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Derek H. R. Barton, Texas A&M University (Nobel, 1969) 1990, Herbert C. Brown, Purdue University, (Nobel, 1979) 1989, Allen J. Bard, University of Texas at Austin 1988, Konrad E. Bloch, Harvard University and Florida State University (Nobel, 1964; Medicine) 1987, George C. Pimentel, University of California, Berkeley 1...	{ "page_id": 67042185, "title": "Oesper Award" }
Brown bears (Ursus arctos) were once native to Europe, much of Asia, the Atlas Mountains of Africa, and North America, but are now extirpated in some areas, and their populations have greatly decreased in other areas. There are approximately 200,000 brown bears left in the world. The largest population is in Russia, wi...	{ "page_id": 67500942, "title": "Distribution of brown bears" }
10,000 bears, and climbing due to strict legislation which is causing problems for mountain tourism. There is also a smaller brown bear population in the Carpathian Mountains in Ukraine (estimated at 200 in 2005), Slovakia (estimated at 2500 - 3000 in 2020) and Poland (estimated at 100 in 2009 in the latter country). T...	{ "page_id": 67500942, "title": "Distribution of brown bears" }
parts of North Korea, Pakistan, Afghanistan and India. It is determined that the number of brown bears in Turkey comes up to 5,432, and they have an average density of 194 bears/1,000 km2. They can also be found on the Japanese island of Hokkaidō, which holds the largest number of non-Russian brown bears in eastern Asi...	{ "page_id": 67500942, "title": "Distribution of brown bears" }
1976. These bears were smaller and lighter than the Canadian and United States brown bear population. Because of their lighter coloring, they were often referred to as “el oso plateado” (the silver bear). == References ==	{ "page_id": 67500942, "title": "Distribution of brown bears" }
The life stage at which a fungus lives, grows, and develops, gathering nutrients and energy. The fungus uses this stage to proliferate itself through asexually created mitotic spores. Cycles through somatic hyphae, zoosporangia, zoospores, encystation & germination, and back to somatic hyphae. == References == C.J. Ale...	{ "page_id": 7535503, "title": "Somatic hyphae" }
In the field of molecular modeling, docking is a method which predicts the preferred orientation of one molecule to a second when a ligand and a target are bound to each other to form a stable complex. Knowledge of the preferred orientation in turn may be used to predict the strength of association or binding affinity ...	{ "page_id": 2292623, "title": "Docking (molecular)" }
binds to a particular protein of interest. However, since both the ligand and the protein are flexible, a "hand-in-glove" analogy is more appropriate than "lock-and-key". During the course of the docking process, the ligand and the protein adjust their conformation to achieve an overall "best-fit" and this kind of conf...	{ "page_id": 2292623, "title": "Docking (molecular)" }
the ligand/protein conformations accurately, although recent developments allow these methods to investigate ligand flexibility. Shape complementarity methods can quickly scan through several thousand ligands in a matter of seconds and actually figure out whether they can bind at the protein's active site, and are usua...	{ "page_id": 2292623, "title": "Docking (molecular)" }
a docking program. The success of a docking program depends on two components: the search algorithm and the scoring function. === Search algorithm === The search space in theory consists of all possible orientations and conformations of the protein paired with the ligand. However, in practice with current computational...	{ "page_id": 2292623, "title": "Docking (molecular)" }
Computational capacity has increased dramatically over the last decade making possible the use of more sophisticated and computationally intensive methods in computer-assisted drug design. However, dealing with receptor flexibility in docking methodologies is still a thorny issue. The main reason behind this difficulty...	{ "page_id": 2292623, "title": "Docking (molecular)" }
receptor to form a single complex and free energy due to changes in vibrational modes. A low (negative) energy indicates a stable system and thus a likely binding interaction. Alternative approaches use modified scoring functions to include constraints based on known key protein-ligand interactions, or knowledge-based ...	{ "page_id": 2292623, "title": "Docking (molecular)" }
