviving in verypoor countries, we must also remember thatdirect sponsorship is perhaps not the best way tohelp people out of poverty - there are a lot ofdownsides [7]. Would it not be better to hear ofhow an entire community was improved ratherthan just a single child or family? Ultimately youcan’t force people to give to charity, and at timeslike these when even in wealthy countries peoplehave trouble getting enough money it must beexpected that charitable giving will drop.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro02a", "title": "", "text": "Child sponsorship brings about greaterunderstanding between people from differentcountries and cultures. Personal letters, charityreports, photographs and even visits help tobuild a bridge between the developed anddeveloping world[5]. More and more people areable to talk to each other around the world, andit is important that less fortunate people in poorcountries are connected to the rest of us andhave the opportunity to communicate with us.Sponsorship creates a personal connection - thechildren get to learn about their sponsors andthe sponsors get to learn how their money helpspeople. This continued attention to the positiveeffects of sponsorship is really important to helppoorer countries, especially at a time whenworldwide economics are in trouble and charitiesare most at risk from begin forgotten [6].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro03b", "title": "", "text": "The problem once with this form of giving is thatit only provides for a single child, not an entirecommunity - this is why many organisationsrefuse to offer single child adoption, and insteadspend the money they receive on developingpoor places for everyone that lives there [10]. Bysponsoring a child rather than giving the moneydirectly to a cause or organisation you add alayer of uncertainty to the process – you can't besure exactly how your money is being spent, or ifit really is being used to help all aspects of life.Some organisations only work throughmissionaries and churches [11]. Although givingto a single child may produce more tangible andimmediate results, the work done by largecharity organisations is likely to have moreimportant long term benefits to many morepeople.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro01a", "title": "", "text": "Sponsorship is better than other kinds of charitybecause it is a long term commitment. Over theyears $30 a month, or perhaps even more, addsup to thousands of dollars’ worth of aid spending- this is different to other forms of charitybecause the main focus here is on “long-termchanges\"[2]. Unlike a one-off donation, thismethod of giving ensures that poor people getsupport for a long time without costing peopletoo much in one go. It also ensures that peoplekeep giving to these needy causes, and makespeople realise that they can afford to make adifference.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro01b", "title": "", "text": "The long term nature of sponsorship implies thatit does not fix the problems that cause poverty.Instead, many argue it can createdependency[3], meaning that the child andfamily will come to rely on their sponsor. Thismay discourage them from using their ownefforts to escape poverty. For example, even ifleaving their village to find work elsewhere couldbe best for them, they may stay where they areto keep receiving the sponsorship money andother benefits. By linking a single child to asingle wealthy (rich) person it also creates asituation in which it is easy for the child tocompare their own lives with those of theirsponsors. This could make them unhappy oreven jealous [4]. In the end it is still possible tohelp children through charitable giving, butsponsorship schemes create a more complicatedrelationship that could sometimes go wrong.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro04b", "title": "", "text": "People should not need this kind of “feel goodfactor” in order to give to charity – it is veryselfish. People all over the world need help fromricher people, and instead of helping just onethey have the ability to help many. By focusingin on one single example, people may also get avery narrow view of life in poorer countries –they may feel that the developing world can'tlook after itself and as a result won't supportvery important changes to things likegovernment that could actually help the peoplemore than their sponsorship. The “personalconnection” is also sometimes made up by thecharity organisations, who translate and editletters sent between the rich and poor to makesure they do not get too emotionally attached toone another [13].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro03a", "title": "", "text": "Sponsorship also contributes to all aspects oflife. This includes drinking water, food,education, medical care, shelter and sanitation -often charitable donations are more specific(they only provide for one of these aspects oflife). By putting children at the heart of charityprograms it is hoped that a stronger foundationwill be made for the future - the young peoplewho are helped today can maintain a betterlifestyle in the future [8]. Giving all this to anindividual child also produces more tangibleresults than giving to a vast organisation, whosework is can often over-ambitious and more opento corruption [9].", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-pro04a", "title": "", "text": "Sponsorship is a good way of getting people whootherwise wouldn't give to charity to donate theirmoney. Unlike most other forms of charity,sponsorship creates a direct link between theperson giving money and the person receiving it.People are able to see the ways in which theirmoney is helping others, and this makes themfeel good about it – as World Vision Internationalsays - “You get to see and feel the differenceyour support makes\" [12]. Although this isprobably not the best reason for people to givetheir money to those in need, practicallyspeaking (in the real world) it is one of the mosteffective (it works very well) in encouragingpeople to give.