---
license: apache-2.0
library_name: pytorch
tags:
  - cti
  - attack-classification
  - mitre-attack
  - cybersecurity
  - text-classification
  - multi-label-classification
  - asymmetric-loss
language:
  - en
base_model: ibm-research/CTI-BERT
---

# CASSANDRA — ASL configuration on AnnoCTR (regression case)

Fine-tuned CTI-BERT models for extracting MITRE ATT&CK techniques from cyber threat intelligence (CTI) reports. This repository contains the **ASL configuration** of the CASSANDRA recipe trained on **AnnoCTR** (118 ATT&CK techniques), comprising **3 ensemble members** trained with seeds {42, 123, 456}.

> **Note:** Unlike on TRAM2, the ASL configuration *underperforms* the BCE configuration on AnnoCTR. This is the regression case from the paper's label-density transfer analysis (§3.2, RQ4 results). For deployment on AnnoCTR-like sparse benchmarks, use the BCE configuration: [`cassandra-bce-annoctr`](https://huggingface.co/cassandra-anon/cassandra-bce-annoctr).

> Anonymous artifact for double-blind peer review. Author information will be added after the review period.

## Headline result

On the **AnnoCTR** test set (33 scored documents):

- **3-seed ensemble per-document F1 (τ=0.5): 60.17%** (a 3.36-point regression vs the BCE configuration)
- 3-seed ensemble per-document F1 (dev-tuned τ=0.69): 61.27% (a 2.26-point regression)
- BCE configuration on the same benchmark: **63.53%** ([`cassandra-bce-annoctr`](https://huggingface.co/cassandra-anon/cassandra-bce-annoctr)) — preferred for deployment

This regression is the label-density transfer story analyzed in the paper (§3.2, RQ4 results): on AnnoCTR's 118-technique long tail with mean 15.5 samples per train-present technique, ASL's aggressive easy-negative suppression also starves genuinely rare positive techniques of training signal.

Full per-seed and ensemble metrics are in [`results.json`](./results.json).

## Why include this configuration?

The CASSANDRA paper's central finding is that the same training recipe transfers across benchmarks **only when label density is sufficient**. ASL helps on TRAM2 (mean ~82 samples/technique) and hurts on AnnoCTR (mean 15.5/technique). Releasing the AnnoCTR ASL weights makes this regression directly verifiable rather than reported-only.

If you want a deployable AnnoCTR classifier, use the **BCE** configuration linked above.

## Architecture

`LabelAttentionClassifier` with asymmetric loss training:

- Encoder: [`ibm-research/CTI-BERT`](https://huggingface.co/ibm-research/CTI-BERT) (110M params, 768 hidden)
- Head: 118 learned 768-dim label queries that attend over the encoder's `last_hidden_state`, followed by a shared 1-output linear layer applied per-label
- Loss: Asymmetric Loss (Ridnik et al. 2021) with γ_neg=4, γ_pos=0, clip=0.05
- Regularization / training tricks: layer-wise learning rate decay (α=0.85), exponential moving average (β=0.999), stochastic weight averaging (last 25% of epochs), per-seed best-of-{base, EMA, SWA} selection on validation macro-F1, multi-seed probability averaging at inference

The architecture is custom (not derived from `transformers.PreTrainedModel`), so loading requires the [`modeling.py`](./modeling.py) file shipped with this repo.

## Training data

- **AnnoCTR**: 104 reports, 5,265 sentences, 118 canonical ATT&CK techniques (113 train-present, 5 unobserved at training but present in test). Mean of 15.5 deduplicated positive examples per train-present technique. 78 of 113 train-present techniques have fewer than 10 positive examples.
- **Splits**: report-level train/test split from Buchel et al. (2025) (70 train reports, 34 test reports — one test report excluded from per-document F1 due to empty in-vocabulary ground truth).
- **Validation**: 80:20 sentence-level random split within the training reports for early stopping and threshold selection.

## Intended use

Primarily as a reproducibility artifact for the paper's ASL-on-AnnoCTR regression analysis. For practical AnnoCTR deployment, prefer the BCE configuration.

**Limitations:**
- ASL's easy-negative suppression is mistuned for AnnoCTR's sparsity; rare-technique predictions are noisier than under BCE training.
- 118-label vocabulary is the canonical AnnoCTR set; sentences describing techniques outside this set produce all-zero predictions.
- Trained on English-language CTI.

## How to load and run

```python
from modeling import load_ensemble, predict_ensemble
import os, glob

seed_dirs = sorted(glob.glob(os.path.join(os.path.dirname(__file__), "seeds", "seed-*")))
seeds = load_ensemble(seed_dirs, device="cuda")

sentences = [
    "The malware uses Windows Command Shell to execute encoded scripts.",
    "After initial access, persistence was established via Registry Run Keys.",
]
results = predict_ensemble(seeds, sentences, threshold=0.5)
for sentence, techniques in results:
    print(sentence, "->", techniques)
```

A complete CLI example is in [`inference_example.py`](./inference_example.py).

## Per-seed members

| Seed | Per-document F1 (τ=0.5) | Selected weights |
|---|---|---|
| 42  | 55.90% | base |
| 123 | 58.80% | base |
| 456 | 60.16% | base |
| **3-seed ensemble (τ=0.5)** | **60.17%** | — |
| **3-seed ensemble (dev-τ=0.69)** | **61.27%** | — |

Notable: all three seeds selected `base` weights over EMA and SWA on validation macro-F1, consistent with ASL's regularization being unsuitable for this label-density regime.

## Citation

```bibtex
@misc{cassandra2026,
  title  = {CASSANDRA: How Many Parameters Suffice to Automate TTP Extractions from CTI Reports---Pushing Towards the Lower Bound},
  author = {{Anonymous Authors}},
  year   = {2026},
  note   = {Anonymous submission under review}
}
```

Please also cite the AnnoCTR dataset, the CTI-BERT encoder, and the asymmetric-loss work (Ridnik et al. 2021).

## License

Apache-2.0. These fine-tuned weights are derived from [`ibm-research/CTI-BERT`](https://huggingface.co/ibm-research/CTI-BERT).