program by rationalizing the ability to predict the right pose of a ligand with respect to that experimentally observed. === Enrichment factor === Docking screens can also be evaluated by the enrichment of annotated ligands of known binders from among a large database of presumed non-binding, "decoy" molecules. In this...	{ "page_id": 2292623, "title": "Docking (molecular)" }
may result in agonism or antagonism. Docking is most commonly used in the field of drug design — most drugs are small organic molecules, and docking may be applied to: hit identification – docking combined with a scoring function can be used to quickly screen large databases of potential drugs in silico to identify mol...	{ "page_id": 2292623, "title": "Docking (molecular)" }
MICdb (Microsatellites database) is a database of non-redundant microsatellites from prokaryotic genomes. == See also == InSatDb Microsatellite == References == == External links == http://www.cdfd.org.in/micas	{ "page_id": 30407569, "title": "MICdb" }
Methods in Ecology and Evolution is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering methodologies in ecology and evolution. It was established in 2010 and is the 5th journal of the British Ecological Society. It is published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the British Ecological Society and the editors-in-chief are...	{ "page_id": 31062930, "title": "Methods in Ecology and Evolution" }
The continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR), also known as vat- or backmix reactor, mixed flow reactor (MFR), or a continuous-flow stirred-tank reactor (CFSTR), is a common model for a chemical reactor in chemical engineering and environmental engineering. A CSTR often refers to a model used to estimate the key unit ope...	{ "page_id": 2292624, "title": "Continuous stirred-tank reactor" }
(νA = −1) All reactant A is converted to products via chemical reaction NA = CA V ==== Governing equations ==== Integral mass balance on number of moles NA of species A in a reactor of volume V: 1. [ Net accumulation of A ] = [ A in ] − [ A out ] + [ Net generation of A ] {\displaystyle [{\text{Net accumulation of}}~A]...	{ "page_id": 2292624, "title": "Continuous stirred-tank reactor" }
{\displaystyle \tau } , is always equal to the reactor volume divided by the fluid flow rate. See the next section for a more in-depth discussion on the residence time distribution of a CSTR. Depending on the order of the reaction, the reaction rate, rA, is generally dependent on the concentration of species A in the r...	{ "page_id": 2292624, "title": "Continuous stirred-tank reactor" }
asset or a drawback. == Non-ideal CSTR == While the ideal CSTR model is useful for predicting the fate of constituents during a chemical or biological process, CSTRs rarely exhibit ideal behavior in reality. More commonly, the reactor hydraulics do not behave ideally or the system conditions do not obey the initial ass...	{ "page_id": 2292624, "title": "Continuous stirred-tank reactor" }
the assumptions of constant temperature and a single reaction, additional dependent variables must be considered. If the system is considered to be in unsteady-state, a differential equation or a system of coupled differential equations must be solved. Deviations of the CSTR behavior can be considered by the dispersion...	{ "page_id": 2292624, "title": "Continuous stirred-tank reactor" }
series that τ i = C A ( i − 1 ) − C A i − r A i {\displaystyle \tau _{i}={\frac {C_{A(i-1)}-C_{Ai}}{-r_{Ai}}}} , where τ {\displaystyle \tau } is the space time of the reactor, C A o {\displaystyle C_{Ao}} is the feed concentration of A, C A {\displaystyle C_{A}} is the outlet concentration of A, and − r A {\displaysty...	{ "page_id": 2292624, "title": "Continuous stirred-tank reactor" }
_{i=1}^{m}k_{i}\tau _{i}} When the cascade of CSTRs is isothermal with identical reactors, the concentration is given by C A m = C A o − m k i τ i {\displaystyle C_{Am}=C_{Ao}-mk_{i}\tau _{i}} ==== Second order ==== For an isothermal second order reaction at steady state in a cascade of CSTRs, the general design equati...	{ "page_id": 2292624, "title": "Continuous stirred-tank reactor" }
{1}{2!}}({\frac {nt}{\bar {t}}})^{2}+...+{\frac {1}{(n-1)!}}({\frac {nt}{\bar {t}}})^{n-1}]} As n → ∞, F(t) approaches the ideal PFR response. The variance associated with F(t) for a pulse stimulus into a cascade of CSTRs is σ t 2 = t ¯ 2 n {\displaystyle \sigma _{t}^{2}={\frac {{\bar {t}}^{2}}{n}}} . === Cost === When...	{ "page_id": 2292624, "title": "Continuous stirred-tank reactor" }