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-con03b", "title": "", "text": "In an ideal world it would be easy to say thatcharities should not try to change the religionsand cultures of poor people, but given the direnature of the situation for the poorest people inthe world, surely we do not have the luxury toargue over what ideas should or should not begiven to these people. Is it not better that theysurvive as Christians rather than die from hungerand disease? Religion provides the incentivemany people need to think about giving moneyto charity. We must also consider that only aminority of organisations seek to change thepeople they help in this way – there is a lot ofchoice out there for people who don't want toimpose cultural change [21] so this does notwork as an argument against the idea of childsponsorship as a whole.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-con01b", "title": "", "text": "Stories about ridiculous administration costs arenot only rare but are often untrue. For example,in the case of one of the largest sponsorshiporganisations - World Vision - “Of the fundsgiven in 2010, 81.1 per cent went directly intoprograms that help children, 13.9 per cent wentto fundraising services, 5.0 per cent wasallocated to administration\". Charities are not outto rip people off, their aim is to give money topeople who need it most. There are always goingto be some administration costs in anyorganisations, and even if those charities whooffer child sponsorships have higher costs thanothers, the positive long term effects of thisgiving are far more important. Often it may be achoice between giving a sponsorship and notgiving anything at all - helping some people issurely better than helping no-one at all.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-con02a", "title": "", "text": "We need to address the causes of poverty ratherthan treat the symptoms (outward signs). Thereare better ways to help people. Helping singlechildren, or even villages, treats the symptomsof poverty - it makes life better for a smallminority. It does little to address the actualcauses of poverty such as war, unclean water,bad government, HIV/AIDS, unfair world traderules, etc. As these statistics show the problemsof poverty and disease are truly massive in scale,and even if many thousands are helped bysponsorship schemes, many millions more arestill left with nothing. If we really want to help liftpeople out of poverty for good, we should give tocharities which focus on these biggerdevelopment issues - for example Christian Aidbelieves that “it is better to help wholecommunities through our partner organisationsrather than sponsor individuals\" [16]. We shouldalso join campaigns to make rich worldgovernments do more to help the developingworld by increasing spending on aid [17],", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-con03a", "title": "", "text": "Sponsorship is often more about the intentions ofthe donors rather than the needs of poorchildren. Some schemes have a clear culturaland religious motive – a desire to give aid insuch a way that it will affect and even impose(force) foreign ideas onto a vulnerable (weaker)society. Any organisation that has such a clearoverlap between their own ideas of faith [19]and the practical side of helping people isultimately imposing its ideas onto people withoutgiving them any choice in the matter. Familiesmay even come to think that they have to showbelief in order to keep receiving sponsorship. Forexample, sponsored children may be encouragedto send cards at Christmas, even if they are notChristians. At the end of the day this comesdown to a very serious question of choice –many would argue that by offering aid with theintention of turning children into adult Christians[20], organisations like “Compassion” areeffectively manipulating charity into part of aconversion campaign.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-con01a", "title": "", "text": "Sponsorship is an inefficient way of giving tocharity. Sponsoring a child is a costly way to dogood. More of the money given is taken up withadministration (organising) compared to otherways of helping poor people, and although thecost of this administration varies greatly butoften as much as 20% of the money donateddoes not reach the people who need it, and someof that loss is through high executive salaries.[14] For example, keeping track of each childand family needs time from an aid worker, whohas to be paid. Organising and sending letters,photographs, school reports, etc. to the donortakes time and money. Translating letters andreports between both donor and child can beparticularly costly. Giving the same amount ofmoney to an aid charity would do much more forpoor people.", "metadata": {}} +{"_id": "validation-society-fyhwscdcj-con02b", "title": "", "text": "Many of the organisations that run childsponsorship schemes are dedicated to improvingall of these aspects of life – indeed the way inwhich these schemes focus on the improvementof a specific area or community make it perhapsa more complete way of giving money to thepoor. Charities can hardly be expected to incitepolitical change or cure deadly diseases insteadof helping those who are sick. More than eightmillion children around the world are sponsoredby Western sponsors [18] - giving this largenumber of children the basis for a good futureand the possibility of them learning enough toget themselves and their future families out ofpoverty is surely a good enough reason toencourage the sponsoring of children to build fora better future alongside other charity projects.", "metadata": {}}