{A -> C}}} with constants k 1 {\displaystyle k_{1}} and k 2 {\displaystyle k_{2}} and rate equations d [ B ] d t = k 1 [ A ] n 1 {\displaystyle {\frac {d[{\ce {B}}]}{dt}}=k_{1}[{\ce {A}}]^{n_{1}}} and d [ C ] d t = k 2 [ A ] n 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {d[{\ce {C}}]}{dt}}=k_{2}[{\ce {A}}]^{n_{2}}} , respectively, we can ...	{ "page_id": 2292624, "title": "Continuous stirred-tank reactor" }
. Therefore d [ B ] d [ C ] = k 1 k 2 [ A ] n 1 − n 2 [ D ] m 1 − m 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {d[{\ce {B}}]}{d[{\ce {C}}]}}={\frac {k_{1}}{k_{2}}}[{\ce {A}}]^{n_{1}-n_{2}}[{\ce {D}}]^{m_{1}-m_{2}}} . In the case where n 1 > n 2 {\displaystyle n_{1}>n_{2}} and m 1 > m 2 {\displaystyle m_{1}>m_{2}} and B is the desired pro...	{ "page_id": 2292624, "title": "Continuous stirred-tank reactor" }
is less susceptible to changes in the influent composition, which makes it ideal for a variety of industrial applications: === Environmental engineering === Activated sludge process for wastewater treatment Lagoon treatment systems for natural wastewater treatment Anaerobic digesters for the stabilization of wastewater...	{ "page_id": 2292624, "title": "Continuous stirred-tank reactor" }
Endo-1,3-beta-glucanase may refer to: Endo-1,3(4)-b-glucanase, an enzyme Glucan endo-1,3-b-D-glucosidase, an enzyme	{ "page_id": 39058323, "title": "Endo-1,3-beta-glucanase" }
In molecular biology mir-454 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. == See also == MicroRNA == References == == Further reading == == External links == Page for mir-454 microRNA precursor family at Rfam	{ "page_id": 36371349, "title": "Mir-454 microRNA precursor family" }
In biodiversity studies, the checkerboard score or C-score is a statistic which determines the randomness of the distribution of two or more species through a collection of biomes. The statistic, first published by Stone and Roberts in 1990, expands on the earlier work of Diamond that defined a notion of "checkerboard ...	{ "page_id": 40565660, "title": "Checkerboard score" }
∑ j = 0 M ∑ i < j C i j / P {\displaystyle C=\sum _{j=0}^{M}\sum _{i<j}C_{ij}/P} The C-score is sensitive to the proportion of islands that are occupied, thereby confounding comparisons between matrices or sets of species pairs within them. An extension of the C-score therefore standardizes by the number of islands eac...	{ "page_id": 40565660, "title": "Checkerboard score" }
Mean inter-particle distance (or mean inter-particle separation) is the mean distance between microscopic particles (usually atoms or molecules) in a macroscopic body. == Ambiguity == From the very general considerations, the mean inter-particle distance is proportional to the size of the per-particle volume 1 / n {\di...	{ "page_id": 28900256, "title": "Mean inter-particle distance" }
assume N {\displaystyle N} particles inside a sphere having volume V {\displaystyle V} , so that n = N / V {\displaystyle n=N/V} . Note that since the particles in the ideal gas are non-interacting, the probability of finding a particle at a certain distance from another particle is the same as the probability of findi...	{ "page_id": 28900256, "title": "Mean inter-particle distance" }
N\rightarrow \infty } limit and using lim x → ∞ ( 1 + 1 x ) x = e {\displaystyle \lim _{x\rightarrow \infty }\left(1+{\frac {1}{x}}\right)^{x}=e} , we obtain P ( r ) = 3 a ( r a ) 2 e − ( r / a ) 3 . {\displaystyle P(r)={\frac {3}{a}}\left({\frac {r}{a}}\right)^{2}e^{-(r/a)^{3}}\,.} One can immediately check that ∫ 0 ∞...	{ "page_id": 28900256, "title": "Mean inter-particle distance" }
The Chondritic Uniform Reservoir (CHUR) is a scientific model in astrophysics and geochemistry for the mean chemical composition of the part of the Solar Nebula from which, during the formation of the Solar System, chondrites formed. This hypothetical chemical reservoir is thought to have been similar in composition to...	{ "page_id": 14285729, "title": "Chondritic uniform reservoir" }
In molecular biology mir-455 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. == See also == MicroRNA == References == == Further reading == == External links == Page for mir-455 microRNA precursor family at Rfam	{ "page_id": 36371364, "title": "Mir-455 microRNA precursor family" }
In Euclidean geometry, linear separability is a property of two sets of points. This is most easily visualized in two dimensions (the Euclidean plane) by thinking of one set of points as being colored blue and the other set of points as being colored red. These two sets are linearly separable if there exists at least o...	{ "page_id": 523173, "title": "Linear separability" }
be imagined that the set of points under a linear transformation collapses into a line, on which there exists a value, k, greater than which one set of points will fall into, and lesser than which the other set of points fall. == Examples == Three non-collinear points in two classes ('+' and '-') are always linearly se...	{ "page_id": 523173, "title": "Linear separability" }
variables can be thought of as an assignment of 0 or 1 to each vertex of a Boolean hypercube in n dimensions. This gives a natural division of the vertices into two sets. The Boolean function is said to be linearly separable provided these two sets of points are linearly separable. The number of distinct Boolean functi...	{ "page_id": 523173, "title": "Linear separability" }
W ( n ) {\displaystyle W(n)} be the smallest number W {\displaystyle W} such that every possible real threshold function of n {\displaystyle n} variables can be realized using integer weights of absolute value ≤ W {\displaystyle \leq W} . It is known that 1 2 n log ⁡ n − 2 n + o ( n ) ≤ log 2 ⁡ W ( n ) ≤ 1 2 n log ⁡ n ...	{ "page_id": 523173, "title": "Linear separability" }
y i ∈ { − 1 , 1 } } i = 1 n {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}=\left\{(\mathbf {x} _{i},y_{i})\mid \mathbf {x} _{i}\in \mathbb {R} ^{p},\,y_{i}\in \{-1,1\}\right\}_{i=1}^{n}} where the yi is either 1 or −1, indicating the set to which the point x i {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} _{i}} belongs. Each x i {\displaystyle \mathbf {x...	{ "page_id": 523173, "title": "Linear separability" }
The wood-pasture hypothesis (also known as the Vera hypothesis and the megaherbivore theory) is a scientific hypothesis positing that open and semi-open pastures and wood-pastures formed the predominant type of landscape in post-glacial temperate Europe, rather than the common belief of primeval forests. The hypothesis...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
severe loss of megafauna at the end of the Pleistocene and beginning of the Holocene known as the Quaternary extinction event, which is frequently linked to human activities, did not leave Europe unscathed and brought about a profound change in the European large mammal assemblage and thus ecosystems as a whole, which ...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
Continental Europe, it is commonly known as the megaherbivore hypothesis and literal translations of it. Vera limited the geographic area of his ideas to Western and Central Europe between 45°N and 58°N latitude and 5°W and 25°E longitude. This includes most of the British Isles and everything between France (except th...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
=== Clements' notion of stable climax communities was later challenged and refined by authorities such as Arthur Tansley, Alexander Watt and Robert Whittaker, who championed the inclusion of dynamic processes, like temporary collapse of canopy cover because of windthrow, fire or calamities, into Clements' framework. Th...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
beetles and molluscs – can be used to reconstruct vegetation structure. === Large herbivores and high-forest theory === There is no general agreement on herbivores and their influence on succession in natural ecosystems in the temperate hemisphere. In the high-forest theory framework, wild herbivores are mostly conside...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
beneficial. The assumption that population control through hunting is necessary in order to mimic the effect of natural predators is also not entirely supported by scientific analyses of natural predator-prey dynamics. Instead, the control of herbivore numbers in nature probably depends on other factors. A perhaps more...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
to be the result of the latter's only slightly cooler climate as compared to the Eemian. However, this is also subject to debate. ==== Background: grazers and browsers ==== The impact herbivores have on the landscape level depends on their way of feeding. Namely, browsers like roe deer, elk and the black rhino focus on...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
During the Holocene, these herbivores included aurochs, European bison, red deer and tarpan. Up to the Quaternary extinctions, many other megafaunal mammals like the straight-tusked elephant or Merck's rhinoceros existed in Europe as well, that probably kept the forests open during warm interglacial periods like the Ee...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
that elephants and rhinos were more effective creators of open landscapes than the herbivores left after the Quaternary extinction event. On the other hand, traditional animal husbandry may have mitigated the effects of possibly human-induced megafaunal die-off, allowing the survival of species of the open landscape pr...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
reality with European pollen deposits from previous ages, where oak and hazel often form a dominant amount of pollen, making a dominance of these species in previous ages conceivable. Especially in regard to hazel, sufficient flowering is only achieved when enough sunlight is available, i.e. the plant grows outside of ...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
Europe than beech or hornbeam, which may have contributed to its commonness, at least during the early Holocene. Still, other shade-tolerant tree species like lime and elm were equally fast returnees, and do not seem to have limited oak abundance. On the other hand, substantial natural oak-regeneration commonly takes p...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
woody species exist in Europe—species such as common hawthorn, midland hawthorn, blackthorn, Crataegus rhipidophylla, wild pear and crab apple—their ecology can only be explained under the influence of large herbivores, and that in the absence of these they represent an anachronism. ==== Shortcomings of pollen analysis...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
a ban of livestock from the forests, which had previously largely been open woodland pastures, often dominated by oaks. These were multifunctional and used for a range of purposes, from pannage and livestock grazing to the harvest of tree hay, coppice, timber and oak galls for the manufacture of ink, as well as for the...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
and Holocene extinctions, would still be native to Europe, had they not been evicted by humans, none of these species are listed as such in the EU's Habitats Directive's annexes. Likewise, globally extinct megafauna such as straight-tusked elephants and rhinos would likely be native to Europe without human interference...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
mantle and fringe vegetation as intended to allow regeneration in a forest. In their time, solid firewood was preferred to the medieval coppice bundles, e.g. faggots. However, the production of solid firewood required the felling of trees at an age when they could no longer produce suckers, an ability that trees common...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
happened in former wood-pastures like Białowieża, because they were seen as harmful to the creation of a new old-growth forest. At the same time, the introduction of the potato made pannage, the fattening of pigs on acorns, obsolete, and grass species specifically bred for a high yield superseded the traditional pastur...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
species, via thorny nurse bushes, in these environments. It has been proposed and demonstrated that associational resistance can be a key process in grazed environments, ensuring natural succession.In temperate Europe, succession on pastures commonly starts with so called "islets" ("Geilstellen"), patches of dung which...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
Since oak is relatively light-demanding while not having the ability to regenerate on its own under high browsing pressure, these habits of the jay presumably benefit oak, since they provide the conditions oak requires for optimal growth and health. On a similar note, the nuthatch seems to assume a prominent role for h...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
On a large scale, different successional stages would thus contribute an ecosystem where open grassland, scrubland, emerging tree growth, groves of trees and solitary trees exist next to each other, and the alternation between these various successional stages would create dynamic shifting mosaics of vegetation. This i...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
probably only localised, due to their low population density. During this warm period, paleoecological data indeed suggest that semi-open landscapes, as postulated by Vera, were widespread and common, most likely maintained by large herbivores. Next to these semi-open landscapes, however, the researchers also found evi...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
climate favoured one or the other, but essentially remained intact in refugia that continued to provide the conditions they preferred. === The Quaternary extinction event === Prior to the Last Glacial Maximum however, elements of the warm-temperate Palaeoloxodon-fauna (hippopotamus, straight-tusked elephant, the two St...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
as all South American ungulates, glyptodontines and diprotodontids. In addition, many mammals above 45 kilograms (99 lb) that were spread across all continents except for Antarctica prior to the Quaternary extinction event have since declined across their range, or become locally or globally extinct, respectively. Mode...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
is argued, forests could develop unhindered and landscapes became more uniform. As this is detrimental to species adapted to the presence of megafauna, some scholars advocate for the reintroduction of these animals where possible, or the introduction of modern proxy species to replace extinct species and their ecologic...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
Overall, dense closed-canopy forest probably covered no more than 60% of most areas, with the remainder divided between open woodlands, savannas and open areas. This made the early to mid-Holocene Europe more forested than either today or during earlier interglacials, but not a continuous woodland. In a 2005 response t...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
they found, indicated that during the Eemian interglacial, the last interglacial with a pristine megafauna, landscape openness was associated with high megafauna densities. In contrast, closed forest predominated in the early Holocene in the absence of megafauna. The importance of the impact of large herbivores on vege...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
of plant per 1 square metre (11 sq ft) were counted in 2000, making it one of the world's record sites. Similarly high numbers were counted at other locations in Eastern Europe, making the region one of the hotspots for plant species richness on small scale worldwide. However, grasslands in Europe and elsewhere are inc...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
clearings into Central and Western Europe only in the Holocene and would have originally been restricted to Southern and Eastern Europe. Taking into account that this results in overall biodiversity loss, traditional agricultural landscapes were then in turn recognised as important refuges for species-groups associated...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
(as ecological proxies for the extinct aurochs) and Tamworth pigs (as proxies for the wild boar). Furthermore, in the shape of Rewilding Europe, a pan-European organization that aims for creating wild spaces in Europe by re-establishing food chains and reintroducing missing species has identified Vera's proposals as ke...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
nearly 1800 species of invertebrates depend on decaying wood, including 700 species of beetles and about 730 species of flies. === Traditional land use === Many aspects of Vera's theory resonate well with traditional pastoral systems and agricultural practices across Europe and other parts of the world. This is especia...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
high latitude regions of modern taiga and tundra biomes, where formerly mammoth steppe predominated. It essentially challenges the widespread view that the Pleistocene megafauna of the northern steppe vanished as a consequence of the warming climate at the advent of the Holocene and the consequent turnover of cold-adap...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
ISBN 978-0-85199-442-0. == Further reading == Bunzel-Drüke, Margret; Luick, Rainer (2024): "Master builders of biodiversity". Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung. Jepson, Paul and Blythe, Cain (2020). Rewilding: The Radical New Science of Ecological Recovery, Icon Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-78578-627-3 Hodder, K.H.; Bullock,...	{ "page_id": 66845609, "title": "Wood-pasture hypothesis" }
Virginia Walbot (born 1946) is an American agriculturalist and botanist who is a professor in the Department of Biology at Stanford University. She investigates maize development with a focus on factors involved in male sterility. == Life == Walbot first began working with corn when she used to help grow and sell it on...	{ "page_id": 41810859, "title": "Virginia Walbot" }
studies the sex life of corn". San Jose Mercury News.	{ "page_id": 41810859, "title": "Virginia Walbot" }
Philip Warren (born 1930 or 1931) is an English ship model maker best known for building a matchstick Maritime Fleet. His collection includes models of over 500 vessels and 1,000 aircraft, as well as of all the Royal Navy ships since 1945. == Life and work == Philip Warren was born in Dorset, England, and was a directo...	{ "page_id": 78642091, "title": "Philip Warren" }
the very last World War 2 battleships to nuclear-powered submarines and modern aircraft carriers. In his over 70 years of model making, he built one or more of each class of Royal Navy ships from 1945 to the present day, including 7 Leander class frigates. In addition, he has also built Commonwealth ships. Also, Warren...	{ "page_id": 78642091, "title": "Philip Warren" }
== Philip Warren was married to his wife Anita for 47 years until her death. == References ==	{ "page_id": 78642091, "title": "Philip Warren" }
Nitrifying bacteria are chemolithotrophic organisms that include species of genera such as Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrobacter, Nitrospina, Nitrospira and Nitrococcus. These bacteria get their energy from the oxidation of inorganic nitrogen compounds. Types include ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and nitrite-oxid...	{ "page_id": 7142324, "title": "Nitrifying bacteria" }
energy during oxidation of ammonia to nitrite are ammonia monooxygenase (AMO) and hydroxylamine oxidoreductase (HAO). The first is a transmembrane copper protein which catalyzes the oxidation of ammonia to hydroxylamine (1.1) taking two electrons directly from the quinone pool. This reaction requires O2. The second ste...	{ "page_id": 7142324, "title": "Nitrifying bacteria" }
coworkers. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanism of nitrite oxidation is an open question. === Comammox bacteria === The two-step conversion of ammonia to nitrate observed in ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, ammonia-oxidizing archaea and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (such as Nitrobacter) is puzzling to researchers. Complete n...	{ "page_id": 7142324, "title": "Nitrifying bacteria" }
Brachyglene caenea is a moth of the family Notodontidae first described by Dru Drury in 1782. It is restricted to south-eastern Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro south to Santa Catarina. == Description == Antennae black and setaceous. Thorax and abdomen nearly black. Wings deep brown, nearly black; the anterior having a yell...	{ "page_id": 34077621, "title": "Brachyglene caenea" }
In data analysis, anomaly detection (also referred to as outlier detection and sometimes as novelty detection) is generally understood to be the identification of rare items, events or observations which deviate significantly from the majority of the data and do not conform to a well defined notion of normal behavior. ...	{ "page_id": 8190902, "title": "Anomaly detection" }
unlabelled and are by far the most commonly used due to their wider and relevant application. == Definition == Many attempts have been made in the statistical and computer science communities to define an anomaly. The most prevalent ones include the following, and can be categorised into three groups: those that are am...	{ "page_id": 8190902, "title": "Anomaly detection" }
1980s, the analysis of these logs was primarily used retrospectively to investigate incidents, as the volume of data made it impractical for real-time monitoring. The affordability of digital storage eventually led to audit logs being analyzed online, with specialized programs being developed to sift through the data. ...	{ "page_id": 8190902, "title": "Anomaly detection" }
anomalies can be an important step in data analysis, and is done for a number of reasons. Statistics such as the mean and standard deviation are more accurate after the removal of anomalies, and the visualisation of data can also be improved. In supervised learning, removing the anomalous data from the dataset often re...	{ "page_id": 8190902, "title": "Anomaly detection" }
et al. have introduced a multi-stage anomaly detection framework that improves upon traditional methods by incorporating spatial clustering, density-based clustering, and locality-sensitive hashing. This tailored approach is designed to better handle the vast and varied nature of IoT data, thereby enhancing security an...	{ "page_id": 8190902, "title": "Anomaly detection" }
the height of the bin it falls in. The size of bins are key to the effectiveness of this technique but must be determined by the implementer. A more sophisticated technique uses kernel functions to approximate the distribution of the normal data. Instances in low probability areas of the distribution are then considere...	{ "page_id": 8190902, "title": "Anomaly detection" }
inclue using the alignment of image and text embeddings (CLIP, etc.) for anomaly localization, while others may use the inpainting ability of generative image models for reconstruction-error based anomaly detection. === Cluster-based === Clustering: Cluster analysis-based outlier detection Deviations from association r...	{ "page_id": 8190902, "title": "Anomaly detection" }
Python library developed specifically for anomaly detection. scikit-learn is an open-source Python library that contains some algorithms for unsupervised anomaly detection. Wolfram Mathematica provides functionality for unsupervised anomaly detection across multiple data types == Datasets == Anomaly detection benchmark...	{ "page_id": 8190902, "title": "Anomaly detection" }
Jon Samseth, born July 23, 1954, in Trondheim, Norway, is a Norwegian engineer and professor of physics. He was awarded an engineering degree in physics (siv.ing.) from the Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH) (now Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU) in 1981. He later earned a Diplôme d'ingénieur d...	{ "page_id": 35716024, "title": "Jon Samseth" }
nuclear reactors. Currently, Samseth is actively involved in the public debate on energy issues, most notably those related to nuclear energy, and gives public lectures on these topics as well. He raises ethical and environmental concerns connected to energy issues and advocates that nuclear energy is an integral part ...	{ "page_id": 35716024, "title": "Jon Samseth" }
Maltol is a naturally occurring organic compound that is used primarily as a flavor enhancer. It is found in nature in the bark of larch trees and in the needles of pine trees, and is produced during the roasting of malt (from which it gets its name) and in the baking of bread. It has the odor of caramel and is used to...	{ "page_id": 3341244, "title": "Maltol" }
Static grass is used in scale models and miniatures to create realistic-looking grass textures. It consists of small coloured fibres charged with static electricity, making them stand on end when sprinkled onto a surface coated with glue that then hardens, holding the fibres in place. Static grass is usually prepared b...	{ "page_id": 4586431, "title": "Static grass" }
DoubleO Scenics Static Grass Applicator — GrassTech USA	{ "page_id": 4586431, "title": "Static grass" }
Korea General Chemicals Trading Corporation (Korean: 조선화학무역총회사) is a North Korean chemical conglomerate. Its headquarters are in Pyongyang. Including plastic, it produces a wide variety of chemicals for domestic commercial and industrial use. The company also imports chemicals into North Korea. == Products == Products ...	{ "page_id": 1964993, "title": "Korea General Chemicals Trading" }
Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (Arabic: فخر الدين الرازي) or Fakhruddin Razi (Persian: فخر الدين رازی) (1149 or 1150 – 1209), often known by the sobriquet Sultan of the Theologians, was an influential Iranian and Muslim polymath, scientist and one of the pioneers of inductive logic. He wrote various works in the fields of medici...	{ "page_id": 326595, "title": "Fakhr al-Din al-Razi" }
in Ray. Having been born into a family of Meccan origin, al-Razi claimed descent from the first caliph Abu Bakr (c. 573–634), and was known by medieval biographers as al-Qurashī (a member of the Quraysh, the tribe of the prophet Muhammad to which also Abu Bakr belonged). However, it is not clear from which precise line...	{ "page_id": 326595, "title": "Fakhr al-Din al-Razi" }
later nicknamed Tafsīr al-Kabīr (The Great Commentary), one reason being that it was 32 volumes in length. This work contains much of philosophical interest. One of his "major concerns was the self-sufficiency of the intellect." His "acknowledgment of the primacy of the Qur'an grew with his years." Al-Razi's rationalis...	{ "page_id": 326595, "title": "Fakhr al-Din al-Razi" }
context of his commentary" on the Quranic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds." He raises the question of whether the term "worlds" in this verse refers to "multiple worlds within this single universe or cosmos, or to many other universes or a multiverse beyond this known universe." Al-Razi states:It ...	{ "page_id": 326595, "title": "Fakhr al-Din al-Razi" }
that God has the power to fill the vacuum with an infinite number of universes. == List of works == Al-Razi had written over a hundred works on a wide variety of subjects. His major works include: Tafsir al-Kabir (The Great Commentary) (also known as Mafatih al-Ghayb) Asraar at-Tanzeel wa Anwaar at-Ta'weel (The Secrets...	{ "page_id": 326595, "title": "Fakhr al-Din al-Razi" }